NEIMME Transactions
Volume 12
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
TRANSACTIONS.
VOL. XII
1862-8.
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE: A. REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, SANDHILL.
1863.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE: ANDREW REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, SANDHILL.
INDEX TO VOL. XII
A
Atkinson, J. J., on securing- Engine Beams 7
Atkinson, J. J., on Close-Topped Tubbing- ..19
Alleghany Coal-Field............ 82
Ansted on Coal Formation . 32
Allan, Bog of, Peat Black Moss at .. 34
Air Return, Messrs. Daglish and Atkinson on 131
Air, quantities of, at Hetton Colliery .. 186
B
Brough, Lionel, on securing Engine Beams 8
Brough, Lionel, on Carbonic Oxide 10
British Association .. 18 53 91
Bog of Allan, Peat in .. 33
Buddie, J., as to Mining Records .. 36
Buckets, Gutta Percha .. 39
Broomhill Colliery Coal-Cutting Machine 49
Berwick Old Red Sandstone . .. 90
Blackett, Mr., Locomotive used first by ..176
C
Catch-pin broken at Hartley .. .. 7
Carbonic Oxide at Hartley . ..11
Coulson, W., on Close-topped Tubbing- .. 19
Castle Eden New Winning .. 19
Cox-green, N. Wood as to Stone decomposed at 25
Chapman, Wm., on Mining Records.. .. .. ..
37
Coke, washed and unwashed .. .. .. .. ..
.. 38
Castle Eden Second Winning- . .. .. ..
.. 47
Coal-cutting Machine .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. 48
(iv)
Coal wrought by the Romans .. .. .. ..
.. 161
Coke made in 1640..............167
Coking- Coal, Demand for .. .. .. .. ..
.. 167
Coals sent by North-Eastern Railway .. .. .. ..
173
Cast-iron Rails used .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. 194
B
Double Shafts .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. 4
Davison, A., on the Hartley Accident .. .. ..
12 13
Daglish, J., on Feeders .. .. .. .. ,.
22
Daglish, J., on Furnace Gases .. .. .. ..
25
Donnesthorpe's Coal Cutter .. .. .. .. ..
78
Drainage of Mines .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. 179
Drainage of Old Hartley .. .. .. .. ..
.. 181
E
Experiments, Committee for .. .. .. .. .,
.. 18
Experiment at Framwellgate Colliery .. .. .. ..
37
Elemore Colliery, Experiments at .. ..
.. 82
Eppleton Pit, Experiments at .. .. .. ..
83
Eppleton Hetton Pit, Engine at .. .. .. ..
80
Excursion, British Association .. .. .. ..
.88
Eddies in Ventilation .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. 113
Early History of Coal Mining .. »s .. ..
.. 164
Elis, Coal anciently noticed at .. .. .. ..
.. 164
F
Furnace Gases, J. Daglish on .. .. .. ..
., 25
Fan Ventilating at Elsecar .. ». .'. .. ..
..27
Formation of Coal, W. Green, Jun., on the .. .. ..
31
Framwellgate Colliery, Experiments at .. .. .. ..
37
Fossil Flora, Lindley and Hutton's .. .. .. ..
.. 41
Forster, G. B., on New Gauze Wire .. .. „. ..
75
Force Pumps, Ventilation by, T. J. Taylor on .. .. ..
176
G
Gas in Hartley Pit, J. Daglish on .. .. .. ..
.. 9
Gas in Hartley Workings, N. Wood on .. .. .. ..
9
Gases evolved by Furnace Action .. .. .. ..
.. 25
(v)
Green, Jun., Wm., on the Origin of Coal .. .. .. ..
31
Gutta Percha for Buckets .. .. .. .. ..
39
Greenwell, G. C, on Safety-lamps .. .. .. . *
.. 72
Gauze for Safety-lamps, how made ,. .. .. ..
73
Geology of Northern Coal-field .. .. .. ..
.. 153
Gas Coal . ..............161
Greeks, Coal known to the .. .. .. .. ..
.. 164
H
Hartley, Accident at . - .. .. .. .. ..
3 4
Hall, T. Y., recommends Two Shafts .. .. .. ..
4
Harton Pit, Feeders at .. .. .. .. ..
.. 23
Haxwell Colliery, Stone in .. .. .. .. ..
.. 25
Hall, T. Y., on Moorsley New Pit..........26
Humboldt, Baron, on Coal .. .. .. .. ..
32
Hutton Flora................41
Hibernia Colliery Ventilation .. .. .. ..
.. 51
Hetton Colliery, Experiments at .. .. .. ..
.. 83
House Coal .. .. . • 163
I
Institute at Jermyn Street .. .. .. .. ..
.. 37
Ince Hall Colliery, Machine at .. .. .. ..
.. 50
Introduction of Screw Steamers .. .. .. ..
.. 194
J
Jermyn Street, Mining Records at .. .. .. .. ..
36
Jars, M., on Coke Manufacture .. .. .. ..
.. 167
K
Keps for Pump-spears .. .. .. .. ..
.. 5
Killingworth Colliery, Blower at .. .. .. ..
.. 74
L Ludworth Pit................23
Liebig, Professor, on Coal .. .. .. .. ..
.. 32
Long-wall Working .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. 39
Leather Buckets .. .. .. .. .. ..
39
Limed Sleepers .. .. .. .. .. ..
38 39
(vi)
Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora..........41
Lamps, Safety.. .. ., .. .. .. ..
73
Lithanthrax .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. 164
Lighting Mines of Coal .. .. ........184
Locke, Stephenson, and their Locomotives .. .. .. .
• 195
M
Marley, John, on British Association .. .. ..
19 91
Monkwearmouth, M. Dunn as to Shaft at .. >. .. ..
25
Moorsley New Pit, Shaft at............ 26
Maclaren, Mr., on Coal Formation .. .. .. ..
.. 31
Mountain Carboniferous Limestone .. .. .. ..
.. 89
Murton Colliery Draining .. .. ,. .. ..
.. 180
Modes of Working Coal ............ 182
N
North Hetton Colliery, Stone for Shafts at .. .. .. ..
26
Natural History Society .. .. .. . ..
41
New Gauze Wire dangerous .. .. .. .. ..
.. 75
Northern Coal-field described .. .. .. ..
.. 150
0
Old Mill Pit at Hartley ............ 4
Origin of Coal, W. Green, Jun., on the .. .. ..
31
Oil in Wire Gauze ............. 77
Old Red Sandstone.............. 89
P
Pelton Colliery, Wedging off Gas at .. .. ..
.. 24
Pneumatic Despatch Company's Fan .. .. .. ..
28
Prudhoe Colliery, Shells found at .. .. ..
.. 33
Prussian Mine Ventilation .. .. .. .. ..
47
Peace, Mr., his Coal-cutting Machine .. .. . •
.. 48
Prussia, Hibernia Colliery in.. .. .. .. ..
52
Paradoxes in Ventilation .. .. .. . ..
.. 93
R
Ryhope Colliery won by John Taylor .. .. ..
23
Reid, P. S., on Green Sand............23
(vii)
Rogers, Professor, on Coal .. .. .. .. ..
.. 33
Return Air Currents .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. 131
S
Schiller, Mr., his Letter .. .......... 45
. Shafts to be properly secured.. .. .. .. ..
.. 6
Spring Beams at Hartley, G. B. Forster on .. ..
7
Spencer, W., as to Position of Valve .. .. ..
.. 20
Seaton Pit, N. Wood as to............ 21
Shotton, Shaft at, damaged .. .. .. .. ..
.. 25
Shells at Prudhoe Colliery............ 33
Sleepers tarred and untarred .. .. .. .. ..
.. 39
Screw Steamers .. ., .. .. ..
.. .. 194
Sections of Northern Strata .. .. .. .. ..
.. 151
Steam Coal . .. .. . .. ..
.. .. 161
Sleepers, Limed .. .. . .. ..
.. .. 39
Society for Natural History .. .. .. .. ..
.. 41
Silurian Formation . • .. .. .. ..
.. 89
T
Tubbing, Close-topped .. .. .. . , ..
.. 19
Tyne Main Tubbing, N. Wood on.......... 27
Taylor, Thos. John, on Coal Formation .. .. .. ..
32
Thomas, Mr., on Mining Records .. .. .. .,
.. 37
Tarred Sleepers .. .. .. .. ..
.. 38
Taylor, Hugh, elected Vice-President .. . ..
.. 42
Taxes on Coal .. .. -- .. .. ..
.. .. 165
U
Union with Natural History Society .. .. ..
.. 42
Underground Boiler Ventilation .. .. .. ..
80
V
Ventilating Fan at Elsecar .. .. .. .. ..
.. 27
Ventilation of Boilers Underground.. .. .. ..
80
Ventilation, Paradoxes in .. .. .. .. -.
.93
Vends of Coal, Annual .. .. .. .. ..
.. 169
(viii)
W
4 5 Wood, N., on Double Shafts • • • • • •
fi
Wood, N., on Catch-pins . • • • • • • •
Wood, N., on securing Shafts' ......
Wood, N., on Carbonic Oxide ...... ^
Westphalia Wedging Curbs on Sand, &c..... "39
Working by Long Wall ...... "43
Wingate, South, Tubbing at........ "73
Wood, N., on Explosions of Lamps . • • •
Wire Gauze, New Experiments on......
Y
, « .- ....
151
Yoredale Coal Formations........
In the case of a Society, the progress of which has been almost uniformly
regular and uniformly prosperous, any deviation from that uniformity,
however slight, must necessarily partake somewhat of an opposite character
in the mind of the observer, and, perhaps, more strongly so than the case
demands. In one particular, at least, this remark may be considered
applicable to the year just past, which has been less prolific of papers
than any since the successful establishment of the North of England
Institute of Mining Engineers. For this, however, a sufficient reason may,
probably, be assigned. The production of the papers which constitute Vol.
X., and of those constituting Vol. XL, having taken place within a period of
one year—the period usually devoted to the production of a single
volume—rather severely taxed the energies of the members. And as, in the
vegetable world, seasons of exuberance are almost invariably followed by
seasons of comparative sterility, so in literature and in science, a period
of extraordinary productiveness is usually the precursor of a period of
comparative dearth. It is also to be recollected that the preparation of
papers, as a consequence of the impending visit to this town and vicinity of
the British Association for the Promotion of Science, may also have operated
to produce this effect.
Be this as it may, it is apparent, in the records of the year which has just
expired, that the production of the tenth and eleventh volumes of the "
Transactions " has been followed by a rather unusual scarcity of
contributions.
The papers read have, in fact, been, comparatively speaking, few,
consisting, as they do, of some " Supplemental Remarks on the Origin and
Formation of Coal," and some " Suggestions for the Enlargement of the Sphere
and Objects of the Institute," by Mr. William Green, jun.; a short paper on
" A Coal-Cutting Machine," by Messrs. John Daglish and Lindsay Wood; a paper
on " The Comparative Efficiency of two
b
(*)
Modes of Ventilating the Hibernia Colliery, in Prussia/' by Mr. J. J.
Atkinson; a paper on " The Ventilation of Underground Boilers," by Messrs.
Wm. Armstrong and John Daglish; and a paper " On certain Paradoxes in the
Ventilation of Mines," by Messrs. John J. Atkinson and John Daglish; all of
them papers more or less suggestive in remark, and original in statement of
fact, but fewer in number than those of
former years.
More than one of the discussions, during the past year, have, however, been
of rather peculiar interest—more especially those which arose out of the
singularly-unfortunate accident at Hartley Colliery, and that which was
caused by the asserted fact, that explosions of carburetted hydrogen gas may
be produced by the use in the construction of the safety-lamp of wire in the
drawing of which oil has been employed. It has been suggested as an
explanation of this important fact—if fact it be—that a certain minute
portion of the oil so employed is taken up by the wire, and that when this
wire-gauze is subjected to a great heat, it is again given out in the shape
of olefiant gas, which is of a highly inflammable nature, and by the
ignition of which the explosion is caused. It will be seen that this
subject is by no means exhausted, and that the asserted facts have been
doubted or denied. That the whole subject is worthy of further
investigation will not, however, be either denied or doubted; and
it is trusted that a more complete inquiry, by means of experiments, may
decide the question in one way or the other.
During the year now passed the actual increase of members has been
small, owing to various contingencies, although, during the twelve
months, the number of new members elected has been considerable.
The results may be thus stated :—
New members elected since August, 1862 ......... 15
Members lost by death and other casualties ...... 12
Leaving the actual net increase only............ 3
This makes the total of members now on the roll, 298. There are, however,
six proposed for election this day, and the addition of these will increase
the number on the roll to 304.
Amongst our losses by death the Council have to record, with sorrow, that of
another of the Vice-Presidents of the Society—the late William Anderson,
Esq., of Cleadon Lodge. One of the oldest and most experienced of the mining
engineers of this extensive district, he added to a perfect knowledge of his
profession a simplicity of character and of
(xi)
manners which, combined, as it was, with integrity of conduct and
benevolence of heart, endeared him to all to whom he was known. At the
period of his decease he was in his seventy-seventh year.
It is hardly requisite to mention to those present, that the transfer of the
fossil specimens, the property of this Society, to the custody and care of
the Society for the Cultivation of Natural History, has been completed, and
that the enlarged and valuable museum of that body is now freely open to the
inspection of the members of this Institution.
Nor can the Council, in conclusion, deem, it either superfluous or
inappropriate to allude to, and congratulate those present upon the visit,
to this vicinity, of the British Association for the Diffusion of Science,
now about to take place. The Council trust they need not, beyond their
expression of the pleasure afforded them by this visit, add that of the
great gratification which the members of this Society will feel in being
serviceable, in any way in their power, to the British Association, whether
by laying open to their inspection the various mining and manufacturing
processes with which they are connected, or by bringing under their notice
such geological features of the district, as may be at once of interest and
of scientific or economic importance.
jfimtmt %tpxt
Your Committee have pleasure in announcing' that the annual income of the
Institute continues to increase. Compared with last year there is an
increase of £25 in members' subscriptions, and of £20 in interest, owing to
the increased rate of interest received from the present investment of the
Stephenson Bequest. There is, however, a slight falling- off in the
subscriptions from collieries, and in the sale of the Society's
Transactions; making the gross income amount to £843, or £2 more than last
year. On the other hand, your Committee regret to have to report that the
expenditure for the year has again exceeded the income. This is due, in some
measure, to the expense of publishing the Birmingham volume. The cost for
publishing, this year, reaches the very large sum of £717 ; printing
circulars anal postage amounts to £109; making the gross expenditure,
according to the Treasurer's statement, to be £881. But to this must be
added a sum of £148 for re-printing Vol. IT. of the Transactions, for which
the Publisher has not yet received payment, and a sum of £40 due to the
Natural History Society for fitting up cases in their Museum, for the
reception of the fossils belonging your Institute. Thus the entire
expenditure is £1069, or £226 more than the income. Last year the excess was
£168.
Your Committee cannot refrain from pointing out that, if continued, an
annual deficit must seriously injure the interests of the Institute, and
greatly curtail its power of usefulness. Whilst they would not recommend the
adoption of any injudicious economy in the publishing- of the Transactions,
they believe that, with a little care, considerable saving could be effected
on this head.
The gross amount of the Publisher's account rendered during the past year is
nearly £1000, and as it is quite impossible for your Committee, unaided, to
exercise an efficient check over so large a sum, they would
(xiii)
recommend that, in future, no expenses be entered on by the Publisher,
except • by written order from the representative of the Council, who
should, in the first instance, receive all papers intended to be read, see
that no unnecessary expense is incurred in plans, &c, submit them to the
Council, and receive from them instructions for the Publisher, who should
render an invoice when each order is executed. This would entail the
appointment of a paid officer, in addition to the present Corresponding
Secretary, and your Committee would recommend that this appointment be made,
and that the salary be £35 per annum, and that his duties be the following:—
To receive all papers, together with the short abstract intended to be read
by members, and lay them before the Council, with remarks, accompanied by an
estimate of the cost from the Publisher. To receive instructions from the
Council as to the manner in which the plans, &c, shall be executed, and
convey the same to the Publisher. To receive from the Publisher an invoice
of the cost of each paper, &c. To superintend the publishing- of the "
Transactions," together with the parts, and generally to edit them,
preparing list of papers and index to subjects to each volume. To attend the
Council meetings on Saturdays. To have charge of library, instruments,
fossils, models, &c, and to see that proper black boards, &c, are prepared,
for illustrating papers when being read. To prepare for the Press short
abstracts of meetings and of papers read, and to examine and correct the
reporter's notes of meetings, and forward the same to the Publisher.
Your Committee would further suggest for your consideration that fewer
circulars be issued, and those only when a paper will be read.
It would also seem to be advisable very carefully to consider before
re-printing any more of the volumes, as an expense of £148 has been incurred
in this way during the past year. It is quite impossible that all the
volumes of the " Transactions" should be continually in print, and the
re-printing of any reduces the value of those already in the possession of
members.
JOHN DAGLISH.
THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH THE NORTH
For the Year ending
1862. J3f.
£ s. d.
July 1.—To Balance in hands of Treasurer from Tenth Year £79 3 0 „ ditto
ditto Liquidators of District Bank 278 2 10
1863.
Mar. 21.—Received Dividend of above of 2s. \
per £ (being 14s. 6d. per £) on /
£741 14s. 3d..........£74 3 5V
July 1.—Leaving as the Proportion of District \
Bank Deposit yet unpaid......203 19 5'
1862. July 1.—To Bequest of the late Robert Stephenson, Esq. ... 2000 0
0
-------------- 2357 5 10
Dec. 6.—To Interest on ditto, from June 30 to Dec. 6, 1862, being the date
of its Investment on Mortgage of Northumberland Dock Rates ......
14 6 0
1863. July 1— To ditto, from Dec. 6, 1862, to June 6, 1863, less
Income Tax ............... 45 17 0
---------------60 3 0
„ Arrears of 1862, Subscriptions collected since balancing for
that year ..................... 31 10 0
„ Subscriptions for this year from 277 Members ...... 581 14 0
„ Subscriptions from Colliery Owners, viz. :—
Black Boy ............... £4 4 0
Leasingthorne............... 2 2 0
Westerton ............... 2 2 0
East Holywell............... 2 2 0
Haswell and Ryhope............ 8 80
Hetton.................. 10 10 0
North Hetton............... 6 6 0
Grange.................. 2 2 0
Kepier Grange ............ 2 2 0
Lambton ............... 10 10 0
South Hetton and Murton......... 880
Stella Coal Company ......... 220
Whitworth ............... 2 2 0
Poynton and Worth............ - - -
------------ 63 0 0
To Sale of Publications, per A. Reid, from July 1,
1862, to Dec. 31,1862 ......... £70 19 4
„ Ditto, from Dec. 31, 1862, to June 30, 1863 ... 36 2 7
----------- 107 1 11
£3200 14 9
OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
July 1st, 1863.
1863. <&V.
£ s. d.
July 1.—By paid A. Reid for Printing and Publishing the
Birmingham Volume ......... £387 3 0
„ Ditto, Printing and Publishing Account, from
June 30 to Dec. 31, 1862 ......... 228 9 6
„ Ditto, from Dec. 31, 1862, to June 30, 1863 ... 34 16 0 „ Ditto,
Binding Copies of Vols. VI., VII., VIII.,
IX., X., and XI............. 67 9 0
--------------- 717 17 6
„ Ditto, Covers for " Parts," Circulars, &c. ... 56 7 3
„ Ditto, Advertising "Transactions" ...... 13 15 0
„ Ditto, Postage Stamps......... ... 28 12 6
--------------- 98 14 9
„ Paid Secretary for Postage Stamps............ 1819 6
„ Paid Treasurer for ditto Receipt Stamps, &c. ...
6 5 6
„ Paid Secretary's Salary for year ending June 30, 1863 ..." 25 0
0
„ Paid Reporter's ditto ditto ......
12 12 0
„ Paid Premium on £300 for Insurance of Property at Institute Rooms
..................... 0 16 6
„ Paid ditto ditto, called " Stock," (per A. Reid)
2 10 10
„ Paid for Advertising in Newcastle Daily Journal...... 0 3 6
„ Balance in hands of Treasurer at this date ... £113 15 3 „ Balance
in hands of Liquidators of District Bank,
being Proportion of Deposit yet unpaid ... 203 19 5 „ R.
Stephenson's, Esq., Legacy, invested on Mortgage of Northumberland Dock
Rates ... 2000 0 0
--------------- 2317 14 8
£3200 14 9
|ktrnti£
His Grace the Duke of Northumberland.
The Right Honourable the Earl of Lonsdale.
The Right Honourable the Earl Grey.
The Right Honourable the Earl of Durham.
The Right Honourable Lord Wharncliffe.
The Right Honourable Lord Ravensworth.
The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Durham.
The Very Reverend the Dean and Chapter of Durham.
Wentworth B. Beaumont, Esq., M.P.
Imuiranj ffitttttm \
John Alexander, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow.
John J. Atkinson, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Bowburn, Ferry Hill.
Lionel Brough, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Clifton, Bristol, Somersetshire.
Joseph Dickinson, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Manchester, Lancashire.
Matthias Dunn, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 5, St. Thomas Place, Newcastle.
Thomas Evans, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Richmond Villas, Swansea.
John Hedley, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Derby.
Peter Higson, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 94, Cross Street, Manchester.
Charles Morton, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
Thomas Wynne, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Long-ton, North Staffordshire.
Goldsworthy Gurney, Esq., Bude Castle, Cornwall.
M. de Boureuille, Commander de la Legion d'Honneur, Conseiller d'etat
Inspector General of Mines, Paris.
Dr. H. Von Dechen, Berghauptmann, Bitter, &c, Bonn on the Rhine,
Prussia. Herr R. Von Carnall, Berghauptmann, Ritter, &c, Breslau, Silesia,
Prussia. M. De Vaux, Inspector General of Mines, Brussels, Belgium. M.
Gonot, Mining Engineer, Mons, Belgium.
tlft y&mkt.
H. J. Morton, Esq., Garforth House, Leeds, Yorkshire.
OFFICERS, 1863-64.
Nicholas Wood, Hetton Hall, Fence Houses.
Hugh Taylor, Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Edward Potter, Cramlington,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Thomas E. Forster, 7, Ellison Place,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. J. T. Woodhouse, Midland Road, Derby.
William Armstrong, Wingate Grange, Ferry Hill.
Stephen C. Crone, Killing-worth Colliery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
John Daglish, Rainton Colliery, Fence Houses.
T. Douglas, Pease's West Collieries, Darlington.
George B. Forster, Backworth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Thomas G. Hurst, Backworth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
John Marley, Mining Offices, Darlington.
John T. Ramsay, Walbottle Colliery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
John B. Simpson, Moor House, Ryton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
George W. Southern, Chilton Hall, Ferry Hill.
John Taylor, Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Lindsay Wood, Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
Edward F. Boyd, Moor House, Durham.
Thomas Doubleday, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
lot nf 3tata.
1 Adams, W., Ebw Vale Works, Newport, Monmouthshire.
2 Anderson, C. W., St. Hilda's Colliery, South Shields.
3 Appleby, Charles Edward, 3, London Terrace, Derby.
4 Arkless, B., Tantoby, Gateshead, County of Durham.
5 Armstrong-, W., Wing-ate Grange, Ferry Hill, County of Durham.
6 Ashwell, Hatfield, Anchor Colliery, Long-ton, North Staffordshire.
7 Atkinson, J., Gaveller's Office, Coleford, Gloucestershire.
8 Attwood, Charles, Towlaw, Darling-ton, County of Durham.
9 Aytoun, Eobert, 3, Fettes Row, Edinburg-h.
10 Bag-nail, Jun., Thomas, Whitby, Yorkshire.
11 Bailes, Jun., Thos., Hematite Iron Works Collieries, Cleator Moor,
Whitehaven.
12 Bailey, W. W., Kilburn, near Derby.
13 Bailey, Samuel, The Pleck, Walsall, Staffordshire.
14 Barkus, Jun., Wm., Broom Hill Colliery, Acklington, Northum-
berland.
15 Barrow, Richard, Ring-wood Hall, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
16 Bartholomew, C, Doncaster, Yorkshire.
17 Bassett, A., Tredeg-ar Mineral Estate Office, Cardiff, Glamorganshire.
18 Beacher, E., Thorncliffe and Chapeltown Collieries, Sheffield.
19 Beckett, Henry, Pennover, Wolverhampton.
20 Bell, John, Normanby Mines, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
21 Bell, I. L., Washing-ton, County of Durham.
22 Bell, T., Thornley Colliery, Ferry Hill.
23 Berkley, C, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead, County of Durham.
24 Bewick, Thomas J., Allenheads, Haydon Bridg-e, Northumberland.
25 Big-land, J., Bedford Lodg-e, Bishop Auckland, County of Durham.
(xxi)
20 Binns, C, Claycross, Derbyshire.
27 Blackwell, John Kenyon.
28 Bolckow, H. W. F., Middlesbro'-on-Tees, Yorkshire.
29 Bourne, P., Whitehaven, Cumberland.
30 Bourne, S., West Cumberland Hematite Iron Works, Workington.
31 Bourne, Thos. R., Peaseley Cross, St. Helen's, Lancashire.
32 Bowie, Alexander, Canonbie Colliery, Hawick, North Britain.
33 Bowkley, Silas, Batman's Hill, Bilston, Staffordshire.
34 Boyd, Edward F., Moor House, Durham.
35 Braithwaite, Thomas, Egiinton Iron Works, Kilwinning, Ayrshire.
36 Briggs, Henry C, Outwood Hall, Wakefield.
37 Brogden, James, Tondu Iron and Coal Works, Bridge End, South
Wales.
38 Brown, J., Bank Top, Darlington, County of Durham.
39 Brown, J., Harbro' House, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
40 Brown, J., Whitwell Colliery, Durham.
41 Brown, John N., 56, Union Passage, New Street, Birmingham.
42 Brown, Thos. Forster, Machen, Newport, Monmouthshire.
43 Bryham, William, Rose Bridge, &c, Collieries, Wigan, Lancashire.
44 Buxton, William, Staveley Colliery, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
45 Cadwaladr, R., Broughton Colliery, Wrexham, Denbighshire.
46 Carr, Charles, Cramlington, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
47 Carr, William Cochrane, Blaydon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
48 Carrington, Jun., Thomas, 15, Osmaston Road, Derby.
49 Charlton, G., F.G.S., Estate and Mineral Offices, Pontefract.
50 Childe, Rowland, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
51 Clark, W. S., Aberdare, Glamorganshire.
52 Cochrane, W., 30, West Parade, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
53 Cochrane, C, Woodside Iron Works, near Dudley.
54 Cockburn, William, Hutton Low Cross Mines, Guisbro', Yorkshire.
55 Coke, Richard George, Tapton Grove, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
56 Cole, W. R., Bebside Colliery, Morpeth.
57 Collis, William Blow, Amblecote, Stourbridge, Worcestershire.
58 Cook, Richard, East Holywell Colliery, Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
59 Cooke, John, Willington Colliery, Durham.
60 Cooper, Philip, Rotherham Colliery, Rotherham, York.
61 Cooper, Thomas, Park Gate Colliery, Rotherham, York.
(xxii)
62 Cope, J., Pensnett, Dudley, Worcestershire.
63 Cordner, Richard, Crawlaw House, Stanhope, Weardale,
64 Cossham, H., Shortwood Lodge, Bristol, Somersetshire.
65 Coulson, W., Crossgate Foundry, Durham.
66 Cowen, Jun., Joseph, Blaydon Burn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
67 Coxon, S. B., Usworth Colliery, Gateshead.
68 Crawford, T., Church Street, Durham.
69 Crawford, Jun., T., Little Town Colliery, Durham.
70 Crawhall, G. E., St. Ann's Rope Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
71 Crawshay, Edwin, Abbott's Works, Newnham, Gloucestershire.
72 Creswick, Theophilus, Clymnel, Merthyr Tydvil, Glamorganshire,
73 Crofton, J. G., Crook, Darling-ton.
74 Crone, S. C, Killingworth Colliery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
75 Croudace, T., Mining Agent, Banana Cottage, Waratah, Australia,
76 Curry, James, Cassop Colliery, Ferry Hill.
77 Daglish, J., Rainton Colliery, Fence Houses.
78 Dakers, Thomas, Byers Green, Ferry Hill.
79 Darlington, James, Springfield House, Coppull, near Chorley, Lan-
cashire.
80 Davison, A., Hastings Cottage, Seaton Delaval, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
81 Davidson, James, Newbattle Colliery, Dalkeith.
82 Deane, Jun., John, Pencaitland Colliery, Tranent, Haddingtonshire,
North Britain.
83 Dees, J., Whitehaven, Cumberland.
84 Dennis, Henry, Brynyr Owen, Ruabon, Denbighshire.
85 Dickinson, W. R., Pease's West Collieries, Darlington.
86 Dixon, George, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
87 Dobson, S., Halswell Cottage, Cardiff, Glamorganshire.
88 Douglas, T., Pease's West Collieries, Darlington.
89 Dunn, T., Richmond Hill, Sheffield, Yorkshire.
90 Dunn, C.E., Thomas, Windsor Bridge Iron Works, Manchester.
91 Easton, J., Nest House, Gateshead.
92 Elliot, G., Betley Hall, Crewe.
93 Elliott, W., Weardale Iron Works, Towlaw, Darlington.
94 Embleton, T. W., Middleton Hall, Leeds, Yorkshire.
(xxiii)
9B Feare ^J^^IgS**™* <****
96 Fletcher, O.E., Jos, "a MaEChester, Eancash.re.
S SS5T2SSS'*—- *-*53'Broad
Street, London.
t tt Old Elvet, Durham. 99 Forster, J. H., Uia JJiiv , u
upon_Tyne.
100 *—, 0 B., ^^^ NlcXnpoa-Tyne.
101 Forster, Thomas E, 7, wlIS0 ' Newca»fle.upon-Ty»e.
102 Fothergill, Joseph, Cowpen Offi, QJ ^^hire.
107 W EdrfenL, Bo/gtown, Carlisle. W Gillett, F. O., 5, W«<W*.^g
Lancashire.
„ TTf^z Colliery, Gateshead.
111 Gooch, G H Bm ^^
112 Greaves J. O,*«*«£ ^^ Newcnstle.upo„-1yne.
113 Green, Jun, WM» •> lancashire.
1H Greener WFeffiheHoM,ery, ^ ^^ ^^
115 Greenwell, l*. ^-, x J Cheshire.
121 Harden, J. W.,Mna „ Miadlesex.
122 Harris, Janres, Surveyo^Han ^ ^^.Tyne.
123 Harrison, OJLjT. b, ^ Coffierie8, Nottingham.
124 Harnson, Robert;^C.B ^4^..
125 Hawthorn, ^Eng^e stle.ul)on-Tyne.
126 Hawthorn, W„ Engmeei,
127 Herdman, John, Bebs, e 0d£* «» P^ ^ ^ Mal. Tml.
128 Heath, Robert, Biddulph Vauey
stall, Staffordshire.
(xxiv)
129 Heekels, R., Pensher House, Fence Houses.
130 Hedley, Edward, Oriel Terrace, Gerard Street, Derby.
131 Heppell, Thomas, Little Town Colliery, Durham.
132 Hetherington, David, Netherton, Morpeth.
133 Hewlett, Alfred, Haigh Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire.
134 Higson, Jacob, 94, Cross Street, Manchester.
135 Hodgson, E., Engineer, Whitburn, Monkwearmouth, Sunderland.
136 Hood, Archibald, Whitehill Colliery, Lasswade, Edinburgh.
137 Horsley, W., Seaton Sluice, Hartley, North Shields.
138 Horton, T. E, Prior's Lea Hall, Shiffnal, Shropshire.
139 Howard, Win. Frederick, Staveley Works, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
140 Hudson, James, Wooley Colliery, Darton, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
141 Hunt, J. P., Corngreaves, Birmingham.
142 Hunt, A. H., Pelaw Main Office, Quayside, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
143 Hunter, Wm., Moor Lodge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
144 Hunter, William, Morriston, Swansea, Glamorganshire.
145 Hurst, T. G., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
146 Jackson, Frederick John, Ruardean Villa, near Newnham, Glou-
cestershire.
147 Jackson, Henry, Astley and Bedford Collieries, Tyldesley, Man-
chester.
148 Jackson, John, 90, Green Lane, Derby.
149 JefFcock, P., Midland Road, Derby.
150 Jenkins, William, M.E., Glantaf House, Pont-y-run, Merthyr
Tydvil, Glamorganshire.
151 Jobling, T. W., Point Pleasant, Wallsend, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
152 Johnson, J., Tynemouth.
153 Johnson, R. S., Has well, Fence Houses.
154 Johnson, Henry, Dudley, Worcestershire.
155 Joicey, John, Urpeth Lodge, Fence Houses.
156 Jones, E., Granville Lodge, Wellington, Salop,
157 Jones, Alex., Mine Agent, Prior's Lee, near Shiffnal, Salop.
158 Kenrick, Wm. Wynn, Erbistock, near Ruabon, Denbighshire.
159 Kerr, John, Auchinheath, Leshmahagow, Lanarkshire, N.B.
160 Kimpster, W., Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
161 Knowles, A., High Bank, Pendlebury, Manchester.
162 Knowles, John, Pendlebury Colliery, Manchester.
163 Knowles, Thomas Spring, Ince Hall Collieries, Wigan.
(xxv)
ganshire. i an T »ws J Blvth, Northumberland. Z SVw- ^rton r .Man^- n
169 Levick, Jun., F., Cwm Celyn and Blama
Monmouthshire. ivwthvr Tydvil, Glamor-
170 Lewis, T. Wm, Plymouth Iron Works, Merthyr ly
ganshire. A^bv-de-la-Zouch.
176 Lishman, Wm., Etherley Colhery, W»«»
f76 Lishman, W-, ^KSh^
« «• W P Tliornhffl Colliery, Dewsbury, Wakefield.
183 Maddison.WP, 1 horn j^fle-upon-Tyne.
184 Maddison, J Coxlodg 0„tay
185 Maddison,W.,CoxlodgeOoUieij,
186 Marley, John « Office, "^ Quayside, Newcastle-
187 Marshall, Robert, Three Indian iung
, nP°n'TBy!hd F Sonth Hetton Colliery, Fence Honses.
188 Matthews, Riehd. P, bonttt
189 May, George, North H-^ta*£ W(toll> Staffordshire.
190 MoGhie, Thos., Cannock ChaseXomery, Lancashire.
191 S^r^^'^X, ~,,n-Tyne. SmT^C College Street, Whitehaven.
196 Morison, David P., Pelton ooiufl y, ster_le-Street,
197 Morris, William, Waldridge Colliery, Chester
6?
(xxvi)
198 Morton, H., Lambton, Fence Houses.
199 Morton, H. T., Lambton, Fence Houses.
200 Morton, H. J., Garforth House, Leeds.
201 Muckle, John, Elemore Colliery, Easington Lane, Fence Houses.
202 Mulcaster, H., Colliery Office, Whitehaven.
203 Mulcaster, Joshua, Crosby Colliery, Maryport.
204 Mulvany, Wm. Thos., 1335, Carls Thor, Dusseldorf on the Rhine,
Prussia.
205 Murray, T. H., Chester-le-Street, Fence Houses.
206 Napier, Colin, Westminster Colliery, Wrexham, Denbighshire.
207 Newall, Robert Stirling1, Fern Dene, Gateshead.
208 Nixon, John, Pease's West Brandon Colliery, Crook, Darling-ton.
209 Oliver, Wm., Stanhope Burn Offices, Stanhope, Darlington.
210 Palmer, C. M., Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
211 Palmer, A. S., Belle Vue, Gateshead.
212 Paton, Wm., Alloa Colliery, Alloa, North Britain.
213 Peace, Maskell Wm., Solicitor, Wigan, Lancashire.
211 Pearce, F. H., Bowling Iron Works, Bradford, Yorkshire.
215 Pease, J. W., Woodlands, Darlington.
216 Peel, John, Spring-well Colliery, Gateshead.
217 Pilkington, Jun., Wm., St. Helen's, Lancashire.
218 Potter, E., Cramlington, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
219 Potter, W. A., Monk Bretton, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
220 Powell, T., Lower Duffryn Colliery, Aberdare, Glamorganshire.
221 Ramsay, J. T., Walbottle Colliery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
222 Ravenshaw, J. H., Grange, Newton-in-Cartmel, Lancashire.
223 Rayner, J. T., Methley House, Wakefield.
224 Rees, Daniel, Letty Shenkin Colliery, Aberdare, Glamorganshire,
225 Reid, P. S., 15, Beaufort Buildings, Strand, London.
226 Richardson, Dr., Framlington Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
227 Robinson, R., Stanley Colliery, Pease's West, Darlington.
228 Robson, J. S., Butterknowle Colliery, Staindrop, Darlington.
229 Robson, M. B., Field Bouse, Borough Road, Sunderland.
230 Robson, Neil, 127, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
231 Robson, Thomas, Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses.
(xxvii)
232 Rockwell, Alfd. P., M.A., Norwich, Connecticut, United States,
America.
233 Rose, Thomas, Millfield Iron Works, Bilston, Wolverhampton,
Staffordshire.
234 Ross, A., Shipcote Colliery, Gateshead.
235 Rosser, Wm., Mineral Surveyor, Llanelly, Carmarthenshire.
236 Rutherford, J., South Tyne Colliery, Haltwhistle, Northumberland.
237 Sanderson, Jun,, R. B., West Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
238 Sanderson, Thomas, Seaton Delaval, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
239 Shield, Hugh, Pittington Colliery, Durham.
240 Shone, Isaac, Mineral Surveyor, Grove Bank, near Wrexham, Den-
bighshire.
241 Simpson, L., South America, per E. Simpson, Dipton, Gateshead.
242 Simpson, R., Ryton, 7, Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
243 Simpson, John Bell, Moor House, Ryton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
244 Simpson, R. L., Monkwood Colliery, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
245 Smith, F., Bridgewater Canal Office, Manchester.
246 Smith, Jun., J., Monkwearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
247 Smith, Edmund J., 14, Whitehall Place, Westminster, London, S.W.
248 Sopwith, T., 43, Cleveland Square, London, W.
249 Sopwith, Arthur, Seaton Colliery, Sunderland.
250 Southern, G. W., Chilton Hall, Ferry Hill.
251 Spark, H. K., Darlington, County of Durham.
252 Spencer, Jun., W., Eston Mines, Middlesbro'.
253 Steavenson, A. L., Skelton Mines, Guisbro', Yorkshire.
254 Stenson, W. T., Whitwick Colliery, Coalville, near Leicester.
255 Stephenson, George R., 24, Great George Street, Westminster,
London, S.W.
256 Stobart, H. S., Witton-le-Wear, Darlington.
257 Stott, G., Ferry Hill, County of Durham.
258 Swallow, R. T., Pontop Colliery, Gateshead.
259 Swallow, John, Harton Colliery, South Shields.
260 Taylor, H., Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
261 Taylor, H., 13, Ellison Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
262 Taylor, J., Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
263 Telford, W., Cramlington, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
264 Thomas, George, Wallend Colliery, Bloxwich, Walsall.
265 Thompson, John, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead.
(xxviii)
266 Thompson, T. C., Milton Hall, Carlisle, Cumberland.
267 Thomson, Alex., Omoa Iron Works, Motherwell, North Britain.
268 Thorman, John, Ripley, Derbyshire.
269 Thorpe, R. C, North Gawber Colliery, Staincross, Barnsley,
Yorkshire.
270 Tone, C.E., John F., 10, Market Street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
271 Trotter, J., Newnham, Gloucestershire.
272 Truran, Matthew, Dowlais Iron Works, Merthyr Tydvil, Glamor-
ganshire.
273 Vaughan, John, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
274 Vaughan, Thomas, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
275 Vaughan, William, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
276 Verner, Albert, Framwellgate Colliery, Durham.
277 WTales, T. E., Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
278 Ward, Henry, Priestfield Iron Works, Oaklands, Wolverhampton.
279 Warden, W. M., Railway Iron Works, Edgbaston Street, Bir-
mingham.
280 Ware, W. H., The Ashes, Stanhope, Weardale.
281 Warrington, John, Kippax, near Leeds.
282 Watkin, Wm. John Laverick, Woodifield and Whitelee Collieries,
Crook, Darlington.
283 Watson, W., High Bridge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
284 Watson, Joseph J. W., No. 1, Rue Notre Dame, Passy, near Paris.
285 Webster, R. C, Ruabon Collieries, Ruabon, Denbighshire.
286 Willis, James, Grange Colliery, Durham.
287 Wilmer, F. B., Seaton Colliery, Sunderland.
288 Wilson, J. B., Haydock, near St. Helen's, Lancashire.
289 Wilson, R., Flimby Colliery, Maryport, Cumberland.
290 Wilson, J. Straker, Ruardean Villa, near Newnham, Gloucestershire.
291 Wood, Charles S., Master of the Mining School, Bristol.
292 Wood, C. L., Black Boy Colliery, Bishop Auckland.
293 Wood, Lindsay, Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
294 Wood, N., Hetton Hall, Fence Houses, County of Durham.
295 Wood, W. H., West Hetton, Ferry Hill.
296 Wood, John, Flockton Colliery, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
297 Woodhouse, J. T., Midland Road, Derby.
298 Wright, C. Tylden, Shireoak Colliery, Worksop, Nottinghamshire.
299 Wright, George, Rainton Colliery, Fence Houses.
1.—The objects of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers are to
enable its members to meet together at fixed periods, and to discuss the
means for the Ventilation of Coal and other Mines, the Winning and Working
of Collieries and Mines, the Prevention ol Accidents, and the Advancement of
the Science of Mining generally.
2.—The Members of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers shall
consist of four classes of Members, viz:—Ordinary Members, Life Members,
Graduates, and Honorary Members.
3.—Ordinary and Life Members shall be persons practising as Mining
Engineers, and other persons connected with or interested in Mining.
4.—Graduates shall be persons engaged in study to qualify themselves for the
profession of Mining Engineers.
5.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
6.—The Annual Subscription of each Ordinary Member shall be £2 2s. payable
in advance, and the same is to be considered due and payable on the first
Saturday of August in each year, or immediately after his election.
7.—The Annual Subscription of each Graduate shall be £1 Is. payable in
advance, and the same is to be considered due and payable on the first
Saturday of August in each year, or immediately after his election.
8.—All persons who shall at one time make a Donation of £20 or upwards,
shall be Life Members.
9.—Each Subscriber of £2 2s. annually (not being a member), shall be
entitled to a ticket to admit one person to the rooms, library,
(xxx)
meetings, lectures, and public proceeding's of the Society; and for every
additional £2 2s, subscribed annually, another person shall be admissible up
to the number of five persons; and each such Subscriber shall also be
entitled for each £2 2s. subscription to have a copy of the proceeding's of
the Institute sent to him.
10.—Persons desirous of being* admitted into the Institute as Ordinary
Members, Life Members, or Graduates, shall be proposed by three Ordinary or
Life Members, or both, at a General Meeting-. The nomination shall be in
writing* and signed by the proposers, and shall state the name and residence
of the individuals proposed, whose election shall be balloted for at the
next following* General Meeting, and during* the interval notice of the
nomination shall be exhibited in the Society's room. Every person proposed
as an Honorary Member shall be recommended by at least five Members of the
Society, and elected by ballot at the following General Meeting. A
majority of votes shall determine every election.
11.—The Officers of the Institute shall consist of a President, four
Vice-Presidents, and twelve Councillors, who, with the Treasurer and
Secretaries (if Members of the Institute), shall constitute a Council for
the direction and management of the affairs of the Institute; all of which
Officers shall be elected at the Annual Meeting, and shall be eligible for
reelection, with the exception of the three Councillors whose attendances
have been fewest, and such Vice-Presidents as have held office for three
consecutive years; but such Members are eligible for reelection after being
one year out of office. All Officers, with the exception of the paid
Officers
(who need not necessarily be Members of the Institute), to be nominated
at the General Meeting next before the Annual Meeting; a list of whom,
with voting* papers, shall be posted to every Member at least fourteen
days previous to the Annual Meeting. All nomination and voting papers
must be in writing, and signed by the respective members, and delivered
personally or forwarded under cover, and in the latter case signed, sealed,
and addressed to the Secretary, so as to be in his hands before the hour
fixed for the nomination or election of Officers. The Chairman shall,
in all cases of voting, appoint scrutineers of the lists, and the scrutiny
shall commence on the conclusion of the other business of the meeting*.
At meetings of the Council, five shall be a quorum, and the Minutes
of the Council's proceedings shall be at all times open to the inspection
of the Members of the Institute.
12.—A General Meeting of the Institute shall be held on the first Thursday
or Saturday, alternately, of every Month (except in January
(xxxi) and July), at twelve o'clock noon, or two o'clock if on Saturday; and
the General Meeting* in the month of August shall be the Annual Meeting, at
which a report of the proceedings, and an abstract of the accounts of the
previous year, shall be presented by the Council. A Special Meeting of the
Institute may be called whenever the Council shall think fit, and also on a
requisition to the Council signed by ten or more Members.
13.—Every question which shall come before any meeting of the Institute
shall be decided by the votes of the majority of the Ordinary and Life
Members then present.
14.—The Funds of the Society shall be deposited in the hands of the
Treasurer, and shall be disbursed by him according" to the direction of
the Council.
15.—All papers sent for the approval of the Council shall be accompanied by
a short abstract of their contents.
16.—The Council shall have power to decide on the propriety of communicating
to the Institute any papers which may be received, and they shall be at
liberty, when they think it desirable, to direct that any paper read before
the Institute shall be printed and transmitted to the Members.
Intimation, when practicable, shall be given at the close of each General
Meeting of the subject of the paper or papers to be read, and of the
questions for discussion, at the next Meeting; and notice thereof shall be
affixed in the rooms of the Institute a reasonable time previously. The
reading of papers shall not be delayed beyond such hour as the President may
think proper, and if the election of Members or other business should not
be despatched soon enough, the President may adjourn such business until
after the discussion of the subject for the day. 17.—Members elected at any
Meeting* between the Annual Meetings, shall be entitled to all papers issued
in that year.
18.—The Copyright of all papers communicated to and accepted by the
Institute, shall become vested in the Institute; and such communications
shall not be published for sale, or otherwise, without the
permission of the Council.
19.—All proofs of discussion forwarded to Members for correction must be
returned to the Secretary not later than three days from the
date of their receipt.
20.—The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the facts and opinions
advanced in the papers which may be read, nor in the abstracts of the
conversations which may take place at the meetings of the Institute.
(xxxii)
21.—The Author of each paper read before the Institute shall be allowed
twelve copies of such paper (if ordered to be printed) for his own private
use.
22.—The Transactions of the Institute shall not be forwarded to Members
whose subscription is more than one year in arrear.
23.—No duplicate copies of any portion of the proceedings shall be issued to
any of the Members unless by written order from the Council.
24.—Each Member or Graduate of the Institute shall have power to introduce a
stranger to any of the General Meetings of the Institute, and shall sign, in
a book kept for the purpose, his own name as well as the name and address of
the person introduced; but such stranger shall not take part in any
discussion or other business, unless permitted by the meeting to do so.
25.—No alteration shall be made in any of the Laws, Rules, or Regulations of
the Institute, except at the Annual General Meeting, or at a Special
Meeting, and the particulars of every such alteration shall be announced at
a previous General Meeting, and inserted in its minutes, and shall be
exhibited in the room of the Institute fourteen days previous to such Annual
or Special Meeting, and such Meeting shall have power to adopt any
modification of such proposed alteration of, or addition to, the Rules.
E BEAT A.
Page 62, 8 lines from top, for " effect" read affect.
Page 164, 14 lines from top, for " Ellis " read, Elis.
In page 178 it is stated, on the authority of a lecture on " Coal, Corn, and
Cotton, the three Kings that rule the World," delivered on the 17th
December, 1862, by H. Cossham, and afterwards published, that at a meeting
of the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh, held on the 6th February, 1855, a
resolution was passed, stating "that in the present state of science it is
impossible to determine what coal is." Since the British Association Meeting
in Newcastle, in 1863, this has been called in question by one of the
members of the Eoyal Society, who states that no such resolution was passed
or recorded in the minutes of the Eoyal Society.
ADVERTISEMENT.
The Institution is not, as a body, responsible for the facts and opinions
advanced in the Papers read, and in the Abstracts of the Conversations which
occurred at the Meetings during the Session.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEEKS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4, 1862, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NICHOLAS WOOD, Esq., Pbesident of the Institute, in the Chaie.
The Secretary having read a letter from Mr. G. B. Forster, stating his
inability to attend the meeting, in consequence of illness,
It mas Resolved,--That as Mr. Forster's paper cannot be discussed in his
absence, and there being no other business, this meeting is adjourned to
Saturday, October 4, at two o'clock.
Mr. Wm. Wynn Kenrick, Wynn Hall Colliery, Ruabon, Denbighshire, was elected
a member of the Institute.
Vol. XII.—Septembeb, 1862.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, OCTOBER 4, 1862, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NICHOLAS WOOD, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
The Secretary having read the minutes of the Council, it was resolved—" That
this meeting sanctions the resolution of the Council to cooperate with other
bodies in inviting- the British Association to hold their meeting* of 1863
in Newcastle-on-Tyne, and that Mr. Isaac Low-thian Bell be requested to lay
the same before the authorities at Cambridge."
The President said, he was sorry to announce the death of one of their
Vice-Presidents, Mr. William Anderson, a gentleman universally esteemed. Mr.
Anderson was, he believed, the oldest viewer in the trade, and had been a
Vice-President of the Institute since its establishment. He (the President)
had intended to have said a few words in explanation of his services to the
Institute, and of his character in other respects, but he postponed doing so
until another opportunity. It would be necessary to elect another
Vice-President, of which notice might be given at the next monthly meeting,
as the rule required a month's notice to be given previously to the
appointment of a Vice-President.
DISCUSSION ON THE HARTLEY ACCIDENT.
Mr. G. B. Forster (whose paper on this subject now came on for discussion)
said, he did not think anything had transpired since his paper was read that
required any remark; but if there was anything to explain, he would be happy
to do so.
The President said, they had all heard the paper read with great
Vol XII.—October, 1862.
4
interest. The nature of the accident itself, and the number of deaths
attending it, were unprecedented. He had been fifty years in the trade, and
during- that time no accident of a similar nature had occurred; and, from
what he had read, he believed there never had at any time been such an
accident, and one so fatal to human life. There were some features connected
with the case which were worthy of attention, so as to obviate similar
accidents in future. It had brought about a legislative enactment, by which
it was required that every mine should have two shafts, or two separate
means of egress from the workings of the colliery to the surface. He
believed, when this was first broached by the Legislature, the coalowners
universally took up the question in a proper spirit, and determined to have
two shafts to every mine, although previously single shafts had to a
considerable extent been used; and, previous to this accident, single shafts
had not been found productive of greater loss of life than double shafts.
Some gentlemen who took the trouble of making statistical inquiries, had, he
understood, ascertained this fact. However, notwithstanding this, the Coal
Trade, he believed, to a man, considered it advisable to have two shafts to
each mine, so that the men should have access to the surface, in case of
accident, on all occasions. He would now be glad to hear any remarks on the
subject.
Mr. T. Y. Hall said, it was generally thought, before the accident happened,
that the coalowners in the North of England considered two shafts were
desirable; and nearly all of those who had only one were persevering to have
two shafts.
The President said, he did not wish to contradict Mr. Hall, but he never
heard of that being agitated till this accident occurred.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, in this particular instance they were attempting to
make a holing into the Old Mill Pit at Hartley, and that would have been
equivalent to a double shaft.
Mr. T. Y. Hall said there was not one in ten of the shipping collieries of
this district that had not a double shaft.
The President said, he did not recollect the proportion of single and double
shafts, but every one must have considered that two shafts were safer than
one. The great majority of collieries in Northumberland and Durham had
double shafts, and for very obvious reasons, because two shafts ventilated a
colliery better than one, and ventilation was peculiarly necessary in these
counties. Still, the public attention had not been called to the subject,
except as a question of ventilation, and as a security to life in cases of
explosion, before this accident occurred. In reading
5
over the account of this accident, it had occurred to him that, there were
two or three questions involved in this extraordinary accident. First, they
had the breaking of the engine beam; next, the effect of this broken beam
falling down the shaft j then, they had the ulterior consequences of the men
not being able to get out of the pit; and, lastly, they had, in connection
with this, the particular sort of gas that destroyed life. Taking the
accident as a concatenation of several incidents, in this point of view the
first question for consideration was in reference to the breaking of the
beam; and next, when it broke, that of its falling down the shaft. All beams
made of cast iron were, of course, liable to break; but in the breaking of
beams they had not previously found that they fell down the shaft. This was
worthy of attention. First of all, beams might be made of wrought iron, and,
as such, less liable to break; and next, this beam was suspended over the
pit, as all beams must be which are worked in this manner. But it did not
follow that when the beam broke it should go down the shaft. For example,
they had what are called keps, to prevent the spears (when they broke where
attached to the beam, and above the mouth of the pit,) from falling down the
pit, and these keps were intended to be sufficient for that purpose. He
believed also, that, in several instances, at the top of each successive set
of pumps, similar keps were placed, so as to intercept and prevent the
spears falling down the pit if they broke. All pits ought to have such like
contrivances. He would now come to the beam. In this case the beam projected
over the pit, and, he believed, there was nothing to prevent it from going
down the pit, if it broke, as it did, between its centre and the extremity
projecting beyond the house; but there is no reason why the beam should not
be protected in a similar manner as well as the spears. The beam projected
over the pit, and there was nothing from the centre of the beam to prevent
it falling if it broke; but it was quite possible to so construct the house,
or provide a kep, so that the beam, if it broke, should be protected, and
prevented falling down the pit, even if it broke at the extreme end of the
up-stroke. It might break at the beginning of the stroke, and then the fall
to the kep or support would be inconsiderable; but if it broke at the
extremity of the stroke, then the fall to the kep would be the entire length
of the stroke, viz., six or seven feet, or even more; but they might have
keps which, even in case it broke at the extremity of the stroke, or had to
fall through the whole length of the stroke, would be strong enough to
prevent its falling down the pit. Mr. G. B. Forster—There was a wooden
catchpin to the beam, which
6
might have prevented the accident under those circumstances; but the beam,
it was supposed, broke when it was high up, or at the end of the stroke, and
the force with which it came down knocked the catchpin off like a piece of
matchwood.
The President—Catchpins are not put on beams for that purpose. They are
placed on beams for the purpose of striking- on spring-beams, to soften the
termination of the down, and to aid the up stroke of the beam. It was quite
clear the catchpin had never been intended to support the beam in case of
its breaking- as it did.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, he could only say that the catchpin at the inner end
held the other part of the beam.
The President—The liability to break was greatest at the beginning of the
lift. In that case, if a break took place, you think the catchpin would have
been sufficient; but it is necessary to provide against the beam breaking at
any period of the stroke. It would not appear that the catchpin was
altogether the proper mode of accomplishing this; but there could be no
doubt that, in some way or other, a plan could be adopted by which the beam,
breaking at any period of the stroke, could be prevented falling down the
pit. He now came to the second proposition—the effect of the beam falling
down the pit. There was nothing in the wall of the engine house to prevent
the beam falling down the pit. There was a large opening, in which the half
of the beam projecting through the wall worked. The beam went down the pit,
and carried with it the timber brattice in the shaft, and all the timbering
of the sides of the shaft. If the timbering of the shaft had not been
carried away, the consequences would not have been so disastrous. The
timbering which protected the sides of the shaft being carried away, a vast
quantity of the then unprotected stone gave way, and fell down the pit,
together with the timbering and brattice of the shaft, and blocked up the
shaft to such an extent (as was afterwards ascertained), as almost to
completely close the shaft above the opening of the furnace drift into it.
This proved the necessity of that rule of the Act which prescribed that all
shafts should be properly secured. If the sides of this shaft had been
properly secured and walled, a great many of the evil effects would not,
probably, have happened; and certainly the timbering in the shaft could not
be said to constitute a proper security. All shafts ought to be either
walled with stone or fire bricks. Then we come to the question, when the
water got up, whether it was carbonic oxide, common stythe, or carbonic acid
gas which killed the men. He did not know that this was of very much
7
consequence. It seemed that there were some appearances of the bodies, which
indicated that carbonic oxide caused their death. It was rather difficult to
say how it had been produced, but it was quite certain that either of these
gases would destroy life. It appeared they had been suffocated a short time
after the accident, and this would rather show that it might have been
occasioned by the more fatal gas—carbonic oxide. Still, if the shaft had not
been closed by the fallen rubbish, a partial circulation up and down the
shaft might have taken place; and as the bodies were found near the shaft,
that circulation might have saved them. The only remedy in such a case was
to have two shafts, and that may be presumed to be a perfect remedy.
Mr. T. Y. Hall said, it was odd that the brattice was not injured for a
short distance below the top of the pit. There was not space for the beam to
go down between the brattice and the side of the pit, it was so small an
aperture, unless the brattice sprung back, and returned into its place
without injury.
Mr. Reid—Then it is your conclusion, Mr. Forster, that it was the broken
spear that caused the beam to break ?
Mr, G. B. Forster—Yes; I suppose that the spear broke, and then the engine
came quite suddenly into house again. There were striking traces that the
engine had come into the house with great violence. It was unfortunate that
there was not a man in the loft at the time, who could give a good account
of what occurred. He supposed that a spear or two spears were broken in the
pit, and that the force of the concussion, when the inner catchpin struck,
snapped the beam in the middle.
Mr. Atkinson said, there must have been some heavy concussion, as the cap
that fitted on the top of the piston rod was broken through.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, the spring beams at the inner end were supported by
cast iron pillars, to the flanges of which they were secured by bolts. These
bolts were forced out an inch and a half. The piston did not work within six
inches of the bottom of the cylinder. The catchpin saved it (the piston).
The steam was tried in the cylinder that afternoon.
Mr. T. Y. Hall—Had they ascertained whether the piston struck the bottom of
the cylinder 1
Mr. G. B. Forster—It was ascertained that the cylinder was quite sound.
Mr. Reid—Unless the catchpin had broken, the piston would not have gone
down.
Mr. G. B. Forster—No; the cross-head at the top of the piston-rod
8
was broken downwards, which showed that the piston had not touched the
cylinder bottom.
Mr. Lionel BroUgh, Inspector for the South-Western Division of Great
Britain, said, he did not know whether a mere honorary member ought to take
part in this discussion, but he was simply going to verify the President's
own observation. He thought it would be quite easy to make arrangements, by
which, a broken beam could not possibly go down a pit. But, secondly, there
was a question, whether it might not be better to make the beams of wrought
iron. There was one he had seen at Mr. G. B. Forster's pit—a magnificent
beam, constructed of wrought iron. Any suggestion made by the members of
that Institute, he was sure, would be listened to attentively by the public.
If it should be their opinion that wrought iron beams would prevent the
recurrence of similar accidents, it would be desirable that such an opinion
should be entered into or carried out—whether it would not be better to
recommend that in future all ponderous beams should be constructed of
malleable iron. There could be no difficulty in having such beams, inasmuch
as Mr. Forster himself had one, as already referred to, constructed by the
eminent Mr. Fairbairn, of wrought iron. There were many arrangements of
pumping where the beams could not fall down ; but, wherever beams were
unusually ponderous, and liable to fall down, he would have them of
malleable iron.
Mr. T. Y. Hall—That is, I presume, where beams are in connection with the
pit shaft only.
Mr. Brough—Just so.
The President said, they were hardly in a condition to-day to go into that
question. It would be attended with considerable expense in some cases, and
in some other cases it might not be necessary. However, it was a very proper
question to raise in the Institute, and form the subject of a special
discussion, " In what circumstances malleable iron beams should be used."
But he thought they should come to the Institute prepared to discuss the
question.
Mr. G. B. Forster wished to say a word about the gas. He had been informed
by two men who had gone to work at his colliery, and who had formerly worked
at Hartley, that in driving leading places which were before the air, they
had felt a similar effect to what was felt in the shaft, from some gas that
had been supposed to come off from the coal.
[The President having occasion to leave town, vacated the chair, which was
taken by Mr. Daglish.]
9
Mr. G. B. Forster continued, their lights were not at all affected, but when
they got into the current of the main intake, they became sick and giddy.
Mr. Atkinson—Were they driving before the air ? If they had been using
gunpowder, this would be accounted for, because carbonic oxide was one of
the products of some kinds of gunpowder. He had known cases when the light
had burnt after using gunpowder, but the workmen had been seriously
affected.
Mr. Daglish said, he believed the President was aware of a case in this very
pit.*
Mr. Atkinson said, that was a case of old workings. They might take the
whole country side around Hartley New Pit, and they would find very few, if
any, other cases, where any such gas had been found, except from old
workings. This particular case might be from being long pent-up, or it might
be sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
Mr. Daglish said, it could not, for it had no smell.
Mr. Atkinson said, he did not refer to the gas that killed all these people
recently, but that of the previous case, spoken of by the President.
Mr. Brough said, if it was carbonic oxide which injured the men who were
driving leading places, it must have been from the gunpowder smoke. He did
not know of any instance of carbonic oxide being thrown off from coal. It
was found to be from the combustion. But where did the carbonic oxide come
from that killed all these men ? The remote question, after all, was,
whether it was not carbonic acid gas in excess. If no combustion was going
on at the time in the pit, he was at a loss to know how it could be carbonic
oxide.
The Chairman—It could not be carbonic acid, for the lights burnt brighter.
* Having been obliged to leave the meeting, I had not an opportunity of
explaining the facts of this case; but it occurred in this manner. Two men
were drifting towards an old waste ; one of them holed into the waste, when
some gas came off, which killed him. His partner (who was absent) came into
the place, and seeing the candle burning very brightly, went up to the face,
and was likewise struck down and suffocated. Of course, care was afterwards
taken, and the place ventilated, to procure the bodies. A similar case of
gas, of the same description, was found at Tyne Main Colliery, where the
candles burnt brilliantly, and where the gas affected the men so much as to
knock them down, but the places being well ventilated, nothing fatal
occurred. But, in both these cases, I thought at the time it was
sulphuretted hydrogen gas, coming off from stagnant water and old workings,
and I gave evidence before a Parliamentary enquiry at the time to that
effect. The water in the Hartley Pit came off from an old waste, and it
might be that some of the same gas might come off with the water, and so
produce the effect on the candles which was observed."—The President.
Vol. XII.—Octobee, 1862.
b
10
Mr. G. B. Forster said, he had no doubt it was carbonic oxide proceeding
from the furnace.
Mr. B rough—If the furnace was cold, combustion may have been going' on
somewhere else.
Mr. Atkinson—Of course, the furnace was burning when the beam went down.
There would, of course, be smoke, which would hang about, and the poor men
might not be able to approach the furnace for some time. It would burn in a
smothered way. This would be the time when the oxide would be most freely
generated, owing to imperfect combustion. This might be the cause of the
generation of the carbonic oxide. He had heard it said, that the coal was on
fire between the furnace and the shaft; but had no certain authority for
this statement. From either of these sources, there would be the means of
generating the carbonic oxide; but the fatal gas was, doubtless, generated
in the immediate locality where the whole of the men were found. It was well
known that it took a very small per centage of carbonic oxide to destroy
human life; and he thought it must have been this gas. When Mr. Coulson was
down the pit, he noticed its ill effects; and when he came up, he asked, "
Does this pit give off hydrogen ?" He was answered, " No, it never did f and
he remarked, " because the lights are burning brighter than common." This
was, so far as it went, evidence that the gas was altogether unlike carbonic
acid in its effects, and that it had properties similar to carbonic oxide.
Mr. T. Y. Hall—If the coal was on fire between the shaft and the furnace, it
might have been set on fire by the two men who were found at the furnace
trying to put the fire out. These two men were found dead, and much swollen
and distorted, while the rest were not so much disfigured. The fire was a
good deal taken off the bars, and might have ignited the solid coal, or
promoted the combustion of the coal raked off the furnace.
Mr. Reid—You never heard that the coal was on fire between the furnace and
the shaft of the pit ?
Mr. G. B. Forster—No; I knew nothing about the colliery before the accident.
Mr. Brough said, carbonic oxide was always the last product of combustion.
The Chairman—That would depend on the state of the air supplied to the
furnace.
11
Mr. Atkinson—It must have oxygenj it is composed of one atom of oxygen and
one of cai'bon.
Mr. T. Y. Hall said, he was there when Coulson came and said a change had
taken place, for instead of the cold air going down as usual, he and his men
had found that warm air was coming up. This was on the 21st, and he (Mr. H.)
at once concluded that the men would be all dead, and said so.
Mr. Brough did not think it was sulphuretted or carburetted hydrogen ; it
must have been carbonic oxide after all.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, he was not aware of the state of the furnace before
the accident. He was told that when the furnace was put out for any
temporary purpose, the air was found very hot in the furnace drift; possibly
the soot might be on fire.
Mr. Atkinson—The fact of raking the cinders out might cause this gas to be
formed. He would ask Mr. Forster whether he had any opportunity of
ascertaining whether any fire had existed in the furnace drift. His
informant was a most respectable man.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, he believed there was no foundation for the
statement, except that smoke was sometimes seen coming out of the
interstices of the brick-work, which might occur in any furnace.
Mr. Atkinson said, that was not a sufficient proof.
Mr. Brough said, death by sulphuretted hydrogen always caused a distortion
of the features.
Mr. Atkinson said, the medical evidence went in favour of the belief that it
was carbonic oxide.
The Chairman said, there was a letter in the "Lancet," from the surgeon, Mr.
Davison, giving his views on that point. No one contradicted that letter,
which was pretty good evidence of the general acquiescence in its
conclusions.
Mr. G. B. Forster read that part of the letter which related to the bodies.
[The letter is given at length below.]
Mr. Brough—It could not have been carburetted hydrogen, or it would have
fired.
The Chairman said, there was only negative proof that carbonic oxide did not
exist in our coal mines. It now appeared that plants in a state of life gave
off carbonic oxide; and inasmuch as a quantity of oxygen had been eliminated
during the passage of woody tissue into coal, it was not impossible that
carbonic oxide might be one product.
Mr. Atkinson—We have hundreds and thousands of men daily
12
probing the bowels of the earth, and they scarcely ever meet with carbonic
oxide to an observable extent, as an ordinary product in the absence of
combustion.
The subject then dropped.
Mr. Reid proposed that the sum of £2000, devised to the Institute by the
late Robert Stephenson, be invested in Northumberland Dock Bonds.
The Chairman, in explanation, said the matter had been referred to the
Council, and by them to the Finance Committee, who had reported in favour of
investing1 the money as proposed.
Mr. Reid said the interest was 4| per cent., and they could have the money
at any time, by giving' six months' notice.
Mr. T. Y. Hall seconded the motion, which was put from the chair, and
carried unanimously.
The meeting then broke up.
THE LATE CALAMITY AT NEW HARTLEY.
To the Editor of the Lancet.
Sib,—In your journal for March 1st there were some remarks relative to the
late unfortunate calamity at Hartley Colliery; and as the conclusions were
different from those I had given, I hope you will insert the following
observations on the effects of the gas, and my reasons for stating that the
gas was carbonic oxide.
On ascertaining the extent of the accident, the number of men and boys down
the mine, and that it would be some time before they could be communicated
with, our first anxiety was whether there would be a sufficient supply of
air and water, when we were assured there would be sufficient for some days.
The medical men also gave as their opinion that there would be no fear of
starvation for some time, as many of the men who went down last would have
some food with them"; there was also a quantity of oats, and they could get
at some of the ponies. Matters went on pretty well during the following day
(Friday, Jan. 17th), or at least the early part of it, as there were
distinct answers from the men below to the signals given by the men in the
shaft. The sinkers imagined they heard signals on Sunday, the 19th; but as
the last written record of any being alive was poor Amour's journal, dated "
Friday, quarter to two," it must have been a mistake. On Sunday, smells
began to be felt in the shaft; on Monday, they became decidedly unpleasant;
and great anxiety was felt when David "Wilkinson, one of the men, came to
bank very much affected with some gas which he stated was coming through the
obstruction in the shaft. And on a hole being forced through, great
quantities of gas came off, affecting the men very much; many were seriously
ill, but none completely insensible.
' 13
Mr. Coulson going down, he found the gas rising in the pit to a great
height. Now, as there had not been any means used for ventilating the shaft,
this proves it was lighter than the atmospheric air; and on a candle being
put down, it burned, if anything, brighter and clearer; and though the men
suffered so much, their candles never went out, clearly proving that it was
a gas very injurious to life, though supporting combustion in a certain
degree when mixed with common air; whereas in a mixture of carbonic acid gas
and air the candles are always extinguished before the men suffer much from
its effects. The only other gas generated in a coal mine is carburetted
hydrogen, which explodes by a candle when mixed with air, though the men can
work in it with a Davy lamp;—thus, I think, proving that it was neither
carbonic acid nor carburetted hydrogen gas. The question is, what gas was it
1 Judging from the effects on the men, its lightness, and its supporting
combustion when mixed with air, I think it must have been carbonic oxide
gas— certainly not a natural product of the mine, but most likely formed at
the furnace. On this question I shall not dilate, as my friend, Mr. George
Baker Forster, has brought the subject before the Mining Institute where it
will be fully discussed; but I wish to give an explanation regarding the
evidence I gave before the Coroner. When Mr. Blackwell told me that the fire
had been raked out, I ought to have added that the coal-ashes, &c, would
fall below the bars, where they would smoulder for some time, the heat from
which, together with that from the furnace bars and plates, must have been
great, and have tended, in a confined space, to keep up a slow but imperfect
combustion, the product of which would be carbonic oxide gas, and which
caused the death of the poor men.
I shall now give the symptoms which the men laboured under who were working
in the shaft, of whom a great many were affected from Monday night till the
bodies were found; and I think there can be only one opinion of the heroic
devotion of my friend, Mr. Coulson, and the fine fellows under him, in
returning again and again to their work after suffering so severely as some
of them did.
1st Class.—The men were very little affected in the shaft, and came to bank
in the loop without being tied in to prevent their falling out; and when
they came to the fresh air they were still able to walk to the cabin, about
ten yards off, without assistance. They then began to feel giddy, with
frontal headache, tremours in the lower extremities, and sometimes sickness;
but on giving them strong tea (of which there was always some ready), with a
very small quantity of whisky, they were soon able to change their clothes,
walk to their lodgings, about 600 yards off, and in three or four hours
resume their work.
2nd Class.—The men felt the effects of the gas at the bottom of the shaft,
but were able to come to bank without any assistance, as in Class 1; but
immediately they came in contact with the fresh air, the tremors, debility,
and sickness increased very much, causing them to stagger and require
assistance to prevent their falling down; were quite sensible, answered
rationally, but did not like to be disturbed. On dashing cold water freely
over the temples and face, administering hot tea with whisky, &c, they were
soon relieved, but experienced frontal headache for an hour or two, felt
inclined to vomit, and complaining of something lying at the stomach; others
that there was something constantly moving up and down in the stomach.
14
In about an hour they were able to walk to their lodgings, and in five or
six hours resume their work. They stated they could not have lived long in
the shaft.
3rd Class.—The men were so suddenly affected by the gas coming up the hole
in the shaft as to require the assistance of their comrades to lash them to
the loop to prevent them falling out. One man incautiously put his head into
the hole, when he was observed to drop, and lay there till his comrade came
down the shaft, about sixty yards, when he lashed him in the loop, and sent
him to bank, where he was found in a slight state of syncope. On the usual
remedies being applied, he soon rallied so far as to answer questions ;
complained of coldness, sickness, headache, with great debility, pulse
almost imperceptible ; but in a short time he was able to be led to his
lodgings. Mr. Wm. Coulson, jun., was brought up in a similar state ; but the
symptoms continued longer, requiring quietness, rest, &c. ; but in about an
hour he was able to answer questions, and give his father an account of the
state of the shaft. Another man was very violent and excited, wishing to
fight the medical men in attendance—very much like the effects of
chloroform. Others suffered in a state between Classes 2 and 3. Adams and
Wilson (who first went in where the dead bodies were, "and who stated that
their candles burned brightly and clearly, thus proving that it was not
carbonic acid gas given off by the men themselves,") also Humble and Hall,
viewers, who followed them, suffered very much; and Mr. Humble stated, if he
had not been assisted he must have dropped there. None of them were
completely insensible.
I will now give the appearances of the bodies as they were brought to bank ;
but as no post-mortem examination was ordered by the Coroner, the
examination was only superficial. For clearness, I shall divide them into
different classes.
The first class did not present any unusual appearance; bodies flaccid; face
and lips pale, as well as the whole cutaneous surface; eyelids open in a few
instances, but generally closed ; sunk in the orbit; cornea opaque and soft.
About twenty bodies were in this class, and were easily recognised.
In the second class (comprising by far the greatest number) the bodies were
slightly swollen and relaxed, the arms and fingers bent and rigid, the skin
of the palm of the hand soddened as if immersed in water, and the eyes sunk
and dim. In various parts of the body the skin presented patches of a bright
appearance, occasionally intermingled with streaks of a paler colour. In
some instances a bloody fluid, of a bright red colour, oozed from the mouth
and nostrils, and I may observe that the men noticed this down the pit. Many
of these bodies were recognised with difficulty.
In the third class the head and face were greatly swollen, the features
distorted, &c. ; fluid from the mouth dark and red ; eyes prominent and
somewhat reddened ; abdomen much distended with gas, &c.; strong odours from
the bodies; patches of a red colour observed on various parts. This class
embraced but a small number, and they were found near the furnace; the skin
of two of the bodies was charred in several places.
As there was not any of the gas taken for analysis, and none of the bodies
examined, we can only come to a conclusion as to what the gas was from its
general character, its effects on the men, candles, &c.; and these combined
point to
15
carbonic oxide gas as the cause of the death of the men. To account for the
different appearances of the bodies, their position and the part of the mine
where they were found must be taken into account, as some parts were much
hotter than others.
I have to express my obligations to Messrs. MAlister, Lambert, and Weddell,
for assisting me from their notes in giving the symptoms, &c. I desire also
to thank you on behalf of my medical brethren for your kind observations on
our conduct in connexion with the melancholy accident.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
A. Davison, L.R.C.S. Ed. Hastings Cottage, Seaton Delaval,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, March, 1862.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 6, 1862, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NICHOLAS WOOD, Esq., President op the Institute, in the Chair.
The President said, that at this meeting- it was intended to elect a
Vice-President in the place of the late Mr. Anderson; but no notice having
been given in the circular, they could not proceed to the election at this
meeting. It was thought, also, that although there was no specific rule on
the subject, they should proceed to the election by the nomination of
candidates. At the last annual meeting- there was an alteration made in the
rules, by which the election to the different offices was to be in future at
the annual meeting*, by nomination; but no provision was made for occasional
vacancies. The Council thought they should adhere to the rule laid down at
the annual meeting-, and that persons considered fitted for the office
should be nominated, and that the next meeting should be made special, for
the purpose of electing- a Vice-President. He would, therefore, propose, "
That the next meeting-, to be held on the 6th of December, be a special
meeting- for the election of a Vice-President. That the Secretary should
receive the names of persons nominated to that office up to the 20 th inst.,
and that no person be eligible unless his name has been sent to the
Secretary on or before that day." Gentlemen would thus have the opportunity
of considering- from the 6th to the 20th, how they intended to vote.
The motion, on being- seconded, was carried by a show of hands.
The President said, it would be in their recollection that there was a
committee appointed for the purpose of making- experiments of different Vol.
XII.—November, 1862.
c
18
kinds, with a view of elucidating the principles of ventilation, and called
the Experimental Committee. It consisted of the late Mr. Taylor, Mr.
Atkinson, and himself. By the death of Mr. Taylor, the committee was reduced
in number to two; and he thought it very desirable that other members should
be added to this committee. They very often had discussions on questions
which required further investigation j and it was, therefore, very
desirable, that they should be enabled to institute the requisite
experiments, in illustration of the different subjects which came before
them. With reference to himself, he was afraid he could not go down the pits
very often, but he would be very glad to give every assistance in his power,
and one of his sons (Mr. Lindsay Wood) would be glad to act as a deputy
under his instructions. He (the President) thought he would make a good
deputy, as he had been present at many of the experiments made at Hetton.
The committee ought, therefore,, to be increased in number; for although
they had not done much up to the present time, it would, he had no doubt,
turn out to be a very desirable committee. Mr. Daglish had been present at a
great many experiments with Mr. Atkinson, and he would propose that Mr.
Daglish be added to the number.
Mr. Atkinson said, he would propose, in addition, that the committee itself
have power to add to its numbers. He thought Mr. Lindsay Wood, Mr. Daglish,
and Mr. G. B. Forster very suitable persons to be added to the committee.
It was then resolved that the gentlemen named be added to the Experimental
Committee; that the committee have power to add to their number, and that
the instruments purchased for the Institute be placed at their disposal.
VISIT OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
The President said, he was glad to inform the meeting that the British
Association had resolved to hold their next meeting in Newcastle, and as
this Institute had been one of the parties who invited them, it was
incumbent on them to take such steps as would add to the success of the
meeting. There was a great deal to be seen in this neighbourhood, and it
would be, he was sure, a great pleasure to every person to aid in showing
what was to be seen in all matters connected with the coal trade. The
meeting of the Institute, which was held last year in Birmingham, was so
successful, that it was thought desirable to hold another aggregate meeting
in another place, and as the British Association had determined
19
to meet in Newcastle next year, they could not, he thought, do better than
hold the next aggregate meeting of the Institute, at the same place and
time. The Council had had the matter before them this morning. They thought
it very desirable that arrangements should now be made with reference to
such meeting, and that the subject should be brought before the present
general meeting. He believed Mr. Marley had some resolution to propose.
Mr. Marley said, the resolution which he wished to bring before the meeting
was this—" That the Council be requested, at a meeting to be specially
summoned for that purpose, to consider the steps proper to be taken on the
occasion of the meeting of the British Association, which is to be held in
Newcastle next year; and also with reference to a supplementary meeting of
the Institute, and other matters."
Mr. Crone seconded the motion, which was carried unanimously.
DISCUSSION ON MESSRS. ATKINSON AND COULSON'S PAPER ON CLOSE-TOPPED TUBBING.
The President said, Mr. Coulson was not present, and he wished to know if
they should go on with the discussion in his absence, as Mr. Atkinson was
present.
Mr. Atkinson—I think so.
The President asked if he had any further communication to make ?
Mr. Atkinson said, he had reason to believe, from a letter he had received
in reference to the Castle Eden Old Colliery, that Mr. Coulson had made some
mistake in stating the depths—matters with which he thought Mr. Coulson had
trusted his memory too much. It did not affect the general principle of the
paper; but still such mistakes ought to be corrected. At page 12, near the
bottom, it is stated—"After about seventy fathoms of tubbing had been put
into the shaft, the wedging curb, at the bottom of which, was about twenty
fathoms above the bottom of the limestone." Mr. Armstrong, who has charge of
the colliery, alleged that there was a mistake here, and that instead of "
seventy fathoms" it ought to be " forty-nine fathoms." There appeared to be
another mistake at page 14. It was in allusion to the Castle Eden New
Winning. The paper states that "in the fourteen feet shaft, the first water
was met with at the depth of sixteen fathoms from the surface, being about
two fathoms below the top of the limestone." Instead of which, Mr. Armstrong
stated that it was thirty fathoms from the surface to the top of the marl.
He (Mr. Atkinson) had no doubt that Mr. Armstrong's statement was correct.
20
The President said, they might, of course, rely on Mr. Armstrong's
information being- correct, as he was the viewer of the colliery. It was
unfortunate that Mr. Coulson was not present; but they must hereafter give
him an opportunity of explaining.
Mr. Spencer called attention to a statement at page 17. He had been told
that the valve referred to as being at the top of discharge pipe was in
reality at the bottom; and therefore the pressure would be 88-41bs. instead
of 1231bs.
Mr. Atkinson said, he had got his information relative to the Hart-bushes or
South Wingate Colliery, partly from James Coxon, master sinker, and partly
from Mr. Martin Seymour. He believed his information was correct, but as Mr.
Spencer suggested a doubt, he would communicate with these gentlemen.
Mr. Spencer—Not if the valve were placed between the bend of the pipe and
the tubbing.
The President said, it was quite clear they would have to return to the
subject again. It was desirable to have these inaccuracies pointed out.
Mr. M. Dunn asked Mr. Atkinson to state the general position of the pipe.
Mr. Atkinson said, there was a pipe put through the tubbing—underneath the
wedging curb; and then the pipe came out horizontally and went up vertically
j but instead of carrying it to the water surface, it was only carried so
far up the shaft. Then they put the valve in this pipe, and load the valve.
The President—Which valve is loaded equal to the column of water.
Mr. Atkinson—There was thirteen fathoms more than the water pressure, and
yet it blew off. Suppose it were fifty fathoms below the water, they loaded
it to sixty-three fathoms, and yet, though there was an excess of thirteen
fathoms, it blew off; showing that there was extra pressure generated beyond
the mere pressure due to the height. The top of the tubbing was open, but
there were curbs below which rendered the low portion close topped. The curb
at the top and at the bottom of the tier of tub rendered it close topped. It
was a very peculiar thing. He had recorded it in this paper—showing that the
actual depth of water was not the measure in all cases of the pressure.
President—In this case they allowed thirteen fathoms; but notwithstanding
that allowance there was a discharge, which, of course, required more
pressure still. If they had loaded it equal to twenty fathoms of water
extra, there would have been no discharge.
21
Mr. Hall asked if there was gas.
Mr. Atkinson said, he expected it was altogether due to gas. There was
another case in Prussia where some water was from a top feeder, and after
that they got a fresh set of feeders. On bringing the low feeder pipe past
the upper feeder, and right up to the top of the shaft, it discharges water
to supply the engine boilers. So that the low feeder was actually of greater
pressure than is due to the mere pressure of the water; because it rises and
discharges itself above the level of the highest feeder in the shaft.
The President said, it appeared that, in the first place, they could detect
one feeder from another; and when there was a succession of feeders in a
pit, it did not necessarily follow that they had a common head, or a
connection with each other. They might be, in fact, detached feeders; and
this agreed with his experience in the sinking of the Seaton Pit, the
details of which he had given in one of the volumes of the " Transactions."
It was quite clear that there were in that sinking separate and detached
feeders in the limestone, and that you could tub off a feeder of water, and
so sink below that, and separate the next feeder from the superior one, and
so on with each feeder. Supposing this to be the fact, it was quite clear
there might be different pressures at all the different feeders, and that
the height to which the water of one feeder would rise, would be no
criterion how high the water of another feeder would rise, because they
might have different sources, and they would rise to a level equal to the
sources from which they came. But, independently of this, he thought every
gentleman who had had experience in the sinking of pits where there was
water, and where the water was tubbed off, knew that any gas in connection
with the water produced a greater alternating pressure than if it was simply
water; and pipes are put in with a view of discharging the gas. The great
pressure of water acting on the elastic gas will, of course, press it more
at one time than another. Assuming that the gas and the pressure of water
are, at one time, in a state of equilibrium; then the pressure of the gas
predominates, and overcomes the pressure of the water, and forces it out of
the pipe by a sort of water blast. If there was no pipe to let this gas off,
the gas would probably force the tubbing out. The object of these pipes is
to let the gas off quietly. It is impossible that the elastic gas and the
compressed water can be perfectly quiet, and, therefore, when the gas is
compressed greater than the surface of the water, the gas will come off with
more or less violence. The gas throws the water off with a much greater
force than is due to the simple depth of the water.
22
Mr. Atkinson said, there was only one thing- he had found it difficult, on
the principle alluded to, to account for. Though many cases had come under
his own knowledge and observation, where they might have a higher pressure
than was due to the water they had encountered, he had not been acquainted
with a single case where they had a lower pressure.
Mr. Daglish reminded Mr. Atkinson that there was such a case mentioned in
his own paper. There were two feeders, and the water of the lower feeder did
not rise up to the higher feeder. That was at page 16.
Mr. Atkinson said, that was quite right. One was the surface or alluvial
water, and the other was water below the surface. He was not alluding to a
case of that kind.
The President said, it was quite clear that the feeders of water in the
alluvial deposit could have no connection with the feeders of water in the
limestone. The limestone feeders would have each their respective heads or
levels, and the water would run off at those levels.
Mr. Atkinson—It was like the fly in amber. Where did the lower feeder come
from ? If there was a feeder in the sand before they came to the limestone,
it must be surface water.
The President—You may have layers of clay which would separate the sand
feeders from the limestone feeders.
Mr. Daglish—I think all the feeders met with, and called limestone feeders,
are surface feeders.
The President—At some place or other, but they are not necessarily connected
with the alluvial feeders. If the limestone rises to the surface four or
five miles off, the surface may be at a very different level.
Mr. Reid—I am well aware of the case in Westphalia, referred to at the
bottom of page 16. It is like the artesian wells in the chalk formation, and
the effect is simply due to the height to which the chalk rises. It overlies
all the strata in that district. I once attempted to wedge back both gas and
water in the Hutton seam at Pelton. We put balks in and props, and the props
were completely split by the pressure. (See Vol. III. of Institute's
"Transactions.")
The President said, he wondered Mr. Coulson had not given the case of the
shaft he (the President) was connected with in Westphalia. Wedging curbs
were there laid on sand, and a succession of those curbs resting on sand
were quite water-tight. There was a large feeder of water, and several
wedging curbs were laid down on the sand. Though the sand was so quick, when
wet, that a man standing upon it sunk into it, yet the wedging curbs laid on
the sand, stopped back the water. It was
23
found necessary, however, to have several wedging curbs, to form a perfect
foundation. One wedging curb would not do, but when three or four or more
were made to act together, though the material in which they were placed was
quicksand, they were made perfectly tight, and quite effectual in stopping
back water.
Mr. Dunn—There must be very little pressure.
The President thought it was fifty fathoms. He held it was quite possible to
tub back water, though they had a very indifferent foundation, by successive
wedging curbs, in sinking through the magnesian limestone. If they put in a
wedging curb, it stopped part of the water, and part of the water escaped
through the fissures; if they put in another below, the fissures might not
go through the strata to the next curb in succession, and so the two might
form a perfect curb.
Mr. Reid said this was a species of green sand. He had a specimen of it,
which was very curious.
The President—At the Seaton Pit they had 3000 gallons a minute, and when
they detached these feeders by successive curbs they never had more than 500
gallons, so they got through the sand with a very small engine. He was in
great hopes they would have had some account of the sinking of Ryhope
Colliery, and he still hoped Mr. Taylor would give them some account of it.
Mr. Atkinson—At Ludworth Pit, he thought they put in five or six wedging
curbs. There the water was sometimes about 1000 gallons per minute. The
curbs often reduced it to about 100 gallons per minute, and they got through
with comparative ease.
The President—All this proved that if they had a succession of layers of
rock, they would meet, between these layers of rock, with distinct and
separate feeders; and that, in sinking in such a case, they might separate
them, so as never to have the aggregate quantity of water due to the whole
bed at one time.
Mr. Dunn—That was the case in sinking Harton Pit.
The President—That was an extraordinary case. There was a fissure all the
way through the strata for upwards of eighty fathoms, which made a
connection between one bed and another. That pit was an instance of the
extreme length of the sinking set. The sinking set in Harton Pit was
seventy-nine fathoms before they got the wedging curb laid down, in
consequence of the fissure.
Mr. Spencer said, there was a remarkable case mentioned at the bottom of
page 14. The inflammable gas came through the wedging
24
throughout the whole length of the tubbing. This seemed remarkable. If it
had come out at the top, he could have understood it.
Mr. Atkinson said, it struck him as appearing to be contrary to nature, and
yet he had no reason to doubt the statement.
Mr. Dunn said, the question was, had gas greater power than corresponded
with a column of water ? There was an instance at Hebburn Pit where they had
a pipe at the bottom of the tub intended to relieve the gas. At a certain
stage they took the pipe up, and the tub was immediately broken.
The President—At Harton it was assumed that there was a connection from the
top to the bottom of the feeder. Any gas in the water behind that tubbing
would produce all the effects there stated.
Mr. Atkinson—Yes, provided the tubbing was free behind. Behind the tubbing
must have been void of water. It seemed peculiar that the water should not
settle to the bottom of the tubbing.
The President—The gas was discharged with the water ?
Mr. Spencer—The gas and not the water came. It ignited. There must have been
a film of gas keeping back the water.
The President—It was quite possible the gas might be discharged and not the
water. The gas might be discharged and the water not discharged.
Mr. Spencer—There must either have been no water behind the tubbing, or else
a body of gas.
The President—The only question was, whether gas, mixed with water, could
separate itself, and come out at a small orifice. He thought the very fact
that the gas was coming out at a very small orifice, and when the taps were
shut off it broke the tub, was a proof that there was a considerable
pressure upon it.
Mr. Reid said, there was a case in point in which they attempted, at Pelton,
to wedge off gas and water in this way. The props put in at the top of the
balks were split up like matchwood. They blamed the gas for doing this.
(See Vol. III. of Institute's "Transactions.")
Mr. T. Y. Hall said, that confirmed the President's views on the matter. At
the Towneley Colliery, water blasts with gas frequently occurred when the
main engine was stopped for a few hours. The gas was brought through water
in the old workings (lying to the dip), and thence into the bottom of the
Emma Pit " sump;" and when the water was allowed to rise a few fathoms, the
gas accumulated in the sump under it, and caused such pressure in a few
hours time as to lift several
25
fathoms of water a considerable way up the shaft, and expand itself. In Vol.
II., page 16, of the Institute's "Transactions," he had narrated a case of
the like nature occurring through the accumulation of gas in a drift between
two pits. The pressure of the gas lifted the water up 120 feet to the top of
the smaller pit, when the water expanded, and the gas got vent.
The discussion was then adjourned.
DESTRUCTIVE ACTION OF FURNACE GASES.
A discussion then took place on Mr. Daglish's paper "On the Destructive
Action of Furnace Gases in Upcast Shafts."
Mr. Daglish asked Mr. Johnson if they were not at present repairing Shotton
shafts, and if so he would be able to say something of the damage done to
the stone.
Mr. Johnson said they were busy repairing the shafts, but he had not yet
read Mr. Daglish's paper.
The President said, it appeared that furnaces were worked now to a much
higher temperature than they used to be, and the sulphur of the coal burnt
in the furnace had a powerful effect in decomposing the stone. It was
natural that it should. Almost all the stone of the coal formation was
cemented with iron. The particles of stone being cemented by iron, it was
quite clear that sulphur, absorbed by water heated to such a heat as 200 or
300 degrees or more of temperature, would produce sulphurous acid; this
would operate on the particles composing the cement of the stone, and so
decompose it. The result would be that it would be no longer stone but sand.
The whole of the stone in the Hetton pits has crumbled away and become sand,
and it has been replaced by fire-bricks.
Mr. Dunn said, they were repairing the stone work at Monkwearmouth with
stone in preference to fire-brick.
The President—If they could get stone where there was no iron in the cement
of the stone, it might not be so injurious; but he did not know where they
would get it in the county of Durham.
Mr. Johnson said, the stone in Haswell Pit had crumbled to sand. He had put
stones near the furnace for three or four days to see how it stood. The
furnace was heated to 370 degrees, and the stone was decomposing fast.
They were now repairing it with fire-brick.
The President—At Coxgreen the stone is not so much affected by the
sulphurous acid. Pensher is the same. Some of the walling stone Vol.
XII.—November, 1862.
d
26
of these quarries is more compact, and has less of the iron in the cement,
but none of it is free from iron.
Mr. Hall said, that while he was at North Hetton Colliery, and sinking the
Moorsley new pit there, in 1827, he had all the stone quarries for six or
eight miles in the locality examined, to find good hard stone, suitable for
pit shafts, but all appeared too soft, and he had to send to a greater
distance than Coxgreen. Lord Durham's park wall, from a Bridge across the
River Wear, near to Chester-le-Street, for half-a-mile, to Houghton Gate,
showed a good specimen of the softness of the stone from quarries in that
district, and it was the inspection of this wall that led him to examine the
quarries in the neighbourhood.
Mr. Daglish—At the time when that examination was made the heat of the
upcast shafts was not great, so that the walling stones were not subjected
to much chemical action.
Mr. Dunn—Many years ago the Coxgreen stone was taken to Glasgow to make pots
for the glass works.
The President—There is a great deal of mica in the cement of part of the
stone of Coxgreen, which operates to counteract the expansion of the other
materials. The stone might be a good fire stone if it was subject to heat
perfectly dry; but here it was used in shafts with water heated to a high
temperature, which produced sulphurous acid. Mr. Spencer—Stone with lime is
equally bad. Mr. Dunn—Sandstone in the coal measures does not contain lime.
Mr. Johnson—There is stone at Bedlington that does not crumble
with heat.
The President—That is stone near the lower measures—near the low main coal
seam, which is more compact in its structure.
Mr. Spencer said, he would like to ask Mr. Daglish what was the best way of
securing the tubbing from the effects of the action of smoke and water. Did
he consider it better to build it in the segments, or build it in front,
unconnected with the segments 1
Mr. Daglish said, there was an objection to building fire-clay lumps in
front of the tubbing. It was difficult to get at the tubbing to repair
leakage. If they turned the flanges of the segments inside, and filled them
up either with cement or fire-brick, they could always get at the joints to
wedge them up again.
Mr. Johnson said, he had felt that difficulty. They were going to fill the
joints of the projection with fire-brick from the difficulty of getting to
the tubs when covered in the other way.
27
Mr. Spencer—You will cover the joints with cement ?
Mr. Dunn—They were putting in the tubbing at Monkwearmouth steeped in tar.
The President suspected very much whether heating the tubbing and steeping
it in tar was sufficient.
Mr. Dunn—That was only the exterior.
The President said, they did that to the Tyne Main Tubbing, some years ago,
and the result was that the surface still shelled off. It only sunk into the
surface : the tubbing wasted.
Mr. Atkinson said, it had sometimes struck him whether an earthenware
enamel, such as was used for preserving pans, might not be applied to
tubbing.
The President said, his son, Collingwood Wood, had suggested this to him in
the spring of this year, and had been in communication with some enamelled
hardware manufacturers on the subject, but the price quoted did not justify
the use of it, in the case in which he wished to use it.
Mr. Reid said, it was quite possible to get their cast iron coated with
enamel. A very thin coating would do.
The President—The only question was the cost.
VENTILATING FAN AT ELSECAR.
Mr. Atkinson said, he had no further remarks to make in addition to his
paper on this subject; but he might mention that, a few days ago, he was
trying a fan of a similar construction at Tursdale. They had an indicator,
by which they knew exactly the power applied, and they found there was
twenty-six per cent, of the power given out in producing ventilation, but,
unfortunately, thirteen per cent, of this was wasted by leaky brattice, so
that the effect was really only thirteen per cent., which was what he
calculated the Elsecar fan had been doing under other circumstances.
The President—You went to see the exhausting apparatus in use at the
Pneumatic Despatch Company's apparatus in London ?
Mr. Atkinson—Yes. Closing the tube of the Pneumatic Despatch Company's fan
there was fourteen inches of exhaustion. It struck him this would be an
excellent fan for the ventilation of mines.
Mr. Dunn asked for a description of the apparatus.
Mr. Atkinson—There were two sheet iron discs, one-twentieth of an inch
thick, and about twenty feet in diameter. There were vanes between the discs
all round, and the action was that of a common centrifugal fan.
28
It can be worked at a high velocity without fear of breaking. In the Elsecar
fan the side plates are parallel to each other; but in this fan they are
bulged out, like two saucers put together. There is another difference. The
Elsecar fan is heavy in its construction, but the other is so very light
that they can work it at four times the velocity with the same degree of
safety.
The President—The centrifugal power depends on the velocity. The velocity of
the outer edge of these discs must be enormous. He thought they were
twenty-four feet in diameter.
Mr. Atkinson—It makes 230 or 240 revolutions in a minute. They tried the
Elsecar fan up to seventy, but they durst not go any higher, it was so
heavily constructed as to be in danger of breaking.
Mr. Dunn—Did they drive it at full speed ?
Mr. Atkinson—The speed of the carriages is, I think, above twenty miles an
hour, through less than six feet area. They got nearly 30,000 feet per
minute of air.
Mr. Dunn—Would the Elsecar machine produce a better ventilation than a
well-built furnace in that pit ?
Mr. Atkinson—Certainly it does better than the furnace. The fan at Tursdale
is on the same principle, and manufactured at the same place. Their airways
are very limited in number. They had 36,000 feet, and they could not get
that at the furnace with a leaky brattice without danger of setting the
shaft on fire.
Mr. Spencer—Is it a patent ?
Mr. Atkinson—No. I think the Pneumatic Despatch Company's fan is superior to
the Elsecar fan. There is a fan on the Continent also, which I think is
superior to the Elsecar fan. With regard to the Pneumatic Despatch Company,
they are, I think erecting one to ventilate a colliery in Warwickshire.
It acts by exhaustion.
The President—At first the Pneumatic Company considered it necessary to have
an air-tight piston. They found this was an error. There is very little
leakage, though there is space left at the sides. There is now almost no
friction in the piston at all. It runs on rollers. It is required to be
pretty true, but though there is a little space round the piston, the
leakage is very trifling.
Mr. Atkinson—The piston is merely the end of the tub.
The President—It is important to do away with the friction.
Mr. Hall asked if it was necessary to have the tube or road on a level
plane.
Mr. Atkinson—No. They can overcome heavy gradients.
29
The President said, they must adjourn the discussion. It was incumbent on
them, as an Institute, to go on with the discussion at a future opportunity,
till they thoroughly exhausted the subject, and came to conclusions which
could not be subverted. He hoped that they would get a paper on the subject
of Machinery Ventilation shortly, which would bring the whole subject before
them.
Mr. Green read a supplementary paper on Coal Formations; after which the
meeting separated.
SUPPLEMENTAL EXTEACTS AND EEIAEKS
UPON THE
OEIGIN AND FOKIATION OP COAL.
By WILLIAM GREEN, Jun.
Having, among other authors, quoted McLaren as having arrived at the
conclusion that it would require 1000 years to produce a seam of coal one
yard thick, I have thought that it might be interesting to append his
calculation, and also those of some others bearing upon the same subject.
McLaren remarks that—" Neglecting the oxygen and hydrogen, it must have
required four tons of wood to yield the charcoal which we find in one ton of
coal. Taking 130 trees to an acre, each tree 2| tons; supposing the portion
that falls annually to be l-30th part, we have ten tons of wood annually per
acre, which yields two tons of charcoal, with the addition of bitumen,
forming two and a half tons of coal. Taking* a cubic yard of coal to weigh
one ton, an acre of coal three feet thick will contain 4840 tons; therefore
an acre of coal will equal the produce of 1940 acres, or must be the g-rowth
of 1940 years. If we suppose the vegetation, like that of a tropical
climate, to be twice as rapid as I have assumed, we shall require 1000 years
to form a bed of coal one yard thick."
As Mr. McLaren has overstated the weight of a cubic yard of coal, we must
assume, upon his own calculation, that a seam of coal a yard thick will have
required considerably more than 1000 years for its formation.
Dr. Percy, in his work upon metallurgy, states that Chevandier has
calculated that a bed of coal (containing 85 per cent, of carbon),
corresponding to the annual growth of the forests on the western slope of
the Vosges mountains, would have an average thickness of 0-006496 parts of
32
an inch, which, multiplied by 1000 years, would give the thickness of the
seam produced in that time at 6*4960 inches.
Liebig, in his Agricultural Chemistry, remarks—" A Hessian acre, or 26,910
square feet of English measure, produces annually 2650 lbs. of firs, pines,
beeches, &c. In forest land, with an average soil, 100 parts of dry fir wood
contains thirty-six parts of carbon; therefore 2650 lbs. contain 1007 lbs.
of carbon, equal to 1630 lbs. per English acre."
Upon this data, a seam of coal, forty inches thick, producing 5000 tons of
coal (containing eighty-five per cent, of carbon) per acre, would require
5840 years for its formation, being at the rate of 6'84 inches per
1000 years.
Mr. George Tate, of Alnwick, in his notice of the coal of North
Northumberland, remarks, " that Humboldt calculates that the carbon produced
by the trees of the temperate zone, growing over a certain area, would not,
in 100 years, form a stratum of more than 7-12ths of an inch
in thickness."
In 1000 years this would equal 5-83 inches.
In observing that the calculations of Chevandier, Liebig, and Humboldt
closely approximate, it must be borne in mind that they all refer to the
production of carbon under the temperate zone. Supposing it to be doubled in
a tropical climate, such as we suppose existed at the time the carboniferous
forests flourished, we shall arrive at the conclusion that a seam of coal,
one foot in thickness, was nearer the produce of 1000 years, than a yard,
according to McLaren's calculation.
The late Mr. Thomas John Taylor, in his paper upon the Archeeology of the
Coal Trade, observes—" It has been calculated that a ton of coal yearly is
equal to the produce of at least four acres of growing wood, supposing the
wood fit for cutting as fuel every sixteen years. 12,000,000 tons of coal
per annum are, therefore, equal to the produce of 48,000,000 acres of wood.
The surface of Great Britain is only 56,500,000 acres."
Were any other argument than the vast time required for the production of
our coal-fields required to impress upon us the grandeur of this formation,
the immense extent of some of the existing coal-fields would supply it.
Ansted states that the " Alleghany coal-field measures 750 miles in length,
with a mean breadth of eighty-five miles. Its whole area is estimated at not
less than 65,000 square miles, or upwards of 40,000,000 of acres." The same
author further says, that in Pennsylvania there is one bed of bituminous
coal traceable for 450 miles, its thickness varying from five to fourteen
feet.
33
In our own country we only meet with detached fragments of what, at one
time, had probably been no inconsiderable coal-field.
The theories upon the origin and deposit of coal are almost as various as
the writers upon the subject. One of the most original is that of Professor
H. Rogers, who has maintained, since 1840, the marine growth of coal. At the
meeting of the British Association, in September, 1861, he urged strongly
the enormous lateral diffusion of the coal forests as a confirmation of
these views. He also instanced the universal prevalence of salt and soda in
the coal deposits as additional evidence.
We have beds of shells closely resting upon the Bensham seam, as also upon
one of the seams at Prudhoe Colliery; but I think that we would scarcely
accept this as sufficient evidence that the seams below them had originally
been vast beds of seaweed.
When visiting the International Exhibition, I was struck with the
resemblance to coal of some pieces of compressed peat there exhibited, and
since then I have met with the following section of a bank in the Bog of
Allan, in Ireland, as published in the Rural Cyclopaedia, which is
interesting, from the lowest part of the bog being described as approaching
to coal.
Ft. In.
Dark reddish brown mass compact; no fibres of moss visible;
surf ace of bog decomposed by the atmosphere ............... 2 0
Light reddish brown ; fibres of moss very perfect.................. 3 0
Pale yellowish brown ; fibres of moss very perceptible............ 5 0
Deep reddish brown ; fibres of moss perceptible..................... 8 6
Blackish brown ; fibres of moss scarcely perceptible ; contains
numerous twigs and small branches of birch, alder, and fir 3 0 Dull
yellowish brown ; fibres not visible ; contains much em-
pyreumatic oil; mass compact .................................... 3 0
Blackish brown ; mass compact; fibres not visible ; contains
much empyreumatic oil .............................................10 0
Black mass, very compact; has a strong resemblance of pitch
or coal; fracture conchoidal in every direction, and lustre
shining.....................................................................
4 0
Marl, contains 64 per cent, of carbonate of lime..................... 3 0
Blue
clay........................................................................
4 0
Clay, mixed with limestone gravel; depth unknown. It will be observed, that
below the " black mass," resembling pitch or coal, we do not find fire-clay,
which usually forms the thills of the
coal seams.
The Commissioners on the Bogs of Ireland report that turf, mechanically
compressed, possesses a calorific power little inferior to coal, and, when
carbonized, it yields about thirty per cent, of fine coherent coke, of
greater density than that of wood charcoal. On the other hand, in a paper
upon Peat Fuel, which appeared in the " Mining Journal" recently, it was
stated that air-dried peat does not leave any useful coke.
Vol. XII.—Novbmbeb, 1862.
e
34
By the same paper it would appear that a ton of best dried peat, properly
treated, will produce 13,000 cubic feet of gas, whereas our best gas coals
only produce 9700 cubic feet.
In conclusion, I would correct a passage in the former part of this paper,
on the first page, which, to prevent my being misunderstood, should read,
"This I dispute, but I question its commonly accepted chronology," the words
"commonly accepted" being inserted.
SUGGESTIONS FOE THE ENLAEGEMENT OF THE SPHEEE AND OBJECTS OE THE MINING
INSTITUTE.
By WILLIAM GREEN, Jun.
It is, doubtless, the desire of every member connected with this Institution
to promote its interests, and extend its sphere of usefulness. I therefore
venture to lay before them, for consideration, some suggestions, the
carrying out of which, I think, would be attended with great advantage and
benefit.
We have had a large number of valuable and practical papers before us, but
with great diffidence I would submit that the consideration of these papers
should not be the limit of this Society's operations.
I would, therefore, suggest that this Institute become the Mining Record
Office of the Northern Coal-field. That members be invited to contribute
every description of documents and plans, ancient and modern, relating to
our profession, and that the archives of this body become the depository of
all our available information; in fact, of the concentrated lore, wisdom,
and experience of the Coal Trade; that here our junior members may speedily
obtain that information which too frequently has taken elder members, less
privileged, a lifetime to acquire.
I believe that no branch of industry contains more interesting and valuable
records; and it is a lamentable fact that, through the narrow-mindedness of
many in our profession, the information they have acquired during their
lifetime, and their papers at their death, are equally lost to their
professional brethren. At the present time, how many valuable documents left
by the old viewers are mouldering away in the possession of their
representatives, which could be easily obtained by asking for, or by
purchase. Were it generally known that the Institute collected and valued
these plans, reports, borings, &c, many would be given, many be left to it
by bequest. It would devolve upon the Secretary, with the aid of the
Committee, to select and arrange these acquisitions in the most available
form.
36
Gifts of books, also, relating to the Coal Trade, and those branches of
science connected with a mining engineer's education, it would be desirable
to encourage.
A Record Office is attached to the Jermyn Street School of Mines, in London,
but how much more useful for this district, at least, would one be, attached
to our own Institution.
A place of deposit for the Mining Records of the district is no new idea,
and I think I shall be pardoned in here introducing an extract from a paper
on the subject, read by the late Mr. Buddie, in 1838, suggesting the making
of the Natural History Society a deposit for these records.
" So long ago as the year 1797, the idea of preserving Colliery Records was
suggested by the late Mr. Thomas, of Denton, and the subject was again
brought forward by my late friend, Mr. Wm. Chapman, C.E., in 1815. But on
both occasions the laudable endeavours of these respectable individuals to
excite due attention to this important subject proved abortive.
"This may be chiefly, if not wholly, attributable to the want of a suitable
place in which to collect and deposit the requisite information and
documents for effecting so desirable an object. An abundance of materials
for forming an accurate history of the working of our coal mines, from the
earliest period down to the present time, is to be found in the hands of
individuals, but it is so detached and scattered as hardly to be available
for any practical or useful purpose; and the object I have in view in
addressing this paper to the Society, is to point the attention of those who
may feel an interest in promoting a collection of plans and reports of all
those collieries which have been exhausted, wholly or partially, so as, in
the course of time, to form an extensive and useful collection of authentic
information for the guidance of posterity. In this I do not contemplate the
submitting of these documents to the unrestrained inspection of the public,
but that they should be under the care of the Committee for the time being;
and that it should be at the discretion of the Committee to permit
inspection, or copies to be taken. The information to be embraced in those
records would probably be most conveniently, for the sake of reference,
placed under the following heads:— "1. The name of the proprietor of the
surface and minerals. " 2. Locality and extent of the property.
" 3. The number and description of the seams of coal and other minerals
which it contains.
" 4. The thickness and quality of the several seams of coal; which of
37
them have been worked; to what extent they have been worked; and why the
working of any of them has been discontinued or not commenced.
" 5. The winning of the colliery.
" 6. The system of working.
" 7. The dip and rise of the colliery, and description of the several slip
dykes.
" 8. Accidents by explosion.
" 9. What other accidents have happened in the colliery, with their causes.
" 10. The system of ventilation practised.
" 11. General observations."
Unfortunately, Mr. Buddie does not appear to have succeeded any better than
Messrs. Thomas and Chapman; but the causes which thwarted their praiseworthy
endeavours may now be said to exist no longer. Here is a Society, whose
peculiar province and endeavour should be to collect and preserve all
records relating to the Coal Trade.
A second suggestion I would bring forward, viz., that following the example
of various societies in this district, we should have geological field days,
under the guidance of some professional geologist, mineralogist, or well
qualified member, such field meeting to embrace the visiting of such
collieries and mines as may be thrown open to the Institute. These
excursions might be supplemented, so far as the funds of the Society would
admit, by occasional lectures upon mining, geology, mineralogy, and such
kindred sciences as are applicable to our profession.
In conclusion, I would suggest that the members be encouraged to bring
forward what may be termed the ana of our profession, such as the results of
any observations and experiments they may have made; items of practical
experience, which they do not deem worthy of an elaborate paper, such, for
instance, as I append.
RESULTS OF AN EXPERIMENT MADE AT FRAMWELLGATE COLLIERY, TO ASCERTAIN THE
COMPARATIVE PRESERVING POWER OF COAL TAR AND QUICK LIME UPON UNDERGROUND
TIMBER, AS COMPARED WITH EACH OTHER, AND WITH NON-PREPARED TIMBER.
On September 29, 1849, three larch tramway sleepers, each three feet long,
two and a quarter inches thick, and five inches wide, were selected and
placed in the return air-course of the Hutton seam.
No. 1 sleeper was prepared by receiving two coats of quick lime.
No. 2 ditto ditto ditto coal
tar.
38
No. 3 sleeper was unprepared, or in its natural state.
The three sleepers were supported at their ends by small pillars of bricks,
and weighted in the middle with 56 lbs. of metal.
Upon January 6, 1852, the unprepared sleeper was found broken, and quite
decayed.
Upon November 1, 1854, the sleeper prepared with tar was found
broken and decayed; and
Upon December 23, 1856, the sleeper coated with lime was found in
like condition.
From the above, it appears that
No. 3, or the unprepared sleeper, broke after 2J years' exposure.
No. 2, or the tarred ditto, 5| ditto.
No. 1, or the limed ditto, 7\ ditto.
And that the sleeper prepared with tar had a duration of 2'84 years beyond
the unprepared one, while the whitewashed sleeper survived the same for five
years, and the tarred one for 2-16 years.
COMPARISON, IN WEIGHT, BETWEEN COKE MADE FROM WASHED AND UNWASHED COALS, AS
ASCERTAINED FROM THE LOADING OF TEN LARGE WAGGONS OF EACH DESCRIPTION, AT
FRAMWELL-GATE COLLIERY, MAY 9, 1857.
Coke from Washed Coals. From Unwashed Coals.
1 - - 73 cwts. - - 75 cwts.
2 - - 71 „ - - 76 „
3 - - 69 „ - - 81 „
4 - - 70 „ - - 75 „
5 - - 73 „ - - 80 „
6 - - 75 „ - - 87 „
7 - - 66 „ - - 72 „
8 - - 74 „ - - 73 „
9 - - 72 „ - - 73 „ 10 - -
77 „ - - 73 „
720 cwts., or 36 tons. 765 cwts., or 33 tons 5 cwts. Showing the coke made
from the washed coals, bulk for bulk with that made from the unwashed coals,
to be 6-25 per cent, lighter.
As the comparative weight of coke made from washed coals is now rather an
important question, owing to its increasing manufacture and export, and from
the frequent disputes arising with shipowners as to its weight, it would be
desirable that further and more accurate experiments be made to determine
the point.
39
EXPERIMENTS MADE AT FRAMWELLGATE COLLIERY, UPON THE LONG WALL
WAY OF WORKING, IN 1850.
Yards Hours in Picks j Tubs Cost per kirved. kirving.
used. ; filled. yard. .. _
Cater House way, kirving in bottom coal ... 10 17 66
29 11£
Black Boy ditto, ditto ...... 8 13
41 24 11
Dryburn ditto, ditto ...... 8 10|
27 23 9
Cater House way, kirving in good coal...... 10 7J 11
31 5
Black Boy ditto, ditto ...... 8 5
5 23 4£
Dryburn ditto, ditto ...... 8
4§ 5 24 4
When kirving in the good coal, half the kirvings were filled. When the
kirving was made in the bottom coal, it took 12 6|-cwt. tubs to the chaldron
of 55 cwts. = 73*3 per cent. When the kirving was made in the good coal, it
took nearly 14 6|-cwt. tubs to the chaldron = 63*2 per cent. The average per
centage, when regular working, was 52*0 per cent.
The good coal varied from two feet ten inches to three feet one inch in
height; coarse and bottom coal from six to nine inches in thickness.
I need not remark that the hewer was a trustworthy and first-rate man. He
was paid 5s. per shift.
COMPARISON IN THE WEAR OF BUCKETS GRATHED WITH LEATHER AND WITH GUTTA
PERCHA, IN 1850.
The working barrel of the high set at Framwellgate Colliery is twenty-one
inches in diameter, and of the low set nineteen inches.
In both sets the buckets grathed with leather were found to last so short a
time, frequently not more than two or three weeks, that it was resolved to
substitute gutta percha for leather, when the following change in time of
going took place :—
The high bucket went from July 13 to Oct. 31, or 15 weeks 5 days.
Ditto ditto Oct. 31 to Feb. 16, or 15 weeks 3 days.
The low bucket ditto Feb. 28 to April 16, or 8 weeks 1 day.
Ditto ditto May 7 to Oct. 4, or 21 weeks 2 days.
Ditto ditto Oct. 4 to Feb. 16, or 19 weeks 2 days, and going.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 6, 1862, IN THE ROOMS OP THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
JOHN MARLEY, Esq., in the Chair.
Mr. John Daglish, in the absence of the Secretary, read the minutes of the
Council.
The following gentlemen were elected members of the Institute:— Mr. Augustus
H. Hunt, Birtley; Mr. Wm. Maddison, Coxlodge Colliery; Mr. J. Maddison,
Coxlodge Colliery; Mr. Wm. Jenkins, Mining Engineer, Glantal House,
Pont-yr-un, Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorganshire j and Mr. Edward Foley, Floyd
Field Colliery, Cradley Heath, Cradley, Stourbridge, Worcestershire.
The Chairman, referring to the minutes of the Council, called attention to
the recommendation contained therein, to the effect that the Institute
should subscribe £40 towards the expense of fitting up, in the rooms of the
Natural History Society, cases for the reception of the mineral and other
specimens belonging to the Institute. He called upon Mr. Berkley for any
explanations he might have to offer in reference to this recommendation.
Mr. Berkley said, a sub-committee of the Council had had an interview with a
deputation from the Natural History Society that morning, and ascertained
that the rooms were nearly ready for the cases which it was proposed to fit
up. The Natural History Society proposed to set apart a gallery in the
smaller room for the use of the Institute, and suggested that the Institute
should put up the whole of the casing required. The Hutton flora would
occupy one side of the gallery, and Vol. XII.—December, 18G2.
F
42
they had nearly as many specimens as would fill another. It was proposed
that the whole of the specimens should be labelled, so that if the Institute
chose at any time to withdraw them, they could do so. The Natural History
Society thought it would take about £60 or so to fit up the necessary
casing, and the Council thought that if the Institute paid two-thirds of
that amount it would do very well—the Natural History Society to find a
curator to take care of and exhibit the specimens. It was upon these grounds
that the Council recommended the Institute
to subscribe £40.
Mr. Potter asked if the casing would be the property of the Institute. Mr.
Berkley—No; it will belong to the Natural History Society. Mr. Potter—And
could not be removed afterwards ?
Mr. Berkley—No.
Mr. Ramsay—I believe we shall become members of the Natural
History Society.
The Chairman said, if he recollected the terms of the arrangement, the
members of the Institute would have free access to the Museum.
Mr. Berkley—I believe, also, that certain members of this body will have
power to vote at the meetings of the Natural History Society.
Mr. Potter—I think the placing of one or two members of our board upon the
Natural History Society's board would be satisfactory.
The Chairman suggested that, as soon as the rooms were ready, it would be
well if the terms of the agreement were recapitulated.
Mr. T. Y. Hall moved the confirmation of the minute of Council on the
subject, which, being seconded by Mr. Berkley, was carried unanimously.
The Chairman read a letter which had been received from Mr. W. Green, jun.,
stating that, as he was on the eve of starting on a professional journey to
North America, he would be unable to attend the adjourned discussion upon
his paper " On the Origin and Formation of Coal," which was set down for
this day, and therefore the discussion
was again postponed.
The meeting then proceeded to the election of a Vice-President in the room
of W. Anderson, Esq., deceased. In accordance with a previous resolution
adopted by the Institute, the names of gentlemen nominated for the office
had been left with the Secretary, who reported that the following members
had been duly put in nomination:—Hugh Taylor, Esq., Earsdon; E. P. Boyd,
Esq., Moor House, Durham ; John Taylor, Esq., Earsdon; George Elliot,
Esq., Houghton-le-Spring; Thomas
43
Sopwith, Esq., Allenheads; and William Armstrong, Esq., Wingate Grange.
Messrs. Crone and Southern having been appointed scrutineers, the votes were
taken, when it was found that Mr. Hugh Taylor had been elected almost
unanimously.
Mr. Peter Bourne, of Whitehaven, having, through Mr. T. E. Forster,
presented to the Institute a new self-extinguishing safety-lamp, it was
resolved, on the motion of Mr. Berkley, seconded by Mr. E. F. Boyd, " That
the thanks of the meeting be and are hereby given to Mr. Bourne
for his present."
In the absence of Mr. Coulson, the discussion on the paper read by that
gentleman and Mr. J. J. Atkinson on " Close-topped Tubbing," was postponed.
Mr. Atkinson, however, corrected an error which had found its way into the
paper, wherein it was stated that, in the tubbing of South Wingate Colliery,
the valve was fixed at the top of the pipe. This had been pointed out by Mr.
Spencer; but though the valve was not so fixed, that circumstance did not
alter the pressure, or in any way affect the statements and calculations.
This concluded the business of the meeting, and the members shortly
afterwards separated.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 5, 1863, IN THE ROOMS OP THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NICHOLAS "WOOD, Esq., President op the Institute, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of meetings of the Council, held on the 31st
January and to-day. The Council stated that they had received a letter from
the publisher of the "Transactions" of the Institute, stating that the
second volume was now out of print, and suggesting the propriety of
reprinting it. They had also had under consideration the desirability of
convening a special meeting of the Council, for the purpose of making
arrangements for the forthcoming visit of the British Association, and they
recommended that such a meeting should be held on the 14th inst. An
application had likewise been received from Mr. T. Y. Hall, for liberty to
reprint so much of the discussion of the 17th of July, 1862, as related to
his water gauge. The Council recommended that, under the circumstances, the
application be granted.
The President stated that, before going into the general business of the
meeting, he might mention that he had received a letter and plans from a
friend of his in Prussia, who had been in London during the Exhibition, and
had paid a visit to Hetton. He was not quite sure whether the plans were
intended for him personally, or for the Institute, but he would solve the
difficulty by making a present of them to the Institute. The parcel included
maps and plans of Prussia, and he thought they would be found to be very
interesting. They would probably pass a vote of thanks to the donor, Mr.
Schiller, for his valuable present. Vol. XII.—February, 1863.
g
46
With respect to the business of the meeting, the first matter mentioned in
the minutes was a letter from their publisher relative to the reprinting of
the second volume of the " Transactions."
After a short discussion it was agreed that it would be very desirable that
the Institute should be able to dispose of complete sets of the "
Transactions/' and that the publisher be instructed to reprint 200 copies of
Vol. II.
The President said, the next matter was as to the propriety of appointing a
special meeting on the 14th inst., to consider what should *
be done in reference to the visit of the British Association. It was
desirable that the Institute should follow up that which had been so
properly brought forward by the inhabitants of the town, and to make
arrangements for affording every facility in their power to the British
Association; and as it had been proposed by the Council to hold a meeting on
the 14th inst. to consider the subject, he presumed there would be no
objection to the proposition.
The recommendation on being put to the meeting, was carried
unanimously.
The following gentlemen were elected members of the Institute:— Mr. R. T.
Swallow, Pontop Colliery, Gateshead; Mr. William Oliver, Stanhope Burn
Office, Stanhope, Darlington; and Mr. It. W. Moody, West Staveley Colliery,
Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
[The President having to attend a meeting of county magistrates, in
reference to the rating of collieries, vacated the chair, which was taken by
Mr. Potter, one of the Vice-Presidents.]
EXPLANATIONS RELATIVE TO THE PAPER ON CLOSE-TOPPED TUBBING.
Mr. Atkinson stated that Mr. Coulson, on whose authority were made the
statements contained in that part of the paper on Close-topped Tubbing which
related to Castle Eden Colliery, and to Castle Eden second or attempted
winning, informed him that, having lost his memorandum book, he spoke
entirely from memory, and admitted that he might have made mistakes as to
some of the depths; but at the same time intimated that the general
principles intended to be illustrated by the paper were not affected by any
such errors as to mere depths.
Prom authentic sources, he found that the following corrections were
required to rectify the errors in question:—
47
As to Castle Eden Colliery. At page 12, Vol. XI. of the " Transactions"
27 lines from the top, for "ninety" read one hundred and five.
28 do. for " seventy" read forty-nine.
29 do. for " twenty" read three and a half. 35
do. for " seventy" read forty-nine.
As to Castle Eden second or attempted Winning.
At page 14, Vol. XI. of the " Transactions" Commencing at the top of the
page, for " In the fourteen feet shaft the first water was met with at the
depth of sixteen fathoms from the surface, being about two fathoms below the
top of the limestone. At the depth of forty-eight fathoms from the surface,
the first wedging curb was laid, and tubbing carried up from it to the
bottom of the walling, stopping all the water," read In the fourteen feet
shaft the first water (excepting a little which was .stopped by cement
walling) was met with about thirty fathoms from the surface, a little below
the top of the limestone marl. At the depth of forty-five fathoms from the
surface, a wedging curb was laid, stopping all the water; tubbing extended
upwards from this curb to the bottom of the walling.
ON THE VENTILATION OF PRUSSIAN MINES. A paper on the above subject having
been read by Mr. Atkinson, Mr. Potter said, if he understood Mr. Atkinson
right, the Government were desirous that that drift should be driven from C
to B (see diagram), was it to serve any other purpose than that of
ventilation ?
Mr. Atkinson said, he believed that the Government stipulated that that
drift should be made, and that it was to serve no other purpose than that of
ventilation. But, as his paper showed, it would be better and more safe to
send the air from the rise workings down the inclination of the coal seam,
and over the furnace, than to bring it along the proposed
drift.
Mr. Potter thought it might have been intended to afford a means
of escape in case of inundation.
Mr. Atkinson said, that was not so, so far as he knew; it was simply
intended to secure good ventilation. He had shown that the drift was a
mistake in that respect.
Mr. Dunn asked Mr. Atkinson to state off-hand what would be the effect of
placing the furnace at C ?
Mr. Atkinson said, the result would be that they would get only
48
60 fathoms of air column in the shaft instead of about 106 fathoms, andf of
course, the ventilation would be weaker in consequence.
Mr. Dunn—It would have so much less distance to travel.
Mr. Atkinson — Well, the difference between the base and the
other sides of a triangle is scarcely worth mentioning in such a case as
that.
Mr. Potter said, that the subject which Mr. Atkinson had introduced
in his paper was a very interesting one, and he seemed to have explained
the disadvantages of the drift ventilation in a very clear and satisfactory
manner.
Mr. Atkinson said, that he had seen more than one case in this country where
the results he had pointed out had actually followed the attempt to send the
return air along a drift of this nature. In one case that happened in this
coal-field, a long drift had been driven in the Wear main coal, to assist in
the ventilation of the Hutton seam; and after the doors were set open, the
smoke went into the drift in precisely the same way he had pointed out. It
was a result that had not always been anticipated perhaps; but he knew about
six cases where nearly similar results had occurred in practice.
Mr. Potter said, the subject was an exceedingly interesting one,, and the
Institute was much indebted to Mr. Atkinson for his paper.
ON A COAL-CUTTING MACHINE.
A paper on this subject, by Messrs. Daglish and L. Wood, was next read.
Mr. Dunn asked if Mr. Wood could give any information as to the capital and
cost of working ?
Mr. L. Wood said, it was a patent machine, and he was not aware if the
patentee had fixed upon any rate of royalty for working it.
Mr. Dunn asked what seam it was working in ?
Mr. G. B. Poster—It is a seam called the black shale seam, in the Leeds
district.
Mr. Southern—How far is the machine from the engine ?
Mr. L. Wood—The machine is about 800 yards from the bottom of the pit, and
the shaft is about seventy fathoms deep, making say 1000 yards altogether.
Mr. Potter—Does the compressed air go on both sides of the piston, or only
on one ?
Mr. L. Wood—On both sides. The pick is rather heavy.
49
Mr. Potter thought a small fly-wheel might have been introduced.
Mr. Porster said, a fly-wheel would add largely to the weight of the
machine, and in a narrow seam there might not be room for it.
Mr. Potter said, the machine seemed to be a useful one, and it was a very
desirable thing to lessen labour in mines.
Mr. T. Y. Hall expressed his opinion that the machine manufactured by
Messrs. Watson and Dixon, and tried at Broomhill Colliery, was equally
serviceable.
Mr. G. B. Porster said, the time occupied in cutting by Messrs. Watson and
Dixon's machine was double the time consumed by this machine. It took the
former six minutes to cut through.
Mr. Hall said, the parties had not the means to carry on the experiment, or
they might possibly have remedied all defects.
Mr. Potter said, that the machine which Mr. L.Wood had described was better
suited for the long wall system than for the narrow bords of this
coal-field.
Mr. Boyd asked if it had been applied to the upright system—to nicking—at
all.
Mr. L. Wood said, he believed it had, but he did not know with what result.
. Mr. T. Y. Hall said, the late Mr. Peace, agent for the Earl of Balcarres
and Crawford, gave a good deal of attention to the question of machinery,
and was, he believed, one of the first managers of coal mines to use a
cutting machine.
Mr. Potter—That was a kind of circular saw.
Mr. G. B. Porster said, the machine described by Mr. Wood was the nearest
approach to manual labour that he had yet seen.
Mr. L. Wood—And it is simple in the extreme. There is no machinery to keep
in order.
Mr. Potter asked if the inventor proposed to sell his patent, or to provide
the machine himself and charge for the use of it.
Mr. L. Wood said, he was not aware, but thought the latter course would
probably be followed.
Mr. Southern called attention to the length of the arm, which would prevent
the corners from being' wrought out. What was the length of the arm ?
Mr. L. Wood—Three feet four inches.
Mr. Southern—So that it would be more than a yard from the face before you
cut into the back kirving. It clearly was not applicable in a narrow bord.
50
Mr. G. B. Forstek said, he believed the machine was to he extensively
introduced in the Ince Hall Collieries, near Wigan, in a low seam, averaging
about two feet nine inches.
Mr. Southern said, it would be very useful there in saving the kirving.
Mr. Potter said, the Institute was much indebted to Mr. L. Wood for bringing
the subject forward. He thought if Mr. Wood could induce his friends to come
over to the north, it was very probable that the machine would be generally
introduced.
Mr. Atkinson—The cost of the machine is, I believe, very small.
Mr. G. B. Forster—£50 without the piping.
Mr. Dunn said, something of the kind had been tried at Broomhill.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, the Broomhill machine was a very different affair.
One great drawback in that machine was its weight; but this one weighed
scarcely anything.
Mr. Southern said, he understood the principal objection to the machine
tried at Broomhill was the formation of ice in the exhaust pipes.
Mr. T. Y. Hall said, that was so at first, but there was a projection in the
apparatus which he suggested should be cut off, and when that had been done,
the difficulty was in a great measure removed.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, the machine at Broomhill sometimes-stopped for
fifteen or twenty minutes, on account of the ice.
After some further conversation the subject dropped, and there being: no
other business on the programme, the meeting broke up.
REMARKS
AS TO THE
COMPABATIVE EFFICIENCY OF TWO MODES OF VENTILATING THE HIBEENIA COLLIEEY,
IN PEUSSIA.
JANUARY, 1863.
By JOHN J. ATKINSON.
The annexed sectional diagram, taken from the actual levels of the beds of
coal at the Hibernia Colliery, will serve to illustrate the general nature
of the two modes of ventilation to be compared with each other.
In the diagram, D is the top of the downcast shaft, and U the top of the
upcast shaft; A B is the seam of coal, the furnace being placed at A, the
bottom of the upcast shaft j C B is the proposed drift for the air to return
in from the summit level of the rise workings at B to the shaft at 0. The
depth of the upcast shaft from the surface U to the proposed return drift C
is 60 fathoms, or 360 feet; the further depth of the same shaft from the
return drift to the furnace being 46 fathoms, or 276 feet.
The question is, whether with the furnace at A, it will be better to bring
the return air from the rise workings to the shaft at the level C, 60
fathoms from the surface, by means of the proposed return drift B C, or, on
the other hand, to bring the return air from the rise workings down a return
coal drift, following the inclination of the seam, to and over the furnace
at A, and so up the upcast shaft.
In reference to this question it may easily be foreseen by those versed in
the management and ventilation of mines that the latter of the two modes
would result in the greatest amount of ventilation; but it may be desirable
to prove this to be the case; and since no temperatures, either for the
shafts or for the workings, are mentioned, in order to do so it
52
becomes necessary to construct general formula?, so that, by assuming
extreme cases of temperature, and working out the results, the correctness
of this assumption, in favor of the last of the two methods, may be made
apparent.
In order to do this, let t — temperature of the air in the downcast
shaft—average. Tx = do. do. in the lower part of the
upcast shaft, or from
A to C—average. Ta= do. do. in the upper part of the
upcast shaft, or from
C to TJ—average, tj. = do. do. in the intake to the
rise workings when the
air returns to the bottom of the shaft by
the slope coal drift, tjj = do. do. in the return from
the rise workings, in the
slope coal drift. t8 = do. do. in passing up the rise
workings from the
downcast shaft to the point B, when
returning by way of the proposed high
level drift from B to C. D =s 360 feet, the depth oi the upcast shaft from
the surface to the
proposed high level drift at C. d = 276 feet, the depth of the upcast shaft
from the proposed drift at C to the furnace at A. The difference of pressure
due to the columns of air in the downcast and upcast shafts respectively,
expressed in feet of air column of the density due to the temperature t, of
the air in the downcast shaft, will be, for that part of the shaft extending
from the surface U to the level of the proposed return drift 0. (See
"Transactions" of the Institute, pp. 91, 92, &c, Vol. III.)
D (. T«,--t \ ......................m
U59 + V And for the lower portion of the shaft, from C to A, the difference
of pressure will be
d ( Tl ~ t \ ......................(2)
\459 +TJ ^ '
or, together
D( T2-t\A/T1-t \ ..............,™
U59 + Tj ^ \459 + Tj W
But in the event of the proposed high level return drift not being used,
53
and the return air from the rise workings being brought down a coal drift
following the inclination of the seam, to and over the furnace, and thence
up the upcast shaft, there would be a pressure to overcome, operating
against the ventilating pressure, supposing the return or descending air to
have a somewhat higher temperature than the intake or ascending air, to the
amount represented by
d(4TC) .....................W
in feet of air column of the density due to t2; where d is the vertical
height of the extreme rise workings above the furnace, and is the same as
the vertical distance from C to the furnace at A; and the corresponding
height of air column of the density due to the temperature t will be
d ( ^ -~A\ (m + i\ (m
\459 + \) \459 4-tJ ..............K)
And hence, under the first mode of ventilating, that of bringing the return
air from the rise workings down a drift in the seam to the bottom of the
upcast shaft at A, the effective ventilating pressure in column of air of
the density suited to the temperature t of the downcast shaft, will be
expressed by
H&^y<s^y<ifh) (sm)......«
arising from combining expressions (3) and (5).
Having obtained an expression for the amount of ventilating pressure that
would operate on the rise workings, on the system of bringing the return air
down the slope of the seam, to and over the furnace, and thence up the
shaft, it remains now to find an expression for the amount of ventilating
pressure that would operate on the same or rise workings, on the supposition
that the furnace at A was only driven or fed by fresh air, or by a mixture
of fresh air and the return air from the dip workings, (or otherwise by such
return air alone), and that the return air from the rise workings was
conducted by means of the proposed drift from B to the shaft at the level C,
60 fathoms from the surface, and 46 fathoms above the furnace.
For the purpose of making the comparison between these two modes of
ventilating, it will be assumed that the prevailing shaft temperatures are
the same in the two cases; an assumption no doubt too favourable to the use
of the high level drift C B, for the following reasons:—
1st.—The fuel consumed, and, consequently, the heat given off by Vol.
XII—February, 1863.
h
54
the furnace, would be much lessened by taking- the rise district air into
the shaft by the proposed high level drift, as this air would no longer pass
over the furnace to assist in the combustion.
2nd.—The only part of the shaft which would operate in the production of
ventilation in the rise districts of workings, would be the part extending
from the level of the proposed return drift at C to the surface; and this
would be much cooler in proportion to the temperature of the lower part of
the shaft, arising from the influx of cold air from the rise workings
without having passed over the furnace; and as well as being cooler, this
part of the shaft would, of course, have the further disadvantage of being
much shorter than the whole shaft.
For these reasons, to assume equal temperatures in the upcast shaft, under
the two arrangements, is too favourable to the second mode, that of taking
the return air Into the shaft by the proposed drift C B.
Now although by this second mode the resistance of the lower part of the
upcast shaft to the passage of the return, air from the rise workings will
be avoided; yet, on the other hand, the i-esistance in the upper part of
that shaft will be enhanced by any fresh air that may be brought over the
furnace, in order to consume fuel, and so generate heat, in the absence of
the return air from the rise workings; and these two matters may perhaps
reasonably be allowed to stand against each other.
Allowing the shaft temperatures then to be the same in the two cases
(notwithstanding this being too favourable to the high level return), the
pressure operating on the rise way to produce ventilation under the second
of the two modes of ventilating-, that of using the proposed high level
drift as a return air-way, would arise from two distinct sources, and be as
follows:—
1st.—The pressure due to the difference of shaft columns, arising only from
that portion of the shaft extending from the level of the proposed drift at
C to the surface, would be (expressed in feet of air column of the density
due to the temperature t of the downcast shaft)
U59 + TJ w
the same as by the other mode of ventilation (1).
2nd.—The difference of density between the air in the lower part of the
downcast shaft, below the level of the drift at C, and the air
ascending-through the rise workings to the same level, would be a further
source of ventilating pressure, and for the purpose of this comparison it
would seem to be proper to assume the temperature of this ascending air t3,
to
55
be intermediate between the assumed intake and return temperatures, in the
same workings, under the other mode of ventilating- them; inasmuch as under
the mode now under consideration, the air would have to do its work as it
goes up, seeing- that it has no longer to descend; giving-
t3 = —g— s0 that the pressure from this source becomes
dfe\)......................^
(A+A _ t ]
or dJ----------------V ................(9)
459 + --J—
On the whole, therefore, the ventilating pressure operating on the rise
workings, when the high level return drift is employed, is expressed in air
column of the density clue to the temperature t of the air in the downcast
shaft by the sum of (?) and (9), or by
( ^ + ^ _ t )
n(Jl*-K\ , )__?______Id.................no)
\459 + T2y + V t + U
v )
We have, therefore, to ascertain whether the ventilating pressure
represented by expression (6), or that by (10), is of the greatest amount,
in order to find which is the most efficient mode of ventilation; and in
order to make the comparison, two series of prevailing temperatures will be
assumed—the one a very low, and the other a very high series. Let
1st Series. 2nd Series.
The downcast temperature t = 40° .... 65°
The upcast, lower portion T2 = 100° ___200°
The upcast, upper portion T2 = 90° .... 160°
The rise intake (to return again) ta = 50° .... 65° The
return from the rise district t2 = 55° .... 70° The depth of
the upper part of shaft D = 860 feet. Do. lower do. d
= 276 „
Now, by the first series of temperatures (6) becomes 360f-^"— ^ + 276(M_-40
\ 276/55-50V /459 + 40v
dbUU59 + 9o)+27b\m + iooJ -wb\m + 5o) V^gT^J
= 32-79 + 29-62 - 2-63 = 59-78 feet of air column, equivalent to the
ventilating pressure on the rise workings when the air is returned over the
furnace at the bottom of the upcast shaft, in air of the density due to. the
downcast temperature.
56
Adhering still to the first series of assumed temperatures, by (10) we have
I 50 + 55 _ i() \
mf*>fd«>) + \ _»__A 276
V459 + 90/ ) ._ 50 + 55 459 +------V
\ *** )
= 32-79 + 674 = 39-53 as the head or column of air, of the density due to
the temperature t of the downcast shaft, which, by the lower series of
temperatures, would operate in ventilating- the rise workings, if the air
from them was taken by the proposed high level drift to the shaft at the
level 0.
Prom these calculations, then, we see that the method of bringing the return
air from the rise workings, down the slope of the seam over the furnace, and
so into the shaft bottom at A, has an advantage in ventilating pressure over
the employment of the proposed high level drift, amounting to 5978 — 39-53.=
20-25 feet of air column of the density of downcast air; being an advantage
of
20-25 x 100 K1
""39"53"~" = 51perCeilt-supposing the first or lower series of assumed
temperatures to prevail. It remains to institute a similar comparison
between the two modes, at the higher temperatures assumed in the 2nd series.
Bv (6) we thus obtain , 160 _ 65 v ^00-^65 v , 70-65 s
/459 + 65v
860V459Ti6o) + ^ \m + 200 J 27b Km + m) \m + 70)
= 55'25 + 56-54 — 2 61 = 109-16 feet of air column of the density due to a
temperature of 65°, the assumed downcast temperature, as the pressure
operating in ventilating the rise workings when the air from them returns
down the slope of the coal over the furnace at A, and thence up the upcast
shaft.
Still adhering to the 2nd series of assumed temperatures, by (10) we have
(5^-66)
(459 + -T-)
= 55 25 + 1*31 = 56'56 feet of column of air of the density due to 65°, the
assumed temperature of the downcast shaft (in the second series of assumed
temperatures) as the effective pressure operating in ventilating* the rise
workings, on the principle of taking the return air from them
57
along the proposed high level drift to the shaft at the level of the point
C; showing, in this case, an advantage in ventilating pressure, in favour
of taking the return air down to the furnace at the bottom of the upcast
shaft, amounting to
109-16 - 56-56 = 52-60 feet of air column,
, 52-60 x 100 no
or oi -—37TT7,---- = 93 per cent.
56*55
Now, although these results show, at the lower series of temperatures, an
advantage of 51 per cent., and at the higher series an advantage of 93 per
cent., in the pressure ventilating the rise workings, as due to taking the
return air from them down the slope of the coal seam to and over the furnace
at the shaft bottom, over the mode of taking it along the proposed high
level drift to the shaft, yet the actual advantage, in quantity of air
circulated, will be much less than these per centages, as the quantity
increases only as the square root of the ventilating pressures putting the
air into circulation in the same air-ways, or in other air-ways of
equivalent resistance.
The quantities of air in a given time, that would be circulated by the two
suggested modes of ventilating, would be, for the first or lower series of
temperatures, in the proportion of
V100 to >/151 that is to say, of
100 to 123; and for the second or higher series of temperatures in the
proportion of
VlOO to VI93 that is to say, in the proportion of
100 to 139; showing that the advantage in quantity of air that would be put
in circulation, by bringing the return from the rise way to and over the
furnace at the bottom of the shaft, over taking the return to the shaft by
way of the high level drift, amounts to 23 per cent, for the first or lower
series of temperatures, and to 39 per cent, for the second or higher series
of temperatures.
But it seems to be altogether probable that in practice the gain in quantity
would, in each case, be very much greater than those just stated as being
due to the assumed temperatures, inasmuch as it appears to be almost certain
that in practice the average temperatures prevailing in the upper part of
the shaft, would be lower, in proportion to those prevailing in the lower
part of the shaft, than has been assumed, for the reasons previously
alleged.
58
The next matter for consideration is as follows:—Supposing each of the two
proposed returns, the one by the inclined coal drift leading- to the furnace
at the bottom of the upcast shaft, and the other by the proposed high level
drift, were in existence, and each of them were left open and unobstructed,
while the furnace was placed at the bottom of the upcast shaft, what would
be the general effect produced on the ventilation of the mine ?
In order to consider this question, we must either know or assume, not only
the relative temperatures but also the relative prevailing resistances in
the shafts, and the workings of the mine.
In the absence of positive data, as to these points, two separate and
differing assumptions will be made, and the matter considered in reference
to each.
In the first instance, it will be assumed that the united resistances
offered to the air by the two shafts is equal to one-half of the entire
resistances offered by the shafts and workings together.
In the second place, it will be assumed that the resistances offered by the
two shafts is equal to one-fourth of the entire resistance presented by the
shafts and workings together.
On each of these assumptions the result will be investigated, both on the
presumption of the lower series of temperatures prevailing, and also on that
of the higher series existing, making four cases in all.
In the first case, at the lower temperatures, we have seen that the
entire ventilating pressure, and, therefore, the total resistance amounts to
59*78 feet of air column of the density due to 40° of temperature• but
5978 by the first assumption one-half of this resistance, or —q— = 29*89
feet
of this pressure is expended in the two shafts; or say 14*945 feet in each,
shaft, and say 8*36 feet in the upper and 6*585 feet in the lower portion of
the upcast shaft. And taking the resistance in the return from the rise
workings (whether by the coal drift or by the proposed high, level stone
drift) to be equal to that in the intake to the rise workings, we. have for
Feet.
The resistance in the downcast shaft - 14*945
Do. in the intake to the rise workings - 14*945
Do. in the one return from do. - 14*945
Do. in the lower portion of the upcast shaft 6*585
Do. in the upper do. 8*360
Or as total frictional resistance - 59*78
59
The air on reaching the point B, at the summit of the rise workings, would
have the option of going* to the shaft, either by vvay of the inclined coal
drift, or by way of the level stone drift.
If it all went by way of the slope drift to the shaft bottom, it would, on
reaching the point C, in the upcast shaft, have encountered a resistance, in
passing from the point B, at the summit of the rise workings, of 21*53 feet
of air column* but since the pressure generated in the distance, owing to
the air in the lower portion of the upcast shaft, having a higher
temperature, and, consequently, a less density than that of the return,
would, be 276 ( —--------A ) ( -~x------zr= ) =21*57 feet of air column,
N459 + 100/ >¦ 459 + 55 / '
the air would continue to go by this coal drift return, and be joined by a
feeble current (due to an excess of pressure or tension of 21*57 — 21*53
= 0*04 feet of air column, prevailing at C in the upcast shaft, over that
prevailing at B at the summit level of the rise workings) of smoke and
air from the upcast shaft, which would heat the return by the coal drift,
till the balance was restored, and only a still more feeble current of hot
air eddied, so as to pass in by the high drift, and join the return from the
rise workings.
Again, still adhering to the lower series of temperatures, but now
assuming the shaft resistances only to amount to one-fourth of the
59*78 total resistances of the shafts and mine, or to —3— = 14*945 feet, or
; 4 '
say that such shaft offers a resistance of—^— = 7*4725 feet of air
column• and letting the resistance of the upper portion of the upcast shaft
above the level of the proposed drift at C, have a resistance of 4*1725 feet
and the lower portion one of 3*3 feet, we should have
Feet.
The resistance in the downcast shaft - 7*4725
Do. in the intake to the rise workings - 22*4175
Do. in the return from do. - - 22*4175
Do. in the lower portion of the upcast shaft - 3*3000
Do. in the upper do. do. - 4*1725
59*78
If h represent the proportion of air, (the whole quantity being taken at
unity) going by the high level drift, (1—h) will be the quantity going* by
lower or coal return, and under the conditions assumed we should have
60
22-4175 h2 = 25-7175 (1-h)2 - 21-57
An equation from which we find
h = -081, or say -08
and (1-h) = -919, or say -92,
indicating that 92 per cent, of the air would go hy the slope coal drift,
and that only 8 per cent, would return by the proposed stone drift, even
supposing that the temperature in the upper part of the upcast shaft to
remain as assumed.
Under the conditions assumed in this case, we therefore see that a small per
centage of the air would return hy the proposed high level drift, and that
no eddy of hot air and smoke from the upcast shaft would pass back into the
workings.
Now, taking the second or higher series of temperatures, and, in the first
instance, supposing the two shafts to present one-half of the entire
109-16 resistances, or —-— = 54*58 feet of air column of the density due to
a
54*58 temperature of 65°, and supposing each shaft to absorb —— = 27*29
feet of the column; the upper portion of the upcast taking 14*29 feet, and
the lower portion 13 feet, to overcome their respective resistances, we
should have
Peet.
The resistance of the downcast shaft - 27*29
Do. of the intake to the rise workings - 27*29 Do. of the return from rise
do. - - 27*29 Do. of the lower part of the upcast - 13*00
Do. of the upper part of do. - - 14*29
109*16
Under these conditions, the pressure generated by the lower part of the
upcast shaft, as opposed to the return from the rise workings, expressed in
column of air of the density due to a temperature of 65°, (the assumed
temperature of the downcast shaft) would be
mQ ( 200 - 70 \ /459 + 65\ M nQ , , , . . %76 I *Bn .
»a/^ ) ( 7£7T—«a ) = 53*93 feet of air column. \459 + 200/ \459 + 70/ But
we have seen that the pressure due to the resistances over the distance
representing the part where this pressure is generated, is 27*29 + 13 =
40*29 feet of air column, of a like temperature, so that the tension of the
upcast air at the point C, is, in this case, 53*93 — 40 29 = 13*64 feet more
than that of the air at the inner end of the proposed
61
high level drift, and hence, a portion of the air of the upcast column would
pass inwards, along the high level drift to the point B, and there rejoin
the main current of air ventilating the rise workings; and, in company with
it, pass down the inclined return in the seam of coal, to and again over the
furnace, and up the upcast shaft, forming an eddy and carrying the products
of combustion through the coal workings; and this eddy, having a force of
13*64 feet of air column, would be one of very serious amount.
Adhering still to the second or higher series of temperatures, and now
presuming that the shafts present only l-4th part of the whole
109*16 27*29
resistances, or —-—= 27*29 feet; or each shaft, say —-— = 13*645
feet; and supposing the upper part of the upcast shaft to offer a resistance
of 6*245 feet, and the lower part one of 7*4 feet, we should have
Feet,
The resistances of the downcast shaft - - - 13*645
Do. of the rise intake ... 40-935
Do. of the return from the rise workings 40-935
Do. of the lower part of the upcast shaft 7 400
Do. of the upper part of do. 6-245
Total ventilating pressure - 109-16
Under these conditions the pressure generated in the lower part of the
upcast shaft, as compared with the return from the rise workings,
would be
, 200 - 70 >. /459 + 65\ _ Qq , .
m\mrm) (459TT7o)==o3'93feet'
as before; but the pressure expended in the said return and lower part of
the shaft would only be 40*935 + 7*4 = 48*335 feet; and hence the difference
53*93 — 48*335 = 5*595 feet, would operate in causing the air ascending the
upcast shaft to divide or split on reaching the high level drift; one
portion being taken in an eddy along the drift to rejoin the current
ventilating the rise workings, and only the remainder passing up the upcast
shaft, to the surface.
Seeing that it would be positively dangerous to allow the air access
to a return in the coal to the bottom of the shaft, if the furnace were
there, if the high level drift were open at the same time, and that, to
give it access only to the high level drift, would reduce the amount
Vol. XII.—February, 1863.
i
62
of ventilation, it would evidently be best and safest not to drive the high
level drift, if the furnace is to be placed at the shaft bottom.
To place the furnace 46 fathoms above the shaft bottom, at the level of the
proposed drift at 0 on the section, would simply be to reduce its efficiency
as a ventilating power, by shortening the length of the vertical column of
hot air.
The temperatures which have been assumed, must be understood as being such
as would effect the density of the air to the same extent as it is affected
by the actual temperatures, combined with the effects upon its density
arising from the gases and vapour of water given off in the mine, as no
other allowance has been made for the two latter causes of changes of
density.
D0NES.TH0BPE, FIKTH, AND BID LEY'S
COAL-CUTTING MACHINE.
By JOHN DAGLISH & LINDSAY WOOD.
In a previous communication, by the late Herbert Mackworth, Esq., the
subject of working coal by machinery was brought before this Institute
("Transactions," Vol. IV.)j* and as some account of the machine now at work
at the West Ardsley mine, near Leeds, may be interesting to the members, the
writers, who have had an opportunity of seeing its action, through the
courtesy of the proprietors, have embodied the results of a few experiments,
&c, in this paper.
It is not proposed to enter into the cost of production by this or any other
similar machine, this varying, in the majority of cases, with the nature of
the seam and cover, &c.; neither will it be necessary to dwell on the other
commercial advantages which would accrue by the introduction of suitable and
efficient machinery for the working of coal, as these points are hardly
within the scope of this Institute. The writers would, however, simply draw
attention to the very serious waste of coal in the ordinary mode of working
the harder seams, connecting with it the fact that coal is not, like many
other articles of commerce, capable of periodical reproduction; and in the
face of the rapid increase of consumption, and already, in some districts,
approaching scarcity of this valuable article, the introduction of any
machines which would, by reducing the waste, lengthen its duration, becomes
of national importance.
The coal-cutting machines of Messrs. Donesthorpe, Firth, and Ridley, are
worked by compressed air. At the West Ardsley mine, the air-compressing
apparatus is on the surface, and consists of a small horizontal
* The subject has also been treated of in papers communicated by Nicholas
Wood, Esq. (President Inst. Mining Eng.), to the Inst. Mec. Eng. (January,
1858), and by C. H. Waring, Esq., to the South Wales Inst. Eng. (January,
1862).
64
single cylinder engine, of 30-horse power, working the air pump by direct
action from the end of the piston.
Length of stroke, 3 feet; number of strokes, 13 per minute; diameter of
steam cylinder, 23 inches, and of air pump, 28 inches; this latter is of
novel and apparently very efficient construction.* Pressure of steam, 35
lbs. per inch ; and the air is compressed into a boiler-shaped receiver to a
pressure of 55 lbs. per inch. The air pump is surrounded by a casing A, into
which cold water is at intervals admitted, to counteract the heating action
due to the compression of the air; this water rises rapidly to a high
temperature, and a contrary reaction takes place at the coal-cutting
machine, the exhaust air being reduced to a very low temperature, owing* to
its sudden expansion, so much so, that at times, when the atmosphere is
moist, the exhaust pipes are partially filled with ice.
The air is conveyed from the receiver in 4-inch metal pipes down the shaft
to the seam, a depth of 70 fathoms; thence to the "benks," a distance of
about 800 yards, it is carried by 2|-inch metal pipes, and up each of the
"benks" in 1-inch ordinary iron screw-joint gas pipes; attached to the end
of these, and next the machine, there are about 50 yards of stout flexible
india-rubber tubing.
Extract from Specification of Patent. (See diagram.) Description op
Machine.—a a is the frame of the carriage ; it is mounted on on wheels, and
is arranged with apparatus to move it forward and lock it in any desired
position, o is a cylinder fixed on the carriage, and c is the piston rod
thereof. The admission of the air to the cylinder is regulated by a slide
valve, on the rod of which is a spring d, which tends constantly to force
the valve to one end of its stroke, viz., to that which will cause the
piston to return after having caused the pick to strike a blow. In
returning, a roller e, on the head of the piston rod strikes the lever /,
and by so doing moves the valve, and so sets it as at first, to check the
return of the piston, and then again to force it outwards to cause the pick
to strike another blow, and as the piston rod moves outwards, it will leave
the lever/, and the valve is then carried back by its spring, and thus the
reciprocating motion will be continued, g is a connecting rod connecting the
piston rod with the crank arm h, on the axis of the pick h : this axis is
carried by the frame a, and the motion communicated to it will cause the
pick to strike into the coal or mineral.
The machine is simply a small 8-inch cylinder mounted on a tram, with
ordinary 10-inch wheels, moving along a tramway of the usual gauge of the
mine (16| inches), parallel to the face of the " benk" or long
* An account of another air-compressing machine, at Govan Colliery, is given
in the " Transactions of the Mec. Eng." (1856); and also of one at Haigh
Colliery, Wigan, in the " Transactions of the Manchester Geol. Soc," Vol.
II.
65
wall; it bears considerable resemblance to a " deputy's horned tram," both
in size and appearance. The piston works, by a short connecting rod, a crank
or quadrant on a vertical shaft: on the same shaft is attached a large coal
pick, which by this means swings in a horizontal plane, in a very similar
manner as when used by the miner.
The manner of working is as follows :—The workman in charge of the machine
is seated at X on the opposite end to the pick, with the handle of the slide
valve in one hand, and the other on a handle, which, by means of tooth
gearing, acts on the axle of the carriage and propels the machine; in front
of him at Y is a light; this being directed into the kirving, enables him to
see distinctly the action of the machine, and he is able to advance or
retire the machine, or to repeat the blow again on the same spot, in case of
meeting with iron pyrites or other obstruction. The general distance between
each cut of the pick is about 1 inch; the depth of the kirving with one of
the present machines is rather more than 1 yard, (which is made by three
cuttings; the first being about 16 inches in depth; the second 12 inches,
and the third 9 inches ; the machine thus traversing the distance 3 times.)
The height of the kirving at the front is from 3 to 5 inches, reducing to 1
inch at the extremity. The machine can readily make 80 strokes per minute,
and advances at the rate of about 1 yard per minute ; when kept regularly at
work, it is intended for one machine to undercut or kirve 200 to 300 yards
of long wall face to a depth of 3 feet in 24 hours, or 3 shifts of 8 hours
each, including all necessary stoppages, and changing the machines from one
"benk" to the others.
The following are the details of some experiments made in the presence of
the writers and others, and it ought to be stated, that the machine was
simply engaged in its ordinary work, in one of the regular "benks-"—
FIRST EXPERIMENT.—LENGTH OF FACE OF LONG WALL, 10 YARDS.
Depth.
First Cut - - - - 10 inches in 6 minutes.
Second Cut - - - - 10 „ in 7 „ Third
Cut - - - - 12 „ in 9| „
38 22|
Time occupied in actually "kirving" 10 yards to a depth of 38 inches, was
22| minutes, or 1 yard in 2| minutes. This does not include the time
occupied in reversing the machine, &c.
66
SECOND EXPEEIMENT (BY MESSRS. FORSTER & COCHRANE).—LENGTH OP FACE OF LONG
WALL, 15 YARDS.
Depth.
First Cut - - 16 inches in 13| minutes]
Second Cut - 11 „ in 14 ;, > 57 strokes per
minute.
Third Cut - 9 „ in 19 „ J
36 461
Being at the rate of 1 yard in 3-1 minutes, not including stoppage.
THIRD EXPERIMENT.—LENGTH OF FACE OF LONG WALL, 18 YARDS.
Depth Strokes
H. M.. M. In. per
Minute.
Commenced at -12 4)
t? i a * in „. = 20 = 16 = 80
Ended at - - 12 24)
Commenced at - 12 29)
Ended at - - 12 a) = 23 = 13 = 65
Commenced at - 12 57)
Ended at -. - 1 13 f " 16 = 8 = 67
69 59 37
Time occupied in actually "kirving" 18 yards to a depth of 37 inches,, was
59 minutes, or 1 yard in 3*3 minutes, excluding time occupied in reversing
the machine between each cutting; this amounted in all to 10 minutes, so
that the entire time, including all stoppages, was 69 minutes, or 1 yard in
3*8 minutes.
FOURTH EXPERIMENT.—LENGTH OF FACE OF LONG WALL, 35 YARDS.
Depth H. M. H. M. In.
Commenced at - - 6 30) n , „
¦a a a 4. =245 = 37
Ended at - - - 9 15)
This is at the rate of 1 yard in 47 minutes, including all stoppages. FIFTH
EXPERIMENT—LENGTH OF FACE OF LONG WALL, 48| YARDS.
Depth. H. M. H. M. In.
Commenced at - - 12 3} 0 Endedat - -
- 2 40 f ~ ^ ?2
This is at the rate of 1 yard in 3-6 minutes, including stoppages.
67
As affecting ventilation, the writers will not at present express any
opinion upon the probable amount of increase in quantity to the general
current of the mine; this will be most readily determined by direct
experiment ; and they hope to be able to resume this point at some future
day. But there can be no doubt that the introduction of coal-cutting
machines, worked by compressed air, will otherwise aid greatly the efficient
ventilation, and general sanitary condition of the mine. In the first place,
the exhaust air is discharged at a high velocity; and, secondly, at a very
low temperature. In using air currents for removing and diluting explosive
and other gases in mines, the deficiency is not found so much in the
quantity as in the velocity of the current; and, the law of diffusion
notwithstanding, the element of time is essential in practice; for unless
mechanical means are used for mixing the air currents with the gases
(technically termed " dashing"), the latter will float on the former for a
considerable distance; but as the air discharged by this machine is at a
high velocity, the intermixture is at once effected, and then the ordinary
mine current can be efficiently applied for further dilution.
The low temperature of the current of air discharged from the coal-cutting
machine is also of great service to the miner, more especially in pits where
the normal temperature is above 70°. Here an admixture of a quantity of air
at 32° will afford much physical relief.
There can also be no doubt, that, in low seams especially, the introduction
of machines will relieve the miner of the more arduous, painful, and
monotonous portion of his labour.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, APRIL 2, 1863, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NICHOLAS WOOD, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
The Secretary having- read the minutes of the Council, The following-
gentlemen were elected members of the Institute:— Mr. John Nixon, East
Castle Colliery, near Gateshead; Mr. John Wood, Flockton Colliery,
Wakefield', Mr. Thomas Cooper, Parkgate Colliery, near Rotherham.
THE VISIT OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
The President said, the first business that would occupy the attention of
the meeting- was a correspondence that had taken place between the Committee
of the Institute appointed to confer with the British Association on the one
part, and the Local Committee of the British Association on the other. They
would recollect that it had been thought desirable to hold a meeting- of the
Institute during- the week that the British Association was in Newcastle—an
extra meeting*, similar to the one held in 1861, at Birmingham. The
Committee of the Institute had thought it advisable, therefore, to
communicate with the Association, so that the proposed meeting- might not
interfere with their proceedings, and after conferring with the general body
of the members in London, the Council of the Association had sent them the
following- letter:—
British Association for the Advancement op Science.—Meeting, 1863.
Secretaries' Offices, 15, Grey Street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 9th March, 1863. Dear Sir,—I beg to hand you a copy of
a letter received from Mr. George Griffith, assistant secretary to the
Association, in reply to one I wrote to him, respecting the Meeting of the
Mining Engineers.
Vol. XII.- April, 1863.
K
72
Mr. T. Y. Hall seconded the motion, which was unanimously agreed to.
ON SAFETY-LAMPS.
The President said, there was another suhject which he wished to lay before
the Institute, which he conceived to be of very great importance, and that
was, the safety of lamps. At the last meeting he had mentioned this matter
very briefly, and he was now desirous of calling the attention of the
Institute to it again, in order that they might take some action upon the
subject. Mr. G. C. Greenwell had communicated to him that, on visiting one
of the collieries under his (Mr. G's.) charge, he found that some of the
gauzes of the safety-lamps had been subjected to heat. He assumed, in the
first instance, that the lamps had been amongst explosive gas, inasmuch, as
they showed all the characteristics of having been immersed in flame. Not
being aware that there was any such quantity of gas in the pit as the
appearance of the lamps indicated, he asked the workmen where the gas was ?
The men said, there was no gas in the pit, but they had burnt the gauze to
make it safe. That seemed to be a very odd sort of explanation, and Mr.
Greenwell asked them what they meant ? They replied, that they considered
the lamps were not safe, unless they were subjected to a red heat before
they were used. On inquiring further into the matter, it appeared that the
wire of which the gauze was made, contained oil, which he believed was used
in the manufacture of the wire. The wire of the lamp-gauze was of the best
description, and made in Newcastle. It seemed, that in making wire, oil was
used in the manufacture, and that it became embodied in the substance of the
wire, and when subjected to a certain degree of heat, gas was produced from
that oil, and this gas would at certain temperatures explode. When Mr.
Greenwell communicated these facts to him, he thought that it was a very
important subject, and one that ought to be fully investigated. Experiments
of a very simple character were made to test the facts, and these proved
that gas was evolved from the oil in the wire, as the men had stated.
Members could try it very easily and very effectively, by heating a ferule,
or piece of common iron pipe, and placing a safety-lamp gauze within it. The
heat would be found to expel the oil at a certain temperature, and that gas
would explode, not only in the inside, but also on the outside of the lamp.
He believed, Sir Humphrey Davy was the first to discover that, when gas was
surrounded by cold wire gauze and subjected to an inflammable mixture, it
would not pass through the meshes of the gauze, but when the wire was heated
red hot, it did pass through. He did not know
73
if he had in his possession such of Sir Humphrey's experiments as would
enable him to ascertain whether the flame passed through the meshes of the
gauze in consequence of its inferior cooling property when heated, or that
it exploded in the way now discovered. He was rather inclined to believe
that some experiments of the explosion of gas in safety-lamps, performed by
George Stephenson and himself, in his (the President's) house, at
Killing-worth, was owing to the circumstances which had just come to light.
The experiment was made to ascertain the velocity with which flame would
pass down tubes of narrow diameter, They had a pneumatic trough, and a large
glass reservoir which was filled with inflammable gas. He believed the
proportions of that gas were eight of common air to one of carburetted
hydrogen, which was a most explosive mixture. They had a cistern in which
the reservoir was placed, with a cock to it to let the water out, and so to
raise the water within the reservoir and force the gas through the tube at a
known velocity. They found that when the gas was passed at a certain
velocity, the explosion did not pass downwards through the tube when
ignited, and thus formed a safety-lamp, the velocity of the air upwards
preventing the flame from passing downwards. There was a piece of wire gauze
put into the tube, which they changed to different sizes of mesh, in order
to ascertain what size of mesh was safe. However, in the course of the
experiment, the flame got down the tube and into the receiver, and blew it
up. It turned out that the size of mesh which was safe when it was cold,
passed the flame when it was hot. They supposed the fact arose from the loss
of the cooling property of the wire when heated, but he was now inclined to
think that it might occur through the presence of oil in the wire. He need
scarcely comment on the importance of this subject. There had been
explosions by lamps that could not be accounted for; two or three had
occurred in his experience, where there was every reason to believe that the
lamp was perfectly safe, and where the lamp was in no way damaged. These
accidents might have occurred in the manner that has been described, namely,
by the explosion of gas generated by the oil in the gauze. They would
recollect that some years ago, he made a good many experiments, an account
of which was published in the " Transactions " of the Institute. In these
experiments, the lamp was subjected to a current of air which raised the
heat to such an extent, as to become of a temperature equal to a white heat;
and on every occasion when he brought up the heat to such a temperature, the
gas exploded. The velocity of the current was, however, such as could never
occur in
74
•ordinary practice (for where they found gas in mines it was generally
stagnant), and the conclusion he then came to was, that for all practicable
purposes, the lamp was a safe one, as it could not in practice be raised to
such a temperature as would pass the flame. If, however, the oil in the wire
caused explosions, the temperature might be produced by a lamp being
immersed in an inflammable mixture for a period of time. His own opinion
was, that in practice they would not be likely to get the lamp up to that
degree of heat that would evaporate and explode the oil. Still, it was
necessary to ascertain in a decided and conclusive manner, whether such a
degree of heat could be attained in practice. He still thought, with the
precautions taken, that the lamp might be deemed to be a safe lamp. They had
adopted a certain size of mesh, with which, so long as the gauze was kept
cool, no danger could arise. The men at every colliery were cautioned, and
indeed, the caution formed part of the ordinary rules of every colliery,
that whenever the least sign of an explosion within the lamp was observed,
it should be withdrawn. If the men did this—if these rules were attended to,
it was quite clear that the lamp could never be subjected to such a heat as
would evaporate and explode the oil. At the same time it was advisable that
they should know to what extent the influence of heat and the volatilisation
and subsequent ignition of oil of the gauzes diminished the safety of the
lamp, and that the whole subject should be thoroughly investigated. He,
therefore, proposed that the subject should be referred to the "Experiment
Committee," arrangements being made, by which any gentleman who wished to
see the experiments, could have access to the place where they were
conducted. He knew few places where the experiments could be better tried
than at the old blower at Killingworth. That blower w^s much used in the
time of Stephenson, and was still discharging a considerable quantity of
gas, and as he was a partner in that colliery, he could say that the owners
would be very glad to render any assistance in their power towards
facilitating the committee's operations.
Mr. Berkley said, he thought that one necessary experiment would be, to find
the real heat of the wire at which the gas exploded, and then try the effect
of the same heat upon some material that did not contain oil.
Mr. Atkinson said, that under any circumstances it would be a very simple
matter to make all gauze red hot before it was used for making lamps. He
supposed that would extract the oil.
Mr. Watson said there was no doubt that it would.
75
The President said, that might be so; but they were at present using wire
that contained oil, and they should first of all ascertain how far, and
under what conditions such wire was dangerous, and then see what remedy
could be devised. He understood that a new lamp fired sooner than an old
one.
Mr. Daglish said, they must remember that a lamp that was dull did not give
so good a light as a bright one, and the effect of burning the gauze was to
tarnish it, and it was difficult to get it bright again.
Mr. Boyd said, that if new wire were subjected to heat it could be
brightened before it was weaved into gauze.
Mr. J. B. Simpson asked if the oil would not be evaporated by the continuous
heat in using the lamp ?
Mr. Daglish said, he believed that that was not the case.
Mr. Berkley said, they had been informed that a new lamp fired sooner than
an old one. That is contrary to what is supposed to be the rule, that a
bright lamp will remain longer cool than a dull one.
Mr. Lindsay Wood asked the President how he knew that a new lamp fired more
readily than an old one ?
The President said, he had been told so. Mr. Gr. B. Forster, who had been
making some experiments, told him so.
Mr. Daglish said, he understood Mr. Forster to say that he had not made
sufficiently careful experiments to be able to give any strong opinion about
it.
The President said, the committee might try the same experiments which he
had alluded to. He placed the lamp on an arm and produced a certain number
of revolutions per minute, and, therefore, knew exactly the velocity at
which the lamp moved through the air when it fired. They could extract the
oil from a lamp and see whether it passed the flame at the same temperature
without oil as with it.
Mr. Berkley said, they would also know the time they maintained the lamp at
a certain velocity, and see whether it fired in the same number of seconds.
The President said, if there was anything in his minutes of these
experiments that would be of service to the committee, he should be glad to
furnish them. He could not promise to attend the prosecution of the
experiments as he did not go down pits now; but he would be glad to furnish
all the information and give all the assistance he could.
Mr. T. Y. Hall suggested that to suit the President's convenience a pit
might be found where the gas was brought to the surface, as at Towneley
Colliery.
76
Mr, J. B. Simpson said, the gas was not brought to the surface at
Towneley now.
Mr. T. Y. Hall said, that the gas pipe came to the top of the pit^ and they
could easily send some gas up it for the purpose of the experiment.
Killingworth was not the pleasantest of pits to descend.
Mr. Berkley having seconded the motion of the President, the same was put to
the vote and agreed to.
DISCUSSION ON MR. ATKINSON'S PAPER ON VENTILATING THE HIBERNIA COLLIERY.
The President said, the next business before the meeting was the discussion
of Mr. Atkinson's paper " On the Comparative Efficiency of Two Modes of
Ventilating the Hibernia Colliery in Prussia." The Hibernia Colliery
was situated near the River Ruhr, and the seams, as was the case in most of
the Prussian mines, lay at a very great angle, and were much distorted, as
the members might have seen in the maps of that coal-field, exhibited at the
International Exhibition. He had some interest in a rather extensive
coal-field on the Ruhr, and he thought that a paper on the situation and
general characteristics of the Prussian seams of coal would be interesting.
He Would endeavour to furnish one in time, if possible, to be bound up
with the current volume of their " Transactions." The Ruhr coal-field was
of the ordinary formation, the coal resting upon the carboniferous
limestone, covered, he had no doubt, by the millstone grit and other regular
measures. The coal itself, and the accompanying strata, lying at a
considerable angle, were covered by a perfectly horizontal tertiary
formation, and containing a large quantity of water. The tertiary
formation was almost entirely a sand from top to bottom, and with the
quantity of water was almost of the character of a quicksand, and,
consequently, most difficult to sink through. The mode practised in the
country was peculiar and interesting. Mr. Coulson had sunk a pit through
the sand, using the ordinary tubbing of this country, having only quicksand
to place the wedging cribs upon, and he had succeeded in making the tubbing
perfectly water tight, on the top of the coal measures. He could get all
the details of the mode pursued which he thought would be very interesting
to the Association, and he would give a description of the sinking. In
reference to the subject of ventilation, brought forward by Mr. Atkinson,
they must bear in mind that the coal beds lie at a considerable angle, and
are cut off horizontally by the tertiary formation. It is necessary,
therefore, to leave a barrier of coal of some forty yards below the tertiary
formation, to prevent the body
77
of water from finding its way into the mine. The system of working was
long-wall, taking away all the coal, terminating by a gallery at B on the
plan attached to Mr. Atkinson's paper. The question was whether having the
air close up to the under side of the barrier, it was advisable to bring it
from B and A to the furnace, or let it go along the horizontal drift at B
and G. The Prussian mining inspectors wished the parties to drive a stone
drift from G to B, and bring the air to that stone drift. Then came the
question which Mr. Atkinson had so very clearly explained in his paper,
namely, whether it was advisable to be at the expense of this stone drift to
take the air horizontally to the shaft, or to take it by the sloping coal
drifts to the bottom, and so up the shaft. The Prussian mining authorities
laid it down as a rule that these stone drifts should be driven in all
collieries. Now B was at a point which, as they carried on the workings,
might be a mile from the working places, and then the air would have to be
brought horizontally before it could get from B to G. By adopting the
diagonal line, the air would always be at the face—always accessible;
whereas they were getting everyday further and further from B. On that
account it would be much safer to have the return air close to where they
were working. Mr. Atkinson had most successfully shown that the stone drift
would be utterly useless. He* believed it was generally understood, and
those who had studied Mr. Atkinson's previous labours, would be able to say
off-hand, that this was so. For his own part, he had come to the same
conclusion as Mr. Atkinson had, as soon as ever the matter was mentioned to
him. When in Prussia, he told the parties that the air would not go along
that drift. They had proofs of this every day in furnace ventilation.
Mr. Berkley wished to know if the Prussian inspectors meant to lay down this
rule without trying its effects ?
The President said, he did not know. They certainly had given notice to some
of the collieries. It must be borne in mind, that in Prussia, the government
had supervision over the working of the coal, as well as over the
ventilation, as the coal belonged to the government, and the inspectors had,
therefore, more power than the inspectors in this country, and could lay
down any rule they liked. The order about driving the stone drifts came from
head quarters. The parties objected to it, and his opinion being asked, he
said at once that he was sure it would not answer. Mr. Atkinson's paper
having been written at the request of the Hibernia Company, would be laid
before the inspectors, and would, no doubt, be duly considered.
Vol. XII.—Apbil, 1863.
l
78
DISCUSSION ON DONESTHORPE, FIRTH, & RIDLEY'S COAL-CUTTING MACHINE.
The President asked if any gentleman had any observations to offer
respecting the paper on the Coal-Cutting Machine, read by Messrs. Daglish
and L. "Wood ?
Mr. Daglish said, he believed that other papers on the subject would be read
before the Institute shortly. One or two gentlemen had papers in hand, he
believed. He wished to correct one or two slight clerical errors in the
paper. At page 64, the diameter of the steam cylinder should be 20 inches,
not 28 inches; and of air-pump 18 inches, not 28 inches. Again, lower down,
the diameter of cylinder of coal-cutting machine is 5 inches, not 8 inches.
The President said, the mode of cutting coal, introduced by Messrs.
Donesthorpe, Firth, and Ridley, was one which certainly deserved
investigation. He hoped the machine would be taken up by some coal-owner in
the neighbourhood; he was not sure that they would not introduce it at
Hetton, for the purpose of investigating its merits.
Mr. Atkinson said, there was one matter connected with the machine, which
should be inquired into. He had observed, that when there was a bit of brass
or band in the coal, the pick produced very large and brilliant white-hot
sparks, so much so, that in a fiery seam, he was afraid it would be an
objection to its use, unless some means were devised to get rid of the
difficulty.
Mr. T. Y. Hall thought the coal trade generally might take the machine in
hand. Supposing they spent £1000 in investigating the matter, they would all
get the benefit if the machine proved to be useful.
ON THE VENTILATION OF UNDERGROUND BOILERS.
Mr. Daglish read a paper on this subject, prepared by Mr. William Armstrong
and himself.
Mr. Boyd asked if the attention of the writers had been drawn to the
diffusion of the air by the intake pipe over the area of the bars.
Mr. Daglish replied in the affirmative. When the exit of the air was in one
place, it was much too strong—it blew the coals away.
Mr. Boyd said, he had had an opportunity of observing the necessity of
diffusing the air at Monkwearmouth. When the air was applied in one place,
the bars were consumed, but when diffused, the action of the fire was
preserved, and the bars saved.
The meeting then broke up.
ON THE
VENTILATION OF UNDERGROUND BOILERS.
By WM. ARMSTRONG & JOHN DAGLISH.
In a former communication (" Transactions," Vol. IX., p. 75) the subject "
of feeding- ventilating furnaces with intake air, applied below the fire
solely, and forced through the fire bars by the motive column of the mine,
was brought before the Institute, and as this principle has since been
successfully applied to underground engine fires, some account of its
application may be interesting.
In the case of ventilating furnaces, when the velocity in the upcast shaft
is not great—owing either to a large area of shaft, or to a feeble
ventilating current, more especially in the latter case—the adoption of high
pressed intake air to the furnaces, as illustrated in the paper before
alluded to, must be advantageous. On the other hand, it is equally clear,
that with a high shaft velocity, the additional friction due to this intake
air, it forming no part of the ventilating current, will act injuriously.
In the case, however, of underground engine fires, the question presents
itself in another form, and a consideration of the general principle will
show this. The combustion of an ordinary conl fire depends entirely upon the
rapidity with which the air is made to pass through the heated mass; and
hence to create high temperatures various mechanical arrangements—the
bellows, the fan, and chimneys of different altitudes— are adopted to afford
the desired draught. The quicker the blast the higher the temperature; and
in boiler fires, great heat being required, a strong blast through the fire
is absolutely necessary.
On the first introduction of underground engines, the boiler fires were fed
from the return current of the mine. This mode of supplying the air was
however speedily abandoned, as the necessary draught could only be obtained
by contracting the return current at the expense of the general ventilation
of the colliery.
80
Another method, applicable under favourable circumstances, may be
illustrated by the case of the Eppleton Hetton engine (" Transactions/' Vol.
IX., p. 136), wherein a short split of the return air, and having-,
therefore a higher density than the general return current, was applied and
found efficient.
But, apart from such exceptional cases, the practice became almost universal
of using a portion of the fresh intake air, which, whilst affording the
necessary draught, has a greater or less prejudicial effect upon the
ventilating current, depending upon the conditions before stated.
As it was obvious that the boiler house and side flues might be kept cool by
the return air, it occurred to the writers to adapt the intake fresh air
exclusively under the boiler fire, and isolate and shut it off from all
communication with the return air until both currents reached the upcast
shaft, and thus acquire the maximum heating power under the boiler with the
minimum interference with the ventilating current of the pit.
Experiments, with this object in view were made, and it was found that
whilst from 9000 to 10,000 cubic feet of fresh air are expended to keep up
the necessary heat under the boiler, and to keep down the heat over and
around it, of this but from 1000 to 2000 cubic feet are absolutely needed at
the higher density, if it be confined within and under the fire grate, and
precluded by doors from contact and intermixture with the return air.
By placing the boiler in the return air-course, and allowing the return
current to pass freely over and round the boiler and side passages, and over
the fire through the apertures of the fire doors; and by connecting the
under part of the fire-place below the bars with the intake air by means of
pipes, the pressure can be applied where it is required, and the boiler
house much more efficiently ventilated, inasmuch as the return air—the whole
or any part—passes freely over in its course to the upcast shaft.
In several of the larger collieries in Northumberland and Durham, from the
large capital involved in sinking deep shafts with the plant of machinery
attached, the ventilation of a large coal-field by one upcast shaft has
become a necessity, and as the underground mineral roads became more
extensive, steam engines, as a motive power were gradually introduced to
displace the older and more expensive horse power; and to such an extent has
this substitution taken place, that in some cases, the quantity of fresh air
abstracted from the ventilating current of the mine for the purpose of
driving the engine fires has become a very serious
81
question. To obviate this, and for other reasons, steam boilers on the
surface have been introduced, and with good effect in many situations j but
without entering- on the question of the loss of power due to the
condensation and friction of the steam in passing through a long range of
pipes—the large capital already expended in erecting the boilers
underground, and in many instances in positions where the difficulties of
reaching the engine from the surface were very formidable, render it
essential to consider how far boilers thus situated, in circumstances so
exceptional, can be best turned to account, and the following experiments
were made to develope the desideratum.
In the special instances illustrated on Plate, the situation of the boiler
was not very favourably circumstanced for the application of the return air,
having been originally adapted for receiving the supply in the ordinary way
direct from the intake current; it was however selected as being an isolated
boiler, to test the practicability of the principle previous to its more
extended application, and because, having a large extent of smoke flue, it
was considered advisable to pass along it a large quantity of air, and
return air was equally serviceable with intake air for this purpose.
The only difficulty experienced in applying this principle to this special
boiler, was the tendency of the air to back out of the fire doors on to the
fireman when stoking; and to obviate this, it was necessary to close the
valve R of the intake air supplied below the bars. On reference to the plan,
it will be observed, that after the passage of the fresh air through the
fire, the distance to the upcast by the flue under the boiler, or back out
of the fire doors and over the boiler, is about equal. Hence there would be
a tendency for a portion to pass both ways. For this there are two remedies.
Either by so regulating the current of return air over the boiler, that its
resistance by this route is in excess of that met with by the intake air in
passing along the flue under the boiler; in which case the return air will
press into the flue. Or by diminishing the quantity of intake air by a
valve, especially whilst stoking, thus producing the same effect by reducing
the resistance of this current. Practically this difficulty would not arise
where boilers are judiciously placed in the main return air course, for the
strong current passing over the boiler will by its pressure on the fire
doors prevent any return of the intake air after passing through the fire,
and will besides keep the boiler house cool, and capable of being properly
attended to.
Numerous experiments have been made with this boiler by the writers,
82
for the purpose of ascertaining the necessary contraction for the return air
passing" over the boiler to generate sufficient pressure to counteract the
tendency of the fresh air to back out at the fire-hole doors; and it has
been found that less than 01 inch of water column is sufficient to attain
this end—this not being- more than is generated by the resistance of any
ordinary ventilating furnace. They also find, that as much as 5000 cubic
feet per minute are required to keep the boiler house efficiently cool, for
not only has the heat radiated from the boiler to be reduced, but also that
arising from the considerable escape of steam at a high temperature, which
cannot, even with the greatest care, be avoided. No doubt this quantity can
without much risk be reduced as low as 3000 cubic feet per minute, and
inasmuch as under the present mode of ventilating boiler houses from the
intake, all this air is abstracted from the available ventilating current,
it is usually reduced to this minimum; but with this quantity the
temperature in the boiler house is very high. A further quantity of about
1000 cubic feet per minute is required for the cooling passages on either
side of the boiler, and a still further quantity of 1000 cubic feet per
minute will pass the apertures of the fire-hole doors, over the fire-place,
making in all from 6000 to 8000 cubic feet per minute requisite for
ventilating the boiler house, &c.
The following experiments were made at another underground engine fire
supplied with air in the ordinary way, for ascertaining what quantity of air
was actually abstracted from the ventilating current of the mine.
TABLE OF EXPEKIMENTS MADE AT THE GEORGE PIT UNDERGROUND ENGINE, ELEMORE
HETTON COLLIERY, FEB. 17, 1863.
Water Gauge of Mine, 2-0 inches. 1st Experiment—Damper full open.
Eevol. Constants. Area. Cub. Ft. per Min.
Over and through fire - 585 + 27 x 6 = 3672
Over boiler - - - 790 + 73 x 9 = 7767
------ 11,439
2nd Experiment—Damper partially open, as when at work. Over and through fire
- 455 + 33 x 6 = 2928
Over boiler - - - 917 + 77 x 9 = 8946
------ 11,874
3rd Experiment—Same as 2nd, but fire-hole doors above fire plastered up.
Over fire -
Through fire - - - 295 + 27 x 6 = 1932
Over boiler - - - 935 + 78 x 9 = 9117
—- 11,049
83
therefore, as the quantity over and through the fire was about 3000 by the
first and second experiments, and the quantity through the fire only, about
2000 by the third experiment, the quantity passing over the fire through the
apertures in the fire-doors may taken at 1000.
The following experiments have been made to test the power generated for
obtaining draught in engine chimneys and flues on the surface:—
Eppleton Colliery.—Water gauge from *5 inch at the chimney to '3 inch on the
flue furthest from the chimney.
Helton Colliery.—Water gauge from *3 inch at the chimney to '2 inch on the
fifth boiler flue from the chimney.
At Castle Eden Colliery the engines and boilers were originally ventilated
entirely by the intake air, and the quantity limited to the absolute wants
of the engine, in keeping cool the engine room and boilers and in furnishing
air for the fire-grates; but experiments soon decided that under ' the
arrangement advocated by the writers, the fresh air, after passing over the
engine, might with advantage be confined under the fire bars, and the boiler
house and flues kept cool by a section of the return air; and after many
experiments the following results were realized.
Cubic Ft. per Minute.
According to the first arrangement, the engine and two
boilers, 40 ft. x 5 ft. 6 in. diam., together with the boiler
house and flues, required of intake air -
9214
When altered, under the improved arrangement,
for the engine and boiler fire there were needed
of intake air only ----- 2000
Showing a saving of.....7214
And of return air passing over the boilers and along the flues, and through
the perforated doors of the fires - - - - -
6750
and the same results practically realized in both cases. Thus under a water
gauge of one inch in the general ventilating column, 2000 feet of fresh air,
assisted by such portion of the return air as passed through the perforated
doors of the furnaces, maintains the steam at its full working pressure, for
these two large boilers, and the cooling power of the return current is
found ample to afford all necessary facilities to the fireman. By the simple
adaptation of a slide in the intake air pipe the quantity of air may be
graduated with great nicety, and the boiler fires stimulated or slackened at
pleasure.
84
Here there is a saving of 7214 cubic feet per minute of intake air, and of
this current nearly 72 per cent, was found to pass through the workings, or
a gain in the general ventilating current of the colliery of 5171 feet per
minute, all the other circumstances, water gauge and barometric pressure,
being the same.
It will be thus seen how under a very simple re-arrangement of the air
currents for the use of the boilers, an important gain was realized in the
working current of the colliery, and one element of disadvantage in the use
of underground boilers as contrasted with their position on the surface is
almost neutralized.
It is not intended that the cases given exhaust all the positions in which
underground engines and their boilers may be placed. The exigencies of the
colliery may require that both engine and boiler may be placed entirely in
the intake air—or the former may be placed in the fresh air, and the latter
in the return; but the principles developed in the -illustrations given, are
practically applicable to every situation. In many positions which it is
unnecessary to indicate, it may be, that underground boilers, involving a
very trifling sacrifice of mine current, will be found efficient auxiliaries
to ventilating furnaces in obtaining the necessary temperature in the upcast
column; and in some situations favourably situated, the furnace may be
altogether dispensed with.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, MAY 2, 1863, IN THE ROOMS OP THE
INSTITUTE, WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.
EDWARD POTTER, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The Secretary having read the minutes,
Mr. Robert S. Newall, Ferndeane, Gateshead, was elected a member of the
Institute.
A paper by Messrs. Atkinson and Daglish, " On Paradoxes in the Ventilation
of Mines," was read by Mr. Daglish.
After the reading of the paper, Mr. Atkinson said, the paper might be said
to be scarcely half completed; but as there appeared to be a dearth of
papers, it was thought best to read that portion of it to-day, and the
remainder at the next meeting. There were about half-a-dozen more cases.
Mr. Daglish said, he had no doubt there would be many instances of similar
action, and they would probably be brought forward in the discussion on this
part of the paper. The two cases here adduced were both on the same
principle; the others were on a different principle altogether.
The Chairman said, he remembered a similar case at South Hetton. There was a
similar staple, at the distance of three or four pillars from the shaft, and
when the main doors were thrown open it made little or no difference in the
ventilation.
After some further conversation, it was agreed that this paper and the
remaining portion of it should be treated as one paper.
There being no other business, the meeting separated. Vol. XII.—May, 18(53.
m
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, JUNE 4, 1863, IN THE ROOMS OP THE
INSTITUTE, WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NICHOLAS WOOD, Esq., President op the Institute, in the Chair.
The Secretary having- read the minutes of the Council,
The following- g-entlemen were elected members of the Institute :— Mr.
Joshua Mulcaster, Crosby Colliery, near Maryport, and Mr. Joseph Monkhouse,
Gilcrux Colliery, Maryport.
Some members of the committees of the Natural History Society and Tyneside
Naturalists' Field Club attended the meeting- during- a pare of the
proceedings.
The President then said, they would all be aware that a g-eneral paper on
the resources of the district was in course of preparation for the meeting-
of the British Association in August next, g'iving- the development of each
particular branch of industry since the last meeting- of the Association in
Newcastle, together with all new applications connected with the trade of
the district, and any important or interesting* statistical information
thereon. The principal subjects of the paper were—Mining-Engineering-, and
Manufacture of Coke- Iron, Engine,Locomotive, Alkali, and Glass
Manufactures- Iron Shipbuilding-, &c, &c.; the whole to extend to about 150
pages, of which fifteen would be devoted to coal mining-. The preparation of
this portion of the paper had been entrusted to four members of their body,
viz., Mr. Joseph Whitwell Pease, Mr. John Taylor, Mr. John Marley, and
himself. Of course, it was necessary to charg-e the responsibility on
certain gentlemen, but it would be understood to proceed from the Institute
of Mining- Eng-ineers, and ha trusted that the
Vol. XII.- June, 1863.
88
members would individually, as speedily as possible, furnish all the
information in their possession which they considered would be of an
interesting- or useful character. Doubtless the chief difficulty that would
be incurred, by those arranging- the paper would be, that of condensing*
rather than of enlarging-; the subject being- so extensive, and the space so
limited.
In addition to this, he supposed individual members of the Institute, on
their own responsibility, would read papers before the Association on
various subjects connected more or less with their profession. These papers
would, probably, as had previously been arranged, be discussed at the future
meetings of this Institute, and printed in their " Transactions." But there
was another point of very great importance which he was desirous of
submitting to them. The members of the British Association, on their
approaching visit, besides reading, and hearing read, these and other
similar papers, would no doubt wish to see the various mining operations,
iron, engine, chemical, and other manufactures so extensively carried on in
this district, and also all that was interesting in a geological character,
or other scientific points of view, of the surrounding-neighbourhood • for,
of course, it was well known that much of the manufacturing and commercial
enterprise of the district, was due to its favourable geological character
of abounding in minerals.
So far as regards the first, i.e., the various extensive collieries, engine
works, shipbuilding yards, iron, chemical, and other manufactories, &c, no
doubt every facility would be given for their examination• but these would
be probably visited by single individual members of the Association, or by
small parties, and much would have to be left to individual action, both on
the part of the visitors and the proprietors. But this was not the case as
regards the more extensive excursions into the surrounding district. Here
combined action was essential to success. It must be remembered that the
British Association was not confined exclusively to any one branch of
science; therefore to make an excursion interesting generally to its
members, it must include as wide and varied a field as possible. It was
quite impossible that all the members of the Association could join any one
excursion• the numbers would be too large. There would, therefore, to a
certain extent, be a choice of excursions, and thus perhaps everything
worthy of being seen in the neighbourhood could be brought before them in
the aggregate.
An excursion had been proposed to the Cleveland district. This would be an
extremely interesting one, especially to those engaged in
89
the iron manufacture. Another excursion is also proposed to Allenheads, to
the extensive lead works of Mr. Beaumont. This would also have great
interest to many. He (the President) had also proposed another excursion to
the Executive Committee of the Association, which he trusted would be
carried out, as exhibiting, in his opinion, more than could be done by any
other route, the chief and most important points of geological interest in
the district. He proposed that this excursion should proceed by the
North-Eastern Railway to Hexham, thence up the Border Counties Railway to
Hawick, and so by the North British Railway to Kelso, and to Berwick by the
North-Eastern Railway, returning home by the North-Eastern Railway vid
Alnwick and Morpeth to Newcastle. In this route the excursionists would
commence as it were in the magnesian limestone series, which is visible at
Tynemouth and southwards, and whose bold escarpment forms so pleasing a
feature in the physical appearance of the eastern portion of the county of
Durham. After passing over the coal measures, in a line almost parallel with
the great Ninety-fathom Dyke, they would arrive at the escarpment of the
millstone grit, and next to that of the mountain limestone, near Hexham.
Then passing-over this extensive series, with its enclosed interesting
coal-field of Plashetts, they would arrive at the Silurian rocks, near
Riccarton, having thus passed over the whole of the carboniferous group.
Proceeding from Riccarton to Kelso, and so to Berwick, the junction between
the silurian and old red sandstone formations would several times be
crossed, presenting as it does several opportunities for examination of the
line of division between two great epochs of the silurian and carboniferous
series, which cannot but be of great interest to geologists, and perhaps the
more especially so, at the present time, as the classification and grouping
of the old red sandstone rocks, is deemed by some eminent geologists to
require reconsideration.
By a small detour from the main line of the route, the very interesting,
though small, coal-field of Canobie might be visited; where, as represented
by Mr. Gibsone in his valuable contribution to the " Transactions" of the
Institute, the new red sandstone appears, and is mixed up with the lower
measures of the carboniferous rocks, the great Penine fault, and with the
old red sandstone and silurian rocks• this no doubt would have very great
interest to geologists.
On the last visit of the British Association, the fixing of the true
position of the red sandstone rocks at Berwick and the Tweed occupied their
attention; and it would be very interesting again to be able to
90'
take the Association to the other red sandstone rocks of other localities^
and to determine the true position of rocks which have not, perhaps, been
hitherto determined conclusively.
The return journey from Berwick would, in like manner, commence in the old
red sandstone, passing over the whole series of the carboniferous limestone,
with its extensively developed coal seams at Scremerston and at Alnwick, and
then over the crop of the millstone grit, and would reach the true coal
measures near Wark worth, over whose flat surface— characteristic of its
g-eological nature—the excursionists would return to> Newcastle.
The time occupied in travelling would not be more than from seven to eight
hours, which would allow sufficient time for the closer examination of a few
points of special interest, and the general features would be readily
observable in the various cuttings through which the railways-pass.
Of course, to make this excursion successful, it is essential that a-Guide
Book to the route be prepared, with proper maps and sections, which should
contain all the information that is necessary upon ali subjects of interest
noticeable on or near the route.
He thought the preparation of this Guide should be effected by the combined
action of the various scientific societies in the district, and that-it
should be a complete and standard work of its class, not only to point out
objects of interest for this special excursion, but to be a book for
reference in case any of the members of the Association or others desired,,
at the close of this meeting, or at any subsequent period, to examine
carefully the whole or any part of the route.
He thought that the preparation of the geological portion would,, perhaps,
properly fall on this Institute. They had in their published-"Transactions"
sections of almost the whole of the proposed route, and he thought a
committee might be chosen from their number to meet committees to be
appointed by the other scientific societies in the district, and arrange the
preparation of a G;uide, with proper maps and sections, leaving it to the
combined committee to fix whether the Guide-should be a joint production, or
that each society should take the subject which it was specially interested
in, with other details, and so furnish a combined work.
He might say that he referred to the Natural History Society of Newcastle,
the Antiquarian Society, the Tyneside Naturalists''Field Club, and the
Berwickshire Naturalists' Field Club.
91
These societies numbered amongst their members many gentlemen •of very high
attainments in various branches of natural history and science, and he had
no doubt but that a very interesting and useful book would be the result of
their combined labours; " a book which would appropriately mark the visit of
the Association to Newcastle."
Mr. Hancock (of the Natural History Society and Tyneside Naturalists' Field
Club) said, it was most desirable for the Institute to appoint a committee,
and request the other societies to appoint similar committees; and then all
the committees might meet and discuss the matter. He had no doubt the Field
Club would be very glad to join in such a course.
Mr. Daglish said, in returning home> those who wished to see the section at
Alnwick might stay there all night and see it next day.
The President—Some gentlemen from Alnwick might be on the committee.
Mr. Hancock—Mr. Carr and Mr. Tate are both members of our Field Glub.
They might be put on the committee.
Mr. Hancock—This proposition shows the necessity of a speedy meeting of the
committees. The geological portion would be placed in the hands of one or
two gentlemen.
The President—Arrange which is the best mode of getting up the work. We
shall have visiting us gentlemen eminent in science, whose time is valuable;
and we should endeavour, if we can, to point out to them that which is
useful and interesting in as short a time as possible.
A committee was then appointed, consisting of the President, Mr. Boyd, and
Mr. Daglish, with power to add to their number to meet the other
deputations, and it was proposed to meet on Saturday next, the 13th inst.,
at Newcastle.
Mr. Marley moved the following resolution :—" That any member of the
Institute reading any paper or papers before the British Association's
meeting to be held this year in Newcastle, shall have the power to tender
the same to this Institute ; the Council of which is hereby empowered, if
they think fit to accept and consider the same to have been read before the
members of this Institute, notwithstanding its having been read and
discussed before the British Association, subject to any addition or
alteration which may, subsequent to the reading of the paper before such
Association, be made. Such addition and alteration being read before the
members of the Institute, and the discussion and printing of the whole paper
to follow in the usual course."
92
The motion, on being- seconded, was carried by show of hands.
The President and Council then retired to discuss certain alterations in the
rules, and, in the meantime, Mr. Berkley took the chair, and the remaining-
portion of the paper by Messrs. Atkinson and Daglish on " Paradoxes in
Ventilation" was read.
On the return of the Council, the President took the chair, and Mr. Marley
moved the postponement of the discussion on the paper by Messrs. William
Armstrong and John Dag-lish "On the Ventilation of Underground Boilers."
Mr. Ramsay seconded the motion which was carried by show of hands.
The following* resolution, moved by the President and seconded by Mr.
Douglas, was unanimously adopted, viz.:—" That every member of the Institute
be hereby nominated as eligible for appointment at the Annual Meeting* for
every office for which he has not been specially disqualified."
This resolution was rendered necessary in consequence of the members
g-enerally omitting* to nominate g-entlemen eligible for appointment as
officers for the year 1863-4—the meeting this day being the day for such
nomination, in consequence of there being no general meeting in July.
The Committee appointed to revise the rules of the Institute then presented
their report, when it was resolved that the same be received, and be taken
into consideration at the general meeting* in August next r, and notices
were given for certain portions to be specially submitted to the general
meeting, of which members will be duly advised by the Secretary.
The meeting then broke up.
PAEADOXES
IN
THE VENTILATION OF MINES.
By JOHN J. ATKINSON & JOHN DAGLISH.
When alterations are to be made in the ventilation of mines, it seldom
happens that any other than merely practical knowledge is exercised or
appealed to in designing and making the alterations, or in preparing for the
results which are intended and expected to be effected by them.
And this somewhat vague class of knowledge, as experience proves, is of
itself generally sufficient to enable the practical man to determine
beforehand, not only the particular direction in which each of the new
currents will flow, in each portion of the air-ways open to them, but even,
within limits more or less indefinite, the relative quantities of air of
which the new currents will be composed.
It sometimes happens, however, that his anticipations are not realized j
some of the currents proving much stronger and others much weaker than he
expected; and in more rare instances still, particular currents altogether
fail to establish themselves; their places being supplied by others flowing
in the very contrary direction from that which they were expected to pursue.
In other instances, after accidents have occurred, or while extensive
alterations or repairs have been in progress in the workings or the shafts
of mines, whereby some of the ordinary arrangements for ventilation have
been materially altered and affected, particular parts of the mines have had
their ventilation deranged, either in a manner, or to an extent quite
unanticipated by the persons under whose charge the mines have been; and all
such cases may, with some degree of propriety, perhaps, be called Paradoxes.
Vol. XII,—May, 1863.
n
94
Under both classes of conditions it has sometimes happened that unlooked for
movements or accumulations of fire-damp have been produced, giving1 rise to
a greater or less amount of danger', and possibly these, in a few instances,
may have been followed by explosions attended with their ordinary
accompaniments of loss of life, personal injury, and destruction of
property.
It is here proposed to describe a few cases of the character alluded to, in
the hope that when they are considered in connection with the natural causes
that will be assigned for their occurrence, they may prove not only
interesting but practically useful to those engaged in the management and
ventilation of mines.
Other instances of an analogous character will, it is hoped, be elicited
during the discussion of those about to be described.
95
FIRST CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY No. 1 DRAWING.
This colliery had but a single shaft, 14 feet in diameter, divided, by means
of a three-inch wooden brattice, into two equal sized compartments; the
compartment or shaft D (see drawing No. 1) was used as a downcast, and the
other, U, as an upcast for the ventilation.
The depth from the surface to the Main Coal seam at C, is 220 fathoms, and
to the Hutton Seam 250 fathoms, being 30 fathoms further.
In order to avoid the danger of setting fire to, or otherwise injuring, the
wooden brattice by the ventilating furnace, which was placed in the lower or
Hutton seam at F, the smoke and heated air from it passed, first up a staple
E G, 30 fathoms in depth, and 10 feet in diameter, to the Main Coal seam,
where it was joined by the return air from the workings in that seam, and
was, with it, then conducted through a short horizontal drift to the upcast
compartment or division of the shaft at H, up which the united current
passed to the surface.
The quantity of air passing into and through the Hutton seam workings, and
afterwards over the furnace and up the staple, was about 50,000 cubic feet
per minute; on reaching the top of the staple at G, it was joined by about
30,000 cubic feet per minute from the workings in the Main Coal seam, which
did not pass over any ventilating furnace.
The temperature of the heated air after passing the furnace and reaching the
drift at the top of the staple was about 300°, and the return air from the
Main Coal seam workings, which joined it, had a temperature of about 70°, so
that the temperature of the mixed current entering the shaft at H was about
200°.
On first lighting up this ventilating furnace and making use of the staple
for the heated air, it was found that a considerable current of heated air
and smoke passed down the lower part of the upcast compartment or division
of the shaft, from the Main Coal seam at H, to the bottom of the shaft at I,
and thence, by an open drift, from I to F, where it joined the Hutton seam
return, and with it again passed the furnace, ascended the staple from E to
G, and went again through the drift from G to the upcast shaft at H; thus
forming a continuous eddy of smoke and hot air.
The principal portion of the air on reaching the upcast shaft at H, ascended
to the surface; but the downward eddy of smoke and hot air was
96
such as to cause great inconvenience, and require the application of a
remedy.
The remedy applied consisted of hanging a pair of doors in the drift leading
from the bottom of the upcast shaft at I to the furnace at F, at or about
the points d d, on the drawing, and allowing a small current of air to pass
directly from the bottom of the downcast shaft through an opening made in
the brattice at k. So long as this current of air was in excess of the
leakage of the doors d d, towards the furnace at F, the superfluity ascended
the lower portion of the upcast shaft from I to H, and there joined the main
upcast current, and along with it ascended the upper part of the same shaft
to the surface; but whenever the doors d d were both set open at the same
time the eddy was again established.
The cause of the air splitting on reaching the upcast shaft at the point H,
and one portion of it passing down the lower part of the shaft from H to I,
and thence through the drift to the point F, and in company with the Hutton
seam return current, again over the furnace, up the staple, and to the shaft
at H, may be explained as follows:—
The pressure per unit of surface due to the column of air in the lower part
of the upcast shaft from H to I, and through the drift to the point F, was
greater than the sum of the pressures per unit of surface, arising (a) from
the column of air extending downwards from the point H to the same point F,
by way of the upcast staple G, and (b) that due to the resistance
encountered by the air in passing from F to H, by way of the upcast staple
G; and hence the former pressure prevailed against and overcame the sum of
the two latter pressures, and the natural consequence was the formation of
the eddy described.
The explanation may be rendered more complete, if not more intelligible, by
means of symbols.
Let CL = the pressure per unit of surface due to the air column extending
upwards from the point F to the point H, by way of the drift from F to I,
and thence up the upcast shaft to H. Cg = pressure per unit of surface due
to the column of air extending upwards from the point F to the point H in
the upcast shaft, by way of the upcast staple G. These columns of air, of
course, only produce pressures on their bases proportional to their actual
vertical ascents, multiplied by their prevailing densities over such
ascents.
97
Rs =s the pressure per unit of surface employed in overcoming the frictional
resistances (and any others of a similar character), encountered by the air
in passing from the point F to the point H, when the whole of the Hutton
seam air passes by way of the upcast staple. Then the eddy would always
prevail when
CL is greater than Cs + Rs......................P-]
but would cease on altering the conditions so that
CL was exactly equal to Cs + Rs .......?........ [2]
and a split off the Hutton seam return current would commence to pass from
the point F to I, and up the lower part of the upcast shaft to the point H,
on so altering the conditions as to make
CLless than Cs + Rs................... •.......[3]
where it would join the other currents, and with them ascend to the surface.
Further if we let rs = the pressure per unit of surface required to overcome
the frictional and allied resistances due to the unit of air in the unit of
time, in passing from the point F to the point H, by way of the upcast
staple and drift G H; expressed in head of air. rL = the pressure per unit
of surface required to overcome the frictional and allied resistances of the
unit of air in the unit of time, in passing from F to H, by way of the drift
E I, and the lower part of the upcast shaft I to H; expressed in head of
air. The above are what may be termed the specific resistances of the
respective air-ways to which they bear reference.
And if we further allow that qs = the quantity of air passing in the unit of
time, from F to H, by
way of the upcast staple. qL — the quantity of air passing by way of I to H,
from the splitting point F, in the unit of time. We have, in the event of CL
being less than Cs + Rs>tne equation
q2srs + Cs = q2LrL+ CL....................[4]
from whence the quantity of air going by way of the upcast staple is
qs= 9lL.~ Cs+ <&T*........................[5]
4
and the quantity of air going by way of the bottom of the shaft, from
the point F, is _______________
lOB-Ck+c&rg ........................[6]
98
the total quantity of air reaching the point F, through the Hutton seam,
being qs + qL.
Having- looked at the cause of the formation of the eddy in this case, it
may now be worth while glancing at the possible remedies, apart from that
which was actually resorted to.
On looking at [1] [2] and [3] we perceive that any alterations that would
(a) reduce the value of CL without to the same extent reducing that of (Cs +
Rs); or any others that would (b) increase the value of (Cs + Rs) without at
the same time increasing that of CL to an equal extent, would tend towards
lessening the eddy and establishing a current from F through I and so on to
H, and thence up the upcast shaft to the surface.
Alterations of the class (a) are almost out of the question, for obvious
reasons.
Some of the alterations of the class (b), which consist in increasing the
value of Cs + Rs, without at the same time equally increasing the value of
CL, are very objectionable; such, for instance, as not firing the furnace so
hard in order to increase the weight of the column Cs, by reducing its
temperature; as it would at the same time reduce the resistance Es by
lessening the ventilating pressure, and consequently the quantity of air
circulating through the mine; and, in the absence of data, it is impossible
to say whether the increased value of Cs would not be more than counteracted
by the accompanying and consequential reduction of the value of Rs; but it
is certain that the general reduction in the quantity of air circulating
would be so highly objectionable, and such a great evil, as to put such a
remedy almost out of the question.
On the same grounds, it would be very objectionable to increase the value of
Rs by introducing a regulator into the upcast staple or air-ways lying
between F and H, in the staple route.
The value of Rs might, however, be increased, without any evil beyond that
of the cost, by enlarging the air-ways extending from the bottom of the
downcast shaft through the Hutton seam workings to the point F, which would
operate by allowing a larger quantity of air to circulate, while the value
of Rs would follow something like the ratio of the square of the quantity
circulating.
Placing an additional furnace in the main coal seam, under circumstances
admitting of its being done, would have increased the air circulating to
some extent, and have had a consequent tendency to do away with the eddy;
but as the main coal air would have reaped a much larger proportional
increase from it than the Hutton seam; in order to let each
99
seam obtain its previous proportion of air, a regulator would have been
required to be introduced, to check the main coal current.
Fortunately it was not necessary to keep the drift between E and I open, and
hence the very simple, efficient, and inexpensive remedy that has been
described, was admissible, and adopted.
m
100
SECOND CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY No. 2 DRAWING.
The working shaft (which is not shown on the drawing) was, in this case, the
downcast for the air. It was 10 feet in diameter, and 79 fathoms in depth to
the Hutton seam of coal.
The upcast shaft U (see drawing No. 2) was a clear shaft, also 10 feet in
diameter, and was also 79 fathoms in depth to the same seam of coal, but a
tube, 7 fathoms in height, at the top of this shaft, gave 86 fathoms of
upcast column.
The ventilating furnace, F, was placed close to the bottom of the upcast
shaft.
On the occasion of reopening the colliery, after it had lain dormant for a
long time, arrangements were made with a view of taking any particular split
of air into the upcast shaft, without passing over the furnace,, in the
event of its becoming desirable to do so, should any fresh district of old
workings, on being opened out, happen to contain and give off fire-damp in
large quantity.
For this purpose a staple, S, 40 feet in area, was put up from the Hutton
seam, a distance of 12 fathoms, to the Low Main coal seam, and a level
drift, S T H, driven from the top of the staple to the shaft. In this drift
a door, D, was hung; doors were also hung at the points A and B in the
Hutton seam, so that by these doors the whole of the return air could be
sent over the furnace, or either all or a part of it could be sent up the
staple, and to the shaft by way of the drift S T H, without passing over the
furnace; in the latter case the furnace being supplied with a current of
about 16,000 cubic feet of air per minute, which had few or no workings to
ventilate.
For some time the doors A and B were kept closed, and the return air
(excepting this quantity of about 16,000 feet supplied to the furnace), all
sent up the staple and to the shaft by way of the drift S T H in the Low
Main coal seam.
Ultimately it was decided to allow the whole of the return air to pass over
the furnace at the bottom of the shaft, and in order to do so the doors A
and B were set open—the door in the Low Main drift also remaining open at
the time; and the result was, that a current of smoke and hot air left the
shaft at the Low Main coal seam, and passed inwards
101
along- the drift from H through T, and to and down the staple S, where it
joined with the return air of the Hutton seam, and^ along- with it, again
passed over the furnace, and thence up the shaft, in a continuous whirl or
eddy. By closing- the door D in the Low Main drift this was prevented; but
whenever that door was opened under the same conditions, the same thing took
place.
Subsequently, the returns in the Hutton coal seam were much enlarged in
sectional area, and after that was done, the eddy was no long-er produced by
opening- the door D in the Low Main drift, unless the return air-ways in the
Hutton seam were at the same time contracted by brattice or otherwise, in
which case only was the eddy formed as before.
By a mode of reasoning- altogether similar to that which has been followed
in reference to the first case, we are led to conclude that the eddy, in
this case, arose from the fact of the pressure per unit of surface due to
the column of air in the staple S, being greater in amount than the sum of
the pressures per unit of surface arising, first, from the column of air
extending from the Hutton seam to the Low Main seam, in the lower portion of
the upcast shaft; and secondly, that required to overcome the resistances
encountered by the air in passing from the bottom of the staple to and over
the furnace, and as far up the shaft as the Low Main seam, at the point H.
The quantity of air circulating as an eddy would be greater or less in
amount in the same proportion that the square root of this excess of
pressure was greater or less in amount.
When it is considered that the enlargement of the sectional areas of the
return air-ways in those parts of the Hutton seam lying beyond and entirely
out of the circuit formed by the eddy in this case, would have the effect of
increasing the quantity of air circulating, and, as a consequence, also the
amount of pressure required to overcome the resistance of such increased
quantity of air in the air-ways extending in the Hutton seam from the bottom
of the staple to the bottom of the shaft, and thence up the shaft itself as
far as the Low Main seam, it will at once be apparent that such enlargement
would have a direct tendency to prevent the formation of the eddy, and, if
carried far enough, to create a current up the staple and to the shaft in
the opposite direction.
If we let Cs = the pressure per unit of surface due to the vertical depth of
the column of air extending from the shaft at the point H through Vol.
XII.—June, 1863.
o
102
the Low Main seam drift to and down to the bottom of the staple
and to the point E, Cv = the pressure per unit of surface due to the column
of air extending
from the same point H in the shaft, to the bottom of the shaft,
and through the air-way in the Hutton seam, extending- from the
bottom of the shaft to the point E, R = the pressure per unit of surface
required to overcome the frictional
and allied resistances encountered by the air in passing- from the
point E to the point H in the upcast shaft by way of the furnace
and the bottom of the shaft. Then the eddy down the staple would be created
in all cases when Cs was greater in amount than the sum C^ + R; and would
cease to occur when Cy + R was increased so as to be equal to Cs; and a
current up the staple would be established when Cu + R exceeded in amount
Cs.
Since the enlargement of the return air-ways in the Hutton seam, beyond the
circuit of the eddy, would cause an increased quantity of air to circulate
this would naturally increase the resistance R, and consequently the
pressure required to overcome it, and hence also the value of Cu + R, and
this enlargement alone, admitted, in this case, of being carried to such an
extent as to give such an increased value to R as to cause that of Cv + R to
become greater in amount than CS; and so to prevent the formation of the
eddy, as has been described.
In this instance, unlike that of the first case, the downcast shaft was a
separate one from the upcast, and was situated at some distance from it, so
that the remedy employed was of a different character.
To have contracted the air-way or the lower part of the shaft in the route
extending from the bottom of the staple to the bottom of the shaft, and
upwards to the Low Main coal seam, would, by increasing the resistance R,
have tended to lessen, and, if carried to a sufficient extent, would have
prevented the formation of the eddy, but it would have been attended with
the evil of materially lessening the ventilation of the mine; and, on the
other hand, to have enlarged that part of the return air-way extending from
the bottom of the staple to the bottom of the shaft in the Hutton seam,
would have increased the amount of the eddy by reducing the resistance R.
Before the enlargement of the air-ways in the Hutton seam, the air pressed
on the doors A and B, from the returns towards the furnace, in the
directions indicated by the black arrows; and in the event of these returns
having been in an explosive state, even the leakage of these doors, so near
to the furnace, might have been attended with danger.
103
This case naturally leads to the conclusion that the use of dumb drifts for
conducting explosive return currents into an upcast shaft, above the level
of the furnace, is only safely practicable under particular conditions, and
with certain precautions.
It is intended to mention and describe, more fully, the general nature of
these conditions and precautions when dealing with the fourth case of the
series.
THIRD CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY No. 3 DRAWING.
In this case there are two distinct shafts, one of which, D, is divided by a
main brattice into two compartments, one being- used as a pumping and the
other as a winding shaft; both compartments at the same time acting as
downcasts for the air ventilating the mine. The other shaft, U, is used for
coal drawing-, and also acts as the upcast for the air ventilating the mine.
The diameter of this, the upcast shaft, is 9| feet generally, but over a
depth or distance of 70 fathoms, commencing 14 fathoms below the surface and
terminating 84 fathoms below the surface, its diameter is only 8| feet.
The shafts are situated very near to each other, and their depths to
different seams of coal are as follows :—
rrom wie suriaee to trie rive-quarter seam, v± miliums. Do. to
the Main coal seam .. 110 „
Do. to the Low Main seam .. 136 „
Do. to the Hutton seam .... 156 „
rur uie purpose oi ventilating- um uoiuery two luriiaces are empioyeu in the
Hutton seam, besides which there are several boiler fires in the same seam
of coal.
Under ordinary circumstances the amount of ventilation is stated to be as
follows :—
Cubic ft. per min. Cubic ft. per min.
Five-quarter seam................ 6,000
Low Main seam................. 14,000
Hutton seam rise workings........ 45,000
Do. dip workings........ 34,000
Do. boiler fires.......... 20,000
---------- 99,000
Total for ventilation and boiler fires ...... 119,000
There were very lew workings m the rive-quarter seam ot coal at the time
when the occurrence to which it is intended to direct attention took place;
and only about 6,000 cubic feet of air per minute left the downcast shaft at
that seam, and went through the workings in it, and joined the main current
in the upcast shaft at the point B at the level of the seam, and passed
along with it up that shaft to the surface.
105
It was intended to introduce wire rope g-uides into the upcast shaft, and
with that object in view the working- of the pit was discontinued for a
short time, during- which all the underground boiler fires were
extinguished, and the two ventilating- furnaces fires reduced to about
one-half of their ordinary size, so as to admit of workmen remaining1 in the
upcast shaft while stripping- it of the old g-uides and buntons.
During* the progress of these operations, and while a cradle, R, was in that
part of the upcast shaft where it is reduced to 8 J feet in diameter, at
some distance above where the air which ventilated the Five-quarter seam
entered that shaft, it was found that in lieu of a current of air leaving-
the downcast shaft at the Five-quarter seam, passing- throug-h the working's
in that seam, and entering- the upcast shaft, and accompanying- the upcast
current to the surface, as usual, a current of smoke and hot air left the
upcast shaft at the Five-quarter seam, and passed round the working's in it
to the downcast shaft where it ag-ain joined the main downcast current of
air, and along- with it, descended to and passed through the various routes
or splits in the lower seams, and so returned to the upcast shaft ag-ain, in
a continuous eddy or whirl.
The long-est dip split of air in the Hutton seam had to go about 2-3 miles
from the shafts, and return again; the extreme dip being about 51 fathoms.
The long-est rise split of air, in the same seam, had to g-o about a mile
and a half in, from the shafts, and return ag-ain; the extreme rise being-
about 30 fathoms ; so that portions of the eddying- air and smoke would have
to traverse these distances.
An examination of the drawing* No. 3, which illustrates this case, will show
that in its g*eneral features, it resembles some of the cases described as
experiments made to test the correctness of the conclusions set forth in a
paper " On the Proportions in which Air in Mines distributes itself over
several Splits or Routes having- different Leng-ths," commencing* at page
163 of Vol. VI. of the "Transactions" of this Institution. The experiments
alluded to, being brought forward at the several discussions of the paper,
are to be found in various parts of Vol. VII. of the "Transactions," and are
those which refer to a long dip and a short level split.
The chief difference between the conditions existing in these experiments
and those of the present case being, that in this case a considerable
portion of the lower part of the shafts form a part of the long dip split;
the main regulator being formed by the cradle in the upcast shaft, or return
air-way.
106
There are two distinct modes of explaining- the cause of the eddy, or
reversal of the air, in the Five-quarter seam in this case, and, indeed, in
all similar cases; but they lead to precisely similar conclusions.
One mode refers only to the parts of the shafts and to the parts of the
working-s of the mine lying- below the Five-quarter seam; the other mode
refers only to those portions of the shafts extending- from the Five-quarter
seam of coal to the surface.
To simplify the explanations, let it be presumed that the short airways in
the Five-quarter seam were level, so that no pressure arose from ascents or
descents of columns or currents of air of different densities in that seam;
as, indeed, was virtually the case.
If, then, the tension of the air at the Five-quarter seam, in the downcast
shaft at A, was greater than the tension of the upcast current at the same
level, in the upcast shaft at B, there would have been a current of fresh
air established from A throug-h the working's in the Five-quarter seam to B;
but, on the other hand, if the tension of the air at B were greater than the
tension of that at A, a current or eddy would be established, in the
opposite direction, from B towards A: that is to say, a current of hot air
and smoke would pass from the upcast shaft to the downcast shaft, and there
join and accompany the main intake current of air to the lower seams; and it
is clear that the latter of these conditions had prevailed at the time when
the eddy was formed.
By the first mode of explaining- the occurrence of the eddy, we require to
consider that the sum of the statical pressures, due to all the columns of
air flowing- in downward or descending channels in the downcast shaft below
the Five-quarter seam, and in any one of the splits in the working-s of the
lower seams, was more than equivalent to overcome the backward statical
pressure of the air flowing- in each of the ascending portions of the same
split, and in the lower part of the upcast shaft, up to the Five-quarter
seam; besides overcoming the resistances offered by the lower portions of
the shafts (below the Five-quarter seam) tog-ether with that offered by the
air-ways traversed by the respective splits, in order that the tension of
the air at the point B—the level of the Five-quarter seam—in the upcast
shaft, should have been greater than the tension of the air at the point A,
or the level of the Five-quarter seam in the downcast shaft; and that,
consequently, the former tension must have overcome the latter, and, as a
matter of course, resulted in the formation of the eddy of hot air and smoke
from the upcast to the downcast shaft, throug-h the working-s in the
Five-quarter seam of coal.
107
The united effects of the contraction of the upper part of the upcast shaft
by the cradle, the absence of boiler fires, and the slackness of the
furnaces, in reducing- the quantity of air circulating-, and consequently in
reducing- the resistances encountered in the shafts and workings beneath the
Five-quarter seam, below its ordinary amount, must have been so much greater
in amount than the accompanying- increase of back pressure, due to the
cooler and more dense state of the air in the low part of the upcast shaft,
below the Five-quarter seam (arising- from the reduction of temperature in
that part of the shaft) as to have caused the air in the upcast shaft, at
the level of the Five-quarter seam, at the point B, to become of higher
tension than at the same level at the point A in the downcast shaft, or the
eddy would not have occurred.
This is the explanation only referring- to the parts of the shafts and
working's lying- beneath the Five-quarter seam of coal. To have introduced a
reg-ulator into the lower part of either of the shafts, below the
Five-quarter seam, or into any part of the air-ways throug-h the working-s
below that seam, would, by increasing- the proportion of the resistances met
with by the air in passing- from A to B, in the seams below the Five-quarter
seam, have tended to prevent the formation of the eddy in the Five-quarter
seam; but probably such a remedy would have been worse than the disease
(unless it could have been applied with safety to some particular air-ways,
such as the boiler flues, to a sufficient extent to prevent the formation of
the eddy), as it would have lessened the total quantity of air circulating-
below the Five-quarter seam, although having, at the same time, a tendency
to prevent the eddy in that seam.
To have prevented the eddy in the Five-quarter seam by heating-the upcast
current below it, to a greater extent, was not consistent with the object of
keeping the workmen in the upcast shaft.
By the second mode of explaining the cause of the eddy in the Five-quarter
seam, we require to consider that the pressure of the atmosphere (per unit
of surface) was equal over the tops of the two shafts • and that the
pressure per unit of surface, or that part of the tension of the air at the
point A (being the level of the Five-quarter seam) in the downcast shaft,
due to the column of air extending downwards from the surface to that point,
reduced by the pressure due to the resistances in that distance, was less in
amount than the pressure per unit of surface required to overcome the
statical pressure of the column of air extending upwards from the same level
(the point B), in the upcast shaft, to the surface, together with that
required to overcome the resistance of the air in
1U8
traversing- the same distance; and that, as a matter of course, the sum of
the two latter pressures per unit of surface, existing- at the point B, in
the upcast shaft, overcame the difference between the two former, prevailing
at the point A, in the downcast shaft, and created the eddy of hot air and
smoke from the upcast to the downcast shaft in the Five-quarter seam.
The only remedies for the eddy which this mode of viewing- the subject
presents are apparently out of the question in practice—at least under the
peculiar circumstances of the case under consideration.
They are 1st.—To have increased the density of the downcast air in that part
of the shaft extending- from the surface to the point A, at the level of the
Five-quarter seam. 2nd.—To have reduced the density of the upcast column of
air extending upwards from the point B, at the level of the Five-quarter
seam, to the surface. 3rd.—To have lessened the resistance of the currents
in those parts of the shafts extending- from the points A and B
respectively, at the level of the Five-quarter seam, to the surface j which
could only have been accomplished by the removal of the cradle, or the
enlargement of the shafts, other things being unaltered. The two
explanations of the causes of the reversal of the air-current in the
Five-quarter seam, and of the consequent formation of the eddy, that have
been given in this case, may be expressed by means of symbols,
representing each pressure in height of air column.
Let CD = the statical pressure per unit of surface due to the air in the
following positions, viz. :—
(a) That in the lower part of the downcast shaft, extending downwards from
the point A, at the level of the Five-quarter seam.
(b) That in each descending part of any particular split of air, in its
course from the downcast shaft, through the workings, and until it reaches
the upcast shaft. The pressure due to the air in each descending part of the
air-way, of course, bejng directly proportional to the amount of vertical
descent, and to the density of the air by which it is occupied.
Cu = the statical pressure per unit of surface due to the air in the
following positions, viz.:—
v , __ —-----. r— _ _ „r^^„ „„.„„, "»«""»;"g
downwards from the point B, at the level of the Five-quarter seam, (d) The
sum of the pressures, per unit of surface (statical), due to the air in each
of the ascending portions of the air-way of the same split as that from
which CD is calculated, existing in all parts of its route, from the
downcast shaft till it reaches the upcast shaft. The pressures per unit
of surface due to each ascending portion of the airway being proportional to
the amount of vertical ascent of such portion, and also to the density of
the air existing in it. RB = the pressure per unit of surface required to
overcome the resistances of a frictional and allied character, encountered
by the air in passing from the level of the point A, at the Five-quarter
seam, down the downcast shaft, and thence through the air-ways followed by
the same split of air, which may have been taken to determine the values of
CD and Cu, to the bottom of, and thence up the upcast shaft to the point B,
at the level of the Five-quarter seam. Cd = the statical pressure per unit
of surface, due to the air extending from the surface, down the upcast shaft
to the point A, at the level of the Five-quarter seam of coal. Cu = the
statical pressure per unit of surface, due to the air extending from the
surface down the upcast shaft to the point B, at the level of the
Five-quarter seam of coal. RT = the pressure per unit of surface, required
to overcome the friction and allied resistances encountered by the air
passing over that portion of each of the shafts, extending between the
surface and the points A and B respectively, at the level of the
Five-quarter seam of coal. Then by the first mode of explaining the cause of
the reversal of the air in the Five-quarter seam, the pressure per unit of
surface prevailing at the point B, in the upcast shaft, was greater than
that prevailing at A, in the downcast shaft, to the same extent that CD was
greater than CTJ + RB; and the amount of air passing as an eddy would,
consequently, be proportional to
and in order to have lessened its amount, or to have prevented its
forma-Vol. XII.—June, 1863.
p
\/CD — Cu — RB
112
FOURTH CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY No. 4 DRAWING.
In this case there were two distinct shafts, one, marked D on the drawing-,
was used as a downcast, and the other, marked U, as an upcast for the air
ventilating* the mine.
The ventilating* power was a furnace marked F on the drawing*, situated near
to the bottom of the upcast shaft, but the smoke and hot air from the
furnace, before reaching* the upcast shaft, had to ascend a staple, S, and
entered the shaft at H, about twelve fathoms above the level of the furnace.
A level, and somewhat more circuitous air-way led from the point A through
B, C, and K to the bottom of the upcast shaft, and was intended to have been
employed as a dumb drift for conducting any current of air to the bottom of
the upcast shaft, without taking it over the furnace, in the event of its
becoming necessary or desirable to do so.
The following temperatures prevailed in the month of August, in this case:—
Mean temperature in the downcast shaft .. .. 60° Do.
in the workings of the mine .. 66°
Do. in the lowest 12 fathoms of the
upcast shaft, below the entrance of the furnace drift .. .,
70°
Do. in the upcast shaft at the point where
the furnace drift entered it .. 156°
Do. at the bottom of the furnace staple, S, 220°
Do. at the top of the upcast shaft .. 100°
Do. of the entire column of upcast column
of air, from the furnace to the
surface .. .. .. .. 138°
Before the regulator R was introduced, no portion of the return air passed
from A through B, C, and K to the upcast shaft; but, on the contrary, a
current of hot air and smoke passed from the point H, where the furnace
drift entered the upcast, down the lower part of the shaft, and in the very
reverse direction, through K, B, and A, where it again joined the main
return, and with it passed over the furnace, and again to the upcast shaft
in a circuit or eddy.
Under the same circumstances, when the doors D, between the points
113
C and E, were set open, an eddy of hot air and smoke passed down the lower
part of the upcast shaft, from H, through K C, and thence through the open
doors D to E, where it again joined the return air, and, along with it,
passed over the furnace at F, and so up the upcast shaft to H, the point of
its origin, in a continuous eddy.
After this a regulator, E, was introduced into the direct return leading
towards the furnace F.
When the area of the opening in the regulator R was 12 square feet, the
water gauge between the principal intake and return currents at L, near the
bottoms of the shafts, indicated a pressure of 1*05 inches of water column
as being the resistance of the workings of the mine to the passage of the
air through them, apart from the shaft resistances ; but when the area of
the opening to the regulator was reduced to 7\ square feet, this pressure
(which embraced the resistance offered by the regulator) amounted to 1*2
inches of water column.
If we presume that the shaft temperatures were the same before and after
reducing the area of the opening through the regulator, from 12 to 7|-
square feet, as has been stated, it would appear that, notwithstanding the
fact of the air-way from A, through B and C, to the upcast shaft being open,
the resistance to the air in passing through the whole of the workings of
the mine, inclusive of the increased resistance offered by the regulator
itself, was 0*15 of an inch of water column more than before the reduction
of the area of the opening through the regulator, notwithstanding the lesser
quantity and velocity of the air circulating, in consequence of such
reduction of area.
After the regulator R, was introduced into the air-way leading direct from
the point A to the furnace (and when the area of the opening-through that
regulator was 12 square feet), the following quantities of air passed into
the upcast shaft, viz.:—
~.~~~~----------- —.~ —j-----------------------------j
Cubic ]?eet per Min.
Passing over the furnace .. .. .. .. 23,667
Passing from A through B and C, and to the bottom of the upcast shaft
without passing over the furnace ..........4,365
Total quantity of air .. .. 28,032
In order to account for the formation of the eddies of heated air and mioke
passing from the point H, where the furnace drift entered the upcast shaft,
down to the bottom of the shaft, and thence through the level drift K to 0,
and from C either through the open doors D, or through
114
B to the point A, and thence to and over the furnace F, and again along the
furnace drift to the upcast shaft at H, we require to consider that the
statical pressure of the air column extending from the point E over the
furnace, up the staple, and along the ascending furnace drift C to the shaft
at H; together with the pressure per unit of surface required to overcome
the resistance of the whole of the ventilating current passing over the same
distance, must have been less in amount than the statical pressure of the
column of air extending from the points C or A (on the same level as E)
through the level drift K, to and up the shaft to the point H, and that,
consequently, the latter overcame the former and caused the eddy as a matter
of course.
Again, when the doors were closed the conditions just described would, of
course, cause a pressure from the point C towards the point E: and this
would be indicated by a water-gauge placed through one of the doors, while
the other was kept open. The amount of this difference of pressure was
observed, and amounted to 0*2 inches of water column.
The introduction of the regulator at R would tend to lessen the amount of
the ventilation in the following various ways, and was, so far, an evil.
1st. It would lessen the ventilation by contracting the principal return
air-way, and so increasing the resistance offered by it to the passage of
the air through it.
2nd. By lessening the current of air passing over the furnace, and so
reducing its combustion, and, as a consequence, also the upcast temperature
and the general ventilating pressure.
3rd. By forcing a current of cool air into the upcast shaft to mix with the
heated air, whereby the temperature of that shaft, and, consequently, the
ventilating pressure, would be reduced.
The two evils last indicated are, to some extent, however, inherent in the
use of dumb-drifts where furnaces near the bottom of the shaft are employed
as the ventilating agent.
This case indicates that certain precautions ought to be taken where dumb
drifts are employed for the purpose of conducting foul currents, or splits
of air, to an upcast shaft where furnaces near the bottom of such shafts are
employed as the ventilating power.
If, in the case we are considering, an inflammable current had been to be
conducted from, or from near the point B on the drawings, to the point C,
and thence directly to the bottom of the upcast shaft, without
115
passing over the furnace, we perceive that the scale or leakage on the doors
at D might have been in a direction from the foul current towards the
ordinary return, close to the furnace; and, under such circumstances, the
too near approach of a naked light to the doors might have ignited a stream
of fire-damp, after its leakage through the doors, and so have exploded the
entire current back to its source, notwithstanding the intervention of the
doors.
Other accidents of an allied character will readily present themselves to
the members as being possible of occurrence, under the circumstances.
Reflecting upon this, we are led to some salutary conclusions in reference
to the arrangements of dumb drifts.
1st. Where the foul, or dumb-drift, current of air traverses an airway
forming a passage parallel to that of an ordinary return air-way, and in all
cases where passages containing only doors or stoppings, extend between the
one and the other, the pressure of the air should be from the ordinary
return towards the dumb-drift current j but such openings should, as far as
may be practicable, be avoided.
The pressure may be kept in the direction first indicated by various means
suited to the particular cases that may occur in practice; they consist of—
(a) Any regulator required in the regular furnace current should be placed
between the shaft and the outermost opening between that current and the
foul, or dumb-drift, current. Had the regulator, in the case under
consideration, been placed at any point between E and F, in lieu of at R, it
would have lessened, if not done away with, the pressure
from the dumb-drift current towards the furnace current, at the doors D.
(b) Where the current returning by way of the dumb drift requires to be
throttled, or regulated, such throttling should be effected by a regulator
placed as far inwards from the shaft as circumstances may allow, so as to
lesson the tension of the dumb-drift current of air as far inwards as
possible from the shaft, to prevent or lessen its tendency to leak into
other adjoining return currents of air.
(c) So far as may be safely practicable, the heated air and smoke from the
furnace should be met with, by the dumb-drift current, before it has
ascended far above the level of the ventilating furnace, in order that the
draft, by way of the dumb drift, may be nearly as great as that by way of
the furnace.
116
FIFTH CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY No. 5 DRAWING.
In this case there are two collieries, which will be distinguished as X and
Y; they are both very extensive, and are situated about three-fourths of a
mile apart, each being ventilated by means of two separate shafts. At the
colliery X, the downcast shaft is 11 feet in diameter and about 150 fathoms
in depth, to the lower or Hutton seam ; the upcast shaft is 12 feet in
diameter on the average, and of a similar depth.
At the colliery Y, the downcast shaft is 11 feet in diameter, but much
contracted with pumps, and 180 fathoms in depth to the lower or Hutton seam,
and the upcast shaft at the same colliery is 10 feet in diameter and of
about the same depth to the same seam.
The downcast shaft at the colliery X is marked Dx, and the upcast Ux on the
diagram.
At the colliery Y the downcast shaft is marked Dy, and the upcast shaft Uy.
The ventilating power at the colliery Y is, under ordinary circumstances,
much greater than that at the colliery X, owing to the upcast column of
heated air being much longer and hotter at the former than at the latter
colliery.
The ventilation of the two collieries are almost entirely distinct and
separate from each other; a small current of air is, however, allowed to
pass from the downcast shaft Dy, of the colliery Y, at a point marked C on
No. 5 diagram, along a drift in the Low Main seam (19 fathoms above the
Hutton seam) and up a staple to the Main coal seam (about 21 fathoms above
the Low Main seam) where it joins the return air of that seam at the point H
in the colliery X, and, with it, passes to and over the furnace F in that
seam, and so up the upcast shaft Ux.
On particular occasions, when the temperature of the upcast shaft Ux is very
much reduced below its ordinary amount; as, for instance, when any extensive
repairs are being executed in it, and the ventilating power at the colliery
X is consequently much enfeebled, the current of air reverses in the drifts
in the Low Main seam of coal; a portion of the return air of the colliery X
on such occasions, after traversing an extensive district of workings,
separates at the point H, and passes to and down the staple S, to and
through the Low Main drifts and to the downcast shaft of the colliery Y,
where it joins the downcast current in that shaft
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at the point marked C, and along- with it passes down to the Hutton seam,
and after circulating- with the rest of the air throug-h the working-s of
that seam passes over the furnace and up the upcast shaft Uy to the surface.
Under ordinary circumstances, when a current of air passes by way of the Low
Main and Main coal seam from the point C in the downcast shaft of the
colliery Y to the point H in the Main coal return of the colliery X, the
necessary conditions are as follow, viz.:—
The pressure per unit of surface at the point C in the downcast shaft of the
colliery Y, arising from the column of air in that shaft above the point C,
even when reduced by the pressure per unit of surface required to overcome
the resistance met with by the descending- air in passing* from the surface
to that point, must be greater in amount than the sum of the following-
pressures operating- at the same point.
(a) The atmosphere above the top of the upcast shaft TJX up to the level of
the top of the downcast shaft Dy (which has a hig-her level than the top of
the shaft Ux).
(b) The pressure per unit of surface due to the column of air in the upcast
shaft Ux itself, from the surface to the Main coal seam.
(c) The pressure per unit of surface due to the air column (reckoned only
so far as it descends) extending- fi-om the level of the Main coal seam in
the shaft Ux to H, from thence down the staple S, and down the inclined
drifts in the Low Main seam to the same point, C, in the shaft Dy.
(d) The pressure per unit of surface due to the resistances met with by the
air in passing- from the point H to and up the upcast shaft Ux.
The pressures (a) (b) (c) and (d) are all operative at the point 0, but are
exceeded in amount by the pressure (per unit of surface in each case)
arising- from the column of air in the shaft Dy above the level of the point
C, even when that pressure is reduced in amount by the pressure required to
overcome the resistance of the air in passing- down that shaft from the
surface to the-point C; otherwise no current would pass from the shaft Dy to
and up the shaft Ux. When the contrary of the conditions just stated happens
to supervene, so that the sum of the pressures (a) (b) (c) and (d) exceed in
amount the pressure from the air in the downcast shaft Dy, (when the latter
is reduced by the pressure absorbed in overcoming- the resistance
encountered by the air in passing-from the surface to the point C in the
shaft Dy,) then, as has been described, a current of air is established in a
contrary direction to that Vol. XII.—Juke, 1863,
Q
118
of the ordinary current; commencing- at H and passing- down the staple S,
and thence to the point C in the downcast shaft of the colliery Y, where it
joins and accompanies the fresh air of that colliery in all its travels
through the very extensive working's of the Hutton seam (some of these
workings being- upwards of 2 miles from the shaft), and to the surface
throug-h the upcast shaft TJy.
The foregoing conditions have reference only to the circumstances existing-
in the downcast shaft of the colliery Y, above the level of the Low Main
seam at C, through the workings from C to and in the staple S, and thence
through H to and up the shaft Ux.
The reversal of the air in the manner that has been described would, so far
as these portions of the two collieries are concerned, evidently tend to
arise from the following circumstances :—
(A) From contractions in that portion of the shaft, Dy, extending downwards
from the surface to the point C.
(B) High temperature or lowness of density of the air in the same part of
the shaft Dr
(C) Coolness or greatness of density of the air in the workings extending-
from C through the staple S, and thence to H, and so on to and up the shaft
TJX.
(D) Contractions in the air-way, extending from H to and up the shaft Us.
In addition to the foregoing mode of considering the cause of the reversal
of the air in this case, there is another mode of doing so, as follows :—The
pressure at the point H will be greater than at the point C, and the
reversal will take place, whenever the sum of the pressures per unit of
surface arising- from the following sources, viz. :—
(a) The descending columns of air below the level of the tops of the pits
at the colliery Y (above the shaft Dx) to the Main coal seam in the shaft
Dx.
(b) The descending columns of air in any split of the Main coal seam, in
its course in passing through the mine and returning to the point H,
Lessened by
(c) The resistances met with by the air in passing down the shaft L\, and
around the workings of the mine, till it reaches the point H.
(d) The ascending columns of air (in the same split as b) occurring in the
passage of the air from the bottom of the shaft Dx, around the workings,
until it reaches the point H,
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Happens to be greater in amount than the pressure per unit of surface
arising from
(e) The ascending- currents of air in any split at the colliery Y,
commencing' with the air at the point C, and following it to its exit at the
top of the shaft TJr
(f) The resistances met with by the air of the same split in passing from
the point C through the workings, and to the top of the shaft Uy;
Lessened by
(g) The pressure per unit of surface due to all the descending currents of
air occurring in any part of the same split between the same points, C and
the top of the shaft Uy.
From these considerations, confining here our attention to those parts of
the shafts and workings just alluded to, we see that the reversal of the air
would have a tendency to be created by
E Coolness or greatness of density in the descending columns of air from the
level of the tops of the pits of the colliery Y to the bottom of the shaft
Dx, and thence through any split of air in the Main Coal seam at the
colliery X until it reaches the point H in returning.
F By the freeness from resistances and shortness of the shaft Dx, and the
air-ways extending round the same air-ways as are followed by any split in
the Main Coal seam, until it reaches the point H in returning.
G By the warmness or lightness of the ascending parts of the current
circulating as a split in the Main Coal seam up to the point H on returning.
H The warmness or lightness of the ascending currents of air in any split at
the colliery Y, commencing with the air at the point C in the downcast
shaft, and pursuing it in all its course until it leaves the top of the
upcast shaft Ur
I The freeness and smallness of the resistance of the air-ways pursued from
the point C in the downcast shaft, by any split of air, until it is finally
ejected at the top of the upcast shaft Uy, at the colliery Y.
K The coolness or greatness of the density of the descending parts of the
currents in all parts of the air-ways of the same split, from the point C
through the workings, and until it reaches the shaft Uy.
InABCDEFGHI and K, we have all the several reasons which may more or less
contribute to the reversal of the air in this case (according to the
classification which has been adopted), and by these it is easy to perceive
how to proceed in order to alter the conditions so as to lessen the reversed
current, or to prevent the reversal of the air—if
120
all, or any of the operations required to reverse them are, under similar
circumstances, admissable and practicable in future cases of a like nature.
A simple key to the understanding- of all the conditions that have been
recited in this, and indeed in all the cases that can be given, is the,
following, viz.:—
1st. All descending currents in any circuit or split of air, whether in the
shafts or the internal air-ways of the mine, in proportion to the density of
the air and the amount of vertical descent performed by the current, in each
part respectively, constitute the actual force operating in producing the
ventilation, and form a measure of that force.
2nd. All ascending currents of air in any circuit or split, whether in the
shafts or in any part of the air-ways of the mine, in proportion to the
density of the air and the amount of vertical ascent performed, together
with the resistances of a frictional and allied character met with by the
air circulating in any such split, constitute the resistances to be overcome
by the beforementioned descending columns; excepting only the part of such
force of the descending columns as is lost to the internal work of the
shafts and air-ways, by being required to expel the air from the top of the
upcast shaft; and when this is added as a resistance, the entire resistances
must, by way of each split (taken separately) amount to the same force or
pressure as the force arising from the descending columns:—the forces and
resistances, in each case, being computed either in head of air column, or
as an equivalent in pressure per unit of surface.
This case shows the danger of connecting the ventilation of two collieries,
excepting under certain conditions, which are essential to safety in doing
so.
These conditions will be pointed out in the sequel.
.121
SIXTH CASE.—ILLUSTEATED BY DRAWING No. 6.
The plan No. 6 shows the general position of parts of the workings in the
Hutton seam of the same two collieries as are alluded to in the fifth case.
They will here be distinguished as X and Y collieries, in the same manner as
in No. 5 case. The blue lines and arrows on the plan show the direction of
ordinary intake currents, and the red lines and arrows those of the ordinary
return currents. The red dotted arrows show the direction pursued by the
reversed current of air under peculiar circumstances, when a portion of the
return air from the workings of the colliery X, passed into the colliery Y,
from H to C, where it joined the principal intake air current of the latter
colliery, and circulated with it through the very extensive workings of that
colliery.
Under ordinary circumstances a small split of air was allowed to leave the
intake current of the colliery Y, at the point C, near the downcast shaft,
and to pass along a drift to the point H, where it joined the return current
of the colliery X, and with it passed out to and up the upcast shaft Ux.
Under extraordinary and unusual circumstances, when the ventilating power of
the colliery X has been reduced much below its ordinary amount by the
slacking of the furnaces, or otherwise, the current of air has ceased to
pass along the drift from C to H, in the direction indicated by the blue
arrows, and, on the contrary, a current of air has left the return of the
colliery X, at the point H, and passed along the drift from H to C, in the
opposite direction, as indicated by the red dotted arrows, where it has
joined the main intake of the colliery Y, and along with it passed around
the extensive workings of that colliery, and up the upcast shaft Uy.
The tension of the intake air of the colliery Y, at the point C, must have
then been less than the sum of that of the return air of the colliery X, at
the point H, added to the statical pressure due to the air in the drift
extending from the higher point H, to the lower point C, or the reversal of
the current, which has been described, could not have taken place.
The tension of the air, at the point H, exclusive of that part of its
tension which is due to the pressure of that portion of the atmosphere
122
above the level of the tops of the highest of the two pairs of shafts (those
of the colliery Y), may be found from the following- considerations :—
(a) The pressure per unit of surface, at the point H, is partly composed of
the pressure due to the column of atmosphere extending- upwards from the top
of the downcast shaft Dx of the colliery X to the level of the tops of the
shafts of the colliery Y.
(b) It is partly composed of the pressure due to the column of air in the
shaft Dx itself.
(c) It is further partly composed of the pressure due to all the descending
parts of any split of air in passing- from the bottom of the shaft Dx,
throug-h the, air-ways in the workings of the colliery X, until the point H
in the return is reached.
But this tension at the same point H is less than the sum of the pressures
(a), (b), and (c), as above, by the following* pressures per unit of
surface:—
(d) That due to all the ascending- portions of the air circulating- in the
same split as the pressure under the head (c) is determined from.
(e) By that due to the frictional and allied resistances in the shaft Dx,
and in all the air-ways of the same split as the values of the pressures
under the heads (c) and (d) are determined from, until the point H in the
return is reached.
The pressure per unit of surface, or the tension of the air at the point C,
in the intake of the colliery Y, exclusive of that part of its pressure or
tension which is due to and arises from the atmosphere above the tops of the
shafts of the colliery Y, may be found from the following-considerations :—
(f) This tension, at the point C, consists in part of the pressure per-unit
of surface due to the air in the downcast shaft Dy of the colliery Y.
(g) This tension is increased by any descents passed over by the intake
current of air in passing from the bottom of the downcast shaft Dy to the
point C, in proportion to the amount of fall or descent, and to the density
of the air over each respective part.
But this tension of the air at the point C must be less than the sum of the
pressures per unit of surface described under the heads (f) and (g), by the
following pressures per unit of surface, viz.:—
(h) The pressures due to any ascents passed over by the intake current of
air in passing from the bottom of the downcast shaft Dy to the point C.
123
(k) The pressure per unit of surface required to overcome the resistances of
a frictional and allied character encountered by the air, both in the
downcast shaft Dy and in its passage from the bottom of that shaft to the
point C.
If we allow the letters prefixed to the preceding paragraphs to represent
the pressures per unit of surface described in the particular paragraphs to
which they are respectively prefixed, we see that the the tension of the air
at H, exclusive of that part of its tension due to the atmosphere above the
tops of the higher pair of pits tops (those of the colliery Y), will be
represented by the expression
a-f-b + c —d —e.......................(1)
and we perceive that the pressure per unit of surface or tension prevailing
in the air at the point 0 (again excluding that part of its tension which
arises from the atmosphere above the tops of the shafts of the colliery Y)
is expressed by
f + g-h-k............................ [2]
and hence, in order to the air passing from H to C, contrary to its ordinary
direction, on letting 1 represent the statical pressure at the point C
arising from the ascent of the air-way extending from C to H
(a + b + c) - (d + e) + 1 ...............[3]
must be greater in amount than
(f + ff)-(h + k).......................... [41
and hence alterations or operations which tended to increase the value of (a
+ b + c + 1 + h + k) to a greater extent than they at the same time tended
to increase the value of (d + e + f + g), would tend to reverse the air, and
cause it to pass from H towards C • while, on the other hand, alterations
tending to increase the value of (d + e + f + g) to a greater extent than
they at the same time increase the value of (a + b + c + 1 + h + k) would
tend to cause the air to pass in its ordinary direction from C towards H.
The conclusion just mentioned may be made clearer for comprehension by the
sight thus—
iA -i, ,. . . / , i , . i
. i . l n, 1 Tend to reverse the
Alterations increasing (a + b + c + 1 + h + k)
> air and make it go
More than they increase (d + e + f + g) I from H to a
Alterations reducing (a + b+c + 1 + h + k) en. 'ee^
]yj < K
y m its usual course
(More than they reduce (d + e + f + g) J from c to H<
124
Or otherwise,
( A1, ,. . • /j i , £ , \
I Tend to keep the cur-
Aiterations increasing- (d + e + i + g-) r
N^nr i- /
i reirt lnlts ordinary
More than they increase (a+b + c + 1 + n + k n+ -tr
( J v '
J course from C to H.
{.-,,,. j • /1 i i s i \
} Tend to reverse the Alterations reducing- (d + e + t + g*)
. . n , . 7 . > air, and to
cause it
More than they reduce (a + b + c + 1 + h + k) J to g0 from H t0 Ci
From L we perceive that the reversal of the air had a tendency to supervene
when an increase takes place in
(a) (b) The density of the downcast column of air at the colliery X.
(c) The descending- columns of air in the working-s of the colliery X,
before it reaches the point H.
(1) The density of the air in the air-way extending- between the points C
and H, the point C being- lower than the point H.
(h) The density of the air in any ascents traversed by the intake air of the
colliery Y in passing- from the shaft bottom to the point C.
(k) In the resistances of a frictional and allied character met with by the
air in the downcast shaft of the colliery Y, and in the air-way extending
from the bottom of that shaft to the point C.
And unless the increase in any of these is more than counteracted by a
decrease in the rest of them, or by an equivalent increase in
(d) The density of the air in the ascending- parts of the air-ways
extending- from the bottom of the downcast shaft Dx of the colliery X,
through the workings Wx, and back in the return to the point H.
(e) The resistances in the shaft Dx, or in the air-ways extending from the
bottom of the shaft through the working-s Wx, and back in the return to the
point H.
(f) The density of the air in the downcast shaft Dy of the colliery Y.
(g) The density of the air in the descending- portions of the air-ways,
extending from the bottom of the downcast shaft Dy inwards in the intake to
the point C ;—
or by a greater increase in some of them than any accompanying reduction in
the rest of them, then there will be a tendency for the air to become
reversed, and pass from the point H towards the point C; and it will
altogether depend upon the amount of such increases and decreases as we have
described, whether such reversal will actually take place, or whether the
current of air passing- from C to H will merely be reduced in amount.
125
The conclusions to be drawn from M, N, and 0 will easily be perceived from a
consideration of those just drawn from L, and will form a proper exercise
for young- students of the art of ventilation.
126
SEVENTH CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY No. 7 DRAWING.
This case shows how the pressure may he from a foul goaf towards an intake
in which naked lights may be employed, so that fire-damp, leaking- through a
stopping between the goaf and the intake, might become ignited and cause a
serious explosion; precautions being suggested for the prevention of so
dangerous a state of things.
The downcast shaft is marked D on the plan (drawing No. 7), and the upcast
shaft is marked IT; their depths to the Hutton seam; in which the case
occurred, being about 130 fathoms.
The district of workings in the direction marked X on the plan, is very
extensive, reaching a mile beyond those shown on the plan.
The blue lines on the plan denote the intake air-ways, and the red lines the
return air-ways.
When the regulator R was open the air passed inwards from the intake
waggon-way near the point E, to the goaf, through the leakages in the
stopping at Z, and passed through the goaf, and joined the return air
between P and A, as indicated by the blue dotted lines and arrows.
When, however, the regulator R was partially closed, the air reversed,
passing from the inner part of the return air-way near the point P, in the
district Y, through the goaf, and scaled through the stopping at Z, to the
intake waggon-way; in fact, the route W Y Z, became, by the partial closing
of the regulator R, a second intake acting in aid of the route or intake W V
Z, for the district X.
The cause of this was, that when the regulator R was partially closed,
although the air ventilating the district X had only passed from the shaft
bottom inwards as far as the point Z, it had even then encountered a larger
proportion of the entire resistance met with by it, over its entire route
from the splitting point W, through the district X, and back to the point of
reunion at B, than the proportion of the same total resistance of the split
ventilating the district Y (between the same points W and B) which had been
encountered by the split Y, even after it had reached the point near P, from
which it passed away through the goaf towards Z.
The whole of the resistance offered by the partially closed regulator R,
would be conserved as tension, or pressure, in the split Y, over its entire
route until it reached the regulator where it had to be expended ; so that,
although the split Y, on reaching P, had passed over a larger proportion of
its entire distance from W to B (the points where the
127
currents X and Y split and reunite, respectively) than had heen passed over
by the other split X on passing- from the splitting' point W to the point Z,
yet the contrary of this was the case in reference to the proportion of the
resistances that had heen expended by the currents on reaching- the points P
and Z respectively ; and hence the air passed from the former towards the
latter.
The current which returned from P towards A might have been regulated, or
throttled, at some point near to P before the current reached the edge of
the goaf, and not at the point R, which would have reduced the tension of
the return air between P and A, and thus have made it of less tension in the
return air-way from P to A than the tension of the intake at Z; under which
circumstances the air would have pressed from Z into the goaf, and thence
into the return between A and B.
But since, even in the total absence of a regulator, a fall of stone in the
return might have caused all the effects which resulted from placing-the
reg-ulator at R, it seems to be very desirable to avoid having- openings
between an intake and a g*oaf; or even between the intake of one split of
air and the return of another split, as far as may be; and, that in all such
cases, any such opening-s should be intercepted, before reaching the goaf,
by a return from the district ventilated by the split constituting the
intake to be protected from leakages of foul air into it at such opening-s,
as shown by the dotted line B C on the drawing-.
The excess of tension in the air near P, over that at Z, can be explained on
the principles adopted in some of the preceding- cases ; but it is
considered to be better to vary the points of view under which the different
causes are explained in the different cases.
In order to prevent the possibility of this goaf air again, under any
circumstances, pressing towards the intake, the following precautions were
adopted; and as the principle is generally applicable where it is desired to
have a persistent pressure on any stopping, its description may be
interesting. »
Two stout stoppings F, G (figure 2, drawing No. 7) were erected in the
stenting Z, and a large pipe, H H, brought under the waggon-way from the
return E, opening out between these stoppings, and a small scale of air was
allowed on the stopping G, next to the intake, the air from which pressed
through the pipe into the return. This always ensured that the pressure of
the current should hefrom, the intake on the stopping G; so that any gas
from the goaf would not reach the intake, but be carried through the pipe
into the return air-way E.
128
EIGHTH CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY DRAWING No. 8.
In this case D and U represent on the plan the position of the downcast and
upcast shafts, respectively. Regulators are represented by the red letter R,
with other black letters to distinguish them from each other. Regulating
doors are represented by the red letters R D, with other black letters to
distinguish them from each other. Ordinary doors are represented by the red
letter D, with other letters to distinguish them from each other.
Air-crossings are represented thus x .
The dark blue lines represent intake air-ways; the green lines represent the
parts where workmen were employed; and the red lines the return air-ways;
the direction of the currents in each case being indicated by the arrows.
The principal current of air, after descending the downcast shaft, passed to
the point A, where it was divided or split into two currents, one passing on
to Y, at which point a small split was taken from it, but the principal part
of the current passed on from Y, to and beyond the point V, where it
ventilated a considerable extent of workings, and then returned to the point
W, and thence through a, i, and f, and to and up the upcast shaft U. The
small split starting from the current just described, at the point Y, passed
through an opening at the regulating door T R D, then through that at C R D
and to the point Z, where it split; one portion going to the left, through 1
to a, where it joined the current already described as returning from W,
and, along with it, passed outwards to the upcast shaft U; the other portion
passing to the right from Z, went through m, to F, and then along with a
return current coming from M, passed through the regulator E R, and thence
outwards to the points i and f, and so to the upcast shaft U.
A few workmen were employed near the point Z, in working broken near the
edge of the large goaf; their coals being brought out by way of C R D, T R
D, Y and A to the shaft D.
The principal split of air starting from the point A, passed to the right,
and on reaching the point L passed again to the right, to the point P; small
scales of air being taken from it first at the point L, through the
regulating door NRD; and again, at the point P, through the regulating door
K R D; but the chief part of it passed from P to Q, where
129
a small split was taken off it, through the regulator b R, to ventilate the
small goaf, after which this small split passed over the air-crossing y, and
so returned through p, i, and f, to the upcast shaft.
The principal current passed forwards from Q to S, where it was finally
split, right and left. The split passing to the right, from S to the point
C, was joined by the scales of the doors GD, ID and H D, on its way, and
proceeded outwards through the regulator d R, and by way of the return q, to
the point f, and so on to the upcast shaft U. The other split, passing to
the left from the point S, went to the point M, excepting what leaked
through the deal stoppings, and went to the small goaf; from M, the last
working place, it passed outwards in a return air-way by the side of the
large goaf, through the points r and n, to f, where it was joined by the
split returning to the right from the point Z; and along with it, passed
outwards through the regulator E R, and thence through i and f to the upcast
shaft at U.
Such were the ordinary arrangements for the ventilation of the mine ; but,
on making an experiment, by allowing the regulating door T R D to remain
open for a short time, while its fellow or doubling regulating-door CRD was
allowed to remain closed as usual, it was found that a portion of the split
of air which passed to the right from the point Z, on reaching the point F,
no longer returned outwards by way of the regulator E R, nor did any current
whatever continue to pass outwards from M through r and n, to the point F;
but, on the contrary, a part of the air from Z, on reaching the point F,
passed as a current, inwards from the point F, through n and r, and thence
to the point M; thus converting the return air-way extending from M to F,
into an intake air-way, the air of which returned by one or both of the
other general return air-ways.
Had any gas of an explosive character existed at the edge of the large goaf,
the accidental leaving open of the regulating door T R D (notwithstanding
its doubling door CRD having remained closed as usual at the time) might
have been attended with danger, by this reversed current having become
explosive, and in that state having reached the point M, where naked lights
were employed.
It may here be remarked that the rise of the strata was from the point A
towards the point M, which latter point was probably about the most elevated
part of the workings.
The cause of the reversal of the direction of the current of air between the
points M and F, on opening the regulating door T R D, is
130
to be sought for by the general consideration that, before the opening of
the door and the reversal of the air, the current passing from Z to F, on
reaching F, had lost, by overcoming resistances, exactly the same part of
its tension at A as had been so lost by the other split in passing from A,
through L and M, to F, on reaching the same point F; as, when flowing in
their ordinary direction, the tension of the air of each split would be the
same, both at the splitting point A and the point of reunion F; but when the
air became reversed, and passed from F to M, the point of reunion would no
longer be at F, but somewhere near M; and hence, under these new
circumstances, M would be the point of equal tension, arising at the new
point of junction of the currents. Thus it may be seen that the opening of
the door TRD conserved so much extra tension in the air passing from Z, on
reaching the point F, as sufficed to overcome the resistances in the air-way
extending from F to M, near which latter point it would then meet the other
split, with a tension equal to its own.
This extra tension, arising from the opening of the door TED, must have been
of such amount as in the first place to overcome the gravitation of the air
down the inclined plane from M to F, and also to have overcome the
resistance of a frictional nature, due to the reversed current passing over
that distance; besides conserving in itself a tension equal to that of the
other split when it had proceeded no further than the new point of junction,
near the point M, and was consequently of considerable amount.
The understanding of the preceding remarks may perhaps be facilitated by
considering—1st. That two splits of air separating from each other, have, of
necessity, the same common tension at the point where they separate, or at
the splitting point. 2nd. The same splits, on reuniting, have also, at the
point of reunion, a common and equal tension. 3rd. Then, from the 1st and
2nd, it follows that the entire resistance, or lost tension, occurring
between the splitting point and the point of reunion, is exactly the same in
each split; and that the quantity of air that will pass by way of each split
will just be such as to produce this result. 4th. The tension of air is
increased by the amount of pressure due to the gravitation of the air in
such descents as it traverses, in proportion to the vertical fall of such
descents; and again, in proportion to the density of the air over each
respective portion of such descents; and the tension of air is, in like
manner, lessened by all the ascents traversed by currents of air.
131
Another mode of explaining the cause of the reversal of the air between M
and F, in this case, is as follows :—
After opening the regulating door TRD, the split of air passing from A,
through Z, to the point F, had, in traversing this distance, lost less of
their common and equal tension at A, than had been lost by the other split,
in passing from A, through L, to the point M; and was, in consequence, not
only capable of overcoming it, but, in addition, was capable of overcoming
the resistance of the air-column in the inclined airway, previously
descending from M to F; and so caused the reversal of the air in that part.
Before the opening of the regulating door TRD, and the consequent reversal
of the air between M and F, the tension of the air lost at the regulating
door TRD, was such as to reduce the tension of the air coming from Z, at the
point F, to the extent of causing it to be less than equal to the combined
action of the tension of the air at M, and the gravitation of the air in the
inclined air-way extending from M to F; and hence the latter overcame the
former, and a current passed from M toF.
This case shows the great danger that may arise from conducting the return
current of air from a split having a short run into the return from one
having a long run, particularly at a point after the latter has passed a
goaf, without having permanent fixed regulators, in positions where they are
not liable to be disarranged.
Had circumstances allowed of ordinary regulators being placed at the points
1, m, and n, all the purposes answered by the regulating doors TRD and CRD
(both of which were fixed in working roads) as well as those answered by the
regulator E R, would have been attained by their adoption.
Had such regulators been adopted, the two regulating doors TRD and CRD, and
also the regulator E R, might have been dispensed with.
And this substitution of three permanent regulators in the waste, for the
two regulating doors in the working roads and one permanent regulator in the
waste, would have given a more perfect control over the currents of air
depending upon them.
132
NINTH CASE.—ILLUSTKATED BY No. 9 DEAWING.
During the discussions which took place in this Institute in the year 1859,
as to the relative proportions of air, which would be obtained in short
level and long rise, or long dip splits, having fixed and unvarying lengths
and sectional areas, on increasing or diminishing the gross quantity,
several experiments were described as having been made to test the matter in
a practical form; since that time other experiments of a similar character
(and with similar results) have been made. It is not now proposed to reopen
the subject, except for the purpose of showing, that under particular
conditions, danger may be created from the operation of the principle which
rules the results obtained in the experiments alluded to; and against which
it is well to be guarded.
In these experiments it was found that, when the short split was a level
one, and the longer split a rise one, and the density of the air of the
returns less than that of the intakes, on lessening the gross quantity of
air to a very great degree, by contracting the general intake or return at a
point passed by the entire quantity of air before reaching the splitting
point, or after passing the point of reunion, the lessened gross quantity of
air passed altogether through the short level split; and, so far from any
part of it going into the longer split, the current of air in that split
became reversed, and air came outwards, in the usual intake air-way, and
joined the small gross quantity of air coming in from the shaft, at what had
previously been the splitting point; and, along with it, passed through the
route of the short split,—the supply of air to the long split being by way
of the air-way forming the ordinary return from that split.
In other cases, where the densities of the returns were less than those of
the intakes, as before, but where the longer split was a dip one, and the
shorter split a level one, on reducing the gross quantity of air, by means
of a sufficient degree of contraction of the main intake, or main return, at
a point outwards from the splitting point, the current in the shorter split
became reversed, and came outwards and joined the small gross quantity of
fresh air, at the previous splitting point, and along with it passed inwards
in the intake of the long dip current, and out again vid the return to the
inner end of the shorter route, or split, where a portion of it still left
the main body, and came out of the short split j this portion traversing a
continuous circuit, as an eddy, over the total length of both the longer and
shorter splits.
133
The following (see Figure 1, No. 9 Drawing) is an account of an an
experiment in which the longer split was a rise one. The shaft is about 250
fathoms in'depth, to the Hutton seam of coal, in which the experiment was
made. The length of the longer split or route, from A, through B C, to Z,
the point of reunion of the splits, was about 3,500 yards; and that of the
shorter split from A to Z, only ahout 20 yards. The vertical ascent, or
rise, from the splitting point A, to the highest part of the longer route,
was 260 feet. By means of a contraction or regulator r, in the shorter
split, when the main regulator M R, in the main intake was fully open, two
anemometers, one placed in the long and the other in the short split, were
made to revolve at the same rate. After this, on gradually closing the main
regulator M E, and so reducing the gross quantity of air, the anemometer in
the short split revolved at rates which gradually bore a higher and higher
ratio to the corresponding rates at which the anemometer in the longer split
revolved; showing that the shorter split was obtaining a gradually
increasing share or proportion of the reduced gross quantity of air; until,
at length, when the main regulator was nearly closed, the current of air in
the longer split reversed and came outwards from B to A, where it met and
mixed with the very small quantity of fresh air then passing the main
regulator M It, and, with it, passed through the short split from A to Z; a
portion of this reversed current going inwards from Z to C, and again
returning from C to B, and A, forming a continuous eddy. The following
table shows the results obtained in this case:—
EXPERIMENTS on the Proportions of Air in the Long and the Short Splits, with
Decreasing Quantities in the Main Current.
Rtse Workings.
Mam Intake Regulator. Long Split. Short Split.
Revolutions per Min. of Anemometer. Revolutions per Min. of
Anemometer. Remarks.
950 950 Equal. }
s r 850 915
ually clc 780 890 I Short split air increasing, and
mo 790 *" long split air decreasing.
240 580 J
Nearly closed Reversed. 440 Air reversed in wagon-way, and came
out, along the intake of the long split. The air of the short split being
reversed.
Vol. XII.—t June, 1863. a
134
The experiment in dip workings (see Figure 2, Plate 9) was made at a
different colliery, in the Hutton seam of coal, which lies at a depth of 175
fathoms, in the shafts.
The length of the long split (which had a vertical dip of 93 feet from the
splitting point A) from A through B C, and thence to the point of reunion at
Z, was about 2,500 yards; and the length of the short level split, from the
point of separation or splitting at A, through the regulator r, to the point
of junction or reunion at Z, was only about 25 yards.
Two anemometers were placed, one in the long split, and the other in the
short split, and the regulator r in the short split was so adjusted and
finally fixed, that, with the main regulator (M R) in the main intake
entirely open, they revolved at the same rate.
After this, the main regulator M R was gradually closed, and observations
made as to the rate of revolution of each of the anemometers at different
stages in the closing of this regulator, which of course lessened the gross
quantity of air. The results are embodied in the following Table :—
EXPERIMENTS on the Proportions of Air in the Long and the Short Splits, with
Decreasing Quantities, in the Main Current.
Dip Workings.
Long Split. Shokt Split.
Regulator. Revolutions per Min. of Anemometer. Revolutions per Min.
of Anemometer. Remarks.
466 343 251 10 460 320 171 Reversed. Equal. > Long split air
increasing. Air reversed in the stenting, and came out, on to wagon-way, and
went inbye, with the long split air.
Gradually J closed | Shut ............
From this table it may be observed, that as the main regulator M R was more
and more closed, the quantity of air going to the long dip split gradually
bore a higher and higher proportion to that going to the short level split,
until at length, when it was sufficiently closed, the current passing into
the short split entirely stopped, and a split or current left the return
from the long dip split, at the point Z, and passed in a contrary direction
through the route of the short split, to the original splitting point at A,
when it rejoined the slight current of fresh air then
135
passing the main regulator, and with it passed once more into the long dip
split, in an eddy, traversing a complete circuit.
In this case the short split current (the long split current being a dip
one) reversed, in lieu of the long split, as in the former case, where the
longer split was a rise one. This last experiment was varied by removing the
main regulator, M R, from the intake, and, in lieu of it, using a main
regulator R (see Figure 2a, Plate 9) in the return air-way, and the results,
as anticipated, were of a precisely similar character.
The natural principles upon which these results depend have been fully
explained by one of the writers in Vols. VI. and VII. of the "Transactions;"
but the present object is to point out the fact, that in circumstances
similar to those in which the experiments alluded to were made, any sudden
stoppage of the ventilating power, or of the ventilation itself, by a fall
in either the intake or the return, to the extent of entirely or nearly
cutting off the ventilation, will, in dip splits, have the effect of
producing a pressure of air from the return towards the intakes, in all
parts of the mine lying beyond the point of interruption; and where there
are doors or other places at which leakage can occur, this may have the
effect of establishing a reversed current, and thus bring gas from any
goaves connected with the return, upon the intake air-way. The adoption of
double air-ways in situations of this character, would remove, to a certain
extent, this danger. In rise splits the opening of any doors between the
intake and the return, or any considerable amount of leakage, under such
circumstances, would, by establishing a reversed current tend to bring the
air from the return and inner workings, backwards into, and outwards along
the proper intake, and would also require the exercise of proper
precautions, as it might be accompanied by gas.
It is, perhaps, needless to repeat here that the explanation of these
effects is entirely due to the inclinations of the long splits, and to the
atmospheres of intakes being, in these cases, more dense than those of the
returns; and that the very opposite and contrary results would arise in
similar positions, and under the same circumstances, if, from the presence
of carbonic acid gas, or any other cause, the atmospheres of the returns
happened to be more dense than those of the intakes; as was fully explained
in that part of the " Transactions " previously alluded to.
m
TENTH CASE.—ILLUSTRATED BY No. 10 DRAWING, FIGURES B, C, & ft
In this case there are two extensive collieries, situated at a distance of
about three-quarters of a mile from each other, one of which will here be
distinguished as the colliery X, and the other as the colliery Y.
At the colliery X there wer"e two distinct shafts, one used as a downcast
for the air ventilating- the mine marked t)x on the plans, and the other
Used as an upcast shaft, and marked Ux on the plans.
At the colliery Y there were, in like manner, two distinct shafts, the
downcast for the air being- marked Dy, and the upcast Uy, on the drawings.
The depth of the colliery X was about 108 fathoms, and that of the colliery
Y about 140 fathoms, to the Main Coal seam, to which it is intended to
direct attention; although each of the shafts communicated with the Hutton
seam about 40 fathoms lower.
The ventilation of each of the collieries was, for the most part, kept
distinct from that of the other; but a portion of fresh air was taken front
the colliery Y, to ventilate two districts of workings, G and H, connected
with the colliery X. This was effected by a current of fresh air being taken
from the downcast shaft Dy, to the point K, where it was split into two
currents; one of these splits or currents passed from K, to and around the
district H, as shown on plan B, No. 10 drawing; this current joined the
return of the colliery X, at the point A, and along with it went to and up
the Upcast shaft Ux of that colliery.
The other split passed forwards from K to L, and thence through the district
G, after which it returned, by way of P and Q, to and up the upcast shaft Uy
of the colliery Y.
On each of the plans, B, C, and D, drawing No. 10, the blue lines show the
intake, and the red lines show the return air-currents; their directions
being indicated by arrows.
The red letters D D, near the point L, show the position of a pair of doors
separating the air of the two collieries; and x x show the posi-tion of two
air-crossings.
The district G constituted a part of the workings of the colliery X^
although ventilated by air from the colliery Y, as stated.
Such were the ordinary conditions; but on several occasions, when the
ventilation of the colliery X was obstructed or feeble, not only did the
current of air cease to flow from the point K, through the district H j but*
on the contrary, a current of return air connected with the colliery
137
X, passed from the point A, through the district H, and joined the Giif"
tent of fresh air from the colliery Y, at the point K, and, in conjunction
With it, went all through the district G, and then returned to, and ascended
the upcast shaft TJy, at the colliery Y; as shown on the plan C, drawing No.
10.
This reversal of the air occurred at the very times when, from the slackness
of the ventilation of the colliery X, the returns passing from the point A,
through the district H, to K, were most liable to have been charged with
fire-damp.
It is evident that the reversal of the air in this case could only arise
when the tension or elasticity of the air at the point A, together with the
additional pressure operating at the point K, due to the gravitation of the
air-column extending from the higher point A, through the district H to the
lower point K, was greater in amount than the tension of the fresh air
coming from the colliery Y, on reaching the point K, where it was joined by
the reversed current.
The increase of density in the upcast column of air in the shaft Ux, due to
the cooling of the shaft would have a tendency to increase the tension of
the return air at the point A, and so to cause the reversal of the air that
has been described; and the presence of a cradle, or any other obstruction
in the upcast shaft Ux, would have a similar tendency.
It would, indeed, be possible to describe a series of conditions, each of
which, on being induced in different parts of the shafts and the airways of
the two collieries, would have had a tendency to cause the reversal of the
air; and also a series of opposite conditions, that would, on the other
hand, have had a tendency to prevent it', by a mode of reasoning similar to
that which has been adopted in some of the preceding cases that have been
described; but it may suffice to mention the remedy that was adopted, as it
at once removed all occasion for attempting to bring about any of the
remedial conditions that have been alluded to.
The remedy then consisted of providing a new air^way, extending from the
point S to the point M (see plan D, No. 10 drawing), and of introducing an
air-stopping into the air-way, at the point E. After which, the air, passing
from the point K, through the district H, on reaching the point S, returned
direct to the point M, where it joined the return from the district G, and
with it passed outwards, through P and Q, and thence to and up the upcast
shaft, Ur
By this means all intermixture of the air-currents of the two collieries was
prevented; each being kept perfectly distinct and separate from the tether,,
138
PBACTICAL DEDUCTIONS,
No. 1 CASE
Illustrates the dangers that may arise from having- an extra open route or
air-way from a return to any part of the upcast shaft, at a
considerable-height above the level of the furnace; when the air of the
route in which the furnace is placed, in its ascending part, is raised to a
much higher temperature than that in the other; in this case the heated air
and smoke from the furnace, after ascending a staple about 30 fathoms in
depth, was joined by a large return current (from the workings in the upper
seam), and passed through a short drift to the upcast shaft; but, on
reaching the shaft, a portion of these mixed currents of air and smoke,
passed by the second open route, down to the lower seam, and back to, and
over the furnace, as a whirl or eddy; causing great inconvenience, not
altogether unattended with danger; for had the return current from the upper
seam been so arranged as to have entered the upcast shaft before mixing with
the return from the furnace, and had this current at any time become charged
with fire-damp, it might have descended by the second open route without any
admixture of the furnace current, and thus have led to a serious explosion.
No. 2 & No. 4 CASES Show the dangers that may arise from the improper
arrangement of two distinct return air-ways, the one intended to conduct
those currents which are sufficiently pure for the purpose, over a
ventilating furnace, and the other, to conduct certain other return
currents, liable to be dangerously charged with fire-damp, in an isolated
state, to a point in the upcast shaft where they may be allowed to intermix;
at any rate, in the absence of certain precautions necessary to safety under
such circumstances: in other words, they point out certain precautions which
are essential to the safe use of what are well known under the title of "
dumb drifts.''''
In each of these cases (No. 2 and No. 4) the inconveniences arising from the
formation of an eddy of heated air and smoke were experienced, as well as in
No. 1 Case, already alluded to; but in these cases there was, in addition, a
danger of explosion, owing to certain return currents of air, which might be
dangerously charged with fire-damp, and were, consequently, intended to
have been isolated, pressing and leaking
139
from their own air-ways towards the furnaces: but as these dangers, and the
precautions proper to be adopted for guarding against them, have been
pointed out in describing No. 4 Case, they need not be repeated here.
No. 3 CASE.
This case indicates that when extensive alterations or repairs, in the
shafts or air-ways of mines, are in progress, or when any other
circumstances arise, that may seriously interfere with or reduce the
ventilation of a mine, such unforeseen changes in the pressure and direction
of currents of air may supervene, that it is almost impossible to be too
guarded in the universal exclusion of the use of naked lights, from both the
shafts and the air-ways of such mine, at any rate in all instances where the
mine produces fire-damp.
In this case, the reversal of the air in the long abandoned Five-quarter
seam, was not anticipated j and might, under certain circumstances, have
resulted in the discharge of an explosive current into the downcast shaft,
the ignition of which, by a passing naked light, might have been attended
with serious consequences.
As it was, however, the only inconvenience that arose, was the admixture of
the intake current with an eddy of warm air and smoke from the furnaces.
No. 5, No. 6, & No. 10 CASES.
These cases show, in different manners, some of the dangers that may arise
from the intermixture of (or intercommunication between) the air-currents
ventilating two adjoining collieries, holed into each other, when each
colliery has its own separate downcast and upcast shafts; and they lead us
to some salutary general rules, as to the nature of the precautions proper
to be adopted for safety, when it is found desirable that the ventilation of
two collieries so situated should, to any extent, be allowed to intermingle.
In No. 5 Case the current of air in one of the collieries, after passing
around the workings, and on its way, as a return, to the upcast shaft, was
liable, under particular circumstances, to pass through the intermediate
air-ways and join the intake current of the other colliery, in the downcast
shaft; and as this only took place at those particular times, when the
ventilation of the colliery from which the return current passed, was
greatly reduced in quantity, it was all the more liable to be dangerously
charged with fire-damp at such times; and had it become explosive,
140
might have been ignited by a naked light in the downcast shaft of the
colliery to which it passed, at the point where it entered that shaft, and
before thoroughly mixing with the downcast current; confirming the the
remarks as to the exclusion of naked lights from mines under extreme
alterations in the ventilating power, made in reference to No. 3
Case.
No. 6 Case is of a similar character to No. 5 Case. Had the return of the
colliery X, on reaching the point H, been charged with fire-damp, owing to
the slackness of the ventilation of that colliery, it would in that
condition have passed through the intermediate air-ways to the point C, on
to the intake of the colliery Y, and might have been ignited by a naked
light on its passage, or on reaching the point C itself.
No. 10 Case is one of a similar character to No. 6 Case, just alluded to.
Without insisting further upon the propriety of excluding all naked lights
from both the shafts and workings of mines, under the circumstances that
have been described, it may suffice to add here the general nature of the
principles to be acted upon, and the arrangements to be made, for the
purposes of safety, recently recommended by one of the writers, in a case
where it was wished to ventilate a part of the workings of one large
colliery, by means of air from an adjoining large colliery; the two being
holed into each other, and each colliery having its own downcast and upcast
shaft.
These recommended precautions were to the following effect:— 1st.—If
practicable, in lieu of allowing the air-currents from the separate
collieries to intermix with each other, the air of one colliery might be
made to ventilate a part of the workings of the other, without ever allowing
the currents of the separate collieries to come into contact with each
other; in that case employing doors to separate them.
But in the event of this being impracticable, then, as affording the next
degree of safety, it was recommended
2nd.—That only the intakes of one colliery should be connected with the
intakes of the other; and that the intakes of either colliery should on no
account be connected with the returns of the other.
And similarly it was recommended, that the return currents of either
colliery should only be connected with the returns of the other; and that
the returns of either colliery should on no account be connected with the
intake currents of the other.
In these recommendations it was explained that the term " intake" or "
intake current" was meant to apply to currents in that part of their
141
route traversed by the air before reaching the first working place; and that
by the term " return" or " return current" was meant such currents only as
had traversed and passed the last of the working places ventilated by it.
It is evident that unless the arrangements are made in accordance with one
or other of the foregoing recommendations, the slacking of the ventilation
of one of the collieries, while that of the other is in its ordinary
condition, might result in the current of its returns being overcome,
reversed, and carried (perhaps in an explosive state) through some of the
working places of the other.
With the precautionary arrangements just described the two systems of
ventilation are kept separate, or a general intake and also a general return
for the two collieries, is formed; and, the dangers illustrated by these
cases so far avoided.
No. 7 CASE.
This case shows the necessity of paying attention to the direction in which
currents of air press upon doors or stoppings, in all cases, at least, where
they have access to the edges of the goaves containing or generating
fire-damp; and of so arranging or regulating them that the excess of tension
or pressure is from the intakes, towards the returns. It shows, also, the
danger that may attend the intervention of nothing more than a stopping,
between a goaf exposed to the pressure of one current on one side, and to an
intake air-way of a different current on the other side. And, further, it
shows how very desirable it is to have at least a part of the return from
any intake current, interposed between such intake and any goaf alongside of
which the intake passes. The remedy employed in this case shows a simple,
and in particular cases, a useful expedient for making the pressure operate
in the right and safe direction.
No. 8 CASE.
This case illustrates the dangers attendant upon the occasional practice of
regulating the currents of air in mines by means of regulating doors, placed
in the working roads of the mines, in lieu of regulating them by means of
ordinary regulators, fixed in the waste, return airways, or other positions
where they are not liable to be interfered with or deranged, excepting at
rare intervals, and for the shortest possible times; and then only in the
presence of officers, or others who have special knowledge of, or
instructions as to, their importance. Vol. XII.—June, 1863.
t
142
The accidental sticking- open of the regulating door, T R D; in this case,
might have been attended with results of a very serious character, as the
experiment described very clearly demonstrated—a fact not likely to strike
many before the trial of the experiment.
No. 9 CASE.
This case, or rather, these two cases, show the necessity of using
safety-lamps only, and of excluding the use of all naked lights, even in the
intake air-ways; more particularly those leading to workings situated either
considerably to the rise or to the dip of the shafts of mines, whenever
falls or other circumstances exist, which have the effect of materially
diminishing the supply of air to such workings.
It scarcely need be remarked, that these cases are confirmatory of the
conclusions arrived at in the discussions consequent upon the paper on the
relative proportions in which the air of mines distributes itself under
particular circumstances diminishing or increasing the general ventilation
of the mine. (See " Transactions," Vols. VI. and VII.)
143 CONCLUDING EEM1EKS.
Before dismissing the subject, the writers beg to tender their thanks to
those of the members of the Institute who have kindly furnished them with
the particulars of some of the cases that have been described.
The general subject may be regarded as being almost inexhaustible, and, as
it is one of a useful, as well as of an interesting character, it is hoped
that other cases may be elicited from the members during the discussion of
this communication.
It may be remarked, that the title of " Paradoxes" has not been employed to
convey the idea that the ordinary laws of nature were either suspended, or
in any way departed from, in producing the results; but simply to imply that
they were such as were not likely to be anticipated before they were
observed, and, indeed, such as at first sight might be regarded as being
abnormal in their character, even by those experienced in the ventilation of
mines.
Cases like those that have been described in the foregoing pages clearly
demonstrate that the thorough and safe ventilation of a mine, yielding
fire-damp, requires for its accomplishment a great deal more than the mere
putting into circulation a large gross quantity of air. Indeed, after
providing the power and means necessary to circulate the air, it becomes
equally necessary that great judgment, skill, and care should be exercised
by the underground manager in making the arrangements for its proper and
safe distribution. And, in addition to this, there is further required great
and constant vigilance on the part of the subordinate agents, together with
continued obedience to discipline, and prudence on the part of each one of
the workpeople in the mine, in order to ensure even a moderate degree of
safety, and of immunity from explosions of fire-damp. But even with all
these combined, explosions cannot be entirely prevented, because accidents
of an unforeseen nature, such for instance, as a fall of stone upon a
safety-lamp, accompanied at the same time by a discharge of gas from a goaf,
may at any time result in an explosion, and all that we can reasonably hope
for, is the diminution of their frequency, or the mitigation of their
severity.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
ANNUAL MEETING, THURSDAY, AUGUST 6, 1863, IN THE ROOMS OP THE
INSTITUTE, WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NICHOLAS WOOD, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
After the reading of the minutes of the Council, the Secretary read the
Annual Report, and Mr. Daglish read the Finance Committee's Report. The
following' new memhers were then elected, viz.:—Mr. Thos. Heppell,
Littletown Colliery, Durham; Mr. Arthur Sopwith, Hetton Colliery, Fence
Houses; Mr. George Wright, Hetton, Fence Houses; Mr. G. G. Lewis, Coleorton
Colliery, Ashhy-de-la-Zouch; Mr. John Swallow, Harton Colliery, South
Shields; and Mr. Alexander Bowie, Canonbie Colliery, Hawick, N.B.
The President said, the meeting had better consider the important matters
brought before them in the Finance Committee's Report. The excess of
expenditure over income had been mainly caused by the expense connected with
the Birmingham Meeting. There would be no other way of making up the
deficiency but by economy. Probably next year they would be able to turn the
scale the other way. It was quite necessary, however, that they should keep
up the standard character of their publications, and not alter the nature of
their illustrations. He next came to a very important recommendation in the
report, and that was, the appointment of some person to receive all papers,
together with an abstract of each paper. It was desirable to have such
abstract prepared, though it had never been done yet. The person so
appointed should also be responsible for preparing papers for the press.
This was a very much greater task than they had any idea of; and he thought
the appoint-Vol. XII.—August, 1863.
w
146
ment of such a person would be productive of considerable economy. Hitherto
the publication of the papers had not been attended to with that strict
economy of which they were capable. He perfectly concurred in what the
Committee had recommended, and he should be glad to hear any observations on
the appointment of such a person. They had considered it over in the
Council, and they had in view the appointment of a gentleman who had already
performed some important duties connected with the Institute. He referred to
the labelling' of the fossils belonging- to the Institute. The gentleman to
whom he referred was quite capable of identifying fossils of any kind. He
was also a gentleman of considerable literary talent, and would be able to
support the character of their publications in a literary point of view. He
referred to Mr. Howse, of South Shields, who was quite willing to undertake
the duties, at a salary which he was sure was extremely low. It was not
necessary that Mr. Howse should be constantly employed. A great part of the
business might be done in his own house.
Mr. Sopwith said, in the Geological Society of London the papers were
similar to those which came before this Institute, and every paper-was
invariably submitted either to one or two gentlemen—one member of the
Council, and sometimes to one not in the Council, or not necessarily a
member of the Society. These gentlemen had the duty of reporting whether the
whole of the papers ought to be printed, or only a portion of them, and also
of reporting whether the plans accompanying them ought to be published in
extenso, or whether they would admit of considerable reduction, or require
separate plates. He had no doubt whatever, if they looked over the papers of
the geological proceedings which were published weekly, they would iind a
great number of extremely interesting sections contained in the form of
small woodcuts on a page, which, being accompanied by descriptive
letterpress, were read and viewed at the same time with the description. He
thought very great economy would arise in the proceedings of the Institute
if considerable attention were given to this point. He thought that the
appointment of some one, whose duty it would be to examine the papers with
reference to this, would lead, not only to economy, but to usefulness.
Whether the Institute might, at any future time, think it desirable to
supersede that arrangement or not, he thoug'ht, in the meantime, they could
not do better than entrust these duties to Mr. Howse, a man of great
scientific attainments. In justice to him, they should leave him
untrammelled, and see how those duties were performed; and if per-
147
formed to the satisfaction of the Institute, they would have done a great
good. He begged to propose that this appointment be made.
Mr. Potter seconded the motion, he thought the Finance Committee had taken a
wise course in drawing their attention to this as a matter of economy and
general usefulness. The members of the Institute were greatly indebted to
the President for the trouble he had taken in the revision of papers
hitherto; but they ought not to trespass anymore upon his time, but make the
appointment which was now recommended.
Mr. Boyd said, the only question was as to the necessity of having two
Secretaries.
The President said, Mr. Doubleday's duties were essentially different, and
the two would go on quite in harmony.
The Secretary said, after what had passed, it was only proper, as regarded
himself, that he should state some of the circumstances attending his being
in the position which he now held. He was appointed Secretary in 1854. He
did not ask for the appointment. He never dreamed of being the Secretary, as
he was not a professional man. It had always appeared to him that it would
be better if their Secretary were a professional man, though he ought also
to be a man of literaiy ability. However, after the meeting in 1854, their
President and the late Mr. Anderson came to him in the Coal Trade Office and
offered him the situation unsolicited. He replied, that he would be glad to
be of service to them, and was willing to take the routine duties and make
entries in the books. If he could aid their arrangements now he was willing
to do so, either by resigning the office or taking a reduced salary.
Mr. Sopwith said, it would quite militate against the utility of the person
to be appointed if he were to be saddled with these additional duties, which
were now so ably performed by Mr. Doubleday.
The President said, there was quite sufficient work for both.
The motion was carried by show of hands.
A discussion then took place on certain proposed alterations of the rules. A
proposal to increase the number of Vice-Presidents to seven was negatived by
eleven votes to nine.
Mr. Marley said, as one of the Rules Committee it would be in his place to
remark, since hearing the Finance Committee's Report read this morning, that
it would be as well to appoint the Rules Committee, with instructions to
cooperate with the Finance Committee, so as to carry out their respective
recommendations jointly. There were certain recommendations of the Finance
Committee as to the issuing of notices. Some
148
of these could be carried out without the adaptation of rules to them. Let
them be separate committees, but let them confer together.
The President said, he thought the Council should exercise jurisdiction over
both committees.
The Rules Committee was then reappointed.
Mr. T. E. Forster brought forward the following motion, namely, " That
members use their influence with their employers to induce them to subscribe
to this Institute, and to call their attention to the privileges accruing to
themselves as coalowners, and their under officers, by so doing.
Mr. Sopwith seconded the motion.
The President said, he thought the coalowners had neglected them. He thought
the Institute was deserving of far more patronage than it had obtained. The
collieries with which he was connected subscribed £30 out of £63 subscribed
by all the trade. It was only the coalowners in their neighbourhood that did
subscribe.
Mr. Sopwith said, a great deal might be done, and he would speak to parties
himself. He did not believe that any provincial institution in the kingdom
had produced such volumes of proceedings as that Institution had done.
The motion was carried by a show of hands.
The officers for the ensuing year were then appointed, and the meeting
adjourned.
COAL MINING, Ac.
By N. WOOD, J. TAYLOR, & J. MARLEY.
In the preparation of the following papers, those to whom they have heen
entrusted have availed themselves of the Plans and Sections of the Coal
Eield of Northumberland and Durham (four in number), which were prepared for
the Coal Trade, under the supervision of Mr. William Oliver, Colliery
Viewer, Stanhope, Weardale, and sent by the Coal Trade to the International
Exhibition of 1862, and which are now exhibited on the walls of this room.
They would also draw attention to two most valuable papers by the late
eminent mining engineer, Mr. Thomas John Taylor, one of which he read before
the Archaeological Society, in this town, in 1852, and the other before the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers, at Birmingham, in 1859; to a paper read
in this town, in 1858, by Mr Nicholas Wood, to the Institute of Mechanical
Engineers; and also to the several papers read to the North of England
Institute of Mining Engineers by Messrs. Wood, Boyd, Dunn, Gibsone, Hall,
and others, which have been published in their Transactions, and contain
detailed particulars of the Geology and Deposits of the Northern Coal
Eields; and to the papers by Messrs. Wood, Bewick, and Marley on the
Cleveland Ironstone District.
Eor the purpose of illustrating and explaining the subjects included in this
Section, the following divisions have been adopted, viz.:—
1. Geological Description of the Northern Coal Eield, including the Dykes
intersecting it, and other prominent features.
2. 0»i the Economic and Industrial Uses of the various Beds of Coal in the
North of England Coal Field, and their local distribution.
3. The Early History of the Coal and Coke Trade, more particularlv
referring to this District.
Vol. XII.—August, 1863.
x
150
4. A brief Statement of the Development of the Coal and Coke Trade up to
the present time, including some important Statistics.
5. An Account of New Discoveries and their Application, explaining the
manner in which they affect the Coal and Coke Trade.
6. On the Sinking of Pits and the Drainage of Mines.
7. On the Mode of Working Mines.
8. On the Ventilation and Lighting of Mines.
9. On the Underground Conveyance of Coal.
10. On the Effects produced by the Introduction of Eailways, Locomotives,
Screw Steamers, and Inland Competition on the Commercial Character and
Condition of the Northern Coal Trade.
11. On the Duration of the Coal Field.
A reference to the Coal Trade Map, and to the map and sections accompanying
this paper, will show that the principal rivers of this district are
geologically situated as follows:—
TYNE.
The south branch of this river rises in the eastern flank of Cross Fell, in
the series of rocks of the carboniferous formation, above the Great Whin
Sill, which are denominated " Yoredale" Eocks by Professor Phillips. It
flows northerly through the whole series of the Yoredale rocks, till those
are thrown down to the north by the great Ninety-Eathom or Stublick Dyke.
Then it takes an easterly course, running along the depression caused by
this dyke, through the Yoredale series, receiving the North Tyne between
Haydon Bridge and Hexham. Below the latter place it passes through the
Millstone Grit series, till, on reaching Stocksfield, it cuts through the
lower parts of the Coal Measures, over which it flows for 20 miles, till it
reaches the s"ea at Tynemouth, near the junction of the Coal Measures and
the Permian Bocks. The North Tyne rises in the Scar-limestone series of the
carboniferous formation, cuts through the coal beds of the Plashetts
district—crosses the Great Whin Sill below Wark, and then traverses a
portion of the Yoredale Bocks, till it joins the South Tyne. It has for the
most part a south-easterly course.
WEAB.
The Wear rises, and is enclosed, in a narrow valley, bounded by the valleys
of the Tyne and Tees. It flows easterly over the carbonife-
151
rous rocks of the Yoredale series, cutting them deeply, and forming a
section from the Great Whin Sill to the Millstone Grit series, which it
traverses ; and on entering the Coal Measures it is deflected to the north
by the elevated escarpment of the magnesian limestone. It runs through the
denuded valley of the Coal Measures, nearly parallel with this escarpment,
till it approaches the valley of the Tyne, when it suddenly deflects to the
east, and passes through a denudation of the magnesian limestone to the sea
at Sunderland.
TEES.
The Tees rises high up the south-eastern flank of Cross Eell, in the
Yoredale series of the carboniferous limestone. It flows nearly due east
through a deep valley, cut into the Cross Eell Bange. At the foot of this
valley it formed, in more ancient times, a lake, the bed of which, forming a
broadish river channel, exists to the present day, and is called the "
Wheel." At the lower extremity of the " Wheel" the river precipitates itself
in a fine waterfall (Cauldron Snout) over the Great Whin Sill, which attains
nearly its maximum thickness in this locality. It then, joined by a small
tributary, runs through a deepened valley, which, in all probability, it has
cut for itself through the Whin Sill for several miles, when again, at the
High Eorce, it is precipitated over the same bed, which has been thrown down
by a fault. After extricating itself from its Whin Sill barrier, it flows,
with a somewhat more easterly course, through a more open valley, and
intersects the upper beds of the Yoredale Bocks, the Millstone Grit series,
and cuts through the Magnesian-limestone near Pierce Bridge, and has the
remainder of its course, which has now become sluggish, through the
sandstones of the New Bed Sandstone formation. Near its mouth commences the
Liassic series of rocks, containing among its members the valuable beds of
ironstone of the Cleveland district.
A very good general view of the Northern Coal Field, with its various seams
of Coal and the depths of the different Pits, will be obtained by an
examination of the Coal Trade Plans and Sections, viz. :—
1. Section from North to South, from the river Coquet, at the northern
extremity of the lower beds of the coal field, to South Wingate, the
southernmost colliery in the south of the County of Durham, where it seems
to end by the passage upwards of the two workable seams into the
unconformable magnesian limestone. (See section 4.)
2. Section from East to West, from Tynemouth, at the mouth of the Tyne, to
Heddon-on-the-Wall, on the north of the Tyne.
152
3. Section from East to West, from Monkwearmouth, near the mouth of the
Wear, to Hownes Gill. (See section 3.)
In order to identify the various seams of each district, a synopsis of the
nomenclature is here given, corrected down to the present date, from the
original paper, read before the Natural History Society of
New-castle-on-Tyne, in 1830, by the late eminent mining engineer, John
Buddie, Esq.
153
No. 1.—GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE NORTHERN COAL FIELD, ITS DYKES, AND
OTHER PROMINENT FEATURES.
The outer boundaries of the great basin of the Coal Measures of
Northumberland and Durham are well defined and explored (with the exception
of a portion on the southern side) by the outcrop of the various beds around
the northern and western sides—by the various sinkings and workings of the
coal along the coast on the eastern side—and by the workings of the several
collieries opened out on the southern and western sides of the coal field.
These are shown on the large Coal Trade Map exhibited, and on the reduced
map annexed to this paper. On these the great coal field basin proper is
coloured dark. It reposes upon and is conformable to the millstone grit
series of rocks, and it is covered, on the southeastern side, by the
Lower-new-red sandstone and Magnesian limestone. The Coal Trade sections on
a large scale, viz. :—A, B, and C, and the sections 3 and 4 on a small
scale, accompanying this paper, are illustrative of the regular coal field.
We desire to call attention to the general map, and to the three other
sections, Nos. 1, 2, and 5, on a small scale, which show the connection of
the great coal basin with the other underlying and subordinate coal beds
which are situated in the great series of deposits of the carboniferous or
mountain limestone formation, and which are, we assume, also connected with
the lower coal beds of the Lothians, and south and west of Scotland
generally.
The three Coal Trade sections, A, B, and C, and sections 3 and 4, exhibit,
generally, the various beds of coal occurring in the true coal measures. It
is, of course, difficult to delineate all the different beds of coal
accurately on a comparatively small scale, and especially the strata between
each pit. All that has been attempted is, to show the strata through which
each pit has been sunk; between these sinkings approximate sections only can
be given or arrived at, but no doubt can exist as to the character of the
intermediate strata. They are essentially of the regular coal measures,
designated in the northern coal district as coal, post, or, sandstone, and
metal or shale, with all their admixtures and variations of mineral
composition.
Commencing at the northern outcrop, near the mouth of the Coquet,
154
and taking a circuit around the edges of the basin, the lowest coal beds
crop out to the surface, resting on the millstone grit series, which are
strictly conformable to the coal measures. Prom this point, and all along
the western edge of the basin southwards, the coal beds, rising gently from
east to west, consecutively crop out to the surface over the lands of
Blagdon, Ponteland, the ancient commons of Throckley Fell, Hedley "Fell,
Lan-chester Common, Wokingham Common, Hamsterley, Evenwood, and Brusselton,
crossing the Tyne near Horsley Wood, and the Wear to the west of Witton
Castle.
At Ferry Hill, Westerton, Black Boy, Eldon, and Brusselton the escarpment of
the magnesian limestone is reached, and here covers the coal measures,
resting upon them unconformably, forming prominent faces of quarries, &c,
and running in a diagonal line from thence to the sea coast at South Shields
and Tynemouth. The coal measures to the east of that line of escarpment, and
along the Durham coast, being covered by the magnesian limestone. The
southern termination of the coal beds from Brusselton direct eastward has
not yet been clearly defined. In those collieries where the workings have
been pursued to their junction with the limestone, as at South Wingate,
Cornforth, and Thrisling-ton, the coal beds are terminated by passing
upwards at a considerable angle into the unconformable limestone beds, but
these explorations have not extended far along the supposed southern
boundary of the coal field, though they are decisive as to the termination
of the coal beds where they have been made.
Along the eastern boundary, the position of the coal beds from Wark-worth to
the southern extremity, near South Wingate, are pretty clearly defined by
the various sinkings and workings of the different collieries along the
coast At the extreme northern edge of the basin the coal beds dip to the
east or towards the sea; at Kadcliffe and to Newbiggen they also dip
eastwards; south of Newbiggen to Hartley, the declination is south-east.
Then again, from Hartley to Tynemouth, the rise is about east. Along the
coast, from South Shields to Marsden, after rising to the east, the coal
beds begin to dip eastwards, and in Harton royalty a southern and eastern
declination takes place towards the point of greatest depression, or bottom
of the basin, east of Monkwearmouth. From thence southwards to Castle Eden,
a distance of thirteen miles, and near the southern extremity of the coal
field, the declination continues eastward.
The foregoing are the general outlines of the boundaries and the dip of the
coal field proper along the sea coast.
155
Before describing the other subordinate coal beds within the great
carboniferous series of rocks, we shall point out some peculiarities
incidental to the coal field proper.
Taking the sea coast as a datum line, and the high water level of the sea as
a datum level, it will be seen by the sections exhibited that the lower beds
of the coal measures approach the surface at a certain depth beneath the
datum line at Warkworth, the northern extremity of the coal field; and that
at South Wingate (the southern extremity) they terminate at about the same
distance below the sea level. Between the two extremes, the line of coast
passes through a very great depression of the strata, designated locally a "
swelly," and constituting that feature generally met with in coal fields
which is properly termed a lasin. This greatest depression takes place near
the town of Sunderland, where the coal beds are at a depth of 300 fathoms,
or 1,800 feet, below the level of the sea, and certainly 1,000 to 1,440 feet
below the level at each extremity. The coal beds rise out of the swelly at
Monkwearmouth from a depth of 1,800 feet below the sea, to the westward,
until they reach the crop of the coal at Hownes Gill, as shown by the Coal
Trade section C, where the same beds crop out at an elevation of 740 feet
above the level of the sea, showing a rise in the beds or strata of 2,540
feet. From these facts it would appear, therefore, that a very large portion
of the coal field, none of which may be said to be explored, is covered by
the sea. This depends, of course, upon the extent of denudation, and upon
the covering of the unconformable magnesian limestone which, near the point
of the greatest depth of the coal measures, is probably 300 feet in
thickness.
Taking the extreme depression of the strata at 1,800 feet, the extent of
coal field being about 20 miles to the north and west, makes the angle at
which the beds lie, to be generally very moderate, about 1 in 40. There are
some instances where the inclination is very considerable, but they are
entirely attributable to the occurrence of slip dykes, and are consequently
local disturbances.
Two extensive and considerable slip dykes, or faults, cross the entire coal
field from east to west, viz , the great Ninety-fathom Dyke, crossing the
coal field and subjacent millstone grit and mountain limestone from the sea,
near Cullercoats, on the east, to Tynedale Fell on the west. This dyke is
evidently one of depression, the beds being thrown down to the north and
bent over, at a distance of from 800 to 1,000 yards from the dyke, the dip
depending, apparently, on the
156
extent of the throw. They are depressed, on the dip side of the dyke, from
the regular inclination of 1 in 12 or 18, to 1 in 4 or 6. This dyke produces
an extraordinary prolongation of the coal field westwards along its course.
The lower beds, if they had remained at the regular inclination, would have
come to the surface about 20 miles from the sea; but, by being thrown down
to such an extent by the dyke, they form small detached coal fields at
Stublick, Coan Wood, Midgeholme or Hartley Burn, &c, or strips of coal
measures parallel to the dyke for 27 miles further west, that is, to a
distance of 47 miles from the sea.
The other dyke is called the Butterknowle Forty-fathom Dyke, the strata
being depressed along the south side of it to that extent.
There are several basaltic dykes likewise crossing the coal field. They have
generally an east and west direction, or nearly so, and apparently proceed
out of the great basaltic bed, or deposit of basalt, called the "Whin Sill,
which is situated among the carboniferous beds to the west. These dykes pass
through the beds of the coal measures in almost a direct line, and one of
them, the " Cockfield Dyke," extends into and passes through or under the
Permian, and intersects the New Bed Sandstone, Lias, and Oolitic beds. Some
of these dykes are shown on the Coal Trade Map, and on the map attached to
this paper.
A few geological peculiarities connected with the slip dykes may be
mentioned. 1st. That, though they generally pass through each bed of coal,
they do not universally do so; neither do they affect each bed of coal to
the same extent. 2nd. That they are generally slip dykes of depression, the
irregularities in the inclination of the beds being usually on the depressed
side of the dyke. 3rd. That they hare not taken place at the same period of
time is shown by their occasionally crossing each other. And as regards the
whin dykes, that the intrusion of those dykes occurred subsequent to the
consolidation of the coal and other strata, as shown by the effect of the
heat of the molten basalt on the various conducting powers of the strata of
the several coal seams, and other beds, in their present consolidated state
; and that they do not generally elevate or depress the strata through which
they pass, but that their line of direction is often changed by coming in
contact with a slip dyke, showing apparently that their irruption has
occurred subsequent to the formation of the slip dykes. The passage of these
basaltic dykes into and through the unconformable overlying Permian beds has
not yet been observed.
157
As regards the present statical position of the coal field, assuming that
when the beds were deposited their arrangement would be level, which is
perhaps corroborated by the parallelism of the beds of coal, we find, taking
the line of the coast as the base, that in that line, north and south, the
extremities are at present substantially level, whilst there is a great
depression in the centre. And we also see, that from this line the beds rise
gradually to the west, out of the lowest point or line of deepest
depression, to an extent of 1,000 feet, showing that a general distribution,
since the deposition and consolidation of the beds, has taken place to the
west to that extent. And, if we assume that the magnesian limestone was
likewise deposited horizontally, it would also show that this unconformable
and subsequent deposit has been elevated, but not to the same extent, or at
the same period, as that of the coal measures, as will be seen from the
present position of these beds.
We shall now make a few observations on the other underlying strata within
the counties of Northumberland and Durham, to which we have previously
alluded, and in doing so, we shall be obliged to make a few brief allusions
to the entire carboniferous series extending from the Silurian rocks of
Berwickshire and Boxburghshire, in Scotland, to the boundaries of the
regular or upper coal measure at Warkworth, on the Coquet. As, however, the
whole series of the carboniferous rocks, from the millstone grit to the red
sandstone of the Tweed, and their connection with the Silurian slates, has
been described in detail, in several papers written on the subject, and read
before the Mining Institute, we do not require to do more in this paper than
to refer to them generally. The section, published some years ago, by Mr.
Westgarth Forster, and reprinted in the Transactions of the Mining
Institute, Vol. XL, gives a general account of the various beds of the coal
and carboniferous series in the Alston district. And as Professor Phillips,
in his Geology of Yorkshire, has also given valuable information on the
subject, these investigations, and those of the Mining Institute, may be
made the basis of our remarks on this occasion. It will be seen, that
underlying the millstone grit are what have been termed the upper limestone
beds, Yoredale rocks, within which occur two well-defined beds of coal,
which stretch across the county of Northumberland from Shilbottle, on the
sea coast, to Blenkinsop and Talkin, in Cumberland. These, in position, lie
above the well-known bed of basalt called the Whin Sill, which extends
through the same extent of country, and likewise into Yorkshire, where it
has been so accurately described by Professor Phillips. Below the Whin
Sill, and connected
Vol. XII—August, 1863.
y
158
wdth beds lying above the lowest beds of the Scar-limestone series, there
have been developed extensive coal beds in the North of Northumberland, at
Scremerston, and in the south-west of the county at Plashetts. The former
have been described by Mr. Boyd, and the latter by Mr. Wood, in Vol. XI. of
the Transactions of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers.
These coal beds at present occupy a subordinate value in a commercial sense,
compared with the coal seams proper. The section at Scremerstou, however,
exhibits several beds of coal, having an aggregate thickness of 90 feet; and
they occur in that part of the carboniferous series, which is much older
than the regular coal beds. Such a formation is certainly an occurrence well
worthy the consideration of geologists. "We would, therefore, refer to these
two papers for further details on this subject.
As regards these coal beds, also, a question arises, whether they are not
contemporaneous with the lower coal beds of the great western coal fields of
Scotland. In one of the papers above alluded to, Mr. Wood has given some
sections, and has made some observations, illustrative of this view of the
question, which are respectfully submitted to the consideration of the
society. Two of these sections, showing the assumed position of the various
groups of beds, are given in the paper attached to this communication, Nos.
1, 2, and 5. It is an enquiry well worthy of further investigation, as well
as that of the coal field of Canonbie, described by Mr. Gibsone, in Vol. XI.
of the Transactions of the Mining Institute, and wbich want of space in this
communication will not allow us to notice, further than to refer to the
paper itself.
We would briefly glance at the importance, in every point of view,
especially geologically and commercially, of that series of deposits
comprehended within the carboniferous era, commencing with the old red
sandstone as a base, and ending with the Permian series. We pass through, in
such era, strata containing all the coal, iron, and lead of Scotland and
North of England. These alone, which form only a portion of such series of
deposits, are well worthy of the study and attention of such a body as the
British Association visiting the Northern Counties. And as the complete
series lies within the area of the counties of JN orthumberland and Durham,
in directing the attention of the meeting to such an enquiry, we trust we
are not overstepping the duty imposed upon us, when we undertook to lay
before it some observations on the coal, coke, and coal mining in these
districts.
159
No. 2.—ON THE ECONOMIC USES OF THE VARIOUS BEDS OF COAL IN THE NORTH: OF
ENGLAND COAL FIELD.
The beds of coal of the Northumberland and Durham coal fields produce the
following descriptions of coal, viz. :—
1. Household Fire Coal.
2. Gas Coal.
3. Manufacturing Coal.
4. Steam Coal.
5. Coking Coal.
1.—Household Fire Coal would probably be the description of coal first in
request, and those beds which cropped out to the surface, and were most
easily worked, would be first used, whether they were best adapted for
domestic purposes or not. Hence we find it recorded in the earliest period
of the coal trade, that all the beds were indiscriminately worked and used
as household fire coal; their use depending, not upon their peculiar
adaptation for that purpose, but upon the comparative facility with which
such coal could be procured. As time progressed, and the means of working
other beds were discovered, and when the various purposes fcr which coal was
required also became numerous, then that description which was best adapted
for the specific purpose for which it was required would be worked and used
; therefore, at the time when house firing was mostly required, a
description of coal was used as household fire coal, which, when burnt, left
no residue, or produced few, if any ashes, particularly white ashes, and
which gave out the greatest quantity of heat under those conditions, and
burnt in a steady and uniform manner.
2.—When gas lighting was introduced, a coal was required which produced in
its combustion the greatest possible quantity of gas, the purity of the gas
being also an important object, together with cheapness.
3.—On the application of steam-driven machinery to our manufactories, a coal
which produced the greatest amount of heat, without destroying the fire bars
of the engine furnaces, and leaving as little residue as possible, or only a
small quantity of white ashes, and therefore constituting an open burning
coal, was preferred for steam engines. This was called manufacturing coal.
160
4.—When steam engines became more numerous, and, particularly, when the use
of coal for steamboat engines became extended, a coal adapted for raising
the largest quantity of steam, open burning, compact and hard, and not
liable to break into small coal and form dust, and which, when used in long
voyages and exposed to different temperatures of climate, did not fall into
pieces, was required, then a class of coal called steam coal was in demand.
5.—Lastly, when the use of locomotive engines on railways was introduced for
the conveyance of passengers, there was a statutory enactment made that coke
only should be employed as fuel. An extraordinary demand then arose for
colcing coal, or that description of coal which produced the largest
quantity of coke free from sulphur, and leaving no clinker on the grate
bars, but which was open burning, or produced a small quantity of white
ashes, to keep the fire bars from being burnt. Recently, however, the
locomotive engineers have succeeded, to a considerable extent, in preventing
the formation of smoke, thus rendering the use of coke comparatively
unnecessary. Still there is a considerable demand for coke for locomotive
engines, as well as for making iron and steel, and in malting, brewing, &c
On referring to the synopsis of the several beds of coal produced by the
Northern Coal Field, it will be seen that this coal field produces all the
various descriptions of coal required for the purposes enumerated above, and
in some part or other it produces the best description of coal required for
each specific purpose. For instance, taking the several purposes separately—
1. Household Fire Coal.—The best household fire coal was for a long period
of years produced from the High Main coal of the Tyne (C in the synopsis)
the immediate colliery from which it was produced being Walls-end on the
Tyne, and hence the origin of the designation " Wallsend," to distinguish
the " Best Household Fire Coal." This coal was also produced at the various
collieries of Percy Main, Walker, Heaton, Willington, &c, on the Tyne. It
was not that coal of similar, or indeed, as afterwards turned out, of
superior quality, was not produced on the Wear and Tees, but the coal of
such quality on the Wear being mixed with and sold with other coals of an
inferior quality, no coal of that river, or indeed in the whole coal field,
bore such an excellent character or sold at such high prices as the "
Wallsends" of the Tyne. Time, however, arrived when the Hutton coal seam of
the Wear was sold unmixed with other coal; and, being found in the
neighbourhood of Eainton, Lambton,
161
and Hetton of very superior quality, it was brought into the market as a
Wallsend coal. The superior Wallsends of the Tyne being worked out, it took
their place, and, up to the present time, has been sold as the best Wallsend
coal. This coal is now produced from the Hutton seam (K) of the neighbouring
collieries of Stewart, Lambton, Hetton, and Has-well. The only coal for a
long period on the Tees approaching to the quality of the Wallsends of the
Wear was Tees Wallsend, or the five quarter and main coal of the Black Boy
Colliery (^D and F), but, more recently, the five-quarter seam (D) in the
Hartlepool district has produced a coal approaching to the Wear Wallsends.
Household fire coal, of second or inferior quality, is produced from the
collieries of all the other localities, as shown in the synopsis. On the map
these localities are unshaded, the localities for best coal being shown by
lines crossed at right angles.
2. Gas Coal.—The best gas coal is produced from the Hutton seam (K) which
also, as before stated, produces the best household coal; not that the
chemical analysis of the coal is different, but the coal is of a less
compact nature, liable to disintegration, and, as such, it is not fitted or
saleable as a first-class household coal, and, consequently, it is of less
value for that purpose, but equally valuable as a gas coal. This kind of
coal is obtained from the Felling, Pelaw, Pelton, Peareth, &c, collieries,
and from some of the lower seams on the l'yne. It is shown on the map by
oblique lines at an angle of 45°.
It is also produced by the same seam on the Wear, and from the Brockwell
seam (S) on the Tees.
3. Steam Coal.—The best coal for steam purposes is also from a tract of
the Hutton seam, lying to the north of the Ninety-fathom Dyke in the Hartley
district, and comprising almost all the coal north of that dyke, along the
coast from Hartley, and to the crop of the coal in those districts, to
Warkworth. It is a curious coincidence that the same bed of coal, the Hutton
seam (K) is not only continuous throughout the whole extent of the coal
field, from Warkworth, in the north, to Haswell and South Hetton, in the
south (nearly the southernmost extremity of the coal field), but that it
also yields the best description of three different varieties of coal,
suitable for purposes not at all similar to each other, viz. :—the best
household, the best gas, and the best steam coal. The locality of this coal
is shown by perpendicular lines on the map attached to this report.
4. Colcing and Manufacturing Coal.—The best coking coal is got from
162
the lower beds of the Tyne. Manufacturing coal (0. P. Q.), either separate
or mixed with a gas coal (K), is associated with it, and is obtained from
the lowest seam in the Auckland district (S). This is what might be
expected, as the properties of a good manufacturing coal, or coal for
engines and manufacturing purposes, being very much what coke is applied to.
The lower seams at Marley Hill (K and R), Gares-fleld, Wylam, Towneley, &c,
are the seams which have produced the best coal for manufacturing purposes
on tbe Tyne for years. They all produce a first-rate quality of coke.
The lowest seams at Etherley, Brancepeth, Black Boy, &c, are the seams
parallel to the Garesfield or Brockwell seam (S.), they produce also a
first-rate quality of coke. These two series of beds produce the best
description, and the great bulk of coke for the locomotives and for the iron
furnaces of Cleveland, whilst the second rate coke is produced from the
Harvey or Beaumont seam (0.), and from the washed small coal of the Hutton
seam (K.) The locality of the best description' of coke is shown on the map
by horizontal lines.
The Newcastle coal field is essentially a bituminous coal deposit. It does
not contain any anthracite, nor, with the exception of a thin bed in a
limited locality, does it contain any cannel coal. Its specific gravity
being from 1-2 to 1*5, and the quantity of carbon 72 to 75 per cent.
It is almost unnecessary, in a paper of this description, to enumerate all
the different purposes to which coal is applied, or the important and
invaluable uses of that mineral. Not only fireside comfort, but the
manufacturing and commercial industry of the entire civilised globe is
indebted, more or less, to its powerful effects, and the conveyance of
almost the entire population of the world, whether travelling by sea, land,
or water, testifies to its universal aid, whilst its chemical properties in
distillations produce the most beautiful dyes that have yet been discovered.
It has been calculated that an acre of coal, 4 feet in thickness, produces
as much carbon as 115 acres of full grown forest—and that a bushel of coal
(841bs.), consumed carefully is capable of raising 70,000,0001bs. one foot
high; and that the combustion of 2lbs. of coal gives out power sufficient to
raise a man to the summit of Mont Blanc. The aggregate steam power
calculated at 83,635,214 horse power of Great Britain and Ireland alone, is
calculated as equal to 400 million men, or equal to twice the power of the
adult population of the globe; and by its aid the genius of the present
generation is enabled to transport vessels of above 20,000 tons burden
across the Atlantic in nine or ten days; and trains of
163
300 or 400 persons at the rate of 60 miles an hour—a performance which the
combined efforts of the adult population of the whole globe would be unable
to accomplish.
The various descriptions of coal, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, above referred to,
are marked upon the Map of the Coal Field, thus
EXPLANATION OF WOODCUT.
1. Household Coal.—Indicated on the general map by lines crossed at
right angles.
2. Gas Coal.—By oblique lines.
3. Steam Coal.—By perpendicular lines.
4. Coking and Manufacturing Coal—By horizontal lines.
164
No. 3.-THE EARLY HISTORY OF COAL AND COKE, AND PARTICULARLY IN THE NORTHERN
DISTRICTS.
The earliest record of coal in sacred history is contained in Leviticus
(xvi., 12), b.c, 1490, in which the priest is commanded to take ** a censer
full of burning coals of fire" and sprinkle incense thereon. It is quite
possible, however, that here the word " coal" may mean charcoal, although
the existence of coal in Syria is now placed beyond a doubt, as seams of
coal crop out and appear at the surface, at various elevations, on the
mountains of Lebanon, and a mine has been worked near Beyrout, 2,500 feet
above the sea, where the seams are three feet thick.*
Job also makes mention of coals, and coal is mentioned elsewhere in
early sacred history.
Early mention is made of coal (b.c. 371) under the name " Lithan-thrax" by a
Greek author,! as being found at Ellis, and used by smiths. However doubtful
the above references may seem, there can, however, be little doubt that the
Ancient Britons (prior to the invasion of the Romans) used coal, although
not referred to by the Roman writers. The numerous forests existing in
Britain, before the Roman invasion, would naturally prevent the seeking of a
substitute for wood; but, as the forests were cleared, coal, at the "
outcrop" of the seams, would naturally be worked, in order to mitigate the
severity of the climate. It has been proved that coal was worked partially
by the Romans, not only by the discovery of tools near the stations on the
Roman "Wall, but cinders have also been frequently
met with.
Again, Tennant refers to the circumstance of a flint axe being found at the
outcrop of a seam of coal in Monmouthshire, and this would also tend to
prove that coal had been worked by the Ancient Britons.
In a.d. 852, there is a record of the Abbey of Peterboro' receiving twelve
cart loads of fossil, or pit coal.
Eor some long period after this, there is scarcely any record of the use
of coal.
In a.d. 1180, there occurs in Bishop Pudsey's book (Bishop of Durham), a
grant of land to a collier, for providing coals for the cart-smith at
Coundon, in the county of Durham; similar grants being made at
Bishopwearmouth and Sedgefield, in the same county.
* See Dr. Bowring's report. t Theophrastus, B.C. 371.
165
In a.d. 1239, Henry III. granted a charter to the freemen of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne to dig coals in the castle fields; and, shortly after
this, coal was sent to London.
Marco Polo mentions the use of coal in China in the 13th century, and it is
supposed to have been used there much earlier.
In a.d. 1305, towards the end of Edward I.'s reign, considerable quantities
of coals were used by brewers, smiths, &c.
This was followed by much complaint being made of the injurious effects of
the smoke, and the burning of coal was prohibited, and by commission from
the King, fines levied to prevent it. Nothing, however, resulted from this
prohibition, as 10s. worth of coals were used at the King's coronation, a
few years afterwards.
In a.d. 1351, Edward III. granted a license to the freemen of Newcastle to
work coals without the town walls; and about a.d. 1367, coals were also
worked in the neighbourhood of Winlaton, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Cockfield Pell Colliery is recorded as one of the early landsale collieries
in the county of Durham.
In a.d. 1379, the first government tax was laid on coal.
In a.d. 1421, a duty of 2d per chaldron was paid to the crown " on all coals
sold to persons not franchised in the port of Newcastle." This duty having
got into arrear, payment was demanded by Queen Elizabeth, and, in lieu of
arrears, a duty of Is. per chaldron was imposed, which was enforced to the
time of Charles II., when it was settled on his natural son, the Duke of
Richmond. In 1799, it was sold to the government for an annuity of £19,000,
and ultimately repealed in 1831, after being continued upwards of 400 years.
This tax was peculiar to the Tyne.
Queen Elizabeth imposed a tax of 5s. per chaldron on coals sent oversea, to
which King James I. added 3s. 4d. per chaldron, and an additional Is. 8d.
per chaldron on coals exported in foreign ships.
After the great fire of London the Lord Mayor was granted an impost of Is.
per chaldron for rebuilding the city, which was further increased to 3s. An
additional tax by parliament of 2s. per chaldron was imposed in 1670, for
the purpose of rebuilding fifty-two parish churches, and, in 1677, a further
tax of 3s. was imposed, partly for rebuilding St. Paul's. The duties for
rebuilding churches continued during Queen Anne's reign.
The taxes on coal during the 18th century underwent many changes, and in the
great war the government duty was as high as 9s. 4d. per chaldron.
Various other duties have been from time to time enforced, which have
Vol. XII.—August, 1863.
z
166
since all been repealed except the City and Orphan's Duty (payable at
present) amounting to Is. Id. per ton.
In 1612, Simon Stentevant obtained a patent for making iron with pit and sea
coal, wood having been previously used; at this time with the use of coal
about three tons per week, per furnace, could be made.
In a.b. 1619, Dad Dudley used pit coal, in Worcestershire, for the
manufacture of iron, having taken a patent for 31 years.
'' Poor Dudley lost most of his property, and was imprisoned for debt; and
when Cromwell came into power, he had the mortification of seeing a patent
granted to one Captain Buck, for making iron with pit coal. He states that
Cromwell and many of his officers were partners in the scheme, which,
however, failed."
" Dudley does not seem to have been successful in his undertaking, and with
him died, for a time, the art of making iron with pit coal."
In a.d. 1686, in Dr. Piatt's History of Staffordshire, speaking of coal and
its uses, he says, " for smelting, fining, and refining of iron it cannot be
brought to do."
" It was not until 1713 that we hear of any further attempts in this way,
wben Mr. Darby, of Colebrook Dale, is referred to as smelting iron with pit
coal. The process, however, must have been ill understood, and little known,
for, in 1747, it is stated in the Philosophical Transactions, as a sort of
curiosity, that Mr. Pord, from iron ore and coal, both got in the same
place, makes iron brittle or tough, as he pleases ; there being cannon thus
cast, so soft as to bear turning like wrought iron."
" While the change in fuel was being brought about, the manufacture declined
so rapidly that, in 1740, the number of furnaces in England was 59, being
only three-fourths of their previous number, and the annual produce was only
17,350 tons. As the use of coke became understood, the manufacture revived,
so that, in 1788, the number of tons of pig iron produced was 61,300, as
already stated; in 1796, the quantity was increased to 108,793 tons; in
1806, to 250,000 tons; in 1820, to 330,000 tons; in 1827, to 654,500 tons;
in 1845, to 1,250,000 tons; and in 1851, to 2,500,000 tons. In this year,
the exports of pig iron were upwards of 1,200,000 tons, besides tin plates,
hardware, cutlery, and machinery, bearing a total value of £10,424,139."
" The locality of the manufacture has also been affected by the change of
fuel. In 1740, Gloucester was the largest iron producing county in Great
Britain. Sussex had the greatest number of furnaces ; there were a few in
Kent, and a few in the Midland Counties, and along the Welsh
167
borders. After the introduction of coke, the coal counties assumed a far
greater importance in connection with iron than the woodland districts had
done."
" Cohe " was used about a.d. 1640, chiefly for drying malt (in Derbyshire).
Very little was done towards the application of coal to the manufacture of
iron until 1713, when it was commenced at Colebrook Dale.
Swedenborg, an able mineralogist, says, in a.d. 1734, " the use of coke not
brought to perfection."
a.d. 1763 appears to be the earliest period in which coke ovens are
mentioned, and M. Jars, in a work published in 1774, gives a drawing* of "
nine kilns at Newcastle, for destroying the sulphur and reducing coal to
cinders and coah."
In ad. 1788, 61,300 tons of pig iron were made, of which 48,200 were melted
with coke, and 13,100 with charcoal.
Also, in a.d. 1788, Dr. Ure speaks of several attempts to reduce iron ore
with " coalced" coal; and, about a.d. 1800, coke ovens were to be found on
the outcrops of the Brockwell coal seams, at Cockfield, Woodlands, Old
Woodifield, near Harperley, and other landsale pits in the southern part of
the county of Durham—and the coke was used for breweries and foundries.
About a.d. 1827, Birtley and Lemington Iron Works used coke, which was made
from Pontop Hutton seam.
a.d. 1843 to 1846.—The coke trade in the northern counties may be considered
as established previously to this date only at Garesfield, Wylam, and it was
made from the Busty, Harvey, and Brockwell coal seams.
The above remarks must he taken only as a general summary of the history of
coal and coke.
* A copy of this drawing is given in Mr. A. L. Steavenson's Paper on the
Manufacture of Coke, in vol. viii. of the Transactions of the North of
England Institute of Mining Engineers, in which paper, and in subsequent
discussions in vols. viii. and xi. almost every detail on the manufacture of
coke, by Mr. A. L. Steavenson, and others, will be found ; and also a
description of a patent oven by Mr. Kamsay.
168
No. 4.—BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COAL AND COKE TRADE UP TO
THE PRESENT TIME, COMPRISING THE MORE IMPORTANT STATISTICS.
The recorded statistics, referring to this subject, prior to 1828, will
necessarily be very concise and imperfect.
Tons. In 1602, the vend from Newcastle
was............................190,600
Coastwise. Foreign.
1609, Newcastle vend.......... 214,305 .. 24,956 ___
239,261
Sunderland „ .......... 9,265 .. 2,383 ....
11,648
Blyth „.......... 855 .. — ....
855
1621 to 1622, Newcastle........ 301,785 .. 43,755 ....
345,540
1622, the port of Stockton began to vend coals at the rate of 10 chaldrons
per annum.
Coastwise. Foreign.
1630, Newcastle.............. 253,380 .. 36,542 ...
289,922
1660, Newcastle and Sunderland............................ 537,000
1700, Do., Do. ...........................
653,000
1710, Newcastle................................. 475,000
Sunderland ................................ 175,000
------------ 650,000
1750, Newcastle and Sunderland...........................1,193,457
In 1861 Northumberland and Durham produced as follows—
Tons vended. Burnt or wasted. Tons raised. Total collieries.
19,144,965 + 2,404,000 = 21,548,965 271
The number of collieries being 13 less than 1860, but about one million more
tons of coals raised in that year. The total number of collieries were :—
Tons.
England........ 2,074 .. 63,870,123
Wales.......... 481 .. 8,561,021
Scotland........ 424 .. 11,081,000
Ireland........ 73 .. 123,070
3,052 83,635,214
And out of the £34,000,000 value exported from Great Britain, coals formed
£20,908,803.
169
We annex statistics of vends of coals, coastwise and foreign, from 1791 to
1862:
Coastwise vend. Foreign vend. Total vend.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
1791 .. 1,814,661 .. 264,944 .. '2,079,605
1795 .. 2,251,547 .. 418,885 .. 2,670,432
1800 .. 2,381,986 .. 138,089 .. 2,520,075
1805 .. 2,426,616 .. 147,146 ... 2,573,762
1810 .. 2,783,404 .. 50,922 .. 2,834,326
1815 ... 2,717,509 .. 159,174 .. 2,876,683
1820 .. 3,246,885 .. 158,340 .. 3,403,225
1825 .. 3,309,386 .. 178,544 .. 3,487,930
1830 .. 3,289,241 .. 341,062 .. 3,630,363
1835 .. 3,290,241 .. 494,485 .. 3,784,996
1840 .. 4,391,085 .. 1,196,299 .. 5,587,384
1845 .. 5,477,273 .. 1,731,113 .. 7,208,386
1850 . 6,295,570 .. 2,176,115 .. 8,471,685
1861 .. 6,405,395 .. 3,959,252 .. 10,364,647
1862 . 6,090,609 .. 4,044,181 .. 10,134,790
Brought down from 1861.
Tons.
Coastwise and foreign from north by sea ...................... 10,364,647
By rail—house coal ................................ 65,014
Gas coking, &c.....15,006........................ 30,000
Coke ............. 33,960..................... 67,930
162,934
10,527,581
Consisting of—House coal ................... 4,493,450
Gas Coal ____................ 1,717,000
Steam small, and manufacturing
coal ...................... 4,317,120
20,570
170
In 1810* the County of Durham vend and number of men employed was pretty
accurately ascertained, and resulted as follows, viz.:—River and sea vend
annually of 1,866,200 tons, and employing 7,011 men, from 33 collieries, by
river and sea sale, viz.:—
io to tne river lyne.
2 jointly to rivers Tyne and Wear. 16 to the river Wear.
0 to the river Tees.
Landsale .. 35 viz., 12 in Tyue and Wear district .. 59,360
.. 74 23 in Tees district ..........,. 146,552 .. 308
35 Total landsale tons___ 205,912 .. 382
33 River and seasale ___ 1,866,200 ..7.011
lotal---- 68 Collieries in county of Durham 2,072,112 .. 7,393
In 1854, by Hunt's Records, Northumberland and Durham,
Vend 15,420,615 Tons.
Do., Collieries.—Tyne and Blyth ........ 94
„ Wear and Seaham ...... 30
E. & W. Hartlepool & Tees 60
184 Landsale in all districts .. 41
Total ........ 225 Collieries.
Number of male persons estimated as being employed in coal mining, in 1854,
by Hunt is—
Durham..................... 28,265
Northumberlaad .............. 10,536
Total.......... 38,801
* In 1810 the geographical boundaries of the coal field of the County of
Durham were described thus—
On the east, by pits of Jarrow, Pensher, Rainton, Crow Trees, and Ferry
Hill.
On the west, by Wylam, Consett, Thornley, West Pits, and Woodlands.
On the north, by the River Tyne.
On the south, by Ferry Hill, Brusselton, and Woodhouses. Which were taken as
equal to 160,000 acres, the whole area of the county of Durham being put at
582,400 acres, and appropriated in area as—watersalo collieries one-third
and landsale as two-thirds, which watersale coal tract was then estimated to
contain 40,000 acres.
Its present increased boundaiies have been described fully in No. 1 of this
series.
171
In order to show the necessity of the further advance of science, it need
only be stated that, by the inspectors' reports for 1851 to 1860, both
inclusive, the average number of lives lost for the 10 years is 909 per
annum. In Great Britain we have, approximately, 3,000 collieries, in which
250,000 persons are engaged, of whom nearly 50,000 are employed directly in
Durham and Northumberland.
The number of people employed in the Northern Coal-trade may be
approximately estimated as follows :—
1852. 1863.
Men and boys employed underground ................ 29,600 .. 36,000
Do. above ground................ 7,900 ..
9,700
Do. in shipping coal .............. 1,300 ..
1,600
38,800 .. 47,300 Seamen and boys employed in the coasting trade, not
including those in oversea trade ................22,500 .. 25,000
Total.................61,300 .. 72,000
For the purpose of illustrating the rapid development of the coal and coke
trade, more especially in the southern parts of the county of Durham, since
1828, we next give tabular statements of the vends of the Stockton and
Darlington and West Hartlepool and Clarence Railways.
STOCKTON AND DARLINGTON RAILWAY.
oke & r-f
° ~i ^ a5
« 1 eg 2 ft ¦a 1S5 d oj d ime an meston onston
TOTAL.
1 « Coals I Hous Iro rf a HH
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons.
1. 1845.—The year before the
opening of Witton
Park Iron Works... 567,036 359,993 9,714 14" 936,757
2. 1846.—The date of do. opening 444,527 428,614 38,139 31,831
943,111
3. 1851.—The year of the opening
of Eston Mines ... 441,352 1,017,644 120,604 279,607 1,859,207
4. 1856.—Or last year............... 219,591 1,557,624 299,788
875,199 2,952,202
* Sent from Mlddlesbro' to Witton Park Iron Works.
172
PROGRESS OF TRAFFIC ON STOCKTON AND DARLINGTON RAILWAY AND BRANCHES, from
1828 to 1862, inclusive.
Coals & Coke Coals & Cinders Total Sundry Lime
Year. Exported. Landsale. Tons
a^^ Stones.
Tons. Tons.
Tons.
1828............... 65,046... 64,739... 129,785... —
... 9,834
Landsale and Manufactories.
1838............... 420,802 ... 233,985 ... 654,787 ... —
... 27,911
J845............... — ... — ... 927,029 ...
- ... —
-^ Limestone and Ironstone, &c.
1846............... — ... — ... 873,114 ...
— ... 38,139
1848............... 371,113 ... 663,088 ... 1,044,201 ... —
... 288,480
1851............... — ... — ... 1,458,996 ...
279,607 ... 120,604
1856............... — ... — ... 1,777,285 ...
575,499 ... 299,788
Ironstone. Limestone. Total
1858............... 253,995 ... 1,442,626 ... 1,696,621*... 977,575
... 363,082 ... 1,340,6
1862............... 276,344 ... 2,219,899 ... 2,496,243 ... 975,810
... 427,091 ... 1,402,9
The total number of tens of coal and coke sent by the We
Hartlepool and Clarence Railways :—
1838.—No Means of ascertaining,
Tons.
184Q _f handsale.........,............ 124,167
l Export ..................... 411,130
1858 — f ^"^sale...................... 431,437
( Export....................... 741,327
535,297
1,175,764
1862.—
Landsale..................... 591,610
Export........................ 960,163
1,551,773
And for the purpose of illustrating the progress of the district gene-ally,
we next attach the tabular statement of coal and coke traffic on the
^forth-Eastern Eailway.
* Coals, 1,104,451 j Coke, 592,170 = 1,696,621 tons.
STATEMENT OF COAL AND COKE (DISTINGUISHING EACH) CONVEYED BY THE NORTH
EASTERN RAILWAY
IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS :—
FOR SHIPMENT. FOR LANDS ALE.
TOTAL COAL TOTAL COKE TOTAL
FOR
SHIPMENT AND FOR SHIPMENT AND COAL AND
COAL. COKE. COAL. COKE.
LANDSALE. LANDSALE. COKE.
TONS. CWTS TONS. CWTS TONS. CWTS TONS. CWTS
TONS. 1 CWTS TONS. CWTS TONS. .CWTS
.1851* *
4,354,700 0
1855 2,717,242 13 83,266 18 2,045,112 6
586,043 5 4,762,354 19 669,310 3 5,431,665 2
1856 2,856,093 0 87,875 2 1,948,080 11
594,790 11 4,804,173 11 682,665 13 5,486,839 4
1857 2,796,543 0 124,919 13 2,005,513 7
633,877 6 4,802,056 7 758,796 19 5,560,853 6
1858 2,973,012 . 19 118,987 15 2,009,782 5
484,501 8 4,982,795 4 608,489 3 5,586,284 7
1859 3,065,058 11 97,366 2 2,062,538 17
410,285 3 5,127,597 8 507,651 5 5,635,248 13
1860 3,331,799 16 96,932 2 2,177,214 17
538,558 4 5,509,014 13 635,490 6 6,144,504 19
1861 3,544,345 18 132,181 10 2,291,077 8
481,735 10 5,835,423 6 613,917 0 6,449,340 6
1862 3,534,598 14 137,057 10 2,249,879 19
522,632 8 5,784,478 13 659,689 18 6,444,168 11
Total. 24,818,694 11 878,586 12 16,789,199 10
4,252,423 15 41,607,894 1 5,130,010 7
46,738,904 i 8
* For prior dates unable to get statistics, besides, not the same lines
under the same name.
174
In 1858, Mr. A. L. Steavenson, in the papers above referred to, estimated
the coke made in the northern counties at two million tons, bur this was
considered to be a rather high estimate, on account of the quantity
calculated for iron making, per ton of pig iron (175 instead of 160). Eor
Great Britain the same authority estimated the make of coke at six million
tons. Mr T. T. Hall, in Vol. II. of the North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers' Transactions, estimated the area of coking coal at 160 square
miles. It has been estimated that for each ton of coke made, about half a
ton of water is used in cooling it.
The average analysis of coking coal is as follows :—
Carbon, s 84-92 Hydrogen, 4-53 Nitrogen, 0-96 Sulphur, 0 65 Oxygen, 6-66
Ashes, 2-28—100
The effect of coking being to drive all off except carbon 311 per cent, has
been given as a good average by heap burning. By close ovens, from 50 to 60
per cent, or 5 to 3 can be obtained.
The present make of coke in Northumberland and Durham, as ascertained from
the principal manufacturers, is estimated to be 2,519,545 tons per annum,
the capabilities slightly more, say 2f million tons as a maximum; and thus,
for the present make of coke alone there is required an annual consumption
of 1,000 acres of a four-feet seam of coal. The following analysis of Coals
and Coke may be interesting :—
« No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.
Hutton Seam, best Household Coal of the District. Low Main
Seam, best Steam Coal of. the District. Anthracite, best Steam Coal in Wales
(Smokeless.) a ofl o a o
84-284 5-522 2-075 6-223 1-181 0-715 78-690 6-000 2-370 10-068
1-509 1-363 92-34 3-00 0-58 2-57 1-51 93150 0-721 1-276 0-905
3-948
Ash...................
175
No. 5.—ACCOUNT OF NEW DISCOVERIES & THEIR APPLICATION CONNECTED WITH THE
COAL AND COKE TRADE.
Wooden railways were introduced between 1632 and 1649, and were in general
use between 1670 and I860.*
In 1671 we have records of Sir Thomas Liddell's first staith bills, showing
that coal was then led in waggons to the River Team, near to
the River Tyne,
In 1714 only three atmospheric engines were employed.
Prior to 1741 coals were sold in the same state as they were produced from
the pit. At this time, however, the system of screening was introduced by
William Brown ; and, although this produced a superior article, it may be
questioned whether or not it was an advantage to the coal trade at that
period, for it was the means of causing immense quantities of small coals to
be burnt to waste, as being unsaleable.
In 1760 the steel mill was invented.
In 1777, Curr, of Sheffield, introduced underground rails in lieu of
sledges.
In 1794, cast iron rails were partially used on the Walbottle Railway.
1 In 1798, the invention of lighting by gas was introduced by Mardock,
at the Soho Works of Bolton and Watt.
In 1812, the steamboat was introduced on the River Clyde, by Dr. Bell, and
now screw colliers are taking coals regularly from the River Tyne to London,
and using about 4,000 tons of coal each per annum. They carry from 700 to
900 tons each, and generally complete the voyage in one week.
In 1815, malleable iron rails began to be used, instead of cast iron. Coke
making was first begun by open heaps and then by close ovens. Coke ovens are
now generally flued, and have tall chimneys to carry off the smoke. Coke
ovens are also patented of all shapes, but the round oven is almost
universally adopted. Mr. B. Thompson, in a paper on his inventions, claims
priority in changing the shape of coke ovens from round to oblong, and for
improvements in mode of erection. The use of hose instead of pails, in the
application of water for cooling, was a subsequent invention.
* See an excellent treatise on Railways, by Nicholas Wood, Esq., first
published in 1825.
176
Eor the principal inventions and patents in connection with coke ovens, we
refer the members to the papers by Mr. A. L. Steavenson and others, in the
Transactions of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, Vols.
YIII. and IX.
To the late Mr. Blackett, of Wylam, is due the credit of showing that the
locomotive engine was practicable on railways., about 1813.
In 1814, the first improved locomotive, by George Stephenson, was
introduced.
Horses generally were used as the means of traction underground until about
1820, when steam power gradually began to be substituted.
Locomotive engines are now used to such an extent that mineral trains, from
the South Durham coal field, are conveyed to London, taking only about 17
hours. The engine powers are of from 450 to 500 horse-power each, and take
loads of 350 tons as far as York.
The question of underground locomotives being introduced is now becoming of
great importance; for example, we have the underground railway in London,
and an experimental one at a colliery close to Newcastle, by Mr. T. M.
Jobling, one of the members of the Institute of Mining Engineers at
Newcastle.
In the year 1815, the Davy lamp was introduced.
In 1825, the first public railway (viz., the Stockton and Darlington) was
opened for conveyance of coals, minerals, and passengers, and the motive
power first used was horses and subsequently locomotive engines. The first,
or No. 1 engine, which ran on this railway, is still to be seen in front of
the station at Darlington.
Boring by steam, with and without iron rods, forms an important element
amongst recent inventions. With this may be mentioned that of boring with
ropes, which has been done to the extent of 18 inches diameter and upwards
of 200 fathoms deep, an example of which may be seen at Messrs. Bolckow and
Vaughan's, Middlesbro' Iron Works, by those gentlemen of the Association who
make the visit to the Cleveland district. The engine and apparatus of this
boring having been made by Messrs. Mather and Piatt, of Oldham, near
Manchester. The section of this boring will be exhibited to the Association
on this occasion.
A very interesting paper was read on machinery for boring stratified and
other rocks, by Mr. George Simpson, before the Institute of Engineers in
Scotland, in 1861. In this case iron rods were used.
Eor information on the mechanical means of ventilation by fans, exhaust and
force pumps, we refer to the late Mr. Thos. J. Taylor's
177
paper, read before the Mechanical Engineers, in 1859. Eor pumping by
machinery, and various kinds of pumps, we will refer you particularly to the
same paper.
Safety cages.—In this class we may mention that Eourdrinier's was introduced
about 1845; then followed White's, Grant's, Owen's, Aytoun's, Calow's, and a
great many others. This question is, to a certain extent, unsettled.
On the subject of tubs in shafts, we beg to refer to Mr T. Y. Hall's paper,
read before the Institute of Mining Engineers. See Vol. II.
Coal cutting by machinery or compressed air, now forms an interesting
subject; and papers hereon, in reference to one at work near Leeds, will be
found in Vol. XII. of the Transactions of the Mining Engineers Institute.
The most prominent feature in the changes of the coal trade, more
particularly on the Eiver Tees, was the discovery, in 1848, of the Cleveland
ironstone, as its bearing on the coal trade of that district was so direct
and important.
As the treatment of ironstone and its manufacture belongs to another
section, we will, for illustration, take east of Bishop Auckland, and
adjoining the Eiver Tees. Eor instance, in 1846, the first blast furnace was
erected at Witton Park, in the neighbourhood of Bishop Auckland.
From 1846 to 1857, a period of 11 years, we have 34 new furnaces, and now, 6
years more, there are 52, all lying to the east of Bishop Auckland, and
connected directly with the Tees ports, or nearly one-half of the whole
blast furnaces in the North of England; besides the fact, that each furnace
averaged fully one-third greater yield in 1857 than in 1853, and now fully
double that of 1853.
The direct bearing on the Tees coal district, by these 52 new blast
furnaces, erected in the last 15 years, is to require at least three million
tons of coals annually, or, about 600 acres of a four-feet coal seam more
than in 1846, so that any calculation of the duration of the Northumberland
and Durham coal fields must be subject to the rapid increase, or otherwise,
in the iron manufacture, as 600 acres per annum extra requirements have all
arisen in the last fifteen years, and the consumption of coal in the whole
of the North of England, by blast furnaces or pig iron manufacture, would
not be less than 1,150 acres annually, or 5f millions of tons, if all the
present furnaces were in full blast. If the gross make of pig iron be taken
at five million tons, we have a requirement of nearly 3,000 acres of a coal
seam 4 feet thick, per annum.
178
In 1853, was the celebrated "Boghead Coal" trial, to determine whether it
was coal or not. This mineral, compared with anthracite and cannel coal,
certainly shows a great difference in analysis.
At the Royal Society's meeting in Edinbro', on the 6th of February, 1855,
they passed a resolution "That, in the present state of science, it is
impossible to determine what coal is" ! !
1863.—The present length of railway underground, 1,260 miles.
179
No. 6.—SINKING OF PITS, AND DRAINAGE OF MINES.
Detailed statements of the most approved methods of sinking, may be met with
in the Mining Institute Transactions (Yol. V.), where the cases of Murton,
Seaton, Ryhope, &c, are referred to.
Apart from the use of more powerful machinery, not much improvement has been
made in the sinking of pits during the last thirty or forty years.
About 1795, cast iron tubbing, for damming back the large feeders met with
in sinking, began to be generally used.
At first they consisted of circular rims, the full size of the shaft; but
the late Mr- Buddie introduced segments, which were more manageable.
These segments, on being properly wedged, formed a complete barrier to the
passage of water.*
It may be here remarked, that the metal tubbing, in upcast pits, in the
course of a few years becomes converted into a substance closely resembling
plumbago, and, in this state, is of course incapable of resisting the
pressure of water behind it, hence we hear frequently of accidents occurring
owing to the bursting away of the segments, thereby endangering the mine,
both by the large influx of water and derangement of the ventilation.
By a very simple process, however, this danger may be entirely obviated ;
the remedy being merely to protect the metal by means of firebrick, or other
casing, against the action of the sulphurous acid and other products of
combustion.
The chief difficulties met with in sinking arise—
1. From quicksands, immediately below the surface.
2. From quicksands underlying the magnesian limestone.
3. From large feeders, met with in sinking through the magnesian
limestone, and many of the coal measure sandstones. 1st. The quicksands
lying immediately below the surface are generally dealt with by piling; and,
when the water is comparatively trifling, this is a very easy process.
* On completion of this casing, the pits in which metal tubbing is used, are
rendered perfectly safe against inundation, arising from the bursting away
of the segments ; it having been proved (at Haswell Colliery, remarkable for
its hot upcast shaft) that, after a period of about twenty years (during
which the tubbing has been protected), it is in all respects as sound and
perfect as at the time when first put into the pit.
180
At Framwellgate Moor, upwards of 20 fathoms were piled through. the pit
having been commenced at 30 feet diameter, and ultimately, after 10 tiers of
piling, a diameter of 14 feet was obtained.
2nd. The friable sandstone, underlying the magnesian limestone, is of a more
difficult nature, owing to the feeders of water in it being so very
considerable; and also to the circumstance that there is a difficulty in
driving piles, masses of indurated sandstone being frequently met with.
Occasionally, a very large expenditure has been necessary in sinking through
this sand; the feeders met with in it, and the superincumbent magnesian
limestone, in Murton Colliery (about 20 years ago), being upwards of 9,000
gallons per minute, at a depth of 540 feet, and required steam power,
amounting to 1,584 horses, before the passage through could be successfully
accomplished.
The magnesian limestone, owing to its porosity, and the underlying friable
sandstone, constitutes an excellent reservoir for water; hence sinkings have
been made through it into this sand at Humble ton Hill, Ful-well, and
Cleadon Hills, during the last few years, from which a supply of pure and
excellent water is obtained for the towns of Sunderland, South Shields, and
neighbourhood.
3rd. Large feeders of water, as remarked above, have been met with in the
Magnesian limestone, and also in many of the sandstones overlying the High
Main seam of the Tyne.
The most remarkable instance is in the sandstone locally called the "
Seventy Fathom Post," in which from 1,500 to 2,000 gallons per minute have
been frequently encountered.
It is found generally that all these feeders gradually subside, owing to the
constant pumping at the various collieries in the district.
181
No. 6.—DRAINAGE OF MINES.
As a general rule, the strata in the mines in Durham, underlying the
Magnesian limestone, contain very little water, the distance being so
considerable between the bottom of the limestone and the seams of coal; and,
also, from the fact of t the sandstones passed through being comparatively
compact and capable of holding little or no water.
It is found, however, in more shallow mines, that frequently very
considerable surface feeders have to be drawn, varying from 400 to 1,500
gallons per minute.
At the Hartley Pit (where the accident occurred last year), the quantity of
water drawn to the surface was about 1,200 gallons per minute, by an engine
of 300-horse power, and from a depth of 600 feet.
Walbottle and Wylam are also equally remarkable for the large quantities of
water met with, being in each case upwards of 1,200 gallons per minute.
The general cost of pumping water from the Northumberland and Durham mines,
exclusive of interest and redemption of capital, is about one farthing per
ton of water raised per 100 fathoms.
In the cases of Walbottle and Wylam collieries, the water drawn exceeds that
of the weight of coals, in the ratio of 15 to 1.
For details of this subject, we beg to refer to the Mining Institute
Transactions.
182
No. 7.—MODES OF WOEKING.
The ordinary mode of working the coal seams, in the early period of coal
mining, was to get as much of the coal as could possibly be done, leaving a
pillar just sufficient to support the superincumbent strata, so as to secure
the safety of the men working the seam ; and, where practicable, to take out
all the coal. "Where pillars were left, attempts were afterwards made to
work off a portion of this pillar, or " robbing" as it was technically
termed, which generally resulted in producing a " creep," or "thrust," and
so destroying the remaining coal almost entirely, or so crushing it as to
render it unprofitable to work.
The late Mr. Buddie, perceiving the evil effects of this mode of work" ing,
commenced removing the pillars entirely, simultaneously with working the
whole coal, as a system ; thus leaving no support to the roof, which
immediately fell, and thus relieved the pressure from the adjoining pillars.
This system, with various modifications, has been in operation up to the
present time, the material difference being that a much larger description
of pillar is now left than formerly, thus forming a sort of connecting link
between the "board and wall" system and that of the "long wall."
The latter mode of working has been adopted in Northumberland and Durham at
several collieries; but much depends on the nature of the roof and thill or
underlying stratum of the seam of coal, and it has been generally found,
after trying the "long wall" system, more expedient to form larger pillars,
which has had the effect of improving the coals, both as regards size and
produce, when such pillars are worked.
It may be here remarked, that by the board and wall system, all coal of the
entire coal field can be obtained; none being wasted in the mine.
The extraordinary increasing demand for small coals for foreign and coking
purposes renders this description of coal, now of very great importance ;
whereas formerly, when there was no such demand, enormous quantities were
annually consumed and wasted.
A reference to the Transactions of the Mining Institute, Vol. I., p. 239,
will exhibit in detail all information connected with the subject.
Attempts have been made, from time to time, to supersede manual labour in
the working of coal; and, although those have only proved partially
successful, still it is obvious that some means will be adopted
183
shortly to prevent the serious waste of coal entailed by the use of manual
labour, especially in the tender and thinner seams. This important question
has lately been examined into by Messrs. Daglish and L. Wood (see Mining
Institute Transactions, Vol. VII., Part III.), who report favourably on the
machine invented by Messrs. Donesthorpe, Frith and Hedley, and which is now
in operation at the West Ardsley Mine, near Leeds.
The power adopted is compressed air, which is produced by an engine of
30-horse power. Metal pipes, to convey which, 4J inch diameter, are taken
down the pit, and thence 2| inch pipes to the place where the machine is
worked.
This machine has not yet been sufficiently tried to determine the economy of
its use or otherwise ; but Messrs. Daglish and Wrood report " that the
introduction of machines will relieve the miner (in low seams especially) of
the more arduous, painful, and monotonous portion of his labour."
Another indirect advantage is, that as the compressed air is exhausted with
very great rapidity, a very low temperature is produced; thus "aiding
greatly the efficient ventilation and general sanitary condition of the
mine."
This subject will undoubtedly be further prosecuted; the objects to be
obtained being so important, viz.:—Saving of labour, prevention of waste, as
compared with the present system (especially in the tender and thinner
seams), and introducing a new ventilating power; we may hope, therefore,
that this important matter will ^receive that attention which it so well
deserves; and we are informed that the Hetton Coal Company has erected an
experimental engine to test the principle and mode of working such engines.
4
184
No. 8.—VENTILATION AND LIGHTING OF MINES.
The ventilation of coal mines has been effected in vaiious ways ; a general
summary of which is as follows :—
1st. Natural Ventilation, in which no artificial means are employed,
advantage being taken of the direction of the wind, or other natural causes,
and of the ascending power given by the heat of the workmen in the mine to
the return current, and also by the heat given out by the increased
temperature of the mine itself.—{See Inquiry into the Steam Jet, Vol. I.
Transactions of Mining Institute.)
2nd. By Waterfall.—This had the effect of causing a considerable current,
but was objectionable, as the water was again to be raised to the surface,
but it is used on extraordinary occasions to produce a current of air, in
cases of accident or interruption to the ordinary modes of venti-tilation.
3rd. Mechanical Ventilation, by air pumps worked by steam engines.
4th. Steam Jet.
6th. Furnace.
Prior to 1760, the internal ventilation of mines was carried forward by
causing a current of air to circulate round the places in which the men were
working, the intermediate space being left without ventilation. In this
case, on any sudden fall of the barometer, or leakage of stoppings, gas was
diffused into the passage roads of the mine, and on meeting the first light
an explosion ensued.
Mr. Spedding, of Whitehaven, perceiving the objection of not ventilating the
intermediate space of the mine, introduced the system of "coursing or
skething," the simple meaning of which is to ventilate, as far as
practicable, the whole of the mine. This had the effect of preventing the
accumulation of gas in those parts of the mine from which the coal had been
excavated, but the result was, that the distance to be travelled by the air
current (and the consequent resistance) was so greatly increased, that a
very trifling amount of ventilation was obtained.
It was also about the year 1760 that the " Steel Mill" was introduced ; the
object of which was to produce sparks, by holding a piece of flint against
the revolving periphery of a wheel, the rim of which was steel.
* This mode of ventilation is generally used in those mines the entrance to
which is by an adit, or level, from the surface.
185
This instrument, although explosions did occasionally take place with it,
was used in fiery mines, up to the introduction of the Davy-lamp in 1815.
About the year 1818, the system of "splitting" or dividing the current of
air into several sections, was introduced; each of which ventilated its own
district, and then passed direct to the furnace ; the result was, that the
distauce to be travelled by the respective currents was much diminished, and
an improvement, both in the quantity and purity of the air effected.
Davy's and Stephenson's lamps came into operation in 1815, by which a new
era was introduced in coal mining, as those deep and fiery mines could now
be worked, which could not be done under the old system.
Yarious committees of the Blouses of Lords and Commons have, at different
times, been appointed on the subject of the prevention of accidents in coal
mines.
In 1835, a committee, of which Mr. Pease was chairman, reported as follows
:—" Your committee regret that the results of this inquiry has not enabled
them to lay before the House any particular plan by which the accidents in
question (Mines) may be avoided with certainty; and in consequence no
decisive recommendations are offered."
In 1839, a committee was appointed at South Shields (in consequence of a
serious explosion at St. Hilda's Colliery) and an able report was published
in 1843.
In 1845, Sir H. De la Beche and Dr. Lyon Playfair were appointed by
government to institute an enquiry into the causes of accidents in coal
mines. Those gentlemen recommended the compulsory use of safety-lamps in all
fiery mines, and the appointment of government inspectors.
In 1849, a committee of the Lords was appointed, who directed attention to
the evidence adduced, especially as regarded the appointment of inspectors,
the improvements in safety-lamps, and ventilation generally, and also
devoted especial attention to the precise action and power of the steam jet,
as a ventilating agent compared with the ordinary furnace.
At the same time, Professor Phillips and Mr. Blackwell were appointed to
investigate and report on the ventilation of mines.
In 1851, government inspectors were appointed.
The number of deaths from explosions in Durham and Northumberland, from 1755
to 1815, that is, to the time of the safety-lamps being used, was 734, and
to 1845 the number was 968, and from 1851 (the commencement of the act
appointing inspectors) the number of deaths has been at the rate of 161 per
annum.
186
These results may appear paradoxical; but it must be remembered that not
only has the production of coal been very largely increased, but the fiery
and dangerous mines, which could not be worked prior to the introduction of
the safety-lamp, have since that time been extensively brought into
operation.
In the year 1813, when a very serious accident had taken place at Felling
Colliery (resulting in 92 deaths), the late Mr. Buddie addressed a letter to
a committeet formed at Sunderland, of which Sir Ealph Milbanke was chairman,
in which, after describing the various systems of ventilation practised at
that time, he stated that the standard ventilation was from 2,000 to 3,000
cubic feet per minute in each air channel.
This quantity has been progressively increased, arising chiefly from—
1. Increase of furnace power.
2. Enlargement and increase in number of the air courses.
3. Increase of the number of splittings or division of the main
current into separate currents. An instance of the ventilation of Hetton
Colliery (one of the largest in the county of Durham) may be interesting, as
contrasted with the ventilation of former periods, furnished by Mr.
Daglisk, the viewer of Hetton Colliery.
Account of the Quantity of Air at the Hetton, Elemore, and Eppleton
Collieries, as measured, Jan., 1863:—
Hettojst Colliery—Hutton Seam.
North-way.............46,000
South-way..............22,000
East-way ..............20,000
Engines................28,000
116,000
Main Coal Seam.
North-way..............30,000
West way .............. 3,000
South-way.........-------12,000
45,000
Low Main Seam .............. 15,000
Total Quantity at Hetton ___ 176,000
187
Elemqre Colliery—Hutton Seam.
West-way..............31,570
East-way ..............23,260
Engines ................11,000
76,330
Main Coal Seam.
West-way ..............13,000
East-way .............. 3,150
Engines ................10,000
26,150
Low Main Seam................ • 12,000
Total Quantity at Elemore___ 104,000
ppletox Colliery—Hutton Seam.
Main Air Current....... .63,00
Boilers . . ............25,00i
88,000
Main Coal Seam.................. 75,000
Low Main Seam.................. 3,000
Total Quantity at Eppleton.... 166,000
In the Main Coal Seam the boilers are fed with return air.
Total.
Hetton .,.,............176,000
Elemore..............104,000
Eppleton.............166,000
446,000
SUMMARY.
DOWN-CAST SHAFT. UP-CAST SHAFT.
- COALS CONSUMED.
VENTILATING COLUMN, &c.
9 .
S H fe 1 »i tempera-
.3
COLLIERY. Name of Pit. Diameter. Name. Diameter in Feet
Net Area in Feet. Velocity in Feet per second. uantityof Cubic Ft
per minute. Water Gauge. umber of Furnace I!oals consumed p 24
Hours in Tons. Number of Boilei Fires. Coals consumed p 24 Hours in Tons
otal Coals consum er 24 Hours in To Tons Weight. Depth in Feet.
TURE. entilating Column Feet. Horse Power.
Down-Cast. Up-Cast.
Of fc
H & >
Hetton .. Minor. . 11-5 Blossom .. 14-00 132 22
176,000 1-5 4 19-6 3 16 35-6 1115 900 45°
250° 260-1 109-3
: Elemore.. George... 12-5 Isabella .. 8-75 60 29
104,000 1-0 2 8-5 2 10 18-5 770 780 42°
300° 265-2 66-2
Eppleton.. Jane 12-5 Caroline .. 11-15 95 29
166,000 2-0 2 8-5 6 28 36-5 1115 1044 50°
200° 257-0 93-0
189
To produce the foregoing results, the combined furnace power is calculated
to be equivalent to the effect which would be obtained by an exhausting
engine of 268| horse-power.
Although this is a very great increase of ventilation, as compared with
former times, still it must be borne in mind that, as the resistance to the
passage of air in mines increases as the squares of the velocity, the power
necessary to produce such increased velocity (cet. par.) is as the cube of
the velocity.
Consequently, to double the quantity of air circulating in a mine, the size
of the air passages, and all other circumstances remaining the same, it will
require eight times the power, or in the case of Hetton Collieries,
2,148-horse power.
It may be remarked generally, that many means of ventilation have been
devised from time to time, but it has been found that rarefaction, by the
use of the ordinary furnace, possesses the advantages of
Greater cheapness, Regularity, And efficiency
over an otner systems.
"With respect to the lighting of mines, the general practice is to use the
unprotected light in the " Whole," or first working of the mine, where
blasting is necessary; and in removing the pillars, or second working,
safety-lamps are used, as the ventilation cannot be so perfectly carried
forward as in the " Whole Mine."
Generally, it may be remarked that good ventilation, by whatever means
produced, with the judicious use of the safety-lamp, is the only means of
preventing the recurrence of those fatal accidents which have caused such
disastrous destruction of human life and property.
In order to obtain a detailed account of ventilation, we have to refer to
the papers on this subject in the Mining Institute Transactions, in Yols.
1., Ill,, VI.., by Mr. N. Wood, the late Mr. Thos. J. Taylor, Mr. Longridge,
the late Mr. Wales, Mr. Atkinson (the Government Inspector of Durham), Mr.
Daglish, Mr. Armstrong, and others, who have theoretically and practically
investigated this very important subject.
The following analyses of inflammable gases in mines were made by
Proffissor Pln.vfa.ir n.nrl Dr. Piohnrrlson : —
Vol. XII.—August, 18(33.
190
Wallsend t.^w rv,lliarv Hebburn Killingworth Gateshead
Colliery. J arrow Comery. Colliery. Colliery.
Park
Colliery.
Bensham Bensham Low Main Bensham High Main Low Main, Seam. Seam.
Seam. Seam. Seam. or Hutton
Seam.
Carbureted Hydrogen Ti'o .. 83-1 .. 79*7 .. 91-8 .. 8250 ..
94-20
Nitrogen ............ 21*1 .. 14-2 .. 15-3 .. 6-7 .. 16-50
.. 4-50
Oxygen ........... — .. 0-6 .. 3-0 .. 0 9 .. 1-00
.. 1-30
Carbonic acid....... 1-3 .. 2-1 .. 2-0 .. 0-7 .. —
.. —
99-9 ..1000 ..100-0 ..100-0 .100-00 ..10000
191
No. 9.—THE UNDER-GROUND CONVEYANCE OF COAL.
In the early period of the history of coal mining, the conveyance of the
coal underground bore no comparison with that which it does at the present
day. Previously to the introduction of the steam engine, mining for coal was
confined to pits of inconsiderable depth. The sinkings were numerous, and
the distances which the coal was conveyed from the place where it was
excavated to the bottom of the pits was inconsiderable; and within the
recollection of the present generation, the mode of conveyance was confined
to sledges, on which the baskets of coal were placed, and drawn by ponies or
horses, and in several instances, especially in Scotland, carried upon the
backs of women, from the workings to the bottom of the pit, and sometimes
even up the shaft to the surface. When the coals were not carried to bank in
this manner, they were drawn by whimseys or gins or by water wheels.
After the introduction of steam engines, and when it became necessary to
sink deeper for coal, tramways were introduced (in 1777), and superseded the
use of sledges in conveying the coal from the workings to the bottom of the
shaft. The coals were then drawn to bank by steam engines.
Afterwards edge rails were introduced above-ground, and they were likewise
adopted under-ground, and were first of all employed to convey, in single
trams, the coals from the face of the workings to the bottom of the shaft;
subsequently, when the workings became more extended, the coals were
conveyed by single trams to central stations, and thence in trains of from
two to four along the main road to the bottom of the shaft.
"When sledges were used, baskets {corves) made of wicker work were placed on
them, and so conveyed to the shaft, and even when wheel carriages were first
adopted, sledges were still used in the vicinity of the workings, and
stations were fixed upon, and small cranes employed to lift the baskets or
corves upon the carriages, and they were so conveyed from the stations along
the main roads to the shaft.
After small wheel-carriages were introduced, the same arrangements were
pursued at the stations, cranes being still used to lift the baskets and
place them upon larger carriages, or " rolleys." Two, three, or four baskets
being placed upon one rolley, and so conveyed to the shaft.
Ponies were used for single trams, and powerful horses for the wagons or
rolleys on the main roads.
192
"When baskets or corves were used, which was the practice for several years,
they were drawn up the shaft by steam engines; but, as they were thus
subjected to great wear and tear from the sides of the pit, and were also
themselves productive of great injury to the sides of the shaft, various
contrivances were adopted to remedy this expense. At last a plan, previously
used in the collieries of the Midland Counties, of placing timber slides in
the shafts, and of drawing up and down the shaft a platform or cage, made to
work within such slides, was adopted, at the South Hetton Colliery, by Mr T.
Y. Hall, by which means the wear and tear of the sides of the shaft and of
the baskets or corves was avoided. Since then tubs, or boxes of timber or
iron, have been almost universally used, which are fitted up with wheels
adapted for the round top, cast or malleable iron rails, not only throughout
the workings, but from the stations to the bottom of the shaft.
By this mode the coals are brought out of the working places in single tubs,
and are drawn by ponies to the stations, from whence they are taken by fixed
steam engines, self-acting inclined planes, or horses, from the stations to
the shaft.
It is at all times a subject of vital importance to the trade to economise
as much as practicable the conveyance of coal from the workings to the
bottom of the shaft, the more so as coal at much greater depths from the
surface, and also much greater distances from the shafts, being now worked,
and the pits being more expensive to sink, they are consequently much
further apart. Two papers on the subject, by Mr. N. Wood, were read to the
Institute of Mining Engineers, Yols. YI. and VIII., in which the whole
system of conveyance was investigated.
The annexed diagram is laid down as representing the whole system of
underground conveyance, and by which plan steam engine power, or gravity as
self-acting, could be exclusively employed, except in occasional cases where
horses were used as auxiliary to those mechanical powers.
The above diagram shows the manner a coal field, of considerable extent, may
be laid out so that coals may be conveyed from the stations to the bottom of
the shaft, almost exclusively by steam engine power, or by self-acting
planes, and without having recourse to horse-power. Steam-engine planes,
above two miles in length, are at present in use ; hence the diagram would
represent a coal field of four square miles or 2,560 acres in extent.
It will be seen, likewise, that almost if not more, than one-half of the
Northumberland and Durham coal field is covered by the sea. The line of
section from "Warkworth to South "Wingate, No. 4, shows that all
193
along that line the coal lies at a considerable depth from the surface, and
that such line passes to the west of the point of lowest depression above
the high water mark; and also that, for a considerable distance along that
line, even at the point of depression at Monkwearmouth, the beds of coal dip
towards the sea, showing that the point and line of lowest depression is to
the east or seaward. With reference, therefore, to the conveyance of the
coal which lies underneath the sea, it becomes a subject of the greatest
importance, both in a practical and economical point of view, how that can
be accomplished.
We have instances of engine planes at present in use 2| to 2| miles in
length. There seem to be no engineering difficulties in extending that
distance. The papers alluded to above show, by experimental deductions, that
steam can be conveyed considerable distances, if properly arranged, and
without loss of power; and, therefore, that engines may be placed at great
distances from the shaft. We have also the case of the underground railway,
showing that locomotive power may be used without the production of smoke or
heat, which would be objectionable in underground lines ' of railway, and we
have already had an attempt to introduce a locomotive engine into the
workings of one of the collieries of Northumberland; we thereupon conclude
that coals may be conveyed for very great distances indeed below the sea.
"When the time arrives for the conveyance of coal for more extended
distances than at present, we see no reason to doubt, from past experience,
that means will be devised to accomplish that object.
It may likewise be mentioned that water is pumped from great distances
underground, by the friction of the wire ropes used in drawing the coals
passing round a sheave to the axle of which the pumping apparatus is
attached. In one instance, a twenty-four-horse power engine draws 400 tons
of coals per day, and lifts the water from the lowest level of a plane,
1,300 yards long, 156 feet perpendicular, to the bottom of the shaft, and
270 feet to the surface, a total of 426 feet perpendicular.
Compressed air has also been successfully introduced in underground
conveyances at considerable distances from the shafts, and seems likely to
be very efficient for long distances. The steam engine compressing the air
being either placed on the surface, or at the bottom of the upcast shafts,
and the compressed air taken into the working stations by pipes, where the
engines are worked to convey the coal.
194
No. 10.—THE EFFECTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILWAYS AND LOCOMOTIVES, SCREW
STEAMERS, AND INLAND COMPETITION ON THE COMMERCIAL CHARACTER AND STATE OF
THE NORTHERN COAL TRADE.
We have already stated, under the head of " Account of new Discoveries, and
their Application connected with the Coal and Coke Trades," that one of
those discoveries was the introduction of railways; next, that of locomotive
engines, and then that of screw steamers. We have now to consider their
several effects upon the northern coal trade, including, in the
consideration thereof, the inland competition promoted by the introduction
of railways and powerful locomotive engines.
It is unnecessary for us, in this section of the paper, to enter into the
history, or into the details of the introduction of those powerful and
important elements of locomotion for the conveyance of coal. Separate
sections, devoted to these details, have been undertaken by different
gentlemen. We shall confine ourselves, therefore, in this paper, to the
effects of the conveyance by such machines on the coal and coke trade.
For a long period of time, extending to a remote date, the country trade in
coals was conducted by the conveyance of the coals on pack horses, mules,
and asses; the coals were placed in bags, and laid upon the backs of these
animals; and, within the recollection of the present generation, vast
numbers of these animals were used for such a purpose, along roads
impassable by carts. When the roads were improved, and carts could be used,
the usual load for a horse was about one ton, conveyed 10 miles a-day.
Wooden railways were first used about the year 1682, when the load conveyed
was increased to two tons in one wagon, or four tons in two wagons on a
favourable gradient. But the pits in the early period of coal mining being
generally situated at or about the outcrop of the coal, or elevated parts of
the district, two wagons were used; an extra horse being used in the more
hilly parts of the road to drag up the empty wagons. After wooden rails only
were used, a partnership on the Tyne employed above 350 horses in the
conveyance of their coals from the pits to the river, from whence they were
conveyed in barges or keels to the ships.
Cast iron rails were first used at the collieries in Durham and
Northumberland about the year 1794, and malleable iron rails in 1815, first
in the shape of tram roads, and, ultimately, as round topped rails. Before
the introduction of locomotive engines, horses were the motive power
195
used, the usual load for a horse on the cast iron roads being ten to twelve
tons on a level or slightly inclined road, and the distance conveyed 20 to
24 miles a day ; 10 or 12 miles loaded, and 10 or 12 miles empty. Thus, the
progressive improvements in the conveyance of coal was, on common roads, one
ton conveyed 10 to 12 miles per day, with horses; on wooden railways, three
to four tons, conveyed 10 to 12 miles per day, or 30 to 40 tons one mile per
day; and when cast iron rails were adopted, 120 to 140 tons conveyed one
mile per day.
Then came the introduction of locomotive engines. First on the Wylam
Railway, on a tram road, in 1813, and then the improved locomotive, on the
round topped rails, in 1814, by Mr. Stephenson. In the early period of the
introduction of the locomotive, the assigned performance of a locomotive was
40 tons, conveyed six miles per hour; and on an enquiry respecting the
performance of a locomotive at the period of the opening of the Liverpool
Railway, in 1829, the performance assigned by Messrs. Walker and Rastrick
was 33 tons, conveyed five miles per hour, and by Messrs. R. Stephenson and
Locke 45 tons, conveyed at the rate of 12 miles an hour.
Since that period, malleable iron has been universally adopted in railways,
and heavier rails have been laid down. On the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway, the weight of the original rails was 35lbs.per yard, now rails of
84lbs. per yard are universally used. The locomotive engines, which, as
improved engines at the time of the Liverpool Railway opening, were stated
by Stephenson and Locke to have an evaporating power of 13 cubic feet per
hour, are now stated, in the accompanying paper on locomotive engines, to
have an evaporating power of 144 cubic feet per hour, and the performance
from 45 tons, conveyed at the rate of 12 miles per hour, has been increased
to 300 tons, conveyed 20 miles per hour, or over an extent of line of 235
miles, from Darlington to London, in about 16 or 17 hours, including stops.
This performance has been accomplished on the narrow gauge of railway, of 4
feet 8J inches. Upon the broad gauge of the Great Western Railway, which
admits of more powerful engines being used, the evaporating power is much
greater.
Whilst the motive power on railways was confined to horses and less powerful
locomotives, the benefits derived by the coal trade from the improvements of
railways, was local; confined to cheapening the conveyance of the coal from
the pits to the shipping places for sea sale, or to the depots on the
different local lines of coal for land sale. But when the railways and
locomotives were improved, and the conveyance of coal was
196
reduced to a comparatively small cost, then the public railway companies set
up a competition with, the Northumberland and Durham Coal Trade for the
London and distant coastwise markets, the former sending coals by railway
conveyance and the latter by sea.
Steam had been applied to the propulsion of ships in 1812, and it was
suggested, especially after the introduction of the screw into steamboats,
whether a description of vessel propelled by steam, could not be devised
which would, by carrying a considerable quantity of coal, and using water as
ballast in the return voyage, economise the conveyance of coal to the
distant coasting ports and to London, to compete with the conveyance by the
improved and powerful locomotive engines upon railways.
The competition as regards railways, of course, rests upon the quantity of
coals conveyed by the present locomotive engines, and upon the cost of such
conveyance.
And as regards screw steamers, the screw steamer " Killingworth," of
70-horse power, belonging to Mr. Nicholas Wood, made, in the year 1862—from
January 10th, 1862, to January 9th, 1863—sixty-five voyages from West
Hartlepool to London; loading at West Hartlepool, and delivering in the
Victoria Dock, London, 38,738 tons 19 cwts. of coals or an average of 596
tons per voyage.
ISince the " Killingworth" was built, in January, 1855, a larger description
of vessel, conveying 900 or 1,000 tons at a time, hasbeen introduced into
the trade, and, requiring very little more power of engine, has been found
to be more economical. And we may suppose that probably still more powerful
engines may be used on the railways; so that the competition between the two
modes of conveyance may be said to be very close, if the charges for each
description of motive power rests upon the actual cost of each.
The practical effect upon the coal trade of the north by the introduction of
railways and the conveyance of coal by locomotive engines has been that, in
the year 1862, 1,531,421 tons of coals were sent to the London market, out
of 4,9 73,823 tons consumed in that port.
Prom the " Statistical Abstract of the United Kingdom," 1848-62, it appears
that the increase in the tonnage of screw steamers has been from 108,221 in
1849 to 461,792 in 1862.
197
No. 11.— THE DURATION OF THE COAL HELD.
It has been intimated that it would be very desirable that some observations
should be made on the duration of the northern coal field. No doubt the
quantity of coal yet to work in that coal field is a subject of national
importance; but, from the observations already made, it will have appeared
that such a calculation is attended with more than ordinary difficulty.
The coal field may be said to be that of an oval basin, elongated north and
south. On the western side of the basin the outcrop of the seams is
pretty well defined, but more than one-half of the basin appears to be
covered by the sea, under which at present it may be said that no
explorations have been made. On examining the line of section No. 4,
viz., from Warkworth Colliery, at the northern extremity, to Castle Eden
Colliery, near the southern extremity, the beds of coal lie at a very
considerable depth below the water level of the sea, and that line of
section passes through the deepest explored part of the coal field, as will
be seen by the observations made on section No. 4. The lowest known point
of deepest depression being the Hutton seam (below which there are several
workable beds of coal) which seam, at Monkwearmouth Colliery, is 300
fathoms below the level of the sea.
We have stated that the line of the sea coast does not pass over the line of
the deepest part of the basin, but that for a very considerable distance the
beds of coal dip to the east, or underneath the sea. We do not know how far
beyond the seashore the beds continue to dip, or at ¦what distance beyond
the line of the coast the greatest depression of the coal beds will be
found. Until further and more extensive explorations determine this, we are
completely at fault as to the quantity of coal lying underneath the sea.
We see, therefore, the difficulties which we have to encounter in
approaching such an enquiry, and we naturally ask, can such an enquiry at
the present moment be of the least practical utility. We have not yet
reached the threshold of such a conjecture. We have not yet explored one
square mile of this vast unknown space, or determined one of the many
elements required in such an intricate and uncertain investigation, and we
have come to the conclusion that, to say the least, such an investigation
can be of no practical utility, and that the attempt, for a vast period of
time, is at the least premature.
Vol. XII.—August, 1863.
PRODUCE OF COAL IN NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM.
1861.
TONS.
House Coal ..........................,............. 4,493,450
GasCoal......................................... 1,717,000
Steam Coal, Small and Manufacturing Coal ............ 4,317,120
Sent by the North-Eastern Railway to the Provinces ) „ 10nrinA j «.
t • J 2,180,000
passed on the Lme..........................j ' ?
Distributed on Carlisle Line........................ 120,000
Coke consumed in Iron Trade.......................... 5,000,000
Alkali and other Manufactures........................ 1,250,000
Colliery and Home Consumption ..................... 2,200,000
Duff and Waste .................................... 500,000
Total ..........................21,777,570
APPENDICES.
No. I.—COMPOSITION OF GOAL.
WE quite agree with Dr. Percy, that the ultimate composition oi a coai
tnrows irtue or no light on the purposes to which it can be most profitably
applied ;x but such analysis, taken in conjunction with the results of other
methods of examination, may be safely employed by the coalowner to guide him
to the market most suitable for his coal.
"We quote some analytical results of some of these methods, with samples
characteristic of the different kinds of coals mentioned in the Report.
1,—Calobific Value. The figures which follow, represent the number of lbs.
of water which 1 Jb. of each coal could boil off from a temperature of 212°
F.:—
Household Coal..................... 13-72
Gas Coal ........................ 15-37
Steam Coal ..................... 14-85
Coking Coal ..................... 15'23
2.—Coke Assay.
The examination of the coal for this purpose, is made according to the
method prescribed by the French authorities :—
Household. Gas. Steam, Coking.
(Carbon .........71-81 ... 68-11 ... 60"59 ... 7072
Coke (Ashes .........0-58 ... 0-95 ... 1*01 ..* 2-21
Gaseous products.........27-61 ... 30-94 ... 38-40 ... 27-07
100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00
3.—Gas Analysis.
This method of analysis furnishes very reliable results as to the quality of
a coal for the manufacture of gas, oil, &c. :—
Household Gas. Steam. Cokinff.
n , a (Carbon .........74-70 ... 68'89 ...) 6990
Coke J
F65-76
(Ashes .........0-20... 2-29 ...j ' 2-00
Tar............... 8-15 ... 11-24 ... 16-16 ... 8-40
Gas water............ 1-30... 1-34... 0-50... T25
Carbonic Acid ......... 0-86 ... 0-70 ... 0'76 ... 0-39
Sulphuretted Hydrogen...... 0-14... 0-22... 0-14... 0-11
Gas............... 14-65 ... 15-32 ... 16-68 ... 17-95
100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00
200
This method merely gives the ultimate elements which are contained ii zoal,
but furnishes no information how these elements are combined, nor wha really
the proximate constituents of the coal :—
Household. Gas. Steam. Coking.
Carbon ............83-47 ... 8242 ... 82-24 ... 81-41
Hydrogen............ 6-68 ... 4-82 ... 5-42 ... 5-83
Nitrogen ............T42| n ... 1*61... 2-05
Oxygen ............8-17)'" ... 6-44... 7-90
Sulphur ............0-06 ... 0-86 ... 1-35 ... 0-74
Ash ... ......... ... 0-20 ... 0-79 ... 2-94 ...
2'07
100-00 100-86 100-00 100-00
Cinder Coal.
The peculiar action of a basaltic dyke in changing the composition of the
coal in its immediate vicinity, has been shown by some analyses in an
interesting paper by] Messrs. Clapham and Daglish, from which we quote the
following (taken from a Paper contributed by Mr. H. Taylor to the Institute
of Mining Engineers, Vol. III.) :—
Haswell Hutton Cinder Coal Coal 63 yards Seam. at
Dyke. fromI)yke.
... otiot ...... oi/iui) ...... oy yio
Hydrogen ............5-522 ...... 2-405 ...... 3-441
Nitrogen ............2-075 ...... 1-170 ...... 2-129
Oxygen ............6-223 ...... 0"923 ...... 1-228
Sulphur ............1-181 ...... 1-646 ...... 1-267
Ash ...............0-715 ...... 13-601 ...... 2-019
100-000 100-000 100-000
Or, deducting the ash, the results are as follow :—
Carbon ...... ......84-890 ...... 92-888 ...... 91-768
Hydrogen ............5-561 ...... 2-783 ...... 3-511
Nitrogen ............2-089 ...... 1-354 ...... 2-172
Oxygen ............6-267 ...... 1-068 ...... 1-253
Sulphur ............1-189 ...... 1-905 ...... 1*298
ZU1 No. II.—GASES FOUND IN COAL MINES.
The recent melancholy loss of life in Hartley Colliery, has drawn some
attention to the gases which are found in working the coal.
The following table contains all the analyses of these gases, which have
been
published:—
txH s s
AUTHORIT OE CHEMIS §¦§ o-d d dj g|d 6% 6 6 6% J g d d^^^l d
>o o
•sb-0 ^nnjaio
•ugSojp^H
CO O O O O O
•pioy oxuoqjreo • CO CO t> :rtOC o c 6-0 O
O C .....¦* • • • fD O
• O -* CO
>
i O O O > » •
. ©.......coio--
CM i—l i—1 i—1
Hrt (N-*i-1
e
O t-t
-^a.TOqreo)q.3irj O'OOOOOt-iO iiOH^b-pOOOipnOOOHNNWMicO
% •parBFi:>tB0
©
!
© cm
\ g
i pj -p3AI9SqO
> 5 02 < O Ph O w a o © feet below Bensham tto (a month
after)... Ditto .................. TYittn ..................
ower .
. o • • : : :t3 • : :
4 A H c +--t-p
Ltto, 11 fathoms] ain, 100
fathom utton, 175 do. utton, Waste, 12 tiree-quarter Sea ive-quarter do
Ditto do
SEA « K^fiM £»3r>Hv3 gWi^Hfe :::
PIT.
:-g
O •
fl p O |? O O O
b> d CP J=> fe fl
COLLIER"
1
Of the explosive gases, it may be observed that defiant gas has, hitherto,
only been found in the German mines, while light carburetted hydrogen alone,
is met with in England, except in one solitary instance, where Playf air
discovered hydrogen.
202
The formation of these gases during the conversion of woody fibre into coal,
readily explained by means of the following formula :—
Thus, if we deduct from the elements of wood ......C36 H22 O22
9eq. of carbonic acid.........C9 — Ois
3eq. of water ............ H3 03
Elements of splint coal ......Cm H13 O = C33 Hi6 O22
We obtain 3eq. of carburetted hydrogen ... C3 H6
Deducting from the elements of wood ...... C36 H22 O22
lOeq. of carbonic acid ......Cio — O2o
leq. of water............ H 0
The elements of Boghead Coal ... Cia His 0 ss C28 Hu 02a
There remains 4eq. of defiant gas...... C3 H8
The gas which caused the death of the unfortunate men at Hartley, was
carbonic oxide, which had most probably been produced by the imperfect
combustion of the fuel in the furnace.
The poisonous properties of this gas were first pointed out by Clement and
Desormes, in 1802, which were afterwards confirmed by Sir H. Davy and Nysten
; and in 1814 two assistants of Mr. Higgins, who made some experiments with
it upon themselves, nearly lost their lives. The most careful experiments on
this subject, were made by Tourdes and Leblanc, who have proved that the
fatal effects of choke-damp are chiefly due to the presence of this gas,
which is formed by the imperfect combustion of the light carburetted
hydrogen. Bernard has shown that the mode in which it proves so fatal,
arises from the facility with which it combines with the blood and displaces
the oxygen ; and so complete is this action, that the French physiologist
recommends its use in estimating the quantity of oxygen in the blood.
Numerous fatal cases are on record, proving the poisonous character of this
gas ; among which may be mentioned the accident at Strasburg, where
water-gas was used for illuminating that city, and the loss of life in a
lead mine in Cumberland.
It has never been detected as a natural product in coal mines ; but the
peculiarities of the accident at Felling Colliery, in 1845, would seem to
indicate its presence on that occasion; and we have been informed that the
so-called " white stythe," sometimes found in the Midland Collieries, is
supposed to be carbonic oxide.
The following experiments were made by Messrs. Bichardson, Browell, and
Marreco, to ascertain the effect of different mixtures of atmospheric air
and carbonic oxide, on the flame of a candle:—
Per centage of Carbonic Oxide in the Mixture.
Observations.
2-5......No visible effect.
5-0......Ditto.
10-0......Ditto.
12-5......Flame apparently elongated, but very slightly.
203
15'0......A large top on the flame, with the characteristic appearance of
carbonic oxide.
20-0......The top much increased, but the candle burnt tolerably well.
23-0......Appearance same as last, and candle still burnt.
25-0......The candle extinguished, the mixture inflamed, and a disk of flame
passed slowly to the bottom of the vessel.
28*5......The candle extinguished, and the gas burnt with a flash. This is
the theoretical mixture for perfect combustion. 7q.q f ...These mixtures
inflamed and burnt more or less rapidly. Leblanc, and more recently Dr.
Letheby, have proved that a mixture with one per cent, of this gas, is fatal
to animal life; so that the old dictum, where flame burns, life is safe,
does not hold good when this gas is present.
No. III.—MINERAL AND BRINE SPRINGS.
The discovery of the bed of rock salt at Middlesbro' lends additional
interest to all the saline springs met with in the collieries of this
district.
Many of these mineral waters, doubtless, owe their distinctive character to
peculiar circumstances within a very limited area, such as the baryta waters
of Walker and Harton, but, on the other hand, the brine springs at St.
Lawrence and Birtley, may be derived from a source common to the whole of
the coal formation. As an illustration of the former class, we may quote the
following analysis of a water which was met with at Wingate Grange, which
had evidently been formed by the oxidation of a deposit of iron pyrites.
Sulphate of Iron ............... 9'69
Sulphate of Alumina............... 0-91
Sulphate of Lime ............... 5*10
Sulphuric Acid.................. 4'43
Chloride of Sodium ...............trace
Chloride of Magnesium ............trace
Organic Matter............ ... trace
Solid matter per imperial gallon...... 20*13 grs.
The brine spring at St. Lawrence Colliery, contained (according to Dr.
Bichardson)
in the gallon, as follows:—
Chloride of Sodium ............ 2938'24
Chloride of Calcium ............ 854-08
Chloride of Magnesium ......... 193-92
Sulphate of Lime ........... 44-88
Sulphate of Iron ............ 7-28
4038-40 grs. A somewhat similar water was found in Wallsend Colliery, but
the constituents of this spring varied in a most extraordinary manner, as
the following analyses (by Dr. Bichardson) will show, one having been made
in 1842, and the other in 1848.
204
1842. 1848.
Chloride of Sodium ......... trace ... 4550*49
Chloride of Calcium......... 7400-91 ... 2024-29
Chloride of Magnesium ...... trace ... trace
Chloride of Aluminium ...... trace .........
Chloride of Iron ......... ......... trace
These analyses naturally suggest many ideas as to the probable origin of the
different constituents, but on the present occasion, it will be more
consistent with the object of the report, simply to place them on record.
No. IV.—MINERALS FOUND IN THE COAL-MEASURES.
The most widely diffused of these minerals is known, in this district, under
the
name of coal brasses, the important constituent of which is bisulphide of
iron or
iron pyrites.
1.—Ikon Pyrites.
This pyrites exists in larger or smaller masses, more or less mixed with
coal and shale, from which it is removed by hand picking. In this
comparatively purified form, it contains from 30 to 35 per cent, sulphur,
and is now frequently used, along with foreign sulphur ores, for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid.
The quantity of coal, however, which still remains disseminated through
portions of the brasses, is a serious drawback to such an application. This
coal can be removed by grinding the brasses to powder and then washing, a
process which has been used by various parties, in this locality. The Jarrow
Chemical Company adopted, in 1853, the plan of Dr. Kichardson for this
purpose, and obtained a tolerably pure pyrites, containing from 45 to 48 per
cent, of sulphur. This purified material was made up into bricks with a
small quantity of clay, which were dried and then burnt in the usual way for
making sulphuric acid.
The residue presented the appearance of calcined black-band ironstone, and
was, in fact, a very pure iron ore. Dr. Richardson, in 1855, induced a firm
in the iron trade to employ this material in their blast furnaces, and the
following is an extract from a letter of their able manager, in which he
describes the result of a trial of many tons, during a period of several
weeks:—"The proportion never exceeded one-fifth of burnt pyrites to
four-fifths of calcined ironstone, being the same proportion, as we then
used of Lancashire hematite ore, and, in fact, the calcined pyrites took the
place of the hematite, as long as the supply lasted. The yield from the
pyrites, as far as I could judge, was quite equal to that from the hematite
ore, and we could see no apparent change in the working of the furnace, or
in the quality of the iron, which was always as good as any in the district.
I do not now remember what quantity of pyrites was used altogether, but I
know we never had one complaint of our iron during the time it was being
used up."
A sample of cleaned coal pyrites from Walker Colliery, analysed by Mr.
Clap-ham, contained:—
205
Sulphur..................... 40-50
Iron, as Oxide.................. 46-35
Coaly Matter .................. 7-90
Silica ..................... 1-55
Carbonate of Lime ............... 4-00
100-30 2.—COPPER PYRITES.
This mineral is more generally diffused than might have been expected. Dr.
Percy states that the anthracite of South Wales, used in the laboratories of
the School of Mines, contains decided traces of copper, and Mr. Clapham
informs us that he has often found traces of the same metal in the coal
brasses of this district. Messrs. Richardson, Bunning, and Tomlinson, have
also found it in the steam coal of South Wales.
Messrs. Clapham and Daglish have analysed a specimen from the middle of the
Hutton Coal Seam at Seaton Colliery, found at a depth of 1,500 feet. Their
analysis is as follows:—
Copper ..................... 33'2
Iron ..................... 28'2
Sulphur.........¦ ............ 37-0
Carbon, &c. .................. 1*6
100-0 3.—Galena.
This mineral is of more frequent occurrence than copper pyrites, and we
avail ourselves of the interesting paper of Messrs. Clapham and Daglish, to
give the following information.
They analysed a specimen taken from a vein in the Hutton Seam, at Seaton
Colliery, and found:—
Lead .....................52-48
Sulphur.....................11-40
Iron ..................... 2-10
Coal, &c......................34-02
100-00 These gentlemen state that the coal in the vicinity of these veins is
quite unchanged, which tends to show that the deposition of the galena was
from solution, rather than by the action of heat.
They also mention that lead ore has been worked, to a small extent, in the
Mag-nesian-limestone, near Castle Eden, above the Coal-measures, by a drift
from the
beach.
4.—Arsenic and Antimony.
Daubree has found traces of both arsenic and antimony in the coal of this
district. The former has been found by Dr. Richardson, in some quantity, in
the sulphuric acid made exclusively from the coal brasses of this locality.
Messrs. Clapham and Daglish found from 0'1 to 0'3 per cent, of arsenic in
some of the coal brasses they examined.
206
5.—Stjlphuret of Nickel.
Messrs. Clapham and Daglish exhibited at the Chemical Section, a specimen
containing beautiful crystals of sulphuret of nickel, embedded in carbonate
of iron, which had been found in the South Wales coal-field.
6.—Sulphate op Baeyta.
This substance was first noticed by Dr. Eichardson in a deposit from a
feeder in the shaft of Walker Colliery. He found it to be composed of:—
Sulphate of Baryta ...............90-01
Sulphate of Lime ............... 3*04
Peroxide of Iron ............... 0-30
Silica ..................... 2-65
Water ..................... 3-51
99-51 It has since been discovered in Harton Colliery, and a large mass has
also been found by Mr. G. B. Forster, in Felling Colliery. It also occurs
in isolated nodules in the lower beds of the Magnesian-limestone.
7.—Phosphate op Lime.
The same gentlemen mention that this substance has been found in the form of
a coprolite, in the bituminous shale, lying immediately over the Low Main
Seam at Newsham Colliery, near Blyth, and that it contained 30 per cent, of
phosphate of lime. This bed has received the name of the fish bed, from the
numerous remains of fishes found in it.
8.—Mineral Wax or Grease.
This substance is occasionally found, and is called by the miners "bitumen,"
but it presents the general appearance of Hatchetine. It melts below 212°
F., and is volatile at a higher temperature.
A specimen was found some years ago in the Urpeth Pit, and Messrs. Clapham
and Daglish inform us that it was afterwards found in the Seaton Pit. They
also state that, more recently, a quantity was found in the South Hetton
Pit, where the pit boys used it for greasing the axles of their trams.
A specimen from one of the pits near Shotley Bridge, was analysed by Dr.
Bichardson, who found it to consist of :—
Carbon.....................85-49
Hydrogen ..................14-51
100-00 Pit Shafts.
The lining of pit-shafts has attracted great attention, and the materials
employed, justify us, to some extent, in introducing the subject in this
place. In doing so, we are glad to avail ourselves of the information and
analyses contained in the valuable paper of Messrs. Clapham and Daglish, to
which such frequent reference has been made.
The material generally employed is the sandstone of the district, containing
207
variable quantities of iron, lime, and magnesia, which being attacked by
the
sulphurous vapours from the ventilating furnaces and engine fires, gradually
causes
a disintegration and destruction of the sandstone.
This serious loss has been remedied by the adoption of lumps made of
fire-clay,
which resist the action of the vapours.
The same cause leads to the destruction of the metal tubbing, employed in so
many shafts, and Messrs. Clapham and Daglish have examined specimens of
these
tubbings taken from Hetton and other collieries. They give the following
analyses
of some of these specimens:—
1 2 3
Iron ............72-00 ... 3-00 ... 59-20
Sulphur ............ 3-00 ... 1-42 ... 3-28
Carbon ............ 3-85 ... 55-35 ... 22-72
Silica ............ 0-65 ... 34-15 .........
Water ............16-00 ... 6-20 ... 14-72
95-50 100-12 99-92
No. V.—SYNOPSIS OF ORGANIC REMAINS FOUND IN THE
NORTHUMBRIAN CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS, WITH THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION—By
Richard Howse.
The Carboniferous rocks properly include the Devonian, Carboniferous, and
Permian groups which conjointly form the Upper palseozic division of the
sedimentary deposits.
PAL^EOZIO ROCKS.
{Permian group. ] r,. f , .
Carboniferous group. V ^^ aeP0Slts
Devonian group. J ot coai-
i Upper Silurian group. 1
Lower Silurian group. > Traces of coal.
Cambrian group. )
In the Devonian group, many of the plants of the Carboniferous period for
the first time appear, and the Permian is linked on to the Carboniferous by
many indissoluble ties. Some of these relationships are shown in the
following Synopsis, but it requires a more comprehensive list to express the
whole of them.
Only the most generally recognized species are admitted into the present
list, and of these probably many are merely synonyms ; but as much time and
labour would be required to examine them critically, and as their admission
does not affect their comparative distribution, it has been thought
advisable to include them under their generally known names. Future
researches will no doubt considerably increase the number of true species.
About 2400 species of plants have been found in the sedimentary deposits of
the earth's crust. Of these rather more than ODe-third are peculiar to the
Car-*
208
boniferous rocks, and about one-eighth of them have been found in the
coal-fields of Great Britain. In this coal-field, notwithstanding the great
number of specimens that have been collected and examined, only about 130
species have been recorded. These have been collected chiefly from the
shales covering the three most important coal-seams of the Tyne district,
viz.:—The High-Main, Bensham, and Low-Main. Very few fossil plants from the
lower coal-seams, or from the Millstone-grit and Mountain-limestone series,
have been collected or recorded, although their remains are very generally
distributed through many 6f the beds of both these series. The species
included in this list belong to the following classes, viz. :—
Calamarise, Mare's tails............... 19
Filices, Ferns ......... ......... 49
Selagines, Club mosses ............... 46
' Coniferee, Fir tribe ............... 7
Plantar incertas sedis, of doubtful affinity...... 11
132
It will be seen at a glance that, with the exception of a few Coniferse,
these all belong to the highest forms of cryptogamic plants. Excepting a few
traces of Fungi, none of the more humble forms of vegetation have been
recognized in this district, and only a few, comparatively, in other parts
of the world. But may we not expect that future and more careful researches,
and other methods of discovery, will reveal to us the at present concealed
remains of the more lowly tribes of the cryptogamia?, whose readily
decomposing forms may have had considerable influence in forming many of the
various beds of coal 1 At least it seems safe to infer, that where so many
gigantic and extraordinary forms of the higher cryptogamic plants grew and
revelled, their more lowly brethren would not be entirely absent, and if
they were present, their discovery is a desideratum greatly to be desired.
The animal remains hitherto detected in this district consist of a few
species of freshwater Mollusca, Unionidce, and one marine shell, Lingula
mythloides ; Annulose animals, Entomostraca; and the burrows of Crustaceans
or of Insects, have also been observed, though the remains of the agents
themselves have not yet come to light. Numerous remains of large sauroidal
fishes also occur. Those quoted in this list have been collected chiefly by
Mr. Atthey, from the neighbourhood of Cramlington and Seaton Delaval, out of
a bed of black shale resting on the Low-Main seam. Most of these have
been identified by Mr. Kirkby.
The plants from the lower seams are on the authority of Mr. J. B. Simpson of
Ryton, and those from the Mountain-limestone group, on the authority of Mr.
Geo. Tate, of Alnwick.
It is the intention of Messrs. K. Howse and J. Taylor to investigate
hereafter the comparison of the fossils of the English and Foreign
Coal-formations with the Northumbrian coal-field, in a more complete manner.
The references in the following table are to the plates in Lindley and
Button's Fossil Flora.
209
TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC REMAINS IN THE
NORTHUMBRIAN CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS, &c.
rfl aa "v ~ 99 0 0 25 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 2 3
4 5 (i 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 CLASSES, GENERA, AND SPECIES. ! f
CARBONIFEROUS GROUP.
Devonian Group Geographical Distribution.
Coal Measure Series.
1 Millstone Grit Series. 1 1 Scar Limestone Series. i i
Coal Measures. Devonian or 1 Old Red Group.
X X X 5 3 a X X X Bensham.
9 » is o H X It ¦6 a w X X X
X X X X 1 X X X X X X ! X X X X X X
PLANTS. Calamabi^e. Calamites 1 approximatus, t 216 caniiEeformis,
t. 79 insequalis, t. 196 1
X
X X X t
?X
ramosus, t. 15, f. 1 Steinhaueri, Brong. Suckowii, Brong. ...
X X X X
X
X
foliosus, t. 25, f. 1 grandis, t. 19, f. 2 jubatus, t. 133
longifolia, t. 18 X X X X ?x X X ? X X X
X
X
X X X
tenuifolia ?tuberculata, 1.14 Hippurites gigantea, t. 114
longifolia, t. 190, 191 Sphenophyllum dentatum, Brong erosum, t. 13 ...
Filices. Adiantites concinnus, t. 115
X X X X
X
X X X X
X
?
Alethopteris heterophylla, t. 38 X
X X X X X X X
X 1 X X
Mantelli, t. 145 ... ? Aphlebia adnascens, t. 100, 101 1
Cyclopteris dilatata, t. 91 Hymenophyllites dissecta, Sternb furcata, t 181
? Megaphytum approximatum, t. 116 distans, t. 117 X
I
X X X X
X X
X X 1
'
X
attenuata, t. 174 ...' auriculata, Brong.... gigantea, t. 52
Grangeri, Brong. ...' X X X
X
X X X X X X X
heterophylla, t. 183 X
210
TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OP ORGANIC REMAINS (Continued).
">
ft -¦9
§ CARBONIFEROUS GROUP. dSbdito
Coal Measuee . g Coal
Series. S § S <s Measures. „ Q
8.2 CLASSES, GENERA, AND SPECIES. a o
>3
High Main. Bensham. Low Main. Lowest Seams. | Millstone G Series.
Yoredale Series. | Scar Limest Series. Tuedian Se Devoniai England.
iGermany an( 1 France. America Devonian I Old Red Gi
1
19 rotundifolia, Brong. ... .
21 tenuifolia, Stemh.......
j
23 Odontoperis Britannica, Sternh. ...?
25 Brongniartiana, t. 54 32 nervosa,
Brong....... ......Ix ................................. .....1 ?
............................. ......|x .................................
34 Sphenopteris adiantoides, t. 115 ... 36
artemisiasf olia, St. 37 Brogniartii, Sternh ...
38 caudata, t. 48, 138 ,. 39
crenata, t. 100, 101 ..
43 Honinghausi, t. 204 ... 44
latifolia, t. 156, 178 ... ......... X ...
........................... 1 "¦ '¦' 1 ...... ... x ...
......1.....................
Selagines. 1 Aspidiaria quadrangularis, Presl ...
4 Halonia tortuosa, t. 85........
8 Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, t. 7, f. 34 1 i
211
TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC REMAINS (CONTINUED).
I 8,2 P*o CO 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 ?28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 ?42 43 44 it 46 j 1
CARBONIFEROUS GROUP.
Devonian Group. Geographical Distribution.
CLASSES, GENERA, AND SPECIES. Permian Group Coal Measure Series.
Series. 1 Yoredale Series. 1 Scar
Limestone Series. Tuedian Series. Coal
Measures. | Old Red Group.
X 1 ! X X I X X 1 Low Main. Seams
1 England. 3 3 3 . 3 I |
America.
Lepidostrobus pinaster, t. 198 ... variabilis, t. 10, 13, t. 11
... Lepidodendron acerosum, t. 7, f. 1,
X X X X
X X X M. X X
X X X :
dichotomum, St. dilatatum, 17, f. 2
1
1
elegans,t. 118,199
1 X X X X X X X X
X
X ..J ...
Harcourtii, t. 98 longifolium, 1.161 oocephalum,t.206 plumarimn, t.
207 selaginoides, 1.12,
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
... X X 1
s
X
X X X X X X X
Sternbergii, t. 4,
1 ...... 1
phlegmarioides, Brong. Lomatophloyos crassicaule, t. 225 Sagenaria
Lindleyana, 1.19 Cord X X ... X X
X X X X
1
1
X
X
1 X X
elegans, Brong. X
X
1
1 X XXX;
X
1 X X
X
pyriformis, Brong. .. reniformis, t. 57, 71 .. X
X X X
X
i X X X X X X X X X
1 X X XX
Stigmaria ficoides, Auct. Ulodendron Lindleyanum, t. 80,8:
X X X X X
minus, t. 6..... Walchia piniformis X X
X
1 X
X
! 1
212
TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC REMAINS (Continued)
A a IJ CLASSES, GENERA, AND SPECIES. ftO go 'S 6 Permian Group.
Distribution. ........ ft ----- Coal Mkasure
. S Coai, Series. S
a S i Measures, h &
1 Beds High Main Bensham. Low Main. 1 Lowest j
Seams. 1 Millstone I | Series | Yoredai 1
Series. I Scar Limes 1 Series. Tuedian S DevoniE England.
[Germany an 1 France. America, 1 Devonii 1 Old Red G
Conifers.
1 Dadoxyton? approximatum, t. 224 ..
2 Diploxylon elegans, Cori. .....
3 Noeggeratbia rlabellata, t. 28, 2 i ..
4 Picea Withami, t. 23, 24
Plants incert^e sebis.
Folia. 2 Cordaites Borassifolia, Sternb ... .
Fructus et semina. 3 Candiocarpon acutum, t. 76 ... • 1
5 Carpolitb.es alatus, t. 87, t. 210 6 marginatus ...
B, •
7 Rbabdocarpus amygdalEeformis
8 Trigonocarpon Noeggeratbi,
t. 193, f. 1-4 t. 222, f. 2-4
Caules et radices. 9 Pinnularia capillacea, t. Ill
10 Myriopbyllites dubius ...... 11 gracilis,
t. 110 ...
ANIMALIA. mollusca Lamellibbanchiata.
1 Antbracosia acuta ...... 2 „ spec,
indet......
3 Antbracomya, spec, indet
Bkachiopoba. 4 Lingula mytilo'ides, Sow.....
.
213
TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC REMAINS (Concluded).
I No. of Species in each Class. CLASSES, GENERA, AND SPECIES » 5
o s 1 CARBONIFEROUS GROUP.
p 5 1 '3 geographical Distribution.
Coal Measure Series.
1 { « a Jl I I Coat, Measures. i! 1
5-3 3W d a j 3 "5 0 1
i ^ -s i
Annulosa.
1 Crustacea. Beyricbia arcuata, Bean X ¦• "
X •• ••
2 Cythcropsis Scotoburgdigalensis, Hibb X
X X X
3 Cythere, N. S ......... •• X •• X
4 ? Estberia, spec, indet ...... •• X •• ••
X
6 ? Microconchus carbonarius, March X X X
X X X ., X X
1 2 3 Pisces. Gyracanthus tuberculatum, Ag.... formosus, Ag. spec, indet
•• X •• X X X X
X X
4 Pleuracantbus „
X •• ••
5 Orthacantbus „
X
6 Leptacanthus ,.
X
7 8 Ctenoptychius pectinatus, Ag. ... spec, indet.
X X X
••
9 Psammodus „ X
10 Ceratodus „ X
••
11 Ctenodus „ •• X
••
12 Diplodus gibbosus, Ag....... X
X
13 Caelacanthus, spec, indet X
14 Megalichtbys Hibberti, Ag. •• X X
X X
IS Holoptychius, spec, indet X X
16 Rhizodus „ X
17 Platysomus, spec, indet X
lc Palseoniscus „ X
1« ) Amblypterus „ X
214 No. VI.—BORING.
The old system of boring, in which, up to a very recent period, scarcely any
improvement has been effected, may now be said to be superseded by the very
efficient apparatus of Messrs. Mather and Piatt, Salford Iron Works,
Manchester.
An excellent description of this boring machine is given in a paper on the
Cleveland Eock Salt, by Mr. Marley, of Darlington.
The diameter of the bore-hole is eighteen inches, and the depth bored to the
present time is 1306 feet.
The maximum rate in boring through the New-red-sandstone was 13 feet in
thirteen hours, or one foot per hour.
When at a depth of 1100 feet a rate of three inches per hour was attained.
This very important improvement will undoubtedly be hereafter extensively
adopted. The great advantages being, increased speed and accuracy, together
with the further advantage of the stratum bored through, being brought to
the surface in pieces of three to four inches square; whereas under the old
system, only very minute portions could be obtained.
No. VII.—COAL CUTTING MACHINE.
Until within the last few years, no attempt had been made to work coal
otherwise than by manual labor. Messrs. Donesthorpe & Co., of Leeds, and Mr.
William Jenkins, of Cardiff, have, however, lately applied machinery to the
working of coal. In the former case the motive power is produced by
compressed air conveyed in pipes to the locality required ; the engine being
either on the surface or in the mine.
In the coal cutting apparatus of Mr. Jenkins, the motive power is obtained
by means of wire ropes attached to an engine.
This important question is only yet in its infancy, but so far as
experiments have gone, there is every probability that it will succeed in
all respects more especially in the low seams of coal; which, owing to the
great cost of manual labour may at present be said to be practically
unworkable.
We shall thus be enabled to work profitably, seams of coal varying from one
foot six inches to two feet in height, or even lower, and thus vastly
prolong the duration of the coal field. These seams having been excluded as
unworkable in the calculations hitherto made of the duration of coal.
Another great advantage will be, that a much larger quantity of saleable
round coal will be produced, the tendency of which is to cheapen the cost of
working, and also by preventing waste, to prolong the duration of the coal
field.
Messrs. Donesthorpe and Co.'s coal cutting machine is now in operation at
Hetton Colliery, the results hitherto are reported as favourable.
No. VIIL—WASHING OF SMALL COALS.
Mr. J. Morrison, a large iron master, of Sunderland, in conjunction with two
French gentlemen, invented a process for purifying small coals, by washing
out the impurities with which they are mixed.
215
This operation is merely mechanical, and has been of the greatest importance
to the northern coalowners, in enabling them to make into good saleable
coke, the large quantities of small and duff coals, which had formerly been
burnt to waste, and thereby saving a very considerable annual amount of
money.
Mr. Morrison's invention is in operation at Coxhoe, in Lancashire, &c, and
it is admirably adapted to the purpose in view.
The coals are raised by means of the buckets on the endless chains (see
plan), and precipitated into the basket; when the agitators, force through
the mass of coals a stream of water, sufficient to precipitate the coals (by
reason of their lightness, and their near approach to the same specific
gravity as water) over the spout into the waggon; whilst the pyrites and
heavier articles sink to the bottom, and are let off by a valve for the
purpose.
The cost of washing a ton of coals is about three-halfpence.
The per centage of loss depends on the purity or otherwise of the coals, and
on their size. Duff, for example, of the Hutton seam, loses about 22 per
cent.; pea, small, and duff, 18, and rough small, about 14 per cent.
Another very simple mode of washing the impurities out of small coals, which
has only recently come into operation, is at work at South Tyne Colliery,
Halt-whistle, under the direction of Mr. John Eutherford.
The apparatus consists of an arrangement of boxes or troughs, into the upper
series of which (see plan), A 1, A 2, and A 3, the water for washing is
conducted by a pipe, P. At the end of A 3 is a small screen, formed of f
inch round iron rod, placed about | of an inch apart: immediately below this
screen, another series of troughs, B 1, B 2, and B 3, is similarly arranged,
terminating with a perforated zinc plate placed in a sloping position like
the screen in the upper series.
The upper troughs are 2 feet 4 inches wide, and 13 inches deep : the lower
ones are 2 feet 5 inches, and 6 inches deep.
At c, d. and e, are grooves into which slips of wood are placed, one above
another, at different stages of the washing; these partially check the
current of water, and assist in collecting the stones, pyrites, &c, &c.
W is the waggon-way, by which the coal is brought to the washer.
It will be observed that the pipe is bent so, that the water pours against
the end of the trough ; we find this to act better than when in the contrary
direction. The mode of working will, we think, be apparent. A boy shovels
the coal into the trough, and a man with a rake spreads it, and keeps it
under the action of the current.
The water that passes through the screen carries a good deal of smaller coal
with it. This induced us to erect the lower series of troughs, along which
it is conducted, and finally, passed over the perforated zinc plate.
The velocity of the current is regulated, when required, by raising or
lowering the troughs, their arrangement being such, that this is very easily
effected. At present the difference of level, between the pipe and the
screen, is about two feet.
With this apparatus a man and a boy can wash three waggons of coal per hour.
Previous to adopting this improved apparatus, the washing was done in a
rough trough, about 25 feet long.
216 No. IX.—WASTE HEAT OF COKE OVENS.
Many efforts have at various times been made to utilize the waste heat from
coke ovens by applying it to steam boilers and other like purposes, but
almost in every instance it has been found that obstructions which intercept
the heat and prevent the free exit of the gases from the coke oven, have
proved so injurious to the quality of the coke, that no saving arising from
the application of the waste heat to those purposes will compensate for the
damage done to the coke.
In making coke it is essential that no obstruction should be offered to the
free passage of the gases from the oven, as they arise from the coal. They
should be allowed to rise freely in the oven, and to mingle with the
atmospheric air in such proportions as will generate the greatest amount of
heat. The coking process will thus be carried on with rapidity, producing a
bright, hard, and dense coke, free from volatile matter. The admission of
the atmospheric air amongst the gases in the coke oven can only be regulated
by the judgment of the coke burner, whose object will always be to generate
the maximum amount of heat by the best possible combustion, and to avoid, at
the same, time the admission of more cold air into the oven than is
necessary for that purpose.
The process of coking may be retarded by a very trifling interruption to the
exit of the gases from the oven. When this occurs the coal is found to be
imperfectly coked near the bottom of the oven, and the coke is thereby
seriously depreciated in value. Any attempts to utilize the waste heat,
which render the coke of this inferior description, will be found to be
commercially valueless.
This subject has received considerable attention at Pease's West Colliery
during the past five years, and after mature consideration a plan was
designed for conveying the waste heat through a series of flues beneath the
floor of the coke oven. The reasons which led to this mode of coking were
these :—
It was known that the coal ought to produce, according to chemical analysis,
72 per cent, of coke. This, of course, is the quantity of coke that can be
obtained by perfect appliances, and on a small scale.
But the coal when coked in the ordinary beehive-shaped oven yielded only
about
58 per cent, of coke.
This serious waste is caused mainly by the difficulty of coking the bottom
portion of the coal. The gases during the last twenty-four hours of the
process, arise in such small quantities that they neither protect the
surface of the coke from contract with the atmospheric air, nor generate
heat sufficient to complete the coking operation. And hence the upper
section of coke is consumed in the oven, in order that the bottom section of
coal may be properly coked.
That the waste indicated above does occur in this manner, may be
demonstrated by carefully collecting the quantity of ash and clinker that is
found deposited on the surface of the coke when it is ready to be drawn out
of the oven. By reckoning one hundred parts of coke wasted to seven parts of
the ash and clinker, a result nearly approaching a waste of twelve to
fourteen per cent, will be arrived at.
To prevent this waste as far as possible, the plan of constructing ovens
with flues beneath the floor was adopted, and after a trial of them
extending over three years, it is found that the yield of coke is raised
from fifty-eight per cent, to about
217
sixty-nine per cent. The waste heat as it passes through the flues is
absorbed by the bottom section of coal; it penetrates through the brickwork
that forms the bottom of the oven and cokes the coal upwards to the extent
of about fourteen inches. The time required for coking the coal is also much
less in this description of oven than in the ordinary oven : six tons of
coals can be coked in forty-eight hours, whilst in the ordinary oven it
requires at least seventy-two hours to coke the same quantity. It will,
therefore, be apparent, that a saving of capital in erecting a coking
establishment is effected, and at the same time, several of the current
expenses of manufacturing the coke are diminished by having a more compact
establishment, occupying little more than half the usual area.
The question may be asked, " Can the waste heat from coke ovens be still
further utilized ?"
It is quite possible that this may, in some instances, be accomplished, but
the difficulty to be apprehended is, that the vessel or object that is
intended to absorb the waste heat will be found to obstruct the free and
rapid exit and combustion of the gases, thereby producing injurious results
to the quality of the coke.
No. X.—AMMONIA GENERATED IN MAKING COKE.
The experiments of analytical chemists show that coal contains about 1*5 per
cent, of ammonia.
Several experiments were made at Pease's West Colliery, in the summer of
1860, with a view to collect the ammonia from the gases as they were driven
off from the coal by the heat of the coke oven. The results afforded no
promise of ultimate success, and were therefore abandoned.
The chief difficulty arose from having to distil the coal in the coke oven
at a low temperature, in order to prevent the ammonia from being volatilized
through the ignition of the hydrogen gas. After continuing the distillation
in this manner for about twelve or fourteen hours, it was found that but a
very small quantity of ammonia—a mere trace—had been obtained, whilst the
oven had lost a great portion of the heat that was necessary for converting
the coal into coke. It was found, moreover, that but a very thin layer of
coal had yielded any ammonia, and that the heat that was requsite to
penetrate any considerable portion of coal, so as to make it give off its
ammonia, was such as to completely volatilize it as it rose to the surface
of the coal in the oven. When volatilized, of course, it escaped the means
that were devised for collecting it.
It may, therefore, be assumed that the ammonia that escapes from coal in the
process of coking, cannot be collected with any commercial advantage in
conjunction with the present method of manf acturing coke.
The foregoing statements are communicated by J. W. Pease, Esq., Darlington.
In 1848, Mr. W. Wilkinson, of Jarrow, took out a patent for " certain
improvements in the construction of coke ovens, and in the machinery or
apparatus to be connected therewith."
218
Mr. Wilkinson describes his invention as consisting of—
First.—Improvements in the construction of coke ovens, whereby the supply of
air, necessary for the proper charring of the coal, is distributed in a more
equable manner than heretofore over and through the incandescent mass, and
thus increase the yield obtained from a given quantity of coal, and improve
the quality of the coke produced. Second.—In the application of machinery to
the working of coke ovens, by
which means a saving is effected in manual labour. Third.—In the means of
applying the heat dissipated during the carbonization
of the coal to the evaporation of saline solutions. In 1860, Mr. Thomas
Kamsay, of Blaydon, took out a patent for certain improvements in making
coke, the principle of which is, to grind the coal to a powder ; and it is
found, under proper arrangements, that a very compact dense coke is the
result. This is especially valuable, and adapted to the smelting of iron
ores. It may be inferred from the preceding, that the duff of coal, if
properly freed from impurity, would form the best coke. Owing, however, to
defects in the modes of burning, or to other circumstances, this question is
still doubtful.
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