NEIMME Transactions
Volume 21
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
TRANSACTIONS.
VOL. XXI.
1871-72.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE: A. REID, PRINTING COURT
BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE HILL.
1872.
newcastle-upon-tyne:
andrew reid, printing court buildings, akenside
hill.
CONTENTS OF VOL. XXI.
page.
Report of Council............... ?
Finance Report.................. yn
Account of Subscriptions ... vm
Treasurer's Account ......... x
General Account ............... xn
Patrons ............................. xiii
Honorary and Life Members xiv
Officers, 1872-73 .................. xy
Members.............................. xvi
Students ...........................xxxiv
page.
Subscribing Collieries ...... xxxvii
Rules .................................xxxviii
Barometer Readings. Appendix
I...............................I
Patents. Appendix II........../ E ,
Address by the Dean of Durham on the Inauguration
of the College of Physical Science
...........................]
Index ................................./
GENERAL MEETINGS.
1871. page.
Sept. 2.—Election of Members, &c..........
............ 1
Oct. 7.—Paper by Mr. Henry Lewis " On the Method
of Working Coal by
Longwall, at Annesley Colliery, Nottingham "
......... 3
Discussion on Mr. Smyth's Paper " On the Boring
of Pit Shafts in
Belgium................ ............ 9
Paper " On the Education of the Mining Engineer,"
by Mr. John
Young ........................... 21
Discussed ........................... 32
Dec. 2.—Paper by Mr. Emerson Bainbridge "On the
Difference between the
Statical and Dynamical Pressure of Water Columns
in Lifting Sets " 49
Paper "On the Cornish Pumping Engine at
Settlingstones " by Mr.
F.W.Hall ...... !.. ... I.. ...
... ... 59
Heport upon Experiments of Rivetting with Drilled
and Punched
Holes, and Hand and Power Eivetting ............
67
1872.
Feb. 3.—paper by Mr. W. N. Taylor « On Air
Compressing Machinery as
applied to Underground Haulage, &c, at Ryhope
Colliery" ... 73
Discussed ... ......... ... ...
......... 80
Alteration of Rule IV. ... ... ...
... ... 82
Mar. 2.—Election of a Councillor in place of Mr.
Hosking, deceased...... 83
£^aper « On the Scroll Drum," by Mr. George
Fowler ..... 85
J^iscussion on Messrs. Bainbridge and Hall's
Papers ... 91
iscuspon on Mr. Lewis' Paper « On Longwall
Working at Annesley
(iv)
page.
April 6.—Paper " On the Use of Air-vessels in
Pumping Engines, and the
means of replenishing them," by Mr. R. B.
Sanderson ...... 115
Paper (No. 2) " On Pumping Water," by Mr. W.
Waller ...... 123
Discussed ..................... ...... 155
May 4.-—Paper " On Arrangements of Machinery
adapted for Pumping Water
in Dip Workings at the Kinneil Iron Works, at a
distance from
the Shaft," by Mr. Ralph Moore ............,
••; 159
Paper " On Ten Years' Mineral Statistics of the
United Kingdom,'
by Mr. W. F. Howard.....................161
Paper " On the application of Machines, worked by
Compressed Air
in the Collieries of Sars-Longchamps and Bouvy,
at Saint Vaast,
in Belgium, by M. F. L. Cornet (translated by Mr.
John Daghsh) 199
July 2, 3, 4.—Joint Meeting with the Scottish and
South Lancashire Engineers" 221
Paper " On Geology in some of its Practical
Aspects," by Professor
David Page, LL.D......................241
Paper on the Carboniferous Limestone of South
Durham and North
Yorkshire, by Mr. William Cockburn............
... 251
Aug. 3.—Election of Officers, 1872-73
.................. 287
Discussion as to Re-printing Vols. III., IV., and
V. ... ...... 288
Proposed Incorporation of the Institute
............ 289
Paper " On Mineral Oil as a Lubricant for
Machinery," by Mr. I. J.
Coleman........................... 291
Paper " On a New and Improved Method of Screening
and Loading
Coals," by Mr. Robert Miller..................
295
|tep0rt
The Council have much pleasure in being able to
report on the continued
prosperity of the Institute.
The number of new members added during* the last
year has been
106 making* the total number 682. This is
considerably in excess of
the addition made in any former year, and more
than twice that which
took place on the occasion of the admission of
Mechanical Engineers to
the privilege of membership, and may be
considered a flattenne* proof
that the efforts of the Institute to advance the
sciences of Mining
and Mechanical Engineering" and improve the
general standard of
the scientific education of the district are
appreciated.
The persistent exertions made by the Institute
from its very com-
mencement to effect the establishment of a
College of Science in New-
castle are too well known to the members to be
alluded to at any length
here. The Council trust that the recent success
of these efforts has
attracted the attention of the scientific portion
of the inhabitants of the
district, and it is with extreme satisfaction
they remark that the extra-
ordinary increase in the number of new members
has taken place during
the year that the College of Physical Science has
been established, and
they confidently anticipate that these kindred
establishments, having
one common aim, may mutually strengthen and
assist each other.
The Wood Memorial Hall is now open, and forms a
valuable
addition to the Institute for increasing its
sphere of usefulness. It is a
very handsome building, suited to the
requirements of the members, and
the Council think it a matter of congratulation
that the testimonial to
the memory of Mr. Nicholas Wood, first President
of the Institute,
should have taken this form.
^ is with deep regret the Council have to record
the death of
Mr. John Middleton, of Benton. This gentleman was
one of the
earliest members of the Institute, having been
elected in 18o.ki, and his
loss will be keenly felt by all who knew him.
Mr. J. Hosking, a member of Council, and for
upwards of twenty
years associated with the firm of Messrs. Hawks,
Crawshay and Co.,
(vi)
has also died. This gentleman was connected with
the works of the
High Level Bridge, under the late Mr. Robert
Stephenson, and in-
vented a valuable form of valve for pumps. He was
a man of varied
information, and held in very high esteem as a
Mechanical Engineer.
The members of the Institute have had the
satisfaction of enter-
taining in Newcastle the members of the
Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland, and the South
Lancashire and Cheshire Coal
Association. The number of gentlemen who
responded to the invitation,
and the expressions of satisfaction the Council
continue to receive from
those who attended, leave no doubt that the
meetings of the 2nd, 3rd,
and 4th July, 1872, in Newcastle, were a success.
The best thanks of
the Institute are due to the Committee who made
the arrangements, and
to the various gentlemen who so liberally
contributed to the expenses.
The Council also draw the attention of the
members to the very great
courtesy shown by the Mayor and Corporation of
Newcastle, the Autho-
rities of the University of Durham, the'
Professors of the College of
Physical Science in Newcastle, the Literary and
Philosophical and the
Natural History Societies, the River Tyne
Commissioners, and the
various Coal Owners and Manufacturers in the
neighbourhood, and have
much pleasure in recording the thanks of the
Institute to all who, by
their attention, contributed so greatly to the
success of the meetings.
The Council think they ought not to close this
Report without
alluding to the valuable services rendered to the
Institute and the cause
of education in the district by Mr. E. F. Boyd,
whose term of office, as
President, now expires. For many years he held
the office of Treasurer,
and to his care and attention may be traced the
happy financial position
the Institute now enjoys. It has been a most
fortunate circum-
stance that this gentleman, who ever had at heart
the work to which
the Institute had devoted itself, should have
ruled its councils at a time
when liberal and active gentlemen were leading
opinion in the University
of Durham. Mr. Boyd will retire from the
Presidency with the best
wishes of the members, who will recollect, with
pride and satisfaction,
the work he has enabled them to do, and with an
earnest desire on their
part that he may be spared for many years to
continue his exertions in the
good work now commenced.
gxxmntt Report.
Your Committee have pleasure in reporting that
the income of the
Institute for the year just past shows an
increase as compared with that
of the previous year of £167 18s. lOd.; the
receipts for 1870-71, being
£1437 lis. 8d., and for the year now past, £1605
10s. 6d. The
expenditure has been £570 8s. 7d. above the
income for the year.
This includes an outlay of about £1,200 for the
completion of the Wood
Memorial Hall, the rooms under which are now let,
and produce a
rental of £50 per annum.
Signed on behalf of the Finance Committee,
LINDSAY WOOD.
THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT ^ SUBSCRIPTIONS,
1871-72.
TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH THE NORTH OF ENGLAND ^
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
Dr For the Year ending INSTH
patrons.
His Grace the DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND.
His Grace the DUKE OF CLEVELAND.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF LONSDALE.
The Right Honourable the EARL GREY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF DURHAM.
The Right Honourable the EARL VANE.
The Right Honourable LORD WHARNCLIFFE.
The Right Honourable LORD RAVENSWORTH.
The Right Reverend the LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM.
The Very Reverend the DEAN AND CHAPTER OF DURHAM.
WE NT WORTH B. BEAUMONT, Esq., M.P.
elected.
Okdy. Hon.
WILLIAM ALEXANDER, Esq., Inspector of Mines,
Glasgow ... 1863
* JAMES P. BAKER, Esq., Inspector of Mines,
Wolverhampton ... 1853 1866
LIONEL BROUGH, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Clifton,
Bristol ... 1855
JOSEPH DICKINSON, Esq., Inspector of Mines,
Manchester ... 1853
THOMAS EVANS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Field
Head House,
Belper ........................ 1855-
PETER HIGSON, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 94,
Cross Street,
Manchester ..................... 1854 1856
* RALPH MOORE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow
...... 1866
* G. W. SOUTHERN, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 17,
Wentworth Place,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.................. 1854 1866
* THOMAS E. WALES, Esq., Inspector of Mines,
Swansea...... 1855 1866
* FRANK N. WARDLE, Esq., Inspector of Mines,
Wath-on-Dearne,
near Rotherham......
,.............. 1864 1868
JAMES WILLIS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 13, Old
Elvet, Durham 1857 1871
THOMAS WYNNE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Stone
...... 1853
Sir GOLDSWORTHY GURNEY, Bude Castle,
Cornwall...... 1853
CHARLES MORTON, Esq., Ex-Inspector of Mines
...... 1853
WARINGTON W. SMYTH, Esq., 28, Jermyn Street,
London ... 1869
The Very Rev. Dr. LAKE, Dean of Durham .........
Prof. MARRECO, M.A., College of Physical Science,
Newcastle... 1872
„ HERSCHEL, B.A., F.R.A.S., do.
do. ... 1872
„ ALDIS, M.A., do.
do. ... 1872
„ PAGE, LL.D., do,
do. ... 1872
M. DE BOUREUILLE, Commander de la Legion
d'Honneur,
Conseiller d'etat, Inspecteur General des Mines,
Paris ... 1853
HERR R. VON CARNALL, Berghauptmann, Ritter, etc.,
Breslau
Silesia, Prussia..................
... 1^53
Dr. H. VON DECHEN, Berghauptmann, Ritter, etc.,
Bon am
Rhine, Prussia..................... 1^53
M. THEOPHILE GUIBAL, School of Mines, Mons,
Belgium ... 1870
Sift Sfemtyit.
Ordy. Life.
H. J. MORTON, Esq., Garforth House, Leeds,
Yorkshire...... 1856 1861
* Honorary members during term of office only.
OFFICERS, 1872-73.
C ARMSTRONG, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Jesmond,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Sir "W. J*
COCHRANE, Esq., Oakfield House, Coxlodge,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., F.G.S., Tynemouth.
B FORSTER, Esq., Backworth House, near
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
JOHN MARLEY, Esq., Mining Offices, Darlington.
R. S. NEWALL, Esq., Ferndene, Gateshead.
A*. L. STEAVENSON, Esq., Holywell, Durham.
T. J. BEWICK, Esq., Haydon Bridge,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
I W. BOUCH, Esq., Shildon Works, Darlington.
W. BOYD, Esq., Spring Gardens Engine Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
T. CABRY, Esq., Blyth and Tyne Railway Offices,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
I S. C CRONE, Esq., Killingworth Colliery, near
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
f T. DOUGLAS, Esq., Peases' West Collieries,
Darlington,
v T. HAWTHORN, Esq., 74, Rye Hill,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
W. H. HEDLEY, Esq., Medomsley, Burnopfield,
County of Durham.
R. HODGSON, Esq., Whitburn, near Sunderland.
T. G. HURST, Esq., Riding-Mill-on-Tyne.
HUBERT LAWS, Esq., Grainger Street West,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
I D. P. MORISON, Esq., Collingwood Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
JAMES NELSON, Esq., King's House Engine Works,
Sunderland.
|; W. A. POTTER, Esq., Cramlington House,
Northumberland.
J. A. RAMSAY, Esq., Washington Colliery, County
of Durham.
I R. B. SANDERSON, Esq., Westgate Road,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
J. B. SIMPSON, Esq., Hedgefield House,
Blaydon-on-Tyne.
JAMES WILLIS, Esq., 13, Old Elvet, Durham.
( E. F. BOYD, Esq., Moor House, near Durham. )
p .
I G. ELLIOT, Esq., M.P., Houghton Hall, Fence
Houses. } p™^"^
^•officio J T-E- FORSTER, Esq.,7, Ellison Place,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. ) 1Lbmt;nL&-
\ I. L. BELL, Esq., Washington Hall, County of
Durham, j Retiring
/ T. E. HARRISON, Esq., Central Station,
Newcastle. } Vice-
1 LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., Hetton Hall, Fence Houses.
) Presidents.
$>ec«tan| and ©reasurcn
THEO. WOOD RUNNING, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
fist of $bmkr».
AUGUST, 1872.
elected.
1 Ackroyd, Thomas, Berkenshaw, Leeds.........Mar-
1867.
2 Adams, W., Severn House, Roath Road, Cardiff
... 1854.
3 Ainslie, Aymer, Iron Ore Master,
Ulverstone......Aug. 7, 1869.
4 Aitken, Henry, Falkirk, N.B.............Mar. 2,
1865.
5 Allison, T., Belmont Mines,
Guisbro'.........Feb. 1, 1868.
6 Anderson, C. W., St. Hilda's Colliery, South
Shields ... Aug.21,1852.
7 Anderson, J., Solicitor,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne......Oct. 1, 1863.
8 Anderson, William, Rainton Colliery, Fence
Houses... Aug.21, 1852.
9 Appleby, C. E., Reinshaw Colliery, near
Chesterfield... Aug. 1,1861.
10 Archbold, J. W. M., Murton Colliery, Fence
Houses ... Sept. 5, 1868.
11 Archer, T., Dunston Engine Works, Gateshead
... July 2, 1872.
12 Arkless, John, Tantoby,
Burnopfield........Nov. 7, 1868.
13 Armstrong, Sir W. G., C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Jesmond,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne ......(President) May 3,
1866.
14 Armstrong, William, Pelaw House,
Chester-le-Street... Aug.. 21,1852.
15 Armstrong, W.L., 5, Hawthorn Terrace,
Newcastle ... Mar. 3,1864.
16 Armstrong, W., jun., Wingate, Co.
Durham......April 7,1867.
17 Ashwell,H., Anchor Colliery, Longton, No.
Staffordshire Mar. 6, 1862.
18 Asquith, T. W., Seaton Delaval Colliery,
Northumberland Feb. 2, 1867.
19 Attwood, C, Holywood House, Wolsingham,
Darlington May 7, 1857.
20 Aubrey, R. C, London and Merthyr Collieries,
Kirwain,
South Wales ...............Feb. 5, 1870.
21 Austin, C. D., 40, Mosley Street,
Newcastle......July 2, 1872.
22 Bachke, A. S., Ytterven Mines, near Drontheim,
Norway Mar. 5, 1870.
23 Badger, A., M.E., 4, Bankshall Street,
Calcutta ... Nov. 5, 1870.
24 Bagnall, Thomas, jun., Grosmont Iron Works,
near York Mar. 6, 1862.
25 Bailes, John, Wingate Colliery, Ferryhill
......Sept. 5, 1868.
26 Bailes, T., jun., 41, Lovaine Place,
Newcastle-on-Tyne Oct. 7, 1858.
27 Bailey, G., St. John's Colliery, Wakefield
......June 5, 1869.
(xvii)
elected.
Samuel, Tho Pleck, Walsall, Staffordshire ...
June 2, 1859.
28 Bailey, ^ ^> Kilburn; near Derby.........May
13, 1858.
29 BalIe/' ' Emerson, Sheffield and Tinsley
Coal Offices,
<?<1 T?ainbricige> u i .» .
Sheffield ..................Dec. 3, 1863.
B Heny C. D., Timber Merchant, Red Barns,
Newcastle Feb. 4, 1871.
^ Barclay' A., Caledonian Foundry, Kilmarnock,
N.B. ... Dec. 6, 1866.
33 BlrkusVWm^Jun^ TynemouthAug. 21,1852.
34 Barnes, T., Quay,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Oct. 7, 1871.
35 Bartholomew, C, Doncaster, Yorkshire
......Aug. 5, 1853.
36 Bassett, A., Tredegar Mineral Estate Office,
Cardiff ... 1854.
37 Bates, Matthew, Cyfarthfa Iron Works, Merthyr
Tydvil Feb. 1, 1868.
38 Batey, John, Newbury Collieries, Coleford,
Bath ... Dec. 5, 1868.
39 Beadier, E., Chapeltown, near Sheffield ......
1854.
40 Beanlands, A., M.A., North Bailey,
Durham......Mar. 7, 1867.
41 Bell, I. L., Washington, Washington Station,
N.E.
Railway ...... (Member of Council) July 6, 1854.
42 Bell, John, Normanby Mines,
Middlesbro'-on-Tees ... Oct. 1, 1857.
43 Bell, Thomas, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
... Sept. 3, 1870.
44 Bell, T...................... 1854.
45 Bell, T., jun., 2, Britannia Terrace,
Saltburn-by-the-Sea Mar. 7, 1867.
46 Benson, T. W., 33, Bigg Market,
Newcastle......Aug. 2, 1866.
47 Berkley, C, Marley Hill Colliery,
Gateshead......Aug. 21,1852.
48 Bewick, T. J., M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Haydon
Bridge,
Northumberland......(Member of Council) April 5,
1860.
49 Bidder, B. P., Duffryn Collieries, Neath,
Glamorganshire May 2, 1867.
50 Bidder, S. P., Victoria Graving Docks,
Victoria Docks,
London ..................Dec. 4, 1869.
51 Bigland, J., Bedford Lodge, Bishop Auckland
... June 4, 1857.
52 Binns, C, Claycross, Derbyshire .........July
6, 1854.
53 Birain, B., PeaselyCross Collieries, St.
Helen's, Lancashire 1856.
54 Birk°eck, G. H., 34, Southampton Buildings,
Chancery
Lane, London ... ...........Dec. 7, 1867.
Black, James, jun., Ironfounder, South Shields
... Sept. 2, 1871.
5? 5?lack> Wv Hedworth Villa, South Shields
......April 2, 1870.
58 Bla8burrij C-> 3> St- Nicholas' Buildings,
Newcastle ... Sept. 2, 1871. .
59 Boh V' H' W* R' Middlesbro,"on-Tees APril 5>
1855-
60 B ^ ^' ^ewcnurcn Collieries, near
Manchester Dec. 5, 1868.
61 B°0ti J' T'? M,E*> The 0rchards> Hucknall>
Alfreton... April 1, 1871.
00th> R. L., Medomsley, Burnopfield.........
1864.
(xviii)
elected.
62 Bouch, W., Shildon Works, Darling-ton
{Member of Council) June 4, 1370.
63 Bourne, Peter, 39, Rodney Street, Liverpool
... 1854.
64 Bourne S. West Cumberland Hematite Iron
Works,
Working ...............Aug. 21,1852.
65 Boyd, E. F., Moor House, near Durham df^TSSSi)
Aug. 21,1852.
66 Boyd, Wm., Spring- Gardens Engine Works,
Newcastle
(Member of Council) Feb. 2, 1867.
67 Boyd, Nelson, Carrickfergus,
Ireland.........Mar. 3, 1864.
68 Breckon, J. R., Park Place, Sunderland
......Sept. 3, 1864.
69 Brettell, T., Mine Agent, Dudley,
Worcestershire ... Nov. 3,1866.
70 Briart, A., Ingenieur en chef des Charbonnages
de
Mariemont et de Bascoup, Mons.........Sept. 2,
1871.
71 Broadbent, J. C, The Heights,
Rochdale......Mar. 7, 1867.
72 Brogden, James, Tondii Iron and Coal Works,
Bridgend,
Glamorganshire ... ... ... ...
... 1861.
73 Brougham, the Hon. Wilfred, Brougham, Penrith
... May 6, 1871.
74 Brown, J. N., 56, Union Passage, New St.,
Birmingham 1861.
75 Brown, Ralph, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland ...
... Oct. 1,1863.
76 Brown, Thos. Forster, Guildhall Chambers,
Cardiff ... 1861.
77 Browne, B. C, Assoc. M.I.C.E., North Ashfield
House,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Oct. 1, 1870.
78 Browne, W. R., Docks Engineers' Offices,
Cumberland
Row, Bristol ...............May 6, 1871.
79 Bruton, W., M.E., Whitwood Collieries, near
Normanton Feb. 6, 1869.
80 Brydon, J. F., Hematite Iron Works, Whitehaven
... Nov. 3, 1866.
81 Bryham, William, Rose Bridge, &c, Collieries,
Wigan Aug. 1, 1861.
82 Bryham, W., jun., Douglas Bank Collieries,
Wigan ... Aug. 3, 1865.
83 Bunning, Theo. Wood, Corbridge, Northumberland
(Secretary and Treasurer) 1864.
84 Burn, James, 3, St. Vincent Street, Sunderland
... Aug. 2, 1866.
85 Burrows, James, Douglas Bank, Wigan,
Lancashire ... May 2, 1867.
86 Cabry, J., Blyth and Tyne Railway Offices,
Newcastle
(Member of Council) Sept. 4, 1869.
87 Caldwell, George, Moss Hall Colliery, near
Wigan ... Mar. 6, 1869.
88 Campbell, James, Stavely Works,
Chesterfield......Aug. 3, 1865.
89 Carr, Charles, Cramlington,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Aug.21, 1852.
90 Carr, Wm. Cochrane, Blaydon-on-Tyne ......Dec.
3, 1857.
(xix)
elected.
• -ton, T., jun., Field Head, near Sheffield
— Aug. 1, 1861.
91 Carring > Colliery Offices, Willington,
93 Catr°Co. D-Aa* N°V- 3' 1866'
n B. T.,Pinxton Collieries, Alfreton, Derbyshire
1864.
93 Chad or > ^ ^ Thorncliffe Iron Works, nr.
Sheffield Mar. 6, 1869.
04 Chambe^ ^ Collieries? Sheffield......Dec. 2,
1871.
95 Chrman,?M.,?Plashetts Colliery, Falstone,
Northd.... Aug. 1, 1868.
^ Charlton/E., Evenwood Colliery, Bishop Auckland
... Sept. 5, 1868.
II rharlton! F.,' C.E., Newcastle-on-Tyne
......Sept. 2, 1871.
f Checkley, Thomas, M.E., Lichfield Street,
Walsall ... Aug. 7,1869.
100 Childe, Rowland, Wakefield, Yorkshire
......May 15, 1862.
101 Clark, 0. F., Garswood,
Newton-le-Willows......Aug. 2, 1866.
102 Clark, G., Ravenhead Colliery, St. Helen's,
Lancashire Dec. 7, 1867.
103 Clark, R. P., 9, St. Mary's Terrace,
Newcastle ... Nov. 7, 1868.
104 Clark, W., M.E., The Grange, Teversall, nr.
Mansfield April 7, 1866
105 Clark, William, Victoria Engine Works,
Gateshead ... Dec. 7, 1867.
106 Clarke, T., Ince Hall Collieries, Wigan
......Mar. 2, 1872.
107 Clifford, W. ..................Sept. 4, 1869.
108 Coates, C. N., Skelton Mines, by Guisborough
... May 3, 1866.
109 Cochrane, W., Oakfield House, Coxlodge,
Northum-
berland .........(Vice-President) 1859.
110 Cochrane, B., Alden Grange, Durham ......Dec.
6, 1866.
111 Cochrane, C, The Grange, Stourbridge
......June 3, 1857.
112 Cochrane, H., The Longlands,
Middlesbro'-on-Tees ... Mar. 4, 1871.
113 Cockburn, G., 8, Summerhill Grove, Newcastle
... Dec. 6, 1866.
114 Cockburn, W., Upleatham Mines, Upleatham,
Marske Oct. 1, 1857. "
115 Coke, R. G., Tapton Grove, Chesterfield,
Derbyshire May 5, 1859.
116 Cole, W. R., Bebside Colliery, Cowpen Lane,
Northd. Oct. 1, 1857.
117 Collis, W. B., Heigh House, Stourbridge,
Worcestershr. June 6, 1861.
118 Cook, J.; jun., Washington Iron Works,
Gateshead ... May 8, 1869.
119 Cook, R. F., Towlaw Iron Works, near
Darlington ... 1860.
120 Cooke, John, 4, Mulberry Street, Darlington
... Nov. 1, 1860.
121 Cooksey, Joseph, West Bromwich, Staffordshire
... Aug. 3, 1865.
-2 Cooper, Pv Thornley Colliery Office, Ferryhill
... Dec. 3, 1857.
23 Cooper, R. E., C.E., York Place, Leeds
......Mar. 4, 1871.
lo5 p°°Per' T*> Park Gate> Rotherham, Yorkshire
... April 2, 1863.
126 ^°rbett> V. W., Londonderry Offices, Seaham
Harbour Sept. 3, 1870.
127 ^ SOn> W., Shamrock House, Durham
......Oct. 1, 1852.
owen, J.; jun ^ Blaydon Burn^ Newcastle-on-Tyne
Oct. 5, 1854.
(XX)
elected.
128 Cowlishaw, J., Thorncliffe, &c, Collieries,
near Sheffield Mar. 7, 1867.
129 Coxon, Henry, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne
......Sept. 2, 1871.
130 Coxon, S. B., Usworth Colliery, Washington
Station,
Co. Durham ...............June 5, 1856.
131 Craig, W. Y., Harecastle Colliery,
Stoke-upon-Trent Nov. 3, 1866.
132 Crawford, T., Littletown Colliery, near
Durham ... Aug. 21,1852.
133 Crawford, T., Hetton Office, Fence Houses ...
... Sept. 3, 1864.
134 Crawford, T., jun., Littletown Colliery, near
Durham Aug. 7, 1869.
135 Crawshay, E., Gateshead-on-Tyne .........Dec.
4, 1869.
136 Crawshay, G., Gateshead-on-Tyne .........Dec.
4, 1869.
137 Creighton, C. E., 10, Grey Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne May 6, 1871.
138 Crofton, J. G.,Kenyon Collieries, Buabon,
Denbighshire Feb. 7, 1861.
139 Crone, S. C, Killingworth Colliery,
Newcastle-upon-
Tyne .........(Member of Council) 1853.
140 Crone, J. R, Stanhope, Darlington
.........Feb. 1, 1868.
141 Cross, John, 78, Cross Street, Manchester
......June 5, 1869.
142 Croudace, Thomas, Lambton Lodge, New South
Wales 1862.
143 Croudace, T. Dacre, Zeche Erin, Castrop,
Westphalia Mar. 7, 1867.
144 Daglish, John,
F.G.S.,Tynemouth(Vice-President) Aug.21,1852.
145 Daglish, W. S., Solicitor,
Newcastle.........July 2, 1872.
146 Dakers, W., Seaham Collieries,
Sunderland......April 7, 1866.
147 Dale, David, West Lodge* Darlington
......Feb. 5, 1870.
148 D'Andrimont, T., Liege, Belgium
.........Sept. 3, 1870.
149 Daniel, W., 11, Blenheim Square, Leeds
......June 4, 1870.
150 Darlington, John. 2, Coleman Street
Buildings, Moor-
gate Street, Great Swan Ally, London......April
1, 1865.
151 Davidson, James, Newbattle Colliery, Dalkeith
... 1854.
152 Davidson, J., Blyth Place, St. Bees, nr.
Whitehaven Feb. 1, 1868.
153 Davison, A., Seaton Delaval, Dudley,
Northumberland Feb. 4, 1858.
154 Davy, Alfred, Park Iron Works, Sheffield
......Feb. 5, 1870.
155 Dawson, T. J., Cleugh Road, Masbro',
Yorkshire ... April 6, 1867.
156 Day, W. H., Monk Bretton, Barnsley ......Mar.
6, 1869.
157 Dees, J., Whitehaven...............Nov. 1,
1855.
158 Dees, R. R., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne
......Oct. 7, 1871.
159 Dickinson, G. T., Wheelbirks, Northumberland
... July 2, 1872.
160 Dickinson, R., Coalowner, Shotley Bridge
......Mar. 4, 1871.
161 Dickinson, W. R., South berwent Colliery,
Annfield
Plain, Gateshead...............Aug. 7; 1862.
(xxi)
elected.
reoro-e, Lowther Street, Whitehaven......Dec. 3,
1857.
1(]o pixon, ^onias, Halton-lea-Gate, Haltwhistle
... Mar. 7, 1868.
163 Dobson, Laml)lev Colliery,
Haltwhistle......Sept. 4, 1869.
1(54 D°^7 B Loughbrow, Hexham......... May 3,
1866.
165 Dodd, John Daiton Street, Manchester... Aug.
3, 1865.
166 Doming ^> w^ Collierie^ Darlington
(Member of Council) Aug. 21, 1852.
^ i„a f! P.. Consett Iron Works, Gateshead
... Mar. 6, 1869.
168 Doug±aS? A '9 7
169 Douthwaite, T., Hebburn Colliery, Gateshead
... June 5, 1869.
170 Dove, G., Portland Square,
Carlisle.........July 2, 1872.
171 Dunlop, Colin, jun., Quarter Iron Works,
Hamilton... Sept. 3, 1870.
170 Dunn, A. M., Architect,
Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar. 6, 1869.
173 Dunn, D. G., Greenfield Collieries, Hamilton,
N.B.... April 6, 1867.
174 Dunn, J., Drummond Colliery, Pictou, Nova
Scotia... May 8, 1869.
175 Dyson, George, Middlesborough ...
... ... June 2, 1866.
176 Easton, J., Nest House, Gateshead.........
1853.
177 Eaton, J. R., 5, Saville Place,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Dec. 4, 1869.
178 Elliot, G., M.P., Houghton Hall, Fence Houses
/ Past President \ Allo*0l 1 SKO.
VMember of Council./ ii-llg.-w L, LOO^
179 Elliott, W., Weardale Iron Works, Towlaw,
Darlington 1854.
180 Embleton, T. W.? The Cedars, Methley, Leeds
... Sept. 6, 1855.
181 Embleton, T. W., jun., The Cedars, Methley,
Leeds... Sept. 2, 1865.
182 Eminson, J. B., Londonderry Offices, Seaham
Harbour Mar. 2, 1872.
183 Emslie, J. T., Harewood Villas,
Stockton-on-Tees ... Sept. 3, 1870.
184 Everard, I. B., M.E., 6, Millstone Lane,
Leicester ... Mar. 6, 1869.
185 Farmer, A., Westbrook, Darlington.........
Mar. 2, 1872.
186 Farrar, T., Barnsley ............... July 2,
1872.
187 Fearn, John Wilmot, Chesterfield .........
Mar. 6, 1869.
188 Fen wick, Barnabas, Team Colliery, Gateshead
... Aug. 2, 1866.
189 Fen wick, George, Banker, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Sept. 2, 1871.
190 Fidler, E., Piatt Lane Colliery, Wigan,
Lancashire ... Sept. 1, 1866.
J91 Firth, S., M.A., 14, Springfield Mount, Leeds
... 1865.
92 Rrtb; William, Burley Wood, Leeds.........
Nov. 7, 1863.
3 Ksher, R. C., Ystalyfera, near Swansea ......
July 2, 1872.
*4 Fletcher, G., Trimdon Colliery, Trimdon Grange
... April 4, 1868.
5 Fletcher, H., Ladyshore Coll., Little Lever,
Bolton, Lan. Aug. 3, 1865.
1 Flet°her, I.; M.P., Clifton Colliery,
Workington ... Nov. 7, 1863.
Etcher, J., C.E., 69, Lowther Street,
Whitehaven... 1857.
(xxii)
elected.
198 Foord, J. B., Secretary, General Mining
Association,
52, Old Broad Street, London .........Nov- 5>
1852-
199 Forrest, J., Pentrehobin Hall, Mold,
Flintshire ... Mar. 5, 1870.
200 Forster, T. E., 7, Ellison Place,
Newcastle-on-Tyne
/ Past President \ ^uff. 21, 1852.
(.Member of Council./ ^ C5 J ~»
201 Forster, G. B., M.A., Backworth House, near
New-
castle-upon-Tyne ... (Vice-President)
Nov. 5, 1852.
202 Forster, George E., Washington,
Gateshead......Aug. 1, 1868/
203 Forster, J. R., Water Co.'s Office,
Newcastle......July 2, 1872.
204 Forster, R., Trimdon Grange Colliery,
Ferryhill ... Sept. 5, 1868.
205 Fothergill, J., King Street, Quay,
Newcastle......Aug. 7, 1862.
206 Fowler, G., Basford Hall, near
Nottingham......July 4, 1861.
207 Fowler, W. C, Hucknall Torkard, Nottingham
... Aug. 6, 1870.
208 France, W., White Rose House,
Marske-by-the-Sea April 6, 1867.
209 Frazer, B., Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
......Oct. 4, 1866.
210 Frazer, W., Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
......Oct. 4, 1866.
211 Fryar, M., C.E., Post Office, Rangoon,
British Burmah Sept. 7, 1867.
212 Furness, H. D., Whickham, Gateshead-on-Tyne
... Dec. 2, 1871.
213 Gainsford, T. R., Belle Vue, near Sheffield
......Nov. 5, 1864.
214 Garforth, W. E., Lord's Field Colliery,
Ashton-under-
%"ne ..................Aug. 2, 1866.
215 Gille, J., Ingenieur au Corps Royal des
Mines, Mons. Sept. 2, 1871.
216 Gillett, F. C, 16, Tenant Street, Derby
......July 4, 1861.
217 Gilroy, G., Ince Hall Colliery, Wigan,
Lancashire ... Aug. 7, 1856.
218 Gilroy, S. B., M.E., Moreton Hall and
Preesgwyn
Collieries, Chirk, North Wales.........Sept. 5,
1868.
219 Glover, B. B., M.E., Newton-le-Willows,
Lancashire Aug. 2, 1866.
220 Goddard, D. H.,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.........July 2, 1872.
221 Goddard, E., Oak Hall, Ipswich .........July
2,? 1872.
222 Goddard, W., Golden Hill Coll., Longton, No.
Staff. Mar. 6, 1862.
223 Gooch, G. H., Lintz Colliery, Burnopfield,
Gateshead Oct. 3, 1856.
224 Goodman, A., Walker Iron Works, Newcastle
... Sept. 5, 1868.
225 Gott, Wm. L., Shincliffe Collieries,
Durham......Sept. 3, 1864.
226 Graham, J., Dipton Colliery, near Burnopfield
... April 2, 1870.
227 Grant, J. H., Bora Chuck House, Seetarampore
Collieries, Bengal...............Sept. 4,1869.
228 Gray, Thomas, Underhill, Taibach
.........June 5, 1869.
229 Greaves, J. O., Roundwood Coll., Horbury,
Wakefield 4ug. 7, 1862.
230 Green, J. T., Tredegar Ironworks,
Monmouthshire ... Dec. 3, 1870.
231 Green, W., jun., Garesfield Col.,
Blaydon-on-Tyne ... Feb. 4, 1853. *
(xxiii)
elected.
Thos., Benton Lodge, Darlington ... - Aug.
3, 1865.
Greener, >^ p G.8., Poynton and Worth
Col-
233 °reewies, Stockport............ ... Aug.21,
1852.
ii r C iun., Poynton and Worth Collieries,
Greenwel, <*• -.J ..............
Stockport .... .
„ . r> Leeds ...............Aug. 2, 1866.
5 g'G G Dilston, Northumberland ......May
4, 1872.
S N.'r , 13, Grosvenor Road, Wrexham ...
1866.
' Qrimshaw, Cowley Hill, St. Helen's, Lancashire
Sept. 5, 1868.
239 Guinotte/Lucien, Directeur des Charbonnages
de
Mariemont et de Bascoup, Mons.........Sept. 2,
1871.
240 Haggie, P., Gateshead............... 1854.
241 Hales, C, Modubeagh Ho., Ballylinan, Athy,
Ireland 1865.
242 Hall, Edward, 24, Bigg Market,
Newcastle......Oct. 3, 1868.
243 Hall, F. W., 23, St. Thomas' Street,
Newcastle ... Aug. 7, 1869.
244 Hall, H., Hamsteels Collieries, near Durham
... Aug. 2, 1866.
245 Hall, M., Brancepeth Colliery Offices,
Willington, Co.
Durham ... ...............Sept. 5, 1868.
246 Hall, William F., Haswell Colliery, Fence
Houses ... May 13, 1858.
247 Hann, Edmund, Lofthouse, Cleveland
......Sept. 5, 1868.
248 Hargreaves, William, Roth well Haigh, Leeds
... Sept. 5, 1868.
249 Harkness, A., Birtley Iron Works, Fence
Houses ... Dec. 5, 1868.
250 Harper, J. P., All Saints' Chambers,
Derby......Feb. 2, 1867.
251 Harper, Matthew, Whitehaven .........Oct. 1,
1863.
252 Harrison, T. E., C.E., Central Station,
Newcastle
(Member of Council) May 6, 1853.
253 Harrison, Rv Eastwood Collieries, Nottingham
... 1861.
254 Harrison, W. B., Norton Hall, Cannock,
Staffordshire April 6, 1867.
255 Haswell, G. H., 11, So. Preston Terrace, No.
Shields Mar. 2, 1872.
2o6 Hawthorn, T., 74, Rye Hill, Newcastle
(Member of Council) Dec. 6, 1866.
^>58 jJaWthorn> Wv C.E., 92, Pilgrim Street,
Newcastle Mar. 4, 1853.
^59 H ^ J'' NewPort Rollin£ Mills, Middlesbro'
... Oct. 2, 1869.
260 nt^' R'' Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland
... Nov. 5, 1852.
261 fi?1' Edward, Osmaston Street, Derby
......Dec. 2, 1858.
262 He t* f'? valuer> sunderland
.........mar- 4; 18^1-
edley, jj ^ Qonsett Collieries, Medomsley,
Bur-
n°pfield, Co. Durham ... (Member of Council)
1864.
(xxiv)
ELECTED.
263 Henderson, John, M.P., Leazes House, Durham
... Mar. 5, 1870.
264 Heppell,T.,Pelaw Main Collieries,Birtley,
Fence Houses Aug-. 6,1863.
265 Heppell, W., Brancepeth Coll., Willington,
Co. Durham Mar. 2, 1872.
266 Hepplewhite, T., Hetton Colliery, Fence
Houses ... Dec. 5, 1868.
267 Herdman, J., Park Crescent, Bridgend,
Glamorganshire Oct. 4, 1860.
268 Heslop, James, Esh Colliery, Durham
......Feb. 6, 1864,
269 Hetherington, D., Coxlodge Colliery,
Newcastle ... 1859.
270 Hewitt, G. C, Coal Pit Heath Colliery, near
Bristol... June 3, 1871.
271 Hewlett, A., Haigh Colliery, Wigan,
Lancashire ... Mar. 7, 1861.
272 Hick, G. W., 14, Blenheim Terrace,
Leeds......May 4, 1872.
273 Higson, Jacob, 94, Cross Street,
Manchester...... 1861.
274 Higson, P., jun., Hope View, Eccles, near
Manchester Aug. 3, 1865.
275 Hill, P., Littleburn Colliery, near Durham
......July 2, 1872.
276 Hilton, J., Dunkirk Collieries, Dukinfield
... ... Dec. 7, 1867.
277 Hilton, T. W., Wigan Coal & Iron Co.,
Limited, Wigan Aug. 3, 1865.
278 Hodgkin, T., Banker, Newcastle-on-Tyne
......Sept. 2, 1871.
279 Hodgson, R., Whitburn, Sunderland (Mem. of
Council) Feb. 7, 1856.
280 Homer, Charles James, Chatterley Hall,
Tunstall ... Aug. 3, 1865.
281 Hood, A., 6, Bute Crescent,
Cardiff.........April]8,1861.
282 Hopper, John J., Britannia Iron Works, Fence
Houses Sept. 2, 1865.
283 Horsfall, J. J., Bradley Green Colliery, near
Congleton Mar. 2, 1865.
284 Horsley, W., Whitehill Point, Percy
Main......Mar. 5, 1857.
285 Hoskold, H. D., Cinderford, Newnham,
Gloucestershire April 1, 1871.
286 Howard, W. F., 13, Cavendish Street,
Chesterfield ... Aug. 1, 1861.
287 Hoyt, J., Acadia Coal Mines, Pictou, Nova
Scotia ... May 8, 1869.
288 Hudson, James, Albion Mines, Pictou, Nova
Scotia. . 1862.
289 Humble, John, West Pelton, Chester-le-Street
... Mar. 4, 1871.
290 Humble, Jos., jun., Garesfield,
Blaydon-on-Tyne ... June 2, 1866.
291 Humble, W. J., Forth Banks West Factory,
Newcastle Sept. 1, 1866.
292 Hunt, A. H., Quayside, Newcastle -upon-Tyne
... Dec. 6, 1862.
293 Hunter, Wm, Moor Lodge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
... Aug. 21,1852.
294 Hunter, W., Morriston, Swansea,
Glamorganshire ... Oct. 3, 1861.
295 Hunter, W. S., Moor Lodge,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Feb. 1, 1868.
296 Hunting, Charles, Fence Houses .........Dec.
6, 1866.
297 Huntsman, Benjamin, West Retford Hall,
Retford ... June 1, 1867.
298 Hurd, F., Albion Foundry,
Wakefield.........Dec. 4, 1869.
299 Hurst, T. G., F.G.S., Riding Mill,
Northumberland
(Member of Council) Aug. 21,1852.
300 Hutchings, W. M., 5, Bouverie St., Fleet St.,
London Sept. 5, 1868,
(xxv)
elected.
301 Hutchinson, G., Howden Colliery, Darlington
... July 2, 1872.
302 Jackson, C.G., Ladies' Lane Colliery,
Hindley,Wigan June 4, 1870.
303 Jameson, John, Printing Court Chambers,
Newcastle Nov. 6, 1869.
304 Jarratt. J., Broomside Colliery Office,
Durham ... Nov. 2, 1867.
305 Jeffcock, T. W., 18, Bank Street,
Sheffield......Sept. 4, 1869.
306 Jenkins, W., M.E., Ocean S.C. Collieries,
Ystrad, near
Pontypridd, South Wales .........Dec. 6, 1862.
307 Johnasson, J., 5, Gloucester Sq., Hyde Park,
London July 2, 1872.
308 Johnson, Henry, Dudley, Worcestershire
......Aug. 7, 1869.
309 Johnson, John, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S , Osborne
Ter-
race, Jesmond Road, Newcastle.........Aug. 21,
1852.
310 Johnson, R. S., Sherburn Hall, Durham
......Aug. 21, 1852.
311 Johnson, T., Withington Hill Colliery,
Aspull,nr.Wigan Aug. 7, 1869.
312 Johnson, W. J., W.B. Lead Works, Allendale
... April 6, 1872.
313 Johnston, T., Widdrington Colliery,
Acklington ... April % 1872.
314 Joicey, E., Coal Owner,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.....April 6, 1872.
315 Joicey, J. G., Forth Banks West Factory,
Newcastle April 10,1869.
316 Joicey, John, Newton Hall,
Stocksfield-on-Tyne ... Sept. 3, 1852.
317 Joicey, W. J., Tanfield Lea Colliery,
Burnopfield ... Mar. 6, 1869.
318 Jones, E., Granville Lodge, Wellington, Salop
... Oct. 5, 1854.
319 Jones, John, F.G.S., Secretary, North of
England Iron
Trade, Middlesbro'-on-Tees .........Sept. 7,
1867.
320 Joseph, T., Ty Draw, near Pontypridd, South
Wales April 6, 1872.
321 Kendall, W., Blyth and Tyne Railway, Percy
Main ... Sept. 1, 1866.
322 Kennedy, Myles, M.E., Hill Foot, Ulverstone
... June 6, 1868.
323 Kirkwood, William, Larkhall Colliery,
Hamilton ... Aug. 7, 1869.
324 Knowles, A., High Bank, Pendlebury,
Manchester ... Dec. 5, 1856.
325 Knowles, A., jun., The Poplars, Hope Eccles,
near
Manchester ...............Dec. 3, 1863.
326 Knowles, John, Pendlebury Colliery,
Manchester ... Dec. 5, 1856.
327 Knowles, Kaye, Little Lever Colliery, near
Bolton ... Aug. 3, 1865.
328 Knowles, R. M., Turton, near Bolton
......Aug. 3, 1865.
329 Knowles, Thomas, Ince Hall,
Wigan.........Aug. 1, 1861.
330 Lamb, R., Cleator Moor Colliery, near
Whitehaven ... Sept. 2, 1865.
331 Lamb, R. O., Axwell Park, Gateshead
......Aug. 2, 1866.
332 Lambert, M. W., 44, Quay, Newcastle
......July 2, 1872.
d
(xxvi)
elected.
333 Lancaster, John, Bilton Grange, Rugby ...
- JulJ 4> 1S®}'
334 Lancaster, J., jun., Bilton Grange, Rugby
... Mar. 2, 1865.
335 Lancaster, Joshua, Mostyn Collieries, near
Holywell Aug. 3, 1865.
336 Lancaster, S., Prescot Colliery, Prescot
... ••• Aug. 3, 1865.
337 Landale, A., Lochgelly Iron Works, Fifeshire,
N.B. Dec. 2, 1858.
338 Lange, C, Broad Chare,
Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar. 5, 1870.
339 Laverick, J., West Rainton, Fence
Houses......July 2, 1872.
340 Lawrence, Henry, Grange Iron Works, Durham
... Aug. 1, 1868.
341 Laws, H., Grainger Street West,
Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) Feb. 6, 1869.
342 Laws, John, Blyth, Northumberland.........
1854-
343 Lawson, Rev. E., Longhirst Hall,
Morpeth......Dec. 3, 1870.
344 Lawson, J. P., Victoria Mines, Sydney, Cape
Breton Dec. 3, 1870.
345 Laycock, Joseph, Low Gosforth, Northumberland
... Sept. 4, 1869.
346 Leather, J. T., Middleton Hall, Belford,
Northumbld. Aug. 6, 1870.
347 Lee, George, Eston Mines, Middlesbro'
......June 4, 1870.
348 Legrand, A., Mons, Belgium............June 5,
1869.
349 Leslie, Andrew, Hebburn, Gateshead-on-Tyne
... Sept. 7, 1867.
350 Letoret, Jules, Flenu, near Mons,
Belgium......Sept. 4, 1869.
351 Lever, Ellis, West Gorton Works, Manchester
... 1861.
352 Lewis, G., Coleorton Colliery,
Ashby-de-la-Zouch ... Aug. 6, 1863.
353 Lewis, Henry, Annesley Colliery, near
Mansfield ... Aug. 2, 1866.
354 Lewis, Lewis Thomas, Cadoxton Lodge, Neath
... Feb. 1, 1868.
355 Lewis, William Thomas, Mardy, Aberdare......
1864.
356 Liddell, G. H., Murton Colliery, Fence Houses
... Sept. 4, 1869.
357 Liddell, J. R., Nedderton,
Northumberland......Aug. 21,1852.
358 Liddell, M., Prudhoe Hall, Prudhoe-on-Tyne
... Oct. 1, 1852.
359 Lindop, James, Bloxwich, Walsall,
Staffordshire ... Aug. 1, 1861.
360 Linsley, R., Seghill Colliery, Northumberland
... July 2, 1872.
361 Linsley, S.W., Silksworth New Winning, nr.
Sunderland Sept. 4, 1869.
362 Lishman, John, Western Hill, Durham
......June 2, 1866.
363 Lishman,T., jun., Black Boy Coll., nr. Bishop
Auckland Nov. 5, 1870.
364 Lishman, Wm., Etherley Colliery, Darlington
... 1857.
365 Lishman, Wm., Bunker Hill, Fence
Houses......Mar. 7, 1861.
366 Lister, Clement,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.........June 4, 1870.
367 Livesey, C, Bredbury Colliery, Bredbury,
Stockport Aug. 3, 1865.
368 Livesey, T., Chamber Hall, Hollinwood,
Manchester... Aug. 1, 1861.
369 Llewellin, D., Glanwern Offices, Pontypool,
Monmouth-
shire ......... .........Aug. 4, 1864.
(xxvii)
elected.
jj Aberaman, Aberdare, South Wales ... May 4,
1872.
;370 Wewely^im7anl; Littletown, Durham
......Sept. 7, 1867.
371 Logan, ^ ^ p^,g Corner^ Westminster,
London Aug.21, 1852.
;,roLongnd^,JB^ancepeth Coiiiery,
Durham......Sept. 5, 1856.
373 Love, Jo ^ Colliery? Wrexham, Denbighshire
... Sept. 6, 1855.
[ l°w? 'a F G S 4, Blenheim Terrace, Leeds
... Nov. 6, 1869.
375 Lupton, A., *•> >
i Mackenzie, J., 4, West Regent Street, Glasgow
... Mar. 5, 1870.
7 Maddison, W. P., Thornhill Collieries, near
Dewsbury Oct. 6, 1859.
Mammatt, John E., C.E., Wortley Grange, Leeds ...
1864.
379 Marley, John, Mining Offices, Darlington
(Vice-President) Aug.21,1852.
380 Marshall, F. C, Messrs. Hawthorn and Co.,
Newcastle Aug. 2, 1866.
381 Marshall, J., Smithfold Coll., Little Hulton,
nr. Bolton 1864.
382 Marston, W. B., Leeswood Vale Oil Works, Mold
... Oct. 3, 1868.
383 Mart, B., St. Peter's Chambers,Oak Hill,
Stoke-on-Trent Sept. 4, 1869.
384 Marten, E. B., C.E., Pedmore, near
Stourbridge ... July 2, 1872.
385 Matthews, R. F., So. Hetton Colliery, Fence
Houses Mar. 5, 1857.
386 Maughan, J. A., Wallsend Colliery, Newcastle
... Nov. 7, 1863.
387 May, George, North Hetton Colliery, Fence
Houses Mar. 6, 1862.
388 McCreath, J., 138, West George Street,
Glasgow ... Mar. 5, 1870.
389 McCulloch, H. J., Jesmond Villa, Park Road,
Holloway,
London, N. ...............Oct. 1, 1863. '
390 McGhie, T., Cannock,
Staffordshire.........Oct. 1, 1857.
391 Mclntyre, James, Shipbuilder, Jarrow-on-Tyne
... Sept. 2, 1871.
392 McMurtrie, J., Radstock Colliery, Bath
......Nov. 7, 1863.
393 McMurtrie, W. G., Camerton Collieries, near
Bath ... Sept. 4, 1869.
394 Meik, Thomas, C.E., Sunderland .........June
4, 1870.
395 Miller, Robert, Strafford Collieries, near
Barnsley ... Mar. 2, 1865.
396 Mills, John, Forth Street,
Newcastle.........July 2, 1872.
97 Mitcalfe, W. B., 23 and 24, Coal Exchange,
London Nov. 6, 1869.
399 !Jltcllinson> R-> Jun-, Kibblesworth Col.,
Gateshead ... Feb. 4, 1865.
400 M ^ T'? NeW MainS' by Motherwell> N-B-
SePt- 4; 1869-
401 MonkhOUSe; Josv Gill Head Colliery,
Flimby,Maryport June 4, 1863.
40o ^i0°^J) John> Alipore Road,
Calcutta.........Feb. 3, 1872.
403 M^ T'> N°rth Seaton Colliery, Morpeth
......Oct. 3, 1868.
404 Moia' ^ ^ ^meaton Park> Inveresk, Edinburgh
... Feb. 2, 1867.
S0N> D. p.^ 21, Collingwood Street, Newcastle
(Member of Council) 1861.
(xxviii)
RIjECTED.
405 Morris, W., Waldridge Colliery,
Chester-le-Street,
Fence Houses ............... 1858.
406 Morrison, James, 34, Grey Street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne Aug. 5, 1853.
407 Morton, H. T., Lambton, Fence Houses ...
Aug.21, 1852.
408 Muckle, John, Monk Bretton, Barnsley
... — Mar* 7> 186L
409 Mulcaster, Joshua, Crosby Colliery, Maryport
June 4, 1863.
410 Mulcaster, W., jun., M.E.,
Maryport.........Dec- 3> 18?0-
411 Mulvany, W. T., 1335, Carls Thor,
Dusseldorf-on-
the-Rhine..................Dec' S> lS67'
412 Murray, T. H., Chester-le-Street, Fence
Houses ... Apr. 18, 1861.
413 Nanson, J., 4, Queen Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Dec. 4, 1869.
414 Napier, C, 1, Rumford Place, Liverpool
......Aug. 1, 1861.
415 Nasse, Rud., Louisenthal, Saarbruck, Prussia
... Sept. 4, 1869.
416 Nay lor, J. T., 10, West Clayton Street,
Newcastle ... Dec. 6, 1866.
417 Nelson, J., C.E., King's House Engine
Works,
Sunderland ......(Member of Council) Oct. 4,
1866.
418 Nevin, John, Mirfield, Yorkshire .........May
2, 1868.
419 Newall, R. S., Ferndene, Gateshead
(Vice-President) May 2, 1863.
420 Newby, J. E., Usworth Colliery,
Gateshead......Oct. 2, 1869.
421 Nicholson, E., jun., Beamish Colliery, by
Chester-le-
Street, Fence Houses ............Aug. 7, 1869.
422 Nicholson, Marshall, Middleton Hall,
Leeds......Nov. 7, 1863.
423 Nicholson, R., Blaydon-on-Tyne .........July
2, 1872.
424 Nicholson, T., Park Lane Engine Works,
Gateshead... Dec. 4, 1869-
425 Nicholson, W., Seghill Colliery,
Newcastle......Oct. 1, 1863.
426 Noble, Captain, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
... Feb. 3, 1866.
427 Noble, R. B., Pensher, Fence
Houses.........Oct. 2, 1869.
428 North, F. W., Rowley Hall Col., Dudley,
Staffordshire Oct. 6, 1864.
429 Ogden, John M., Solicitor, Sunderland
......Mar. 5, 1857.
430 Oliver, G., Brotton Ironstone Mines,
Saltburn-by-the-Sea 1864.
431 Oliver, John, Hawkesbury Colliery, Bedworth
... April 1, 1865.
432 Oliver, W., Stanhope Burn Offices, Stanhope,
Darlington 1862.
433 Owen, R., 40, Dean Street, Newcastle
......July 2, 1872.
434 Pacey, T., Bishop Auckland............Apr.
10, 1869.
435 Palmer, A. M., Wardley Colliery,
Durham......July 2, 1872
(xxix)
elected.
n M Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne......Nov. 5, 1852.
436 Pal*"*' r.B"jarrow-on-Tyne .........April 1,
1871.
7 Palmv Tobinne, Teplitz, Bohemia .........Feb.
5, 1870.
PapiK, J w go skelton Mines,
Marske-by-the-
439 Parrington, a ¦ ¦> ............^ ^
Sea •••
T F G S New Road, Willenhall, near
) Parton, • ' >
Wolverhampton ... ............Oct. 2, 1859.
. n John, Analytical Chemist,
Newcastle-on-Tyne May 2, 1868.
U.' plLon, John, Westoe, South Shields ... -
... April 6, 1872.
] peace, M. W., Wigan, Lancashire .........July
2, 1872.
t44 Peacock, David, Horsley, Tipton .........Aug.
7, 1869.
t45 Pearce, F. H., Bowling Iron Works, Bradford
... Oct. 1, 1857.
446 Pearson, J. E.,Golborne Park, near
Newton-le-Willows Feb. 3, 1872.
447 Pease, J. W., M.P., Woodlands,
Darlington......Mar. 5, 1857.
448 Peel, John, Springwell Colliery,
Gateshead......Nov. 1, 1860.
l) Peile, William, 6, College Street, Whitehaven
... Oct. 1, 1863.
450 Perrot, S. W., Hibernia and Shamrock
Collieries,
Gelsenkirchen, Dusseldorf .........June 2, 1866.
451 Philipson, H, 8, Queen Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 7, 1871.
452 Pickersgill, T., Waterloo Main Colliery, near
Leeds ... June 5, 1869.
453 Piggford, J., Houghall Colliery, near Durham
... Aug. 2, 1866.
454 Pilkington, Wm., jun., St. Helen's,
Lancashire ... Sept. 6, 1855.
455 Potter, W. A., Cramlington House,
Northumberland
(Member of Council) 1853.
456 Potter, Addison, Heaton Hall,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Mar. 6, 1869.
457 Priestman, Jon., Coal Owner,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 2, 1871.
458 Prosser, Thomas, Architect, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Mar. 6, 1869.
459 Ramsay, J. A., Washington Colliery, near
Durham
(Member of Council) Mar. 6, 1869.
J60 Ramsay, J. T., Walbottle Hall, near
Blaydon-on-Tyne Aug. 3, 1853.
40o ^amSay> T' Dv So. Durham Colliery, via
Darlington Mar. 1, 1866.
463 £ majne> J' Mv Chemical Manufacturer,
Gateshead July 2, 1872.
464 Redrnayn^ R- R-> Chemical Manufacturer,
Gateshead Sept. 2, 1871.
465 RGed' R°hQTt> Fellin§' Colliery, Gateshead
......Dec. 3, 1863.
466 ReJ DaGie1' Lletty Shenkin Colliery, Aberdare
... 1862.
467 Rich Andrew> Newcastle-on-Tyne .........April
2, 1870.
468 Rich^0^ E*' 2' Queen StreGt'
Newcastle-°n-Tyne Feb. 5> 18?°-
1 c ardson, H., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle
... Mar. 2, 1865.
(xxx)
elected.
469 Richardson, J. W., Iron Shipbuilder,
Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 3, 1870.
470 Ridley, G., care of Brumell & Russel,
Toronto, Canada Feb. 4, 1865.
471 Ridley, J. H., R. and W. Hawthorn's,
Newcastle ... April 6, 1872.
472 Ritson, U. A., 6, Queen Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 7, 1871.
473 Robertson, W., M.E., 123, St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow Mar. 5, 1870.
474 Robinson, G. C, Shotton Colliery, Castle Eden
... Nov. 5, 1870.
475 Robinson, H., C.E., 7, Westminster Chambers,
London Sept. 3, 1870,
476 Robinson, R., jun., Albion Cottage, Bishop
Auckland Feb. 1, 1868.
477 Robinson, R. H., Staveley Works, near
Chesterfield Sept. 5, 1868.
478 Robson, E., Newlands Villa,
Middlesbro'-on-Tees ... April 2, 1870.
479 Robson, J. B., Paradise, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
... May 8, 1869.
480 Robson, J. S., Butterknowle Colliery, via
Staindrop,
Darlington... ... ... ••• •••
••• 1853.
481 Robson, J. T., Towneley Colliery,
Blaydon-on-Tyne Sept. 4, 1869.
482 Robson, M., Coppa Colliery, near Mold,
Flintshire ... May 4, 1872.
483 Robson, Thomas, Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses
... Oct. 4, 1860.
484 Robson, W. C, Colliery Office,
Whitehaven......Sept 4, 1869.
485 Rogerson, J., Weardale Iron and Coal Co.,
Newcastle Mar. 6, 1869.
486 Ronaldson, J., Australia ............Aug. 2,
1866.
487 Roscamp, J., Acomb Colliery, Hexham
......Feb. 2, 1867.
488 Rose, Thomas, Merridale Grove, Wolverhampton
... 1862.
489 Ross, A., Shipcote Colliery, Gateshead
......Oct. 1, 1857.
490 Ross, J. A. G., 31, Havelock Street,
Newcastle ... July 2, 1872.
491 Rosser, Wm., Mineral Surveyor, Llanelly,
Carmar-
thenshire .................. 1856.
492 Rothwell, R. P., Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania,
U.S. Mar. 5, 1870.
493 Routledge, T., Lorway Coal Co. Limited,
Sydney,
Cape Breton ...............Dec. 3, 1870.
494 Routledge, Wm., Sydney, Cape Breton
......Aug. 6, 1857.
495 Rusby, W. J., Glass House Fields Engine
Works,
Radcliffe, London, E.............Aug. 1, 1868.
496 Rutherford, J., Halifax, Nova Scotia.........
1866.
497 Sanderson, R. B., 33, Westgate Street,
Newcastle
(Member of Council) 1852.
498 Sanderson, T., Seaton Delaval, Dudley,
Northumberd. Aug. 7, 1862.
499 Scarth, W. T., Raby Castle, Darlington
......April 4, 1868.
500 Scott, Andrew, Broomhill Colliery, Acklington
... Dec. 7, 1867.
501 Scoular, G., Parkside, Frizington, Cumberland
... July 2, 1872.
(xxxi)
elected.
y f, Eccleshill Colliery, Darwen ......June 1,
1867.
:Seddon, • j^wel. j\ioor Collieries, Oldham,
Lancashire Oct. 5, 1865.
r)03 Seddon,W.^ vn,age> Newcastle......April 6,
1872.
Sh W inn , Wokingham, via Darling-ton ...
June 3, 1871.
' ShaT' Tolm Usworth Colliery, County Durham
... May 6, 1871.
; 11 H Lamb's Cottage, Gilesg-ate Moor,
Durham Mar. 6, 1862.
a*"t Park House, Winstanlev, Wig-an ...
April 3, 1856.
-Miot'trerie, a., ¦>-n r >
Simpson, J. B., Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) Oct. 4, 1860.
510 Simpson, J., Rhos Llantwit Colliery,
Caerphilly, near
Cardiff ..................Dec. 6, 1866.
511 Simpson, L., South Garesfield Colliery,
Burnopfield ... 1855.
512 Simpson, R., Ryton Moor House,
Blaydon-on-Tyne Aug. 21, 1852.
513 Slinn, T., Radcliffe House, Acklington
......July 2, 1872.
514 Small, G., Kilburne Colliery, near Derby
......June 4, 1870.
515 Smith, C. J., Darlington ............July 2,
1872.
516 Smith, E. J., 14, Whitehall Place,
Westminster, London Oct. 7, 1858.
517 Smith, F., Bridgewater Offices,
Manchester......Aug. 5, 1853.
518 Smith, T. E., M.P., Gosforth House, Dudley,
Northd. Feb. 5, 1870.
519 Smith, T. M., 1, Chapel Place, Duke Street,
West-
minster, London...............Sept. 2, 1871.
520 Smith, Thomas Taylor, Urpeth Hall,
Chester-le-Street Aug. 2, 1866.
521 Sneddon, J., 149, West George Street, Glasgow
... July 2, 1872.
22 Snowdon, T., jun., Weardale Iron Works,
Towlaw, via
Darlington..................Sept. 4, 1869.
523 Sopwith, A., 103, Victoria Street,
Westminster, London Aug. 1, 1868.
Sopwith, T., F.G.S., etc., 103, Victoria Street,
West-
minster, London, S.W.............May 6, 1853.
625 Southern, R., Rlaen Rhondda Colliery,
Treherbert,
bj PontyPridd; South Wales .........Au£- 3, 1865.
526 Spark, H. K., Darlington ............ 1856.
Spence, J., Printing, Court Buildings, Newcastle
. . July 2, 1872.
j pencer> John, Westgate Street,
Newcastle......Sept. 4, 1869.
530 sPenCer> M > Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Sept. 4, 1869.
531 sPenCer> T*> %ton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
......Dec. 6, 1866.
532 sT061' W'? 2' East Cr°SS Street> Sunderland
Aug.21, 1852.
533 S °nei>' H"aswe11 Colliery, Fence
Houses ... Dec. 4, 1869.
teavens°n, A. L., Holywell, Durham
(Vice-President) Dec. 6, 1855.
(xxxii)
elected.
534 Steavenson, D. F., B.A., LL.B,
Barrister-at-Law, Cross
House, Westgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 1, 1871.
535 Steele, Charles R., Ellenborough Colliery,
Maryport Mar. 3, 1864.
536 Stenson, W. T., Whitwick Coll., Coalville,
nr. Leicester Aug. 5, 1853.
537 Stephenson, G. R., 24, Great George Street,
West-
minster, London, S.W........... ••• 0ct J>
1860'
538 Stephenson, J., Seaton Delaval Coll., Dudley,
Northum. Sept. 5, 1868.
539 Stephenson, W. H., Summerhill Grove,
Newcastle Mar. 7, 1867.
540 Stevenson, Archibald, South Shields...... -
Sept. 2, 1871.
541 Stobart, H. S., Witton-le-Wear,
Darlington......Feb. 2, 1854.
542 Stobart, W., Cocken Hall, Fence Houses
......July 2, 1872.
543 Stott, James, Chatham Hall, Manchester ......
1855.
544 Straker, John, West House, Tynemouth
......May 2, 1867.
545 Swallow, John, Harton Colliery, South Shields
... Aug. 6, 1863.
546 Swallow, R. T., Pontop Coll., Burnopfield,
Co. Durham 1862.
547 Swan, H. F., Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Sept. 2, 1871.
548 Swan, J. G., Upsall Hall, near
Middlesbro'......Sept. 2, 1871.
549 Taylor, H., 27, Quay,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne......Sept. 5, 1856.
550 Taylor, J., Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
......Aug.21, 1852.
551 Taylor, T., Chipchase Castle, Northumberland
... July 2, 1872.
552 Taylor, W. N., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland
... Oct. 1, 1863.
553 Telford, W., Cramlington,
Northumberland......May 6, 1853.
554 Thomas, A., Bilson House, near Newnham, Glos.
... Mar. 2, 1872.
555 Thompson, Astley, Kedwelly, Carmarthenshire
... 1864.
556 Thompson, James, Bishop Auckland.........June
2, 1866.
557 Thompson, John, Marley Hill Colliery,
Gateshead ... Oct. 4, 1860.
558 Thompson, John, Field House, Hoole, Chester
... Sept. 2, 1865.
559 Thompson, J., Norley Colliery, Wigan,
Lancashire ... April 6, 1867.
560 Thompson, R., jun., North Brancepeth Coll.,
nr. Durham Sept. 7, 1867.
561 Thompson, T. C, Milton Hall, Carlisle
......May 4, 1854
562 Thorpe, R. S., 17, Picton Place,
Newcastle......Sept. 5, 1868.
563 Tinn, J., C.E., Ashton Iron Rolling Mills,
Bower
Ashton, Bristol ...............Sept. 7, 1867
564 Toller, J. E., Royal Engineers, Archcliff
Fort, Dover July 2, 1872.
565 Tone, J. F., C.E., Pilgrim Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne Feb. 7, 1856.
566 Truran, M., Dowlais Iron Works, Merthyr
Tydvil ... Dec. 1, 1859.
567 Turner, W. B., C. and M.E., Ulverstone
......Dec. 7, 1867.
568 Tylden-Wright, C, Shireoaks Coll., Worksop,
Notts. 1862.
(xxxiii)
elected.
T7no-jneer Tyne Commissioners, Newcastle May 8,
1869.
569 Ure, J* b
^ Thomas. Middlesbro'-on-Tees ...... 1857.
Vaugnan, ±
ft C. and M.E., Millwood, Dalton-in-Furness Dec.
7, 1867.
i V\M^ia™'j^' River Wear Commissioners,
Sunderland Feb. 3, 1872.
' Walker G W., Swannington, near
Ashby-de-la-Zouch Sept. 7, 1867.
Walker' J. S./l5, Wallgate, Wigan,, Lancashire
... Dec. 4, 1869.
W Ike/ W Crags Hall Mines, Brotton, near
Saltburn-
1 by-the-Sea ...............Mar. 5, 1870.
Waller, W., Palmer & Co., Limited, Jarrow-on-Tyne
1866.
577 Walton, W., Upleatham Mines, Redcar
......Feb. 1, 1867.
578 Ward H, Priestfield Iron Works, Oaklands,
Wolver-
hampton ..................Mar. 6, 1862.
9 Wardell, S. C, Doe Hill House, Alfreton
......April 1, 1865.
580 Warrington, J., Worsborough Hall, near
Barnsley ... Oct. 6, 1859.
I Watkin, Wm. J. L., Pemberton Colliery, Wigan
... Aug. 7, 1862.
582 Watson, H., High Bridge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
... Mar. 7, 1868.
3 Watson, M., Ludworth Colliery, Durham
......Mar. 7, 1868.
Webster, R. C, Ruabon Coll., Ruabon, Denbighshire
Sept. 6, 1855.
5 Weeks, J. G., Staincross, near Barnsley
......Feb. 4, 1865.
586 Westmacott, P. G. B., Elswick Iron Works,
Newcastle June 2, 1866.
567 Weymouth, J. F., King's House Engine Works,
Sun-
derland ..................July 2, 1872.
588 Whaley, Thomas, Orrell Mount, Wigan......
Aug. 2, 1866.
White, H., Ouston Colliery, Fence Houses......
1866.
590 White, J. T., Altofts, near Normanton
......Mar. 1 1866.
591 Whitelaw, A., 168, West George Street,
Glasgow ... Mar. 5, 1870.
^92 Whitelaw, John, Fordel Colliery,
Inverkeithing, N.B. Feb. 5, 1870.
593 Whitelaw,T., Shields and Dalzell Collieries,
Motherwell April 6, 1872.
594 Whitwell, T., Thornaby Iron Works,
Stockton-on-Tees Sept. 5, 1868.
595 Widdas, C, No. Bitchburn Coll., Howden,
Darlington Dec. 5, 1868.
597 3ilkinS0n> G' wv Pensher Colliery, Fence
Houses May 4, 1872.
598 3'lliams> E' (Boldvow, Vaughan, & Co.),
Middlesbro' Sept. 2, 1865.
ron J;rllllamson, Jobn, Chemical Manufacturer,
So. Shields Sept. 2, 1871.
oyy Wit t to t
VILLJs, James, 13, Old Elvet, Durham
600 Will' (Member of Council) Mar. 5, 1857.
601 Wilm? ^ 3 ^larence House, Willington, near
Durham Sept. 5, 1868.
1 mer, F. B., Duffryn Collieries,
Aberdare......June 6, 1856.
(xxxiv)
elected.
602 Wilson, J., 69, Great Clyde Street,
Glasgow... <r July 2, 1872.
603 Wilson, J. B., Wingfield Iron Works & Coll.,
Alfreton Nov. 5, 1852.
604 Wilson, J. S., Bulman Village,
Newcastle-on-Tyne Dec. 2, 1858.
605 Wilson, R., Flimby Colliery, Maryport
......April 3, 1856.
606 Wilson, T. H., Exchange Buildings, Quay,
Newcastle Mar. 6, 1869.
607 Winship, J. B., Newcastle, Australia
......Dec. 4, 1869.
608 Winter, T. B., Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Oct. 7, 1871.
609 Wood, Lindsay, Hetton Hall, Fence Houses
(Member of Council) Oct. 1, 1857.
610 Wood, C. L., Howlish Hall, Bishop Auckland
... 1853.
611 Wood, J., Flockton Collieries, Wakefield
......April 2, 1863.
612 Wood, Thomas, Westerton, Bishop Auckland
... Sept. 3, 1870.
613 Wood, W. H., West Hetton, Ferryhill ......
1856.
614 Wood, W. O., East Hetton Colliery, Ferryhill
... Nov. 7, 1863.
615 Woodgate, A., Chemical Manure Manr.,
Newcastle Feb. 3, 1872.
616 Woodhouse, J. T., Midland Road, Derby
......Dec. 13, 1852.
617 Wright, G. H., Babbington Collieries, Cinder
Hill,
Nottingham ...............July 2, 1872.
618 Young, J., 3, St. Paul's Terrace,
Newcastle......July 2, 1872.
students.
1 Atkinson, J. B., Chilton Moor, Fence Houses
... Mar. 5, 1870.
2 Atkinson, W.N., South Hetton Colliery, Fence
Houses June 6, 1868.
3 Bell, C. E., 31, Old Elvet, Durham
.........Dec. 3, 1870.
4 Boyd, R. F., Towneley Colliery, Blaydon-on-Tyne
... Nov. 6, 1869.
5 Bragge, G. S., Nunnery Colliery Offices,
Sheffield ... July 2, 1872.
6 Brown, M. W., Portland Villa, Benton, Newcastle
... Oct. 7, 1871.
7 Chambers, W. Henry, 34, Nottingham Road,
Alfreton Dec. 2, 1871.
8 Clark, H. P., 13, Cavendish Street,
Chesterfield ... Mar. 4, 1871.
9 Clarke, N., jun., South Tanfield,
Chester-le-Street ... June 6, 1868.
10 Cockburn, W. C, 8, Summerhill Grove, Newcastle
... July 2, .1872.
11 Coulson, F., Shamrock House, Durham ......Aug.
1, 1868.
12 Crone, E. W., Killingworth Hall, near
Newcastle ... Mar. 5, 1870.
13 Dickinson, J. L., Belle Vue House, Shotley
Bridge ... Aug. 6, 1870.
(xxxv)
elected.
K *n Maple Street, Newcastle ......Mar. 2,
1872.
14 Dyson, O., ^
J Kelton House, Dumfries.........July 2, 1872.
15 Tche? W., Cowpen Colliery, Blyth ......Feb. 4,
1871.
lo Fie c , Washington, Gateshead
......Aug. 1, 1868.
17Forster, . ¦> j^ecjfor(i place,
Newcastle...... July 2, 1872.
18 Fujimato, *,
d J Ince Hall Coal and Cannel Co., near Wigan
Mar. 5, 1870.
20 GiTmour, D, Hebburn Colliery, Wallsend
......Feb. 3, 1872.
21 QTace) E. N., Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses
... Feb. 1, 1868.
oo Greener, T. Y., Peases' West Collieries,
Darlington ... July 2, 1872.
03 Ground, H., Moor House, near Durham ......July
2, 1872.
24 Hague, E., Hebburn Colliery, Wallsend
......Mar. 2, 1872.
25 Hargreaves, H., Nunnery Colliery Offices,
Sheffield ... July 2, 1872.
26 Hay, J., jun., Bebside Col., Cowpen,
Northumberland Sept. 4, 1869.
27 Heckels, W. J., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland
... May 2, 1868.
28 Hedley, E., North Seaton Colliery, near
Morpeth ... Dec. 2, 1871.
29 Hedley, J. J., Medomsley, Burnopfield
......April 6, 1872.
30 Hedley, J. L., Monkwood Colliery, near
Chesterfield... Feb. 5, 1870.
31 Heslop, C, Upleatham Mines, Marske ......Feb.
1, 1868.
32 Hodgson, J. W., South Derwent Colliery,
Annfield
Plain, near Burnopfield........< ... Feb. 5,
1870.
33 Hughes, H. E., Killingworth Col., near
Newcastle ... Nov. 6, 1869.
34 Hunter, J., jun., East Hetton Colliery,
Ferryhill ... Mar. 6, 1869.
35 Hutton, J. A., Killingworth Colliery, near
Newcastle Sept. 4, 1869.
36 Hyslop, J. S., Belmont Mines, Guisboro' ......
April 1, 1871.
37 Jepson, H., Durham ...............July 2,
1872.
38 Joseph, D., Ty Draw, near Pontypridd, So.
Wales ... April 6, 1872.
39 Kyrke, R. H. V., 11, Albert Terrace,
Wigan......Feb. 5, 1870.
40 Lisle> Washington Colliery, Co.
Durham......July 2, 1872.
41 Long'botham, J.; Consett Colls., Leadgate, Co.
Durham May 2, 1868.
42 Marley, J. North Brancepeth Col., near
Durham Aug. 1, 1868.
^llls' M- H., North Seaton Colliery,
Morpeth......Feb. 4, 1871.
Moore, R. ^ Wanley Street, Waterloo, Blyth
... Nov. 5, 1870.
° Moore> W.; jun>; Hetton Collieries, Fence
Houses ... July 2, 1872.
(xxxvi)
elected.
46 Moses, W., Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses ...
Mar- 2> 1872'
47 Pamely, C, Radstock Coal Works, near Bath ...
- Sept. 5. 1868.
48 Panton, F. S., 6, Thornhill Terrace,
Sunderland ... Oct. 5, 1867.
49 Parland, J. J., Burnopfield, Gateshead ...
... - MaJ 4; 1872'
50 Place, Thomas, No. Hetton Collieries, Fence
Houses ... April 2, 1870.
51 Potter, A. M., Heaton Hall, Newcastle
......Feb. 3, 1872.
52 Price, J R., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Wigan
... Aug. 7, 1869.
53 Reed, R. B., Newbottle Colliery, Fence Houses
... Mar. 5, 1870.
54 Ritson, W. A., Towneley Colliery,
Blaydon-on-Tyne... April 2, 1870.
55 Robson, J. M., 11, BelhavenTerrace, Glasgow
... Dec. 5, 1868.
56 Sheraton, Frederick, SilksworthColliery, near
Sunderland June 6, 1868.
57 Sopwith, T., jun., Nunnery Colliery Offices,
Sheffield ... Nov. 2, 1867.
58 Sparkes, C, 76, Linthorpe Road,
Middlesbro'......Sept. 5, 1868.
59 Stratton, T. H. M., Jobs Hill Colliery, near
Crook ... Dec. 3, 1870.
60 Vernon, J. O., Villa de St. George,
Newcastle......Sept. 7, 1867.
61 Walker, G. B., East Rainton, Fence
Houses......Dec. 2, 1871.
62 White, J. F., M.E., Wakefield............July
2, 1872.
63 Wild, J. G., Peases' W. Waterhouses Coll., by
Durham Oct. 5, 1867.
64 Wilson, W. B., Killingworth Colliery,
Newcastle ... Feb. 6, 1869.
Stat of £nb8i[riMttjg (tyollferifs.
Owners of East Holywell Colliery, Earsdon,
Northumberland.
Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.
„ Hetton Collieries, Fence Houses.
„ Kepier Grange Colliery, by Durham
„ Lambton Collieries, Fence Houses (Earl Durham).
„ North Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
,, Rainton Collieries (Earl Vane).
„ Ryhope Colliery, near Sunderland.
„ Seghill Colliery, Northumberland.
„ South Hetton and Murton Collieries, Fence
Houses.
„ Stella Colliery, Ryton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
„ Throckley Coal Company, Newcastle.
}) Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
„ Whitworth Colliery, Ferry Hill.
1. —The objects of the North of England Institute
of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers are to enable its members to
meet together to
discuss the means for the Ventilation of Coal and
other Mines, the
Winning and Working* of Collieries and Mines, the
Prevention of
Accidents, and the Advancement of the Sciences of
Mining and
Engineering generally.
2. —The North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical
Engineers shall consist of three classes of
members, namely :—Ordinary
Members, Life Members, and Honorary Members, with
a class of
Students attached.
3. —-Ordinary and Life Members shall be persons
practising as
Mining or Mechanical Engineers, and other persons
connected with or
interested in Mining and Engineering.
4. —Honorary Members shall be persons who have
distinguished
themselves by their literary or scientific
attainments, or who have made
important communications to the Society,
Government Mining Inspectors
during the term of their office, and the
Professors of the College of
Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, during
their connection with
the said College.
5. —Students shall be persons who are qualifying
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such persons may
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6. —The Annual Subscription of each Ordinary
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8. —The Annual Subscription of each Student shall
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9. —Each Subscriber of £2 2s. annually (not being
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the rooms, library, meet-
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persons shall be admis-
sible up to the number of ten persons; and each
such Subscriber shall
(xxxix)
+-+lprl for each £2 2s. subscription to have a
copy of the Pro-
i r\ Tip entities*-
Lo-S of the Institute sent to him.
ceeau g pergons desirous of being admitted into
the Institute as Ordi-
^M^mbers Life Members, or Students, shall be
proposed by three
nary an(j as Honorary Members by at least
five Members. The
Members,^ ^e -n writing and signed by the
proposers (see Form A),
11 d shall be submitted to the first General or
Special Meeting after the
^ thereof The name of the person proposed shall
be exhibited in the
S ciet 's room until the next General or Special
Meeting, when the
election shall be proceeded with by ballot,
unless it be then decided to
elect by show of hands. A majority of votes shall
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enclosing at the same
time Form C, which shall be returned by the
Member or Student,*signed,
and accompanied with the amount of his annual
subscription, within two
months from the date of such election, which
otherwise shall become void.
11. —The Officers of the Institute shall consist
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Vice-Presidents, and eighteen Councillors, who,
with the Treasurer and
Secretary (if Members of the Institute), shall
constitute a Council for
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the Institute. The
President, Vice-Presidents, and Councillors shall
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be eligible for re-election,
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and such six Councillors
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but such Members shall be eligible for
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12. —All Members shall be at liberty to nominate,
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prior to the Annual or Special
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erase anv name or names from this list, and
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addressed to the Secretary, or be handed to him,
or to the Chairman
(xl)
of the Meeting-, so as to be received before the
hour fixed for the election
of officers. The Chairman shall then appoint four
Scrutineers, who shall
receive the balloting papers, and shall sign and
hand to the Chairman of
the Meeting a list of the elected Officers, after
destroying the papers.
Those papers which do not accord with these
directions shall be rejected
by the Scrutineers. The votes for any Members who
may not be elected
Vice-Presidents shall count for them as Members
of the Council.
In case of the decease or resignation of any
Officer or Officers, notice
thereof shall be given at the next General or
Special Meeting, and a new
Officer or Officers elected at the succeeding
General or Special Meeting,
in accordance with the mode above indicated.
13. —At meetings of the Council, five shall be a
quorum, and the
minutes of the Council's proceedings shall be at
all times open to the
inspection of the Members of the Institute. The
President shall be
ex-officio Chairman of every committee.
14. —All past Presidents shall be ex-officio
Members of the Council
so long as they continue Members of the
Institute, and Vice-Presidents
who become ineligible from having held office for
three consecutive years,
shall be ex-officio Members of the Council for
the following year.
15. —A General Meeting of the Institute shall be
held on the first
Saturday of every month (except in January and
July) at two o'clock-
and the General Meeting in the month of August
shall be the Annual
Meeting, at which a report of the proceedings,
and an abstract of the
accounts of the previous year, shall be presented
by the Council. A
Special Meeting of the Institute shall be called
whenever the Council
may think fit, and also on a requisition to the
Council, signed by ten or
more Members.
16. —Every question, not otherwise provided for,
which shall come
before any Meeting of the Institute, shall be
decided by the votes of the
majority of the Ordinary or Life Members then
present.
17. —The Funds of the Society shall be deposited
in the hands of the
Treasurer, and shall be disbursed or invested by
him according to the
direction of the Council.
18. —All papers shall be sent for the approval of
the Council at least
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approval shall be read
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direct whether any Paper
read before the Institute shall be printed in the
Transactions, and notice
shall be given to the writer within one month
after it has been read,
whether it is to be printed or not.
19. —The Copyright of all Papers communicated to,
and accepted for
printing by the Council, shall become vested in
the Institute, and such
(xli)
iI +;nns shall not be published for sale or
otherwise, without the
^rpermUn of the Council.
WrlQ0--All proofs of discussion, forwarded to
Members for correction,
be returned to the Secretary within seven days
from the date of
mUSt receipt otherwise they will be considered
correct and be printed off.
oi —The Institute is not, as a body, responsible
for the facts and
• * s advanced in the Papers which may be read,
nor in the discussions
which may take place at the Meetings of the
Institute.
0o_Twelve copies of each Paper printed by the
Institute shall be
presented to the author for private use.
23._Members elected at any Meeting between the
Annual Meetings
shall be entitled to all Papers issued in that
year, as soon as they have
signed and returned Form C, and paid their
subscriptions.
24. —The Transactions of the Institute shall not
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Members whose subscriptions are more than one
year in arrear.
25. —Any person whose subscription is two years
in arrear, that is to
say, whose arrears and current subscription shall
not have been paid on
or before the first of August, shall be reported
to the Council, who shall
direct application to be made for it according to
Form D, and in tlffe
event of it continuing* one month in arrear after
such application, the
Council shall have the power, after suitable
remonstrance by letter in
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name of the defaulter
from the register of the Institute.
26. —No duplicate copies of any portion of the
Transactions shall be
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27. —Invitations shall be forwarded by the
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man whose presence at the discussions the Council
may think advisable,
and strangers so invited shall be permitted to
take part in the proceed-
ings. Any Member of the Institute shall also have
power to introduce
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Meetings of the
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proceedings, except by
permission of the meeting.
28. —No alteration shall be made in any of the
Laws, Rules, or
Regulations of the Institute, except at the
Annual General Meeting, or
at a Special Meeting for that purpose, and the
particulars of every such
alteration shall be announced at a previous
General Meeting, and inserted
ln lts sautes, and shall be exhibited in the Room
of the Institute fourteen
*)reV*°US to sucn Annual or Special Meeting, and
such Meeting
s a have power to adopt any modification of such
proposed alteration
•f, » »dditi011 to, the Rules.
¦f
APPENDIX.
[FORM A.]
Name in full—Mr.
Designation or Occupation
Address .
being desirous of admission into the North of
England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, we, the
undersigned, propose and
recommend that he shall become a thereof.
r---: " J Signatures
Proposed by \--- —-\ of three
£___) Members.
Dated 18
[FORM B.]
Sir,—I beg to inform you that on the day of
you were elected a of the North of England
Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, but in
conformity with its Rules
your election cannot be confirmed until the
enclosed form be returned to
me with your signature, and until your first
annual subscription be paid,
the amount of which is £
If the first subscription is not received within
two months from the
present date, the election will become void,
under Rule 10.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FORM C]
I, the undersigned, being elected a of the North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, do hereby
agree that I will be governed by the regulations
of the said Institute as
they are now formed, or as they may hereafter be
altered; that I will
advance the objects of the Institute as far as
shall be in my power and
will not aid in any unauthorised publication of
the proceedings' and
will attend the Meetings thereof as often as I
conveniently can- pro-
vided that whenever I shall signify in writing to
the Secretary, that
I am desirous of withdrawing my name therefrom, I
shall (after the
payment of any arrears which may be due by me at
that period) be free
from this obligation.
Witness my hand this day of 18
(xliii)
[FORM D.]
18
T am directed bv the Council of the North of
England Institute
Sin,-- a^ Mechanical Engineers to draw your
attention to Rule 25,
of Minmg' an^ ^ gum of g of ammal
SUDScrip_
and to rem Qf tne Institute remains unpaid, and
that you are in
tions to i arrear 0f subscription. I am also
directed to request
consequen ^ ^ ^ ^e without further
delay, otherwise
that IonmC£ wiH be under the necessity of
exercising their discretion as
the you nower vested in them by the Rule
above referred to.
to using the po I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
[FORM E.]
18
gIR?_I am directed by the Council of the North of
England Institute
of Minino- and Mechanical Engineers to inform
you, that in consequence
of non-payment of your arrears of subscription,
and in pursuance of
Rule 25, the Council have declared, by special
vote, on the
day of 18 , that you have forfeited your
claim
to belong to the Institute, and your name will be
in consequence
expunged from the Register, unless payment is
made previous to
But notwithstanding such forfeiture, I am
directed to call upon you
for payment of your arrears, amounting to £
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
[FORM P.]
Admit
of
to the Meeting on Saturday, the
(Signature of Member or Student)
The Chair to be taken at Two o'clock.
I undertake to abide by the Regulations of the
North of England
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, and
not to aid in any
unauthorized publication of the Proceedings.
(Signature of Visitor)
Not transferable.
(xliv)
[FORM G.]
BALLOTING LIST.
Ballot to take place at the Meeting of 18
at Two o'clock.
President—One Name to be returned,
f--Retiring President.
* |--| New Nominations.
Vice-Presidents—Six Names to be returned.
The Votes for any Members who may not be elected
as Vice-
Presidents will count for them as other Members
of the Council.
* |-| New Nominations.
Council—Eighteen Names tojbejreturned.
t----
t--
l< 3ZZZZZ y Retiring Councillors.
t
t
* | "^ZHZ.'' -^ew Nominations.
Rule XII— Relative to the Election of the
Officers of the Institute.
t These Gentlemen are ineligible for re-election.
* These Gentlemen are not on the Council for the
present year.
Names substituted for any of the above are to be
written in the
blank spaces opposite those they are intended to
supersede.
ADVERTISEMENT.
The Institute is not as a body responsible for
the facts and opinions advanced
in the Papers read, and in the Abstracts of the
Conversations which occurred at
the Meetings during the Session.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
of
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER THE 2ND,
1871, IN THE
LECTURE ROOM OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.
E. F. BOYD, Esq., President of the Institute, in
the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous
meeting", and also
the minutes of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected:—
Members—
Lucien Guinotte, Directeur des Charbonnages de
Mariemont et de Bascoup,
Mons.
Alphonse Briart, Ingenieur en chef des
Charbonnages de Mariemont et
de Bascoup, Mons.
J. Gille, Ingenieur au Corps Royal de Mines,
Mons.
Charles Blagburn, Engineer, 3, St. Nicholas
Buildings, Newcastle.
H. F. Swan, Shipbuilder, Jesmond, Newcastle.
R. R. Redmayne, Chemical Manufacturer, Gateshead.
John G. Swan, Ironmaster, Cargo Fleet, Redcar.
A. Freire-Marreco, Analytical Chemist,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Archibald Stevenson, South Shields.
Henry Coxon, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Thomas Hodgkin, Banker, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
George Fenwick, Banker, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
James McIntyre, Shipbuilder, Jarrow.
John Williamson, Chemical Manufacturer, South
Shields.
Jonathan Priestman, Coal Owner, Newcastle.
t- macdotjgall Smith, C. & M. E., London.
Francis Charlton, C.E., Newcastle.
James Black, Jun., Ironfounder, South Shields.
In consequence of the small attendance of
members, the papera
announced for reading were postponed till the
next meeting.
vol. Xxi,-_i8>j>2 A
A
2 PROCEEDINGS.
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, OCT. 7, 1871, IN THE
LECTURE ROOM
OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
E. F. BOYD, Esq., President op the Institute, in
the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last
meeting, and reported
the proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected:—
Members—
Utrick A. Ritson, 6. Queen Street, Newcastle.
Hilton Philipson, 8, Queen Street, Newcastle.
Thomas Barnes, Quay, Newcastle.
T. B. Winter, Grey Street, Newcastle.
R. R. Dees, Pilgrim Street, Newcastle.
Student—
M. W. Brown, 8, Belgrave Terrace, Newcastle.
Mr. Crone then read a paper, by Mr. Henry Lewis,
"On the
Method of Working Coal by Long-Wall, at Annesley
Colliery, Notting-
hamshire."
WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL. 3
THE METHOD OF WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL, AT
0N ANNESLEY COLLIERY, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.
BY HENRY LEWIS.
Several papers have been read before the North of
England Institute
of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, on the
working of coal by long-
wall and, as they differ materially from the
method adopted and found
to answer at Annesley Colliery, the writer hopes
that those members
engaged in the working of deep collieries may
derive some benefit from
the following remarks.
In many of the coal-fields in England the crop or
seams of coal near
the surface are worked out, and deep seams have
to be reached at a serious
outlay, sometimes at a cost of one hundred
thousand pounds or more; and
as a colliery with a capital of this magnitude
has occasionally to compete
with others in the same district, where the coal
has been won at half the
cost, it behoves the mining engineer to study if
he cannot, by a more
enlightened method of working the coal than in a
deep seam, bring it
cheaper to bank than coal of the same description
and quality where
less capital has been expended.
No doubt much may be saved in reducing the
quantity of heading,
m using less propwood, fewer cuttings, and the
leaving of pillars, and
above all in diminishing the quantity of small
coal or slack; such items
as these make the difference between a paying and
anon-paying colliery.
Many a splendid seam of deep coal is worked at a
great expense,
by following out the usual method of getting coal
at a short distance
from the surface.
In a district the selling price of a number of
collieries is nearly the
same> and is regulated according to the demand,
so that much depends
upon working economically.
^ The seam worked at Annesley is four hundred and
sixty-three yards
°m the surface, and is known by the name of the
Top hard. It covers
o area of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, and
Yorkshire, and is not
bla ta ^°0(^ kouse-coal out one °f tne ^est f°r
l°com°tive engines and
ast furnaces; the thickness, however, is very
irregular, and is found to
dimmish o;raH110n ' I a
Spatially as xt gets more eastward.
4 WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL.
The writer is of opinion that in all deep
collieries working coal by
long-wall, after a sufficient pillar has been
left for the support of the
shafts, it is better to take all the coal out
(see Plate II.), than to leave
pillars (see Plate I.). This is obvious to any
practical engineer, because
the pressure at say 500 yards amounts to
something like 1,500 lbs. to
the square inch, and any weak point such as A on
Plate I. becomes
very much crushed, and causes an extra quantity
of timber to be used
for the support of the roof.
Plate I. shows the system first tried, and the
quantity of heading
was found not only very costly, but the 60 yards
pillars left were worse
than useless in supporting the main roads; the
gates through the pillars
stood well until the face of the stall had
advanced far enough to get a
weight, and then the crushing of the timber, the
grinding of coal, and
the breaking down of the roof in the gates, were
so great, that many
of the roads had to be raised above the coal, and
although bars and
props were set every yard, they could not
withstand the constant squeezing
that went on, but had to be frequently renewed,
and in working these
pillars back, they did not yield more than thirty
per cent, of large coal.
It is a mistake to suppose that when one stall
leads another the face
is more protected from the crush of the overlying
strata ; it is found in
practice that such corners as B on Plate I. are
very much crushed,
and prevent the roof settling in an easy manner
upon the goaf, thus
causing the stalls to be oftener on the weight,
than is the case when
coal is worked upon the principle shown in Plate
II.; it is also far
more difficult and expensive to ventilate where
the stalls lead one another,
as an airway has to be packed wherever there is a
fast end, and these
cuttings or windings are a continual source of
expense, as the roof will
be constantly breaking down, or the floor
lifting- in fact it is frequently
impossible to keep them open, consequently a fast
end in a stall is
seldom properly ventilated.
The writer maintains that in working coal by
long-wall at great
depths, the extra weight of strata ought to be an
assistance instead of a
drawback in getting the coals, if the line of
face be properly arranged.
Stalls directly upon the face will not do, as too
much small coal is made;
they must either be on the end or half-end and
face; the latter is found
to answer best at Annesley Colliery, although
part of the workings are
on the end; blasting is scarcely known; the
overlying strata act
sufficiently as a lever in bringing down the
coals after they are holed;
and although this is the case, eighty per cent,
of large coal is realised,
which will compare favourably with most places in
the Midland Counties.
It is found in practice with a long length of
workings in a straight
WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL. 5
line moving every day, the weight seldom, if
ever, crushes to any extent,
but as a rule, bends down and settles gradually
upon the pack two or
three yards from the face. The packs for the
support of the roof should
be kept well built up, and as near the face as
practicable. At Annesley
there is close upon a thousand yards of face on a
thread, and although
such is the case the roof never breaks down in
the benks unless the
stalls are allowed to stand.
There is also a great saving in timber where
there is a face of coal
moved every day, as the weight seldom, if ever,
crushes the wood, if
the back rows of props are removed as the face of
the stalls advances.
The back rows of timber should never be allowed
to be more than six feet
from the face, and particular care should be
taken that they are removed,
as the safety of the stalls depends to a certain
extent upon this, which if
neglected very often throws the weight forward
instead of allowing it
to sink gradually upon the goaf. Timber in any
case is only of service
either in the gate roads or stalls, until the
packs for the support of the
roof are formed; when this is done all timber
should be at once removed,
so as to allow the overlying strata to settle
easily upon the packs which
gradually become perfectly solid.
In working coal giving off gas by long-wall, the
writer considers a
long length of face safer than dividing it into
districts by pillars, as gas
as a rule is given off constantly from breaks, or
issues from the coal
wherever there is the least resistance, and it is
wrong to suppose that
there is more danger by this method of working
because of the large area
of goaf room. Goaf there certainly is, but open
space little or none, as
everything becomes comparatively close a few
yards from the face, and
there cannot be those obstructions to the
ventilation where the face is in
a straight line, as when, to a certain extent,
dependence is placed upon
airways packed up to a rib side, which airways
are necessary, if the
stalls are worked with a fast end; the air can
also be as easily divided
into splits as where pillars are left to divide
districts; a split of air
should never ventilate more than three hundred
yards of face, and be
regulated according to the number of men working.
PILLARS TO DIVIDE DISTRICTS.
It has been asserted by the advocates for working
coal by long-wall
that pillars of from one to two chains ought to
be left to divide districts;
this the writer has found wrong in practice, as
the weight crushes and
opens the joints of the coal so as to render them
inadequate to keep
tack air or water; and where a colliery is liable
to spontaneous com-
bustion, these thin ribs are very often the cause
of fire breaking out in
6 WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL.
the goaf, as they not only prevent the roof
settling in a proper manner,
but allow the air to work through the breaks or
openings in the coal,
and so cause a fire, which might be easily
extinguished in a large goaf,
to become serious. Many goaf-fires have
originated near a rib side,
in some cases causing large areas of coal to be
lost, and occasionally
closing a colliery for months together at a
ruinous expense. It is better
to have one large goaf, which, as the strata sink
upon it, will settle
down and become nearly as solid as the coal;
these thin pillars
would prevent this, and each district would never
get the same amount
of pressure upon the goaf, so that openings would
be formed in the
roof, which in some cases would fill with gas,
and so become a source
of danger. There is also another reason why the
writer considers
the use of pillars to divide districts a mistake.
In a large colliery,
working a thin seam, several districts would have
to be formed, and a
large amount of coal would be lost, as the coal
in these thin ribs would
be so crushed that it would not pay to work them
back.
TIMBER.
In working by long-wall at great depths, timber
is very often an
expensive item; in some cases the cost per ton
will be as much as six-
pence, and in a well regulated colliery, working
the same seam, it will
not cost more than twopence, or even less, per
ton.
At Annesley great care is taken along the face
of the stalls to build packs, not more than nine
feet
apart, of the clunch overlying the coal; these
are
kept well built up to the roof, are never more
than
six or seven feet from the face, and as the roof
settles
upon them, the back row of props is withdrawn. No
wooden chocks are used, as the stone packs answer
the
same purpose, and never have to be removed. When
this system is properly carried out, it is seldom
that a
prop is broken, for they are taken out as soon as
the
packs are brought forward; the packs taking the
weight
and relieving the timber. There is a great
saving* when
this is properly attended to; and a row of props
will
last some weeks.
Cast iron props (see margin) are only used at the
gate ends, and are set about four feet apart;
only three
on each side of the road are allowed, and they
are
taken out as soon as the packs are formed: thev
wei^h
140 lbs., and cost about seven shillings and
sixpence each; they are a
WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL. 7
saving and answer well, as being set under a coal
roof, they enter
^nd allow the roof to settle. They are easily
removed after having had
pressure on them for sometime.
It is a mistake, and one the writer has seen at
several collieries
working coal by long-wall, to attempt to keep up
a heavy weight of
broken "roof by means of timber. It entails a
lasting expense, as the tim-
ber must be renewed from time to time as the roof
sinks, and no amount
of wood will prevent this when once the coal is
taken out. There is also
a risk of human life, as a prop accidentally
knocked out may cause tons
of roof to fall.
LENGTH OF STALLS.
Much has been written about the proper length of
stalls; from the
writer's experience, they should not be longer
than from twenty to
thirty yards, as the face ought in any case to
advance every day. There
are several reasons why this should be done.
First, to prevent the pres-
sure from grinding to a certain extent upon the
face of the stall, thus
causing an extra quantity of small coal to be
made; and secondly, to
work a given area as quickly as possible; as it
must be evident to
every one, that the longer a district is being
worked the more
expensive it is, for height has to be kept in the
gates at no small cost,
and this in a quickly worked district will be
avoided to a great extent.
Ripping the gates for height, and maintaining it,
is the most serious
item the workers by long-wall have to contend
against, and generally
averages from threepence to sixpence per ton on
the cost of working;
of course, all depends upon the nature of the
roof and floor, as in some
cases the packed roads will not stand until the
roof and floor meet.
At Annesley the hard coal (Plate III.) gives a
height of 6 feet
6 inches, which is found sufficient to enable the
stalls to be advanced
150 yards without taking' any roof down for
height, except in the
principal gates. Main roads (see Plate II.) are
carried 300 yards
from each other, and are packed 10 feet wide, the
packs being formed
°f the strong clunch lying immediately above the
coal. In all gates the
r°of coal is taken down, but the roads, where no
ripping is done, are cut
by a stall as soon as they are too low for proper
loading to come
°Ut* ^ some collieries gates are carried 300 or
400 yards before they
***e cut off, and it must be evident to every
one, where such is the case,
^ a a *arge amount of money must be expended in
keeping such a length
road in repair. The fewer roads the better, as
by the plan adopted
Annesley, cutting off and opening out a new stall
costs a mere trifle,
compared with what the ripping would cost, if the
roads were carried
8 WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL.
only twice the distance. The method of cutting-
faces off is by taking
a stall at an angle of 40° or 50°; the latter is
the best angle, as the
line of cleavage from pack to pack is shortened,
and there is not the
same amount of risk of the roof breaking down.
The method of doing
this will be easily seen in Plate II.
It is now universally acknowledged that
engine-power for the
haulage of coal is far cheaper than any other
method, whether by
endless-chains, endless-ropes, or tail-ropes.
The writer is of opinion that it is only a
question of time before
compressed air for working underground engines
will entirely supersede
steam. In deep mines, where the natural
temperature of the coal is
over 70°, there requires no argument to prove the
advantage the latter
method has over steam, especially where the
engines have to be placed
many hundred yards inbye to haul a large area of
dip coal.
In this brief paper the writer has endeavoured to
show, that at Annesley
there is sufficient proof that the fewer pillars
left in working coal at great
depths the better; and, although in some
districts large coal is not of
the same importance as it is in the Midland
Counties, still, with the
system adopted, there is a great saving, not only
in getting the coal,
but also in heading, timber, maintenance of
roads, rails, etc., and not
the same amount of crushing upon the face as
there was when the
mode of working shown in Plate I. was being
carried out.
In conclusion, the writer hopes that some of his
remarks will elicit
from other members of the Institute their
experience in working coal at
great depths by other methods. There is no doubt
more economy
to be effected in working deep mines, and the
destruction and waste
of getting coal in the old-fashioned way must be
done away with, if deep
winnings are to be advantageously worked.
The President was sure that the meeting would
agree with him,
that this very important subject could not be too
often brought before
their notice. He thought the discussion had
better be postponed until
the paper was printed, in order that the members
might be able to acquaint
themselves thoroughly with the system which the
writer advocated.
There would be three or four very important
points to discuss; for
instance, whether the system would allow of the
wall being carried
in a line with the cleat of the coal; the nature
of the stone roof which
is the best adapted for the long-wall; the best
and most easy method
of ventilation; whether it is best to leave any
ribs of coal along with
plSCtTSSION—METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM. 9
ys • whether these ribs produce unnecessary
pressure down-
the %*ie^e advantage of using the kind of prop
Mr. Lewis alluded
wards; ^ pr0ps, which were of metal, sink
into the roof, and were
t0\ 1 ot difficult to draw out again, and so
increase the expense;
*ke3 , 1ise of chocks, which had been
introduced very much lately
-lipther tne ^
• north, might not be a very good substitute for
them; the best
m h for the gateways; the necessity of long
gateways; and the com-
6 " • cost of making new ones. These were a few
of the items the
d^cussion of which they might postpone until the
paper was printed, and
the author could be present.
The other subject he had to bring before their
notice this morning
was Mr. W. Warington Smyth's paper " On the
Boring of Pit Shafts
in Belgium by Messrs. Kind and Chaudron's
Method." He (the
President) was very sorry to observe the absence
of two gentlemen (Mr.
Daglish and Mr. Coulson), who would have been
very much interested
in this discussion, which on this account he
thought worth while con-
tinuing at another meeting. Mr. Daglish was
laying out one of the
most expensive winnings they had in the county of
Durham. Mr.
Coulson, they all knew, was continually employed
in sinking pits—
more so, perhaps, than any other man in the
district; and any question
he would have asked, would have been very much to
the point. In
opening the discussion, he would briefly call
their attention to a few
items upon which he desired information. Was
there any vibration
of the chisels and cutter bar in the shaft ?
Again, was there any
difficulty in boring the pit vertically ? Mr.
Steavenson, he thought,
asked this question at the last meeting, but he
considered that it had
hardly been sufficiently answered at the time.
Again, he would like
some additional information respecting the system
of floating the
tubbing by using false bottoms, and how far this
required to be
regulated by operations on the surface ? The next
item seemed to be
the mode of filling up the space outside the
tubbing by beton or concrete
—-whether there was any difficulty in inserting
it, and whether it became
sutnciently solid to answer the purpose for which
it was introduced ?
j as to the weight of the tubbing, and the number
of atmospheres
laboueSSUI>e °n different series °f' rin8's ?-
Then, as to the cost of
inte / W^e^er the comparative cost of labour on
the Continent did not
mean muc^ w^ comparative economy of sinking
by this
provis^ ^ orc^nary means ? Then, there was the
question of
sion for pumping, in case of leakage when the tub
was once fixed,
xpected to be fixed, to prevent any influx of
water in the shaft;
B
10 DISCUSSION—METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM.
whether the tubbing was always perfect, and
whether any leakage
required engine power to take it out? And then
there was Mr.
Daglish's question, whether there was any
difficulty in determining
under water, with any degree of certainty, the
position of the bed-plate
upon which the whole of this massive tubbing was
to be founded?
These were a few of the items upon which he hoped
Mr. W. Smyth
would give some additional information.
Mr. Smyth, knowing that many gentlemen would like
further
information on this subject, wrote recently to M.
Chaudron to ask
him to attend the meeting, but that gentleman was
unfortunately in bad
health and unable to leave Brussels at present.
He had, however,
requested MM. Javal and Chastelain, who were now
present, to be his
substitutes. His friend, M. Javal, was one of
those engineers who
. attempted some years ago to put down shafts in
the difficult district of
the Moselle, in which this system of Messrs.
Chaudron had been success-
fully applied. M. Javal, he thought, would admit
that there he had made
a great and very expensive failure; but he would
assure them that he,
with others, had profited in making this failure,
and had become a
convert to, and an authority upon, the new method
which in this particular
district has proved so successful; and when he
introduced the other
gentleman, M. Chastelain, as the engineer under
whose immediate direc-
tion the H6pital sinking was carried out, they
would see that he was
the highest authority which they could obtain
upon matters of detail
which had been omitted from his short paper.
These details had been
omitted for two reasons, first, because M.
Chaudron himself had very fully
described them in various publications ; and
second, because it had struck
him that a fair criticism of them, and a full
understanding of their advan-
tages over other methods of detail, could
scarcely be arrived at unless
in the presence of gentlemen, who, like his
friends, had gone practically
through the whole of the operations of this
system of sinking.
Mr. Cooke asked whether this method was uniformly
successful, and
whether there were any failures ? Whether
sometimes, in fact, operations
commenced under the system had not to be
abandoned ?
Mr. Smyth, in answer to Mr. Cooke, stated that M.
Chaudron had
sunk 11 or 12 shafts by this method, not one of
which had in any way
proved a failure. They had all gone steadily on ;
and, although there
had been occasional difficulties, yet they had
all turned out perfectly
water-tight in the end, and all of them may be
looked upon as perfect
instances of success.
Mr. Douglas observed, with reference to a point
which the Presi-
igcUsSION-METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM. 11
adverted to, that, in the ordinary method of
tubbing pursued
dent had a ^ found it often the case
that the water did penetrate
i •, ^oun • i ^ '
in tnis vi1jcli they could not in the course of
the working find means
in some ^ $[nce, in the method under discussion,
no pumping power
r,) st0P' j t0 deal with this water, should it be
met with, he would
was prepa > ^ course WOuld be taken if it was
found the tubbing
like to kno^
introduced did not stop it.
Mr Smyth said, in none ot those cases which have
been taken up
aj Chaudron, as yet, has there been any necessity
for putting up
i mping power for this purpose. He introduces his
tubbing of extra
strength and with an extra, and perhaps somewhat
unusual, amount of
and ingenuity, and as far as his undertakings
have gone there
appears to have been no leakage. In one instance
a portion of the
tubbing was fractured, and it had to be patched,
but the whole of the
details as to how that leak was stopped, and how,
ultimately, there was
no necessity whatever for pumping power, were
given in a paper by M.
Chaudron. However, it was obvious that, if leaks
should take place,
it would be necessary in such case to erect
pumping power \ but the
chances were, that in such an event it would be
merely a pumping
engine sufficient to cope with an ordinary leak,
and not the vast amount
of pumping power which would be needed under the
old system, such,
fur instance, as that encountered in a shaft
commenced in the year 1865,
in the Escarpelle, in which he had to deal with
10,000 gallons of water per
minute, at a depth of only twenty-five yards, and
where the owners
were unable to get any further in consequence of
being overpowered,
until they introduced this system of working
under water.
Mr. G. B. Forster alluded to the question of the
selection of a crib-
bed. In old fashioned sinking this was always
considered a most impor-
tant point, which required the greatest judgment;
very often if the crib-
ted was selected in faulty ground, it would give
rise to much trouble
and difficulty, and the cribbing would have to be
underset. Perhaps
in Belgium the strata presented none of those
liabilities to slips and
^au ts which were observed here. He would wish to
know how the bed
tubb^6 ^^k^ was selected, and how they knew when
to stop their
fissur^' ^°UGLAs—-^or instance, in the limestone
they had considerable
°f tubb'W^Ck m^*nt reacn entirely over the shaft:
the introduction
the ^ Under these circumstances would not,
to his mind, prevent
do .^.°rinous now of water which would pass
through the fissure, which,
might be in the centre of the shaft. He
assumed, therefore,
12 DISCUSSION—METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM.
that the method of Messrs. Kind and Chaudron
would require the same
amount of pumping machinery to be provided as
would be necessary
under the old system. These were the
circumstances which he thought
required to be more particularly explained by the
gentlemen who had so
kindly attended.
Mr. Steavenson said, it appeared to him that, in
the case assumed
by Mr. Douglas the ordinary tubbing would not be
a success either.
Very often, they knew, they had an opening
running right through the
centre of the shaft, which would render it
impossible to tub under any
circumstances.
The President—Under these circumstances you would
simply
have to proceed as usual, and bore still deeper.
Mr. Steavenson—-If they were not successful in
one case with
the new system of tubbing they would be equally
unsuccessful in the
other with the old; therefore, the objection is
no way peculiar to the
system proposed by Mr. Smyth. It seemed to him
that there was only
one thing left for them to do, and that was to
try the system in this
district.
Mr. G. B. Forster was sure Mr. Smyth would see
the point of his
question, as to putting in the tubbing where
there are fissures. When
the sinking is done in the ordinary way these
fissures are visible, in the
new system they are not. How is it ascertained
when water-tight
ground is reached?
Mr. Smyth—The question which had been put was one
which, of
^ourse, at once suggested itself to those
conversant with the very
difficult nature of the ground which had to be
passed through in different
places. Mr. Steavenson, he thought, had amply
answered the first
portion of the question. M. Chaudron would
never attempt to establish
a tubbing, or any foundation for it, except
after boring down
through any difficult fissured ground to ground
which offered every
appearance of being perfectly solid. Then they
came to Mr. Forster's
question—How could he feel sure of the ground?
In- the first
place, where sinking of this kind had to be
carried out, they had
small bore-holes of the ordinary dimensions,
which threw some light on
the nature of the ground. In the second place,
very little risk attached
to districts like those of Belgium, where it was
well known that,
when they got down to a certain part of the
measures, they entered
solid strata, sufficiently free from slips to
warrant the. expectation,
under ordinary circumstances, that there would be
a water-tight bed
obtainable; and he presumed also that M. Chaudron
was very much
^igcUSSK>N-METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM. 13
£rom the fact, that his boring tools were on such
a scale that he
aSSlSte to bring up large core pieces of the
rocks and strata, and
8 the stone so thoroughly as to its character,
that there was very
examine ^ making any^mistake on that head,
unless the shaft was
little c ^ ^ £ault> Such an instance as
that, of course,
"link actuanj
1T. but it would be very unlikely. M.
Chastelain told him
mio'ht occur, uul j j
- ch cases they will generally see indications of
the presence of a
f It in what is brought up, and that in such
cases they would go further
rtil they found themselves in more solid ground;
the whole being, to a
ertain extent, guided by their previous knowledge
of the geological
character of the ground, and, also, by what had
been ascertained by
means of the ordinary bore holes, or by the
knowledge of the neighbour-
in"- ground from other pits, he felt sure'that an
effectual crib-bed might
be secured with the greatest certainty. With
respect to the vibration of
the rods, and the verticality of the bore-holes,
M. Chastelain had asked
him to say that he had met with more difficulty
than usual in boring the
Maurage Pits, in consequence of the presence of
large masses of Hint.
These flints in some places formed complete
beds—in other places, they
came in large lumps; and, in borings of large
sizes (14 to 15 feet)
became very difficult to pierce evenly from the
large area of the cutting
operations. Notwithstanding this, they had been
steadily advancing,
more slowly than usual it was true; but since he
had the pleasure of
being at the Institute on a former occasion,
their sinking had advanced
to within 20 metres of the depth at which it is
proposed to fix the founda-
tion of the tubbing. He thought that the best
answer to any doubt, as
to the possibility of securing verticality by the
method proposed, was
that, throughout the whole series of sinkings
which M. Chaudron had
undertaken, not one shaft had proved defective in
this respect.
Mr. Douglas felt the full force of what Mr. Smyth
had said, but
with his knowledge of this district in the North
of England, and of the
difficulties which had to be encountered in such
strata as the mag-nesian
unestone, for instance, he would wish definitely
to ask whether Mr.
Smyth did not think that circumstances in this
district might occur
which would prevent the system being carried out,
unless appliances
Were a^S0 prepared which would keep away the
water which might pass.
^ -klr- Smyth—The great probability was, that
in dealing with any
niation, M. Chaudron would make up his mind, such
as that described
) Mr. Douglas, to go to the base of it and get
well on to some regular
6 °elow it, before he could establish his
tubbing.
14 DISCUSSION-METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM.
Mr. Marley thought it only right, when they were
favoured by
the presence of gentlemen who had come so long a
distance, and who
had taken a practical part in carrying out this
system, that the mem-
bers of the Institute should be prepared to-day
to discuss this paper as
far as possible in all those details upon which
they wished to have
information. He, therefore, hoped Mr. Smyth would
excuse him, if he
asked whether, after they had got their shafts
down and their moss-beds
perfectly water-tight, they had tested what was
the actual pressure of the
water upon any one of the tubs which they had
completed. They had 1
tested the metal tubs to 28 atmospheres, by way
of precaution, but
what was the actual and greatest pressure they
had ever obtained ?
Next, with regard to the technical term spoons,
for putting in what
they might call the concrete behind the tubbing,
he would be obliged if
Mr. Smyth would give some further detail as to
how this process was
carried on. Again, that which he thought was
prima facie the greatest
objection to the system, was the difficulty of
judging where or when
they had got a proper crib-bed. Mr. Smyth, in the
discussion on the last
occasion, said, that with the aid of the
lazy-tongs, M. Chaudron could
discover a fissure, or even a soft part in the
bed, with such certainty
as to ensure success. This was considered proved,
because in 10 or 11
cases they had succeeded in doing so; but still,
there is the question as
to whether the working of these lazy-tongs could
always be depended on.
He did not quite understand the drawing, but
supposed there was some
projection on these tongs which would slip into
any fissures. He would
ask if these tongs were relied on more than the
results of the borings in
the strata, and the debris v/hich they brought up
by their sludge-pump,
and also why it was necessary to insert a
wrought-iron tubbing outside
the metal tubbing at the St. Barbe Pit, as
described in page 198; and
why, if it was necessary in this case, it was not
so in others ?
Mr. Smyth, in reference to the latter question,
stated that during
the process of boring the pit at St. Barbe,
Kessaix, a large influx
of coarse quicksand burst in upon them in such
quantities, that they had
not power to bore through; in order, therefore,
to keep back this sand
before the permanent tubbing was lowered, and in
fact before the boring
was completed, it was thought expedient to put in
a wrought-iron tub.
This effected its purpose (which was merely to
hold back the sand and
not to keep off the water), but the pressure of
the sand bulged it in places,
and they had regretted not having made it of cast
iron.
The President asked if in such cases, where
additional tubbing* had
plSCUSSION-METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM. 15
•n any means were used to enlarge the shaft, so
that the
to be p tuDDing, which had to go inside the
temporary tubbing, might
permane^ ^metGV originally contemplated ? In
ordinary cases, where
lmVe falls of quicksand occurred, they would be
able to descend the shaft,
SU(I keep the sand back by wood cribbing,'which
they could make of any
Ze that might be required.
Arr \V. Smyth assured the President that there
was practically no
difficulty in sinking by the new process through
strata which had to be
reviously tubbed back in a preliminary way. M.
Chaudron had several
times finished pits commenced on the old plan,
and bored through and
past the ordinary tubbing of wood and masonry
left in the old works.
In the case mentioned, where the quicksand had to
be tubbed back, the
temporary tubbing was of no great strength, since
there was no weight
of water to contend against, merely the weight of
the sand, or rather the
excess of the weight of the sand, over that of
the water, and the extra
tub would only make the concrete at that part
somewhat thinner. With
reference to the question of Mr. Marley
respecting the vertical pressure
on the tubbing, they had never tried any
experiment to ascertain if, from
l:;is or other causes, any of the feeders had,
when confined, a greater
pressure than that due to the depth of the pit.
But the tubbing described,
even with the concrete surrounding it, was still
in point of fact " open
top tubbing," and uninfluenced by any other
pressure than that due to
the column of water. If from any cause local
pressure beyond this was
brought on the water, it would simply rise
outside the concrete and be
absorbed in the upper strata, or flow to the
surface.
Mr. Steavenson would remark, that even in the
case of the
cribbing put down by M. Chaudron's plan not being
tight and water
escaping, engines could be put up as in the
ordinary mode and the water
pumped out, a new crib-bed could then be made,
and the faulty one
under-set and made tight.
Mr. Marley thought there had been too much stress
made on the
absence of means of pumping, because any engineer
or coal owner,
preparing a large winning, would naturally
prepare large winding
en0mes, even if he did not contemplate having to
pump, which winding
en0mes could be applied for the purpose of
removing any leakage of water
ausec by any failure which there might happen to
be in the tub.
the ord" ^RESIDENT~~*Yes; larne engines going on
simultaneously with
lnai7 process of winning, and they could be
applied to pumping
n t0und necessary.
r* G« B. Forster—As they are now applied, in
fact.
16 DISCUSSION—METHOD OF BORING IN
BELGIUM.
Mr. Cooke enquired if it had been considered how
the emergency
could be met if a piece of tubbing at the lower
part were to give way ?
Mr G B Forster remarked that there would be no
danger of the
rings breaking in putting them in, and that no
pressure would come on
them till the water was removed from the inside;
if a leak then occurred,
it could be examined in the usual way.
Mr. Smyth—M. Chastelain has reminded me that once
in sinking at
Ressaix, there was a bad piece of casting in the
lower rings of the
tubbing, which gave way when the full pressure
came on, after they had
put in the concrete at the back, and after they
had taken out the water,
and, consequently, removed the pressure from the
inside of the tubbing.
The damage was repaired just as an open tubbing
would be repaired
under other circumstances, with the water pumped
out; it was afterwards
found that the concrete had settled well round
the outside of the tubbing,
so that, under the process described, that which
would have been a very
fatal kind of accident, and one very difficult to
cope with, was converted
into a mere leak, which could be stopped without
any very great trouble
or expense.
The President drew attention to the other two
observations of Mr.
Marley, with regard to the action of the
lazy-tongs and spoons, and
their method of drawing the material out.
Mr. Smyth replied that M. Chastelain assured him
that with the
lazy-tongs they could tell to a nicety whether
there was any roughness
or inequality in the crib-bed, so that though he
was not quite sure they
would fall into a fissure, still, as a general
rule, they could make out when
the surface on which they proposed to build the
tubbing was suitable.
Mr. Marley said the con<>'s in Mr. Smyth's
drawing were more like
the sharp pointed legs of a pair of compasses;
and he wanted to know
whether that was so, or whether they had a sort
of claw, as it were,
which spread out, or downwards at the end.
Mr. Smyth—The point does project out in the other
direction, as
shown in Figs. 1 and 2 of the wood-cut. The sharp
edge, Fig. 1, shows
the transverse section of the instrument; Fig. 2
shows the broad part,
DISCUSSION-METHOD OF BORlNG IN BELGIUM. 17
like an extended hand; and the two hands on
opposite sides of the
shaft, being drawn close together, entangle
themselves with anything
rough, or any projection, or any fissure which is
transverse to them.
Mr. Marley might observe that in Messrs.- Mather
and Piatt's
machine for boring—with which they were all
perfectly acquainted—
the principle of which was somewhat similar to
the one described,
he was told by Mr. Forster that instances of want
of verticality had
occurred. He would, therefore, like to ask if any
difficulty was found
in Kind and Chaudron's method of sinking when the
stratification was
much inclined to the horizon.
Mr. Smyth—There is no doubt whatever that this is
a strong
argument against the inexpensive method of boring
by means of a rope
instead of by rods.
Mr. Marley—Mather and Piatt use a rope.
Mr. W. Smyth replied, that father and Piatt's
machine was worked
by a rope, which was certainly a cheap substitute
for rods, but which
had the objectionable tendency to lose its
verticality. In all the opera-
tions carried on by M. Chaudron neither ropes nor
chains were ever
used, and no deviation from the perpendicular was
ever observed. In
some parts the sinking had been effected through
strata inclined
25 degrees to the horizon, without any tendency
to deviate from the
perpendicular, but M. Chastelain admits that the
more inclined the stra-
tification the more difficult it was to deal with
in boring—that more
care had to be taken—and the speed reduced, but
with these precautions
a vertical hole could always be depended on.
The President thought there had been instances in
the North of
England where, in going through quicksands or
difficulties close to the
surface, circular tubbing had been inserted in
one piece; and he thought-
there had also been instances (and Mr. Coulson
would have been able
to have given them his experience on that point)
where this tubbing
canted before it got to the bottom of the
quicksand.
Mr. Marley thought the question of verticality
was more a theore-
tical objection than a practical one. He wf£
afraid that some of the
pits, sunk by what was termed the ordinary
method, would be found
wanting if their verticality were tested. With
regard to metal tubbing
made in one piece, he had had instances under his
own inspection,
where they had carried a heavy weight of metal
tubbing so constructed
down through sand which was in connection with
tidal water; it
was a very difficult process, and required great
watching to keep it
anything like vertical.
VOL. XXI.-I872. c
18 DISCUSSION—METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM.
The Secretary asked whether tubbing cast in one
ring had ever been
used in England 1
Mr. Marley said, he had seen it both cast in one
ring and in segments
bolted into one ring before being lowered down,
so as to present a
smooth true surface on the outside.
The President said, attention was called on the
former occasion by
Mr. Steavenson to the question of labour. He
thought Mr. Smyth had
very handsomely given them the comparative cost
in the country where
they were sinking; and he did not know that it
was a question upon
which they had any more observations to make,
unless Mr. Steavenson
himself had any.
Mr. Marley supposed labour would be paid at the
same rate in the
same country under both systems; so that he did
not see that the
question was material. Of course, it would not be
proper to compare
the cost of sinking by one mode in Belgium with
the cost of sinking by
the other in England.
The President—With regard to the false bottom, he
presumed that
it was so put in that it would carry as much of
the weight of the tubbing
as was thought proper. Was there no difficulty
in keeping it air-tight ?
Mr. Smyth—It was in consequence of the very great
weight and
length of the tubbing which had to be lowered
that M. Chaudron found
himself obliged to devise some method to prevent
it all hanging on
the rods. In the present instance, where the
tubbing weighed 800
tons, it was a very important matter indeed. By
arranging this false
bottom he was enabled to deal with it in such a
way as never to have
more than 20 or 30 tons at a time upon the
lowering rods. He believed
there had been no difficulty in carrying out that
method thoroughly.
Mr. Newall asked if the President thought Mr.
Marley's question
as to the pressure at the bottom of the tubbing
near to the cribbing
was entirely answered ? How did it happen that
the tubbing was both
open-topped and assisted by the concrete ? Could
it be both ? If it
was only a loose concrete he could understand it.
Mr. G. B. Forster—The concrete becomes a part of
the tubbing;
but it does not prevent the tubbing from getting
the full weight due to
the head of the water.
Mr. Marley quite agreed with Mr. Newall, that the
question he put
had not yet been answered; he was told that as
the water was brought
to the surface he had to calculate the pressure
from the depth without
reference to the concrete; but the actual
pressure by experiment had
never been elicited.
DISCUSSION—METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM. 19
Mr. Smyth—M. Chastelain said the experiment had
not been made,
but it would be very possible to make it, and
when made, to give them
the exact result. The practice had been to
calculate the thickness and
strength of the tubbing from the maximum pressure
due to the hydro-
static column, and they had not verified the
pressure by actual experiment.
Mr Marley—Only that might not always give the
actual pressure,
because if "tne siting is on a plain, and there
is a large mountain
near and a feeder had its source in and
percolated from the mountain,
there would be a greater pressure to contend with
than the depth of the
shaft would give.
Mr. Smyth—But the water rises to the surface ?
Mr. Marley—Yes, when it rises to the surface, the
question is
answered, but not otherwise.
Mr. G. B. Forster—Mr. Marley alludes to
close-topped tubbing.
He knew an instance where a second crib had been
laid in below some
open-topped tubbing, with a communication through
the top cribbing;
this opening having got choked up, and the
pressure being augmented
by a blower, the gas burst the tubbing, which had
to be taken out; but
he imagined that in Messrs. Kind and Chaudron's
method the water
could always find its way at the back of the
concrete, and the tubbing
was, as Mr. Smyth had explained, essentially
open-topped.
The President—If their remarks were brought to a
close, he must
say, it would not be reasonable or fair to ask
these gentlemen to attend
on a future occasion. He thought the meeting
would agree with him,
that the number of questions which had been put,
and the very unreserved
manner in which they had been answered, and the
very explanatory way
in which the answers had been followed up, had
satisfied the require-
ments of the members. He thought also, that they
would agree with
him that they should not part on that occasion
without passing a vote of
thanks to the gentlemen through whose
instrumentality a very valuable
paper, and a great quantity of very interesting
information, had been
brought before the North Country coalowners. He
accordingly proposed a
most cordial vote of thanks, both to Mr. Smyth
for writing the paper and
introducing the subject, and also to the two
gentlemen MM. Javal and
Chastelain, who had taken the trouble to come to
them that day; this
v°te, he was glad to see, was unanimously
responded to. He begged,
therefore, on the part of the Institute, to
return these gentlemen their
most hearty thanks for their great courtesy in
taking the trouble to
come and visit the Institute on that occasion.
Chastelain thanked them very much on behalf of
his friends
20 DISCUSSION—METHOD OF BORING IN BELGIUM.
and himself, and regretted that he could not
speak their language suffi-
ciently well to address them.
The President said, the preliminary notice stated
that the report
of the Committee appointed to classify the
Rivetting Experiments would
be brought before them that day, but he thought
that as the report was
mostly a detail of figures, it would be
unsatisfactory to read it, and he
proposed, therefore, that it be printed and
circulated along with the rest
of their papers.
ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER. 21
ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER*
By JOHN YOUNG, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.S.E.,
professor of Natural History in the University of
Glasgow.
Jteprinted, by permission, from the Transactions
of the Institution of Engineers in
Scotland, with which is incorporated the Scottish
Shipbuilders'" Association,
To commence an address to such an association as
now honours the writer
by listening, with the definition of a mining
engineer, may be to secure
that precise understanding which logicians insist
on; but to most it
will seem a work of supererogation. Yet it may be
questioned if,
habitually as the phrase is used, there are any
here who have ever asked
themselves, what are the limits of the duties of
the mining engineer ?
And the writer does not question, he is certain,
that not one has en-
deavoured to ascertain how any one assuming the
title has qualified himself
to do so. He speaks thus confidently, because it
seems to him a matter
of certainty that, had British engineers ever
fairly faced the inquiry into
the rights of men to assume the name of "
engineer," some measures
would have been taken to protect the title—not by
trying to limit
the number of holders, but by granting it to as
many as proved
themselves qualified for the responsible duties
of the profession. But
of this again.
A mining engineer is one to whom is credited
sufficient knowledge of
the conditions under which minerals occur in the
earth to render him a
reliable adviser in the search after them; who is
believed to know the
qualities of minerals so as to decide on the
worth of any that may be
found, and who, these points having been
satisfactorily decided, possesses
sufficient mechanical skill to conduct all the
operations connected with
0f MiniThlS paper was prepared for the Meeting of
the North of England Institute
in Sonti g ^n(i -Mechanical Engineers and
Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders
Papers to h i^ld in Glasg°w in August> 1870.
The large number of practical
e ^cussed necessitated its postponement.
ft
22 ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER.
the extraction of the mineral from the earth. He
who merits the com-
prehensive title of mining* engineer should he a
geologist and mineralogist
as well as a civil engineer. In this sense—and it
is the only rational
one—there are very few mining engineers in
Scotland. This is no
reflection on the existing representatives of the
order. It is much to he
regretted that there are so few facilities for
their position being rectified;
but so long as the educational opportunities are
so defective—so long as
there is no body whose interest it is, or might
be made, to insist on a
certain amount of instruction—there is no use
blinking the fact that
mining engineers are unqualified in the sense
that our advocates, medical
men, and clergy are qualified.
Now, before urging any change, one or two
questions have to be
answered. Those who are most deeply and
directly interested in the
efficiency of the mining engineer are the
proprietors of mineral wealth.
Are they content with things as they are ? Do
they believe that the
men whom they presently employ, on whom they
rely, are deserving of
that confidence ? While admitting that there
are many men of superior
ability or large experience who are admirably
successful in the majority
of their operations, there is no question that as
a whole the mineral
resources of this country are not administered
with that economy so
important in dealing with supplies, which by
their very nature are
terminable, whose exhaustion is a certainty,
though the date may be open
to controversy. The evidence in support of my
statement it is difficult to
give. It is to be found in the censures
incidently dropped by inspectors of
mines, and by the better informed iron-masters.
But few whom the writer
now addresses are ignorant of examples, whose
number, considering their
limited experience, suggests the frequency with
which gross blunders
are perpetrated. Many cases could be cited
which might be amusing
did they not tell of disappointed hopes and loss,
even ruin, to those who
put their faith in the so-called practical men.
But, referring to a few
which stop short of the tragic, it is well known,
that bores have
been sunk from ona side to the other of faults,
whose existence was
revealed in adjacent but unvisited brooks, the
bore being put down
at great cost into beds far below the valuable
stratum sought for. An
eminent engineer has counselled the lease and
working of a property
which contained beds lying immediately above the
coals sought for, in
ignorance of the fact that there was an extensive
overlap or unconfor-
mity by which the productive seams were thrown
out, and,the property,
therefore, valueless. As a converse, some years
ago an engineer, having*
seen the results of borings, accepted these as
evidence, and counselled
ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER. 23
his client to his ruin, it never having occurred
to him to test the authen-
ticity oftae specimens submitted, or to compare
them with the geological
facts revealed by sections in the vicinity. But
why multiply what are
*n realitv bits of gossip, in so far as they deal
only with particular cases ?
The existence of the " mystery-men," the borers,
as a class, is itself
evidence of a defect somewhere. These men should
be the servants of
an instructed engineer. In reality they are
masters by virtue not merely
of their mechanical dexterity, but of the
tradition of their local knowledge.
Great as are the writer's obligations to some
members of this class, truth
compels him to add that the boring machine
exhibited at your congress in
^,0-ust_a machine which withdrew a cylinder of
rock—was to his mind
a powerful educational engine, since it would
certainly curtail the supre-
macy of the borer and impose more direct
responsibility on the engineer.
The notorious frauds of unworthy members of the
one class would be
prevented, and the ignorance of the other class
would be deprived of the
protection from responsibility, which the opinion
of pseudo-experts has
hitherto afforded them. It is insisted that men
who have given their
lives to one district are more likely to know
that district better than
a stranger, an argument which would prove a mole
a good geographer,
because eminently careful in local research—an
argument which, to be
valid, requires proof that the local worker has
something more than
mere rule-of-thumb knowledge. It is a curious
commentary on this
doctrine that the most strenuous advocate of the
superiority of local men,
is the wealthy employer who trusts his capital to
a manager of life-long
experience, but of such slender knowledge that he
thought haematite
contained 90 per cent, of iron ! It is not the
M'Clarty philosophy of
doing well enough which ought to suffice. It is
the best possible which
ought to be secured; and though this may involve
a little pecuniary
sacrifice, it is not the less a duty to our
successors to act, not as the life-
tenant of an entailed estate who has quarrelled
with his successor and
spoils it as far as may be, but to act as the
conscientious trustee who
shall hand over his trust benefited as far as may
be. Nor is the sacri-
fice of money likely to be so great. Properly
administered, skilled labour
ls tne cheapest. Selfishness requires for present
benefit a line of conduct,
which shall at the same time fulfil the higher
moral obligations just
alluded to.
Motives of personal interest, therefore, seem to
justify the insistence
% mineral proprietors on some organised scheme
for the instruction of
men on whose advice they rely.
But the profession of engineers has a duty in the
matter. At present
24 ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER.
any man can call himself an engineer, and a
mining engineer may
be defined in practice as a man whom chance has
brought into frequent
contact with mineral proprietors. Reverting to
what the writer has already
said concerning the functions of a mining
engineer, he appeals without
hesitation to this audience for an emphatic
declaration that such a state of
thino-s should not exist. Your reputation as a
profession is at stake.
Your relations to the public are not defined. Is
it wise to leave the
public in absolute uncertainty as to the
character and qualifications of
those whom they wish to employ ? If it is
contemplated to procure a
charter for your Institution, that charter ought
to include a class of men
whose special knowledge is worthless, even if
they possess it, unless it is
combined with the thorough equipment of the civil
engineer. But apart
from the injury to your own profession wrought by
the unchecked multi-
plication of tradesmen, who assume the same style
as the accomplished
scientific men among your number, your voluntary
association imposes
on you a duty which is of paramount importance.
It is inept to
say that the public will soon recognise the
difference between the
good and the bad. It is not even true; for we
know that many
quacks retain a position forfeited by their
ignorance and blunders, but
secured by their impudence. And even if it were
true, is it right ?
Every such experiment made by the public involves
loss. To throw on
the public the duty of thus testing professional
men, is to tax them very
heavily, as if people were to select their
medical men by trial, that trial
involving many deaths.
It is for the profession to consider the amount
of its obligations, to
determine whether it is to consist of so many
units, each competing
with his neighbours and anticipating his fate by
the uncertain opera-
tions of the law of natural selection ; or is to
form itself into an
instructed court qualified and courageous enough
to decide who are or
are not entitled to public confidence.
Assuming it as admitted that intuition alone does
not fit a man for
the duties of a mining engineer, and that merely
local experience does
not place him above the level of an underground
viewer, what training
is best fitted to impart the necessary knowledge
in the shortest time ?
It is further necessary to assume that the
Institution of Engineers
recognises a duty as well as expediency in
procuring, if it does not
already possess, powers to certify the qualified
in this particular branch
of the profession. Only three courses are
open:—1st, to certify upon
examination any one who desires to be tested;
2nd, to impose certain
conditions as regards study upon all who seek
examination; 3rd, to
ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER. 25
establish a school or college, or to obtain
paramount influence in some
such establishment alread}^ existing, in which
the necessary training
preliminary to examination may be obtained.
Discussing this last mode of meeting the
difficulty, it would
seem to be a cause of satisfaction that at
present there is no prospect
of any such attempt being made. Any new school
could only, as things
now stand, injure existing schools or colleges
without securing its own
end. There is not money to be had sufficient to
start a scheme which
would not injure them. It would require £3000 a
year as a modest
minimum to secure the teaching of the higher
branches, and where is
the preliminary training to be got ? Either by
opening preliminary
schools, or by insisting on an entrance
examination, which would for
some years keep the college empty, till the
schools responded to the
stimulus, and that would only be if the engineers
counterbalanced in
profit the payment by results which at present
holds the schoolmaster's
nose to the department grindstone. Obviously the
scheme would be too
extensive both in scale and cost. But there is
hope the day may come
when it may be realised. There are many subjects
not yet included in the
university curriculum which are nevertheless
capable of theoretical
discussion, as mining, metallurgy. The time will
come when these
shall be included. Thereafter the co-operation of
several professions
and trades will render possible the formation of
what, for lack of a
better phrase, may be called a technical school,
one, that is to say, in
which instruction will be given, not in theory,
but in the application of
theory to practice. Thus, practical chemistry,
geological field-work—
in other words, the art of mapping a country—will
find a place, not as
superseding, but completing the higher
instruction. To the practical
laboratories would come those engaged in textile
manufactures as well
as engineers. But this is looking farther
forward, perhaps, than many
here may think advisable. The writer would
revert, therefore, to the first
of the plans proposed—that of a professional
examining board granting
certificates, on examination, to all who choose
to come before it.
Theoretically there is no objection to the
existence of such a board
^dependent of a university. In fact, in the case
of the medical
profession, the writer has recently urged its
creation by Government, on
the ground that a perfectly impartial and
independent court of
examination in practical subjects would give a
security not to be
obtained under our present system. A similar
court controlling the
admission of engineers to the profession would be
a most desirable
^novation. Of course, the co-operation of members
of the profession
throughout the country would be necessary, but
that co-operation
VOL. XXI.-1872. p
26 ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER.
does not seem difficult to obtain. The
Institution of Civil Engineers
in London has a body of laws, which has secured
such general appro-
bation, that the regulations of local
institutions are only suitably
modified copies. Our friends from the North of
England, and those
in the West of England, represent considerable
areas and large
interests, while the mode in which they have
testified their sympathy
and goodwill is an assurance that their aid will
not be hard to obtain in
furthering any scheme having the general good in
view. Nor is there
any difficulty in procuring examiners. The
profession contains very
many who are well qualified to judge on the
knowledge and skill of can-
didates, and such men, of high attainments, are
sufficiently distributed
through the country to give good prospect of that
uniformity of standard,
so needful when the same honour is to be awarded
in all districts. The
association with the court of teachers—be they
professors or other—is
a detail only to be settled after the subjects
have determined in which
candidates are to be tried. But in no case should
any assessor be elected
save on the ground of demonstrated practical
skill in addition to
theoretical attainments. Supposing the court
agreed on, then, on what
conditions may candidates present themselves 1
They must be men who
have either gone through an organised course of
study, or who have
prepared themselves for examination, when, where,
and how, it seemed
best to themselves. The latter is free trade in
education, of which
the writer has elsewhere avowed his theoretical
approval, though in
practice it ought to be condemned as concealing a
mischievous fallacy.
In one or two subjects it is possible a student
may learn thoroughly by
his own efforts, but in the majority, more
especially when equal know-
ledge of all is needed, such private study must
fail, save after an
expenditure of time, which would in effect make
the profession the
monopoly of the wealthy. The system of
apprenticeship will of course
be appealed to; it is a very important
educational agent or method, but
in objecting to the extreme value, which many are
disposed to attach to it,
there is precedent in the medical profession. It
is a useful auxiliary of,
it is an admirable sequel to, connected
systematic study. But because it
is of necessity unsystematic, it cannot be held
as superseding organised
courses of instruction. Time was when to have sat
at the feet of some
Gamaliel, of itself conferred distinction and
inspired confidence, but that
time passed away as science became more extensive
and precise; it was
an admirable way of acquiring practice,- but it
is not the way to learn
principles. The retention of the apprenticeship
system is indispensable,
but its place in the scheme of study requires
still to be fixed.
In thus objecting to free trade, it remains for
the writer to state the
Otf THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER. 27
I course of study which the imagined court should
impose. Several universi-
ties have laid down curricula for the civil
engineer and confer certificates
or decrees on their satisfactory completion.
Having recently become a
member of the engineering department in Glasgow
University, it may be
permissible here to refer to Professor Rankine's
efforts, and to congratulate
him on the public recognition which has to some
extent rewarded, and
which, it is hoped, will still more emphatically
reward his exertions. .Let
it not be supposed that any interference is
suggested with that or other
schemes. On the contrary, it is in the power of
the Professor to aid in
giving them still more importance by making the
degree or certificate a pre-
requisite to examination for admission into the
chartered body. It would
follow, of necessity, that the court would not go
over the ground covered by
the universities or colleges presently in
operation. Their work would be the
application of tests, which would show
incidentally the possession of ample
theoretical knowledge, but which would have as
their primary object to
prove the possession of practical skill, the
power to apply theory to actual
work. This, however, deals more with the civil
engineer, as the term is
commonly understood. For the mining engineer no
such course is as yet
prescribed. The conduct of Sweden and of France
in this matter might
be referred to as justifying an insistence on
some addition being made to
the ordinary engineering course; but it will be
sufficient to speak of the
mining school in Jermyn Street, the only one
which has survived in this
country. It is now two years since this question
was discussed in the
" Daily Mail," and the description there
published may be quoted :—
" Thirty-six years ago Sir (then Mr.) Henry De la
Beche began the
geological survey of England as a private
enterprise. After some years
of labour the recognition of Government was
secured for the under-
taking, and was richly earned by the success with
which the survey had
been conducted, and the promise of important
economic results which
its extension held out. In 1851 the building in
Jermyn Street was
completed by Sir R. Peel's Government, and became
an educational
establishment of the highest importance to the
miner and metallurgist
at home and in the colonies. The building
contains the offices of the
Geological Survey and of the Keeper of Mining
Records; the Museum
°* Survey, mineralogical and metallurgical
specimens; and the class-
rooms and laboratories of the teachers, except
the chemical laboratory,
Wnich is in a separate building, the Royal
College of Chemistry, Oxford
Street. All these departments are under the
control of Sir R. I. Mur-
ohison, but interesting as are their history and
organization, it is
Proposed to confine attention for the present to
the Royal School of Mines.
28 ON .THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER.
"The staff of the school consists of the
Director, Sir R. I. Murchison;
and the Lecturers—On Chemistry, E. Frankland;
Natural History,
T. H. Huxley; Physics, Guthrie ; Applied
Mechanics, R. Willis, M.A.;
Metallurgy, J. Percy, M.D.; Mining and
Mineralogy, Warington W.
Smyth, M.A.; Geology, A. C. Ramsay; Mechanical
Drawing, J. H.
Edgar, M.A. The curriculum is as follows :—
FIRST YEAR.—Foe all Divisions.
1st Term, Oct.—Feb. 2nd Term, Feb.—June.
Inorganic Chemistry with Laboratory Physics.
Practice. Laboratory Practice.
Mechanical Drawing.
SECOND YEAR.—For all Divisions.
Mineralogy. I Geology.
Mechanical Drawing.
THIRD YEAR.—A. Mining Division.
Mining. Applied Mechanics.
Assaying. I
B. Metallurgical Division.
Metallurgy with Laboratory I Applied
Mechanics.
Practice. I Metallurgical Practice.
C. Geological Division.
Natural History and Palaeontology. |
Palaeontological Demonstrations.
" The studies of the first two years are
compulsory on the candidates
for the associateship, but ' in the third year
the candidate may confine
himself to the Mining, Metallurgical, or
Geological Divisions, and pass
his examination in the first class of one of
these divisions only.' What-
ever division, therefore, a student may select
with a view to his future
career, his proficiency in that division is based
on a sound knowledge of
those subjects without which the practical miner,
metallurgist, and
geologist may, indeed, be a good tradesman, but
cannot be a man of
science. The fee for students desirous of
becoming associates is £30 on
entrance, or two annual payments of £20, but this
admits only to the
lectures; the fees of the Metallurgical
Laboratory are £15 per term of
three months; for the Chemical Laboratory, £12
for the same period.
" Certain endowments are connected with the
school, namely, three
sets of prizes, and fifteen bursaries from £15 to
£50 each, the latter
(three in number) tenable for three years. Few
schools are so richly
endowed; in few have the highest honours been so
sparingly given, the
number of associates admitted during seventeen
years being only 42.
An increase is noticeable in the number of
candidates—nine obtained
ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER. 29
the honour in the first five years, 10 in the
second, 17 in the third, and
. kave been added during the last two years.
Their certificates are in
the following divisions
Mining, Metallurgy, Geology ............... 12
Metallurgy, Geology .................. 8
Mining, Metallurgy .................. 4
Mining, Geology ..................... 3
Geology ........................ 10
Metallurgy........................ 3
Mining ........................ 2
"It is worthy of remark that the majority of the
12 certificates
in all these divisions were given in the first
five years, and all were
prior to 1862. As might be expected, the greatest
eminence has been
subsequently reached by the first, the most
numerous group of profi-
cients in all these divisions. This school was
originated, and has suc-
ceeded, in spite of the fact that no mining or
metallurgical operations are
conducted nearer London than Bristol or
Gloucester, and that no district
within this minimum distance offers opportunities
for practical instruction
at all to be compared with those, which are to be
found in the immediate
vicinity of Glasgow. It was founded in answer to
an appeal made by
the leading representatives of the mining
interests of Great Britain. But
it does not appear that Scotland has as yet
benefited largely by the
Jermyn Street teaching. It is difficult to give a
reason for the absence
in Scotland of anything approaching to a mining
school. Our mineral
properties are, on the whole, as well managed as
those of England; in
metallurgy neither pains nor cost have been
spared in procuring the best
advice and practising the best methods. Yet
nowhere can any one,
proprietor, manager, or miner, obtain any
information as to his work,
save by apprenticeship." f
This was written in support of a scheme for the
institution of a
lectureship on mining. At that time the writer's
efforts failed, and his
expenditure for two sessions in providing a
competent lecturer was thrown
a^ay> save in so far as Ljg sincerity in the
matter was subjected to the
severest test of loss of money. Failure has not,
however, diminished his
^ opes. He jg sang.uine enougn to anticipate the
erection of geology into a
eparate chair as well as the foundation of the
mining lectureship,
(to tak^ ^ Passa£>e Just °iu()ted it is evident
that in Glasgow University
a e the nearest example) all these subjects are
taught save mining,
thino'11^ an(* meta^uroT- The chemical
laboratory might do some-
© weie good cause shown in the way of assaying;
instruction in
30 ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER.
mining- it would not be difficult to procure, but
metallurgy is beyond
hope for some time at least, the cost of the
laboratory being the chief
obstacle. For the present, therefore, the court,
such as has already been
indicated, would have no power to prescribe that
full complement of
study open to the student in Jermyn Street. But
it would be in the
meanwhile competent to require proof of skill as
acquired during
apprenticeship to, or pupilage with, a professed
mining engineer. This
would not accomplish all the desirable good, but
it would be a step in
the right direction, and those who wished and who
could afford it might
repair to Jermyn Street for what they could not
get here.
To the appeal for means to establish a mining
lectureship the frequent
answer was, that those at present employed are
good enough without
further instruction. When the possibility of
skilled men introducing
new methods was suggested, something like a
devout prayer was breathed
- that such a possibility might never be
realised. It happened that the
lessons which had taught this wholesome fear of
forsaking the customs
of their forefathers had been taught not by
skilled men, but essentially
by unskilled men. In the West of England at
present there is at least one
striking- example of which many of you are
probably aware, where a
highly trained pupil of Jermyn Street has, amid
derision and sympathetic
hope for his ruin on the part of those who have
been all their lives
working in the district, followed his own way and
realised a fortune,
because, as a geologist, he knew that a hill
capped with trap was not a
hill of trap, though several largely employed
engineers and experienced
managers were prepared to swear to the contrary.
It is perhaps a better key to the writer's
failure that the proposal was
made with a view to the connection of the
lectureship with a university.
University training, it was more than once said,
did not make men more
fit for business, rather the reverse—a courageous
statement, since at the
time the sons of those who said so were attending
university classes.
But as an example of what scientific training may
do, let the writer refer to
the work of Mr. Hull, now the Director of the
Geological Survey in Ireland.
When engaged in the survey of an important
English coal-field, evidence
was lost at one point as to the lie of the seams.
Trusting to the infor-
mation yielded by the other strata, he mapped the
country, indicating*
conjecturally the position of the coal seam,
showing, that is to say,
where it would have been had its course been
normal. He further pre-
pared, as was customary, a section of the
country, and gave the depths
from the surface at which, barring subterranean
contingencies, the coal
would be. Acting on these statements, a
proprietor sank at two miles
ON THE EDUCATION OF THE MINING ENGINEER. 31
f m the last proved point and found the coal a
fathom nearer the surface
than Mr Hull with commendable prudence had said.
It may be questioned
*f all the mining engineers and managers put
together would do as much
here And no discredit to them ; they have never
been taught the art of
field-mapping; the application of geological
science.
The profession of engineers is here appealed to,
to step in and protect
their own profession. If the time has not yet
come for them to acquire the
organisation which has done so much for medicine
and law, it is at least
in the power of individual members to enjoin on
their pupils and the
youn°vr members the duty of paying some attention
to those matters, on
which they may be called upon hereafter to give
responsible opinions.
In this direction much good might be done by the
intervention of
such an institution as this, in behalf of the
introduction into schools of
such teaching as would assimilate some of them to
the higher primary
schools of France. Mere chemistry, physics, and
geology might be got
in at the cost of fruitless time spent on
subjects profitless in themselves,
or because of total inaptitude for them on the
part of the learner. Not
only might the time of the student be thereby
economised, his stay at
college being proportionally curtailed, but
science would be benefited,
because the university teacher would be spared
the drudgery of elemen-
tary instruction, and enabled to apply his
thoughts to the cultivation of
the higher branches of his sciences.
But the purpose of this paper has been to insist
more particularly on
the fact, that the engineers of this country have
attained a numerical
strength and a position, both socially and in
science, which justifies them
m securing privileges similar to those now held
by other professions.
And the first use to which the possession of
those privileges might be
advantageously turned, is the assertion of the
right to declare on what
conditions membership may be obtained. The
control of professional
education is one of the first duties, were it for
no other reason than to
p the curious absurdity of its being legitimate
for anv man to put
C E " on „ r
• § a.ter his name, allowing the ignorant to
believe him qualified, and
to learn the truth only after they have been
ruined. Many members
y°nr institution can relate amusing results of
this extraordinary
I *£edure, without parallel in any other
profession, requiring for its
rcise equally great scientific attainments.
But the writer is not
competent t * a
tojuoVe of civil engineers. Of mining engineers
he has had
leof0^!11^^8 °* knowm& something, and in the
strength of that know-
for th Ur^es tue attempt to provide better
educational opportunities
^sum^d1 n°W exist> an(* ^uty
msistmo tnat the title be
on some better ground than accident or caprice.
32 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
The court of examiners, whose position and powers
could only be
secured by "Act of Parliament, would find its
highest reward in confining
its attention to the practical testing of
candidates, leaving the schools
and colleges unfettered as to the conditions on
which tlfiey may grant
their certificate or diplomas. Free competition
between the schools
would soon secure a high standard of teaching;
and especially if the
results of their work were to be reviewed by an
independent court of
examiners. But to secure this benefit the
certificate of a school should
be required of every candidate. The certificate
of the court of examiners
would be, in fact, a license to practice. But it
may be hoped that
the granting of this license would not close the
relation of the examinee
to the institution. The licentiates of the
medical colleges have neither
part nor lot in those bodies, unless they
afterwards, at much cost, become
fellows. Profiting by their experience, a new
corporation would do well
to consider whether the examination fee might not
be such as to confer
membership—actual membership, not a titular
relation. So might the
institution become, not a voluntary society, but
a brotherhood of common
aims, and exercising a mutual influence for good.
Such are the views which the writer has taken the
liberty of bringing
before you. For the dogmatic character of several
of these statements
he would crave pardon, but that his remarks may
thereby provoke more
unsparing criticism. Such criticism is, to him,
an object of much
importance, because his views are common to many
members of the pro-
fession; and among his medical brethren the
similar views he has
elsewhere expressed, regarding medicine, meet
with some sympathy.
To impose on independent bodies the task of
proving the practical skill of
students, thereby to relieve the schools of
responsibility in all, save the
provision of thorough education, and to aid the
teachers in discovering
the best mode and kind of instruction, these are
the aims which many
members have set before themselves, and which,
before many years, they
will see accomplished. But if their hopes are to
be realised, it is neces-
sary that changes may be made with all possible
care and deliberation.
In advocating change, the writer has unbounded
faith in that conservatism
which is inherent in all large bodies of men,
which protects against rash
meddling, and gives security that nothing will be
done which has not
been proved to be good.
In the after discussion,
Mr. Ralph Moore said, that the Professor based
his lecture prin-
cipally upon the fact, that because some mining
engineers were ignorant
DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING ENGINEER. 33
as to the geological position of certain objects,
therefore, they should
have a mining college^ or some similar
institution, to instruct them in
the science of geology. There could be no doubt
it was desirable in
mining as in every other branch of engineering,
that those engaged in
it should be well qualified by education; but it
must be remembered
that local knowledge was of paramount importance
in mining. A mining
engineer bred in Glasgow would be of very little
use in Cornwall, as the
one is devoted to mining in the coal measures of
Lanarkshire, whereas
the other is employed on the mineral veins of
Cornwall. But geology
was not the only information required: the mining
engineer, besides
having a local knowledge of the measures with
which he was connected,
required the practical knowledge to know how to
work them. Regarding
the imperfect geological knowledge of the Scotch
mining engineer, he
might as easily retort upon the Professor, that
in Edinburgh, the seat
of learning, where very many had written upon
coal, it was only within
the last ten years that the position of valuable
ironstone had been classi-
fied, not by any learned philosopher, but simply
by comparison of the
fields by those having local knowledge. No doubt
they would be all
better of more education in the profession; but
of the 42 students sent
out by the Mining College in Jerrnyn Street, he
would like to know how
many of them had been practically employed in
mining, and what was
the practical result of their training.
Mr. J. M. Gale said, he thought Dr. Young's
remarks applied to
all branches of engineering as well as to mining.
He held in his hand a
pamphlet which had been published by the
Institution of Civil Engineers
m London, in which is given a vidimus of the
various educational insti-
tutions in Europe, where instruction is given
bearing on the profession
of engineering. Among other things, it contains
the suggestions on
the subject of the future education of the
engineers of this country,
by Professor Jenkins of Edinburgh, of Mr. Scott
Russell, Mr. Henry
onybeare, by some of the most eminent engineers
of the country, by
ir John Rennie, by Mr. Calcott Reilly, and
others. There could be
fromUfeStl°n takin° a y°utn from our
Provincial schools, or even
°m tne schools of some of our larger towns, into
the office of a civil,
practice1^1' °T minin§' en&ineer> mucn had to be
learned besides
plent^ ^e UP a ^00C* St0re knowledge, he
may see
in ordi ^°in& on? ^ut a^ter Passing" through a
five years' pupilage
ry circumstances, he is very unfit to practice
either as a mining,
he h P ^ 9 °r C^V^ enS'ineer- He spoke from his
own experience, and
cyc he spoke the experience of every engineer.
It had been
E
34 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
proposed that they should adopt the system
prevailing on the Continent,
the fullest development of which might he seen in
France, where mining
engineers took precedence of civil engineers. The
profession on the
Continent was on a very different basis from this
country. All engineers
there, or at least the greater number, were
Government officials. They
were educated under the Government, their
promotion was watched and
regulated by Government, and they were pensioned
off in old age by the
Government. Those who were smart men got on
faster than others.
Here was a vidimus of their education in Holland.
There was five years'
tuition. The youth was supposed to begin at the
age of 18, which made
him three-and-twenty when finished. He had to
study mathematics,
mechanics, natural sciences, chemistry, zoology,
and botany, geology
and mineralogy, cosmography, Dutch laws and
constitution, political
economy, geography, history, commercial science,
Dutch language and
literature, French language and literature,
English language and litera-
ture, German language and literature, caligraphy,
ordinary and
rectilinear drawing, gymnastics and drilling,
practical chemistry in
laboratory, and experimental philosophy. The
student had, in going
over the course, to devote, during the first and
second years, 37 hours
a week in the class room; during the third and
fourth years, 38 hours
per week; and during his fifth year, 39 hours a
week. He was then
23 years of age.
Mr. R. Bruce Bell—He is not bound to be perfect
in all these ?
Mr. Gale—He must go through a certain number of
examinations
on these subjects to qualify him for certain
departments, for those
separate departments did not give the
qualification. The examinations
were very severe, and what it all came to was
this—that there were 900
picked youths, of 18 and 19 years of age, each
straining every nerve to
win one of 150 appointments annually made for
admission to the
Polytechnic School, in France. But these 150 were
far from having
reached the practical part of their profession.
For two years the 150
had to struggle for 25 posts, and the 125 who
failed, after going
through all the higher classes of mathematics,
theoretical mechanics,
mathematical physics, curious problems in
descriptive geometry, etc.,
have to degenerate so far as to look after State
factories for powder,
tobacco, or saltpetre. Now, it was all very well
to give youth a good
education, but what was the use of five years'
tuition like what he had
described? He believed the immense crowds of
people who sought
these situations on the Continent did so because
the school was under
the Government support, and paid by the
Government. There was no
DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING ENGINEER. 35
fee required for entrance, and he believed if
there were it would check
the great numbers who' entered those schools.
Now, something was
required to be done in this country; but he did
not think it should be
done by the Government, but rather by private
enterprise. Those
private establishments have been greatly on the
increase in this country;
and one had started at Manchester recently.
Engineering was also
taught at Edinburgh University, and in Glasgow
University. He was
sorry to say that, although in Glasgow there
should be three or four
times the number of students that there were in
Edinburgh, yet the
learned Professor of Engineering here was not
receiving one-third of
what the Edinburgh Professor was getting. He
thought that the
Glasgow University Engineering chair should be
better supported/more
especially when it is filled by a Professor who
is an ornament to the
profession, and whose works are known and valued
wherever engineering
is known and studied. He was very sorry, indeed,
to hear that there
was a proposal to take from the present Professor
a portion of what he
received from the students—to divide the
students, or to establish another
class similar to the class that was taught by Dr.
Rankine in Glasgow.
He was of opinion that anything more cruel could
not be proposed with
regard to one who had the interest of engineering
at heart. There was
a proposition connected with this institution,
which had for its purpose
the teaching of an under class of men, such as
foremen, the better to
discharge their duties: what they wanted was to
teach artizans who
might become foremen, or something above the
ordinary labourer—to
educate them in some measure to fill the gap
between learned professors
and the common workman. In this country there
were professors of
engineering, and means in the universities, where
men who had the
money to follow out the professional part of
civil engineering or mining
engineering could do so to the utmost advantage.
There were workshops
where the best practice in any country in the
world was to be obtained;
^ ut they faded to catch the middle men—they had
no means to instruct
the"11 S° m^^lt ^e use*u% employed as practical
mechanics in
Dr^Y ^ "^RUCE Bell said, he thought there was
much in what
mi -ht >Un^ sa*d worthy of discussion, and that
the discussion
member6 adj0Urned ver^ advantageously. He thought
that some of the
as it ^ ta^en rather too warmly the pointed
remarks of Dr. Young,
aPPeared to him that the learned Professor did
not so much mean
t0 attack th«
done for Present race of engineers, as to
point out what should be
°r the better education of the profession; and if
the papef were
36 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
printed and laid before the members, they might
have some valuable
suggestions upon the subject.
Mr. Day concurred generally in Dr. Young's
remarks, but he could
not hide from his own views on the subject of
"Technical Education,"
the conviction based on facts, that in every case
of education, the ruling
characteristics of the nation should be duly
weighed before it was decided
as to the scheme which should be adopted. It was
an opinion widely
entertained, that in the British mind there is
resident a more inborn
insight and ability to cope with the carrying out
of mechanical and
engineering matters,* than what other European
nations possess. Whilst
he was one of those who would exert himself to do
whatever little he
might be able in raising the education of the
engineer to a maximum in
the acquisition of theoretical knowledge—that is
to say, strictly those
exact sciences to which all structures and
machines must be referred
before an estimate can be formed as to excellence
or fitness—yet he
was further convinced that much had been said in
these latter days
which tended to show that the essential in making
an engineer out of a
youth was a high mathematical education; now
this, really, while an
essential was only going half-way to bridge the
difficulty. It is a fact
that the profession in its various branches has
too often been filled with
men who have been launched into it, stimulated
alone by the prospect of
large fortunes, which many engineers, more than
any other class of pro-
fessional men, have amassed; hence, the
profession includes at the present
time many who have ranked high in mathematical
and other scientific
attainments, but who are sub-engineers by
nature—who have not the
insight, that gift of nature, by which,
independent of all science, our
earliest engineers were excellent practical
constructors. This led him at
once to a point of prime importance, namely, the
necessity of devising
some test by which the youth's fitness for the
profession might be ascer-
tained, before he should be allowed to practise.
Whilst the Continental
system of educating youth for the profession
might suit the national
habits of these countries, he should much regret
to see any attempt at
founding any analogous system for the educating
of British engineers,
but he quite agreed that some urgent step must be
taken to raise the
status to a much higher level than that which is
" picked up" in the
offices of engineers in this country. The
difficulties in the way of
• * \ Tlll-S t0° is confirmed by a definite
statement on the subject in the
introduction of the volume on the "Education and
Status of Civil Engineers in
of CMl EnginefrS?m ^ in F°reign Countries>" Just
Published by the Institution
DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING ENGINEER. 37
ths becoming proficient in the science and
practice of engineering in
this country at the present time were
intolerable, as he, from his own
experience while a pupil, could testify.
Professor Young said, he was glad that so much
comment had been
made on the remarks which, undoubtedly, he had
felt some little nervous-
ness in making. He hoped that it might be
possible for him to be
present at a future meeting; but no one would
rejoice more than he
would do if everything he had said was called in
question. The discus-
sion was the practical part, and he hoped it
would be spread over as
wide an area as possible; but, if his conclusions
were upset, the disproof
should be founded on sound reasoning. In replv to
his commentator,
he might draw a picture from the practice of
medicine, of which he had
professed no knowledge, respecting which he
should like to give some
enlightenment. He had a pain in his eye, and he
went about searching
for a man to relieve him ; or he had a pain in
his stomach, and he sought
for a man with skill in that locality. He need
not illustrate that further.
A man whs incapable of local efficiency unless he
had mastered the
general principles. The gentleman was not quite
correct in his account
of the history of the ironstones, for it so
happened that the information
was not elicited by comparing two fields, but by
the comparison of fields
in England, Scotland, and Ireland—a comparison at
which the mining
engineer would have turned up his nose, for it
involved fields where
scarcely a scrap of iron ore existed; a geologist
would have been
thoroughly aware of this circumstance. He was
indebted to the other
two gentlemen who had spoken on the paper. He
hoped he had made
it understood that the University was not
necessarily, nor should it
be, what, for want of a better name, he would
call a technical school.
It was so at present, but he did not say that
there were no other good
schools; and, therefore, he desired the
establishment of an independent
board formed from the profession of engineers
itself, so that it might be
competent to accept the certificate or diploma of
any school properly
qualified to give instruction. It was to give
practical free trade, so that
anv engineer might go to any school he wished,
that he pressed upon
cm the appointment of independent boards; and it
was to prevent
at Mr. G-a}e deprecated, elaborated scientific
machines, such as were
e met with on the Continent. He hoped that he had
made that
point sufficiently clear, and that his remarks
might be a centre of some
bef S1°n' kemS' convinced that the good he
anticipated would be realised
them6 /0n^' an<^" tnat at tae nan^s °f tne
profession of engineers
Ves- He concluded by expressing his great
obligation lo the
38 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
Institution for giving" him an opportunity of
addressing them, and
expressed the hope that his paper might be very
thoroughly and satisfac-
torily criticised.
The President said there was no branch of
engineering that re-
quired such a diversified training and practice
as that of the mining
engineer. Dr. Young stated that he must be a
geologist, a mineralogist,
and also a mechanical engineer, besides
possessing a purely theoretical
education, of a very high character; that all
these were required if the
profession was to be properly represented. The
education aimed at by
Dr. Young was clearly of a more exalted kind than
has been hitherto
within the reach of many of our more practical
and local engineers, or
even what they have been accustomed to consider
necessary. A purely
theoretical education, of whatever degree, must
necessarily be followed
by that practical experience which alone can be
got from the actual
laboratory of nature. In this country a
preference has been shown to-
wards the man of large practical experience,
while in France, where a
higher theoretical education is required, it
appears that for 150 places to
be supplied, there are 950 applicants. Mr. Day
has stated that we are
a nation of engineers—the faculty of engineering,
however, does not
run in the blood-—and we have acquired this
character not so much from
any high-class theoretical education which we may
have possessed, but
rather from the abundance and extent of our coal
and mineral fields,
and the large industries connected with mining,
affording those engaged
in such work the best opportunities for acquiring
a thoroughly good
and practical knowledge of the requirements for
conducting such opera-
tions. While agreeing with what Dr. Young aims at
in reference to
mining engineers, the practical fact stares us in
the face that the great
bulk of the people in this country are unable,
from circumstances which
they cannot control, to attain to that high
position in theoretical educa-
tion indicated. While we look to our universities
to supply the education
sought by Dr. Young in his paper, it is desirable
not to forget that the
most of our people must spend the principal part
of their time in the
workshop, and it is of importance that a degree
of education, though
not so exalted, should fall to them, for out of
this thoroughly practical
class come our ablest managers, leading men, and
foremen.
December 9,1870.—Note by Mr. Ralph Moore.—Re
thinks it would
not tend to improve coal mining to enforce the
high standard which
DISCUSSION—-EDUCATION OF MINING ENGINEER. 39
Youn^ contemplates. Also that the reason why the
student of Jermyn
St "eet School of Mines, and of the foreign
Schools of Mines, fails to
et a position in coal mining here, is, that too
much of his time is
t at school, and too little at the mines learning
that particular branch
of the science of mining which is meant to be
followed out. Thinks a
moderate educational test might be advantageous.
Take, for example,
coal mining. Believes that it would tend greatly
to improvement in
coal mining, if quarterly examinations of
collieries were made by
properly qualified neutral mining engineers—at
the joint expense of
landlord and tenant.
These quarterly examinations should include the
whole arrangements
and machinery at the surface of every pit; the
whole arrangements
underground; and in particular the engineer
making the investigation
should go through every road in the pit, into
every working place, and
through all the airways; he should record his
observations in a book, dn
the mode of working, any deviation from it; the
mode of supporting
the roof; mode of haulage; the minimum height of
roads; extent of
minimum height; the quality of the ventilation;
size and length of
airways; the quantity of air in circulation; with
any other remarks
and suggestions tor improvements and alterations
on the operations or
discipline of the pit, these observations to be
recorded in the book to be
kept at the colliery for the purpose.
Every mining engineer, before being appointed to
make those exami-
nations, should be able to show to a board of
examiners that he is fully
qualified, and a fair test of his qualifications
would be that he—
Has been two years in a civil engineer's or mine
surveyor's office, and
able to survey mines, and construct branch
railways, and other erections
at collieries.
Has mechanical drawing, plan drawing, and
freehand sketching. Has
been two years at a colliery, engaged in the
office, but underground for
ten hours each week during that time.
coal ^ a know^e(%e °f the different modes of
working and ventilating
°oa , of haulage; of sinking; and of mechanical
engineering, as applied
to collieries.
Has a knowledge of the theory of steam and
mechanics, and some
Th ^ ^ ^e°^°^ mineralogy, and chemistry,
test t\\ ^°ar(* °^ exarmners might be composed of
persons qualified to
. e aPp!icant's knowledge of the above. They
would require to be
co*nmitt ^ ^ owners an(* tenants, who
would appoint a
ee °f themselves for the purpose of selecting
them. There
40 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
might he a board for each of the twelve districts
of inspection, and each
board could sit quarterly.
Examinations of the mines, such as is here
pointed out, would bring
before the owners and lessees of minerals, the
state of matters as seen
by a neutral qualified person, and would
doubtless tend to extend the
knowledge of, and develop the best systems of
working and economizing
coal, and would also improve mining appliances
and discipline.
It is also suggested that the expenses of such a
scheme should be
borne equally by the landlord and tenant, because
both are interested,
and both would be benefited.
Moreover, legislative enactments for mines have
hitherto borne solely
on the tenants, which is scarcely fair.
DISCUSSION CONCLUDED, JANUARY 17, 1871.
Mr. R. Bruce Bell stated that the paper which Dr.
Young read
at the last meeting, although professedly dealing
with the Education
of the Mining Engineer, embraced in its scope the
education of the
entire profession; and not only the education,
but also the subject of
graduating and licensing the engineer to practice
his profession These
are subjects well deserving great consideration
here; but, although such
papers, and the discussions to which they lead,
may do good in keeping
us alive to the necessity of progress and
improvement, it would be
entirely out of the question, even if it were in
the power of such an
institution as this, to take the stand proposed
by Professor Young. With
respect to mining engineering, and the statement
which Dr. Young
makes as to the position in which the profession
stands, he (Mr. Bell)
leaves those members of the institution who have
made this branch
of engineering their specialty to answer, and
passes to the general
subject of educational qualification and
licensing an engineer to practice
his profession. In dealing with the last of
these, although the Profes-
sor's proposals bear more particularly upon the
special branch of mining
engineering, yet by his paper he proposes some
similar course in dealing
with the whole body of civil engineers, and he
advises that this institu-
tion should acquire powers to certify the
qualified, and describes the
manner in which this should be done. Now,
admitting the truth of
much of what the Professor states as to the want
of a legal barrier to
prevent parties entering the profession who have
neither the necessary
DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING ENGINEER. 41
• -^nor education, and who may entirely want any
of the qualifica-
trammg "U1 . . • • . ¦ ,
tions requisite to entitle them to practice; yet,
the proposal, to make
this institution the judges of these
qualifications and give diplomas,
could not be entertained. Dr. Young must entirely
misapprehend the
nature of the constitution of this institution
when he proposes that it
should take such functions upon itself. It has
been established for a
very different object, and is much too general in
its character to admit of
this. Such a power could only be exercised, as
regards civil engineering,
by a specially chartered body of civil engineers,
similar to that already in
existence in London, viz.:—The Institution of
Civil Engineers, which
pertains to the whole nation; and in mining
engineering, the nearest
approximation to a similar body exists in the
North of England Mining
Institute; but it is to be feared there as here,
that this latter body is
much too general in the character of its
constitution to be entrusted with
such powers. As regards the civil engineer, he
was afraid that for the
present nothing could be done in the way of
special licensing, at any rate *
until some more definite combination of education
and apprenticeship or
pupilage is adopted than that which exists at
present. Nevertheless, he
could quite appreciate the Professor's remarks as
to the opening that is
afforded to ignorance and presumption; but the
difficulty is to know, as
regards civil engineering, what test could be
employed, the passing of
which would authorise a Board to admit or exclude
a candidate. The mere
passing a scholastic examination, although ever
so abstruse, would be
totally futile without other qualifications of a
very different order, which
no oral or written examination could eliminate.
As well might you pass
an artist into the Royal Academy of Painting by
the test of a paper or
examination upon Art; he must show by his works
what he has done and
what he can do, and so should the engineer. It
may be said, how is a
*aan ever to get employment so as to execute a
first work, if he is only to
« chosen by what he has done ? The answer is
simply this—the ranks
tant 61)raCtlsin8, en£ineers should be recruited
from the resident and assis-
engineers, who, after completing their education
and apprenticeship,
succUPlfl^e? lmVe been Set in cnar£e of works
under their masters, and the
should U C°mpletion of sucn works is the warrant
of qualification which
their fij^ ttlem direCt emPloJment in similar
works; they thus make
mean b S fjart> and tneir works then speak for
themselves. He did not
bu^ on t}ie1S to ^ore the necessity of a thorough
scholastic education,
°e well / C°ntrar^' would llave {t a condition
that the engineer should
question ^te^ in a11 tlie sciences necessary for
his profession; but the
vol w a ^oard to test and license engineers to
practice, on the
F
42 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
result of an examination, is another affair, and
too difficult a question to
be settled off hand. In connection with what the
Professor said as to
the defence of the public from unqualified
persons practising, and as to
the danger to the public in leaving it open to
any one to call himself an
engineer; what must we think of the public
constituting themselves the
judges of the qualifications of an engineer, as
is often now done, by
parties in charge of such works as docks and
harbours, inviting a
competition of plans, and choosing as their
engineer the man who can
furnish them with the best looking picture,
without any guarantee
whatever as to his qualifications, and thus
probably choosing a man who
may have no other qualification than being a good
draughtsman, and
who may not even have this qualification, it
being left perfectly open
to him to employ others to make out his plan for
him ? He thought in
such cases the engineer required to be protected
from the public, not the
public from the engineer, or rather both the
public and the engineer should
be protected from men who can take upon
themselves responsibilities, for
which they are neither fitted by their education
nor avocations. Putting-
aside the question of licensing, which he could
hardly see the way to effect,
he would speak as to the matter of the education
of the young engineer,
which is a vital question, and is one which can
and should be thoroughly
considered and acted upon, but which is, as yet,
by no means a settled
question. His view of the matter was this :—In
the first place, the boy
should have a good English and classical
education, as far as this can
be effected up to the age of 15 or 16, and he
should be well grounded in
English composition, so as to be able to express
himself in plain and
proper language, and be thoroughly grounded in
arithmetic and the
elements of mathematics, in algebra, practical
geometry, mechanics,
and free-hand and architectural drawing; and he
should also have
acquired some knowledge of modern languages,
passing, if possible,
some months in a foreign country. He should then
serve a short
apprenticeship, say of two years, in practical
engineering or house-
building, working with his hands and keeping to
the workman's hours,
keeping up his education in his evening hours. He
should then, say at
the age of 17, study two years at college, and
acquire a general know-
ledge of chemistry, mineralogy, geology,
mathematics, and engineering,
and then be articled for four years with a civil
engineer in practice,
keeping up during that time his college
education; at the end of this
period, if he has the brains necessary to take in
what he has been
learning, he should be qualified to design and
take charge of works.
Professor Young—Amid the numerous and conflicting
statements as
plSCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING ENGINEER. 43
rds matters of detail which this discussion has
elicited, no one has
t^ken notice of what seems to the author the most
important point in his
r namely, the suggestion to regulate admission
into the profession by
an ^examination conducted before a board composed
of practitioners. The
formation of a faculty has been suggested by Mr.
Heppel, as he learns
from the Report on the Education and Status of
Civil Engineers, to
which reference was made at last meeting. But
whereas Mr. Heppel
thinks of a faculty in each university, he
(Professor Young) contemplated
a board apart from the university—one which
represented the whole
profession. Use and wont seems to have given a
stronger sanction than
usual to a bad practice; for no one seems to have
thought it worthy
of attention that a professional title is assumed
by any one who
pleases. Mr. Lyall, indeed, stumbles over this
difficulty, but evades
it by saying that he " apprehends the greatest',
and certainly the most
indisputable, right that a man can have for
assuming any title in a pro-
fession, is the successful carrying out of any
part of that he professes.''
What Mr. Lyall intended to say was probably that
success in engi-
neering work entitled a man to be called an
engineer. Mr. Lyall may
detect the fallacy of this by comparing it with
the results that would
follow if the same tests were applied to the
lawyer or medical man.
All the speakers have indicated a strong
disposition to regard the
mining engineer as a member of the body of civil
engineers, and
it is sincerely to be hoped that the day may be
far distant when
the branches of the same great profession shall
be separated. The
more intimate the relation of the different
branches is held to be,
the more certain is it that ere long important
educational changes will
be made. The cost and time involved have been
adverted to as objec-
tions, and they are well worthy of attention if
it could be established
that more thorough theoretical instruction, with
the same amount of
practical instruction as at present, would so add
to the cost as to injure
the profession numerically. But no one has
attempted to prove any-
thing of the kind, nor has any one attempted to
show reason why the
profession should, like the franchise, be brought
down to those capable
1 paying a certain annual sum. Mr. Simpson agrees
with the plan
°r testing^ by a competent tribunal, those who "
aspire to the position
^ mining engineer, or of appending that
professional designation to
names; but he goes further, and his
straightforward statement is
^er3 acceptable. He says that the efficiency of
an engineer educated up
1 th a k-^1 s^anc^ard would be impaired in
proportion to the deficiency of
mine Managers, without alluding to that of the
miners. It is grati-
44 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
fying to find this spoken by one of the
profession, more especially as it
accords so closely with the opinions stated at
the recent conference of
miners. The men are beginning to see that there
is something more
needed than has sufficed hitherto; let me hope
Mr. Simpson will renew
the efforts he made some time ago, and will
succeed in getting some test
applied to the mine managers. The Professor would
offer his aid, but
that Mr. Simpson says, " though I am not
acquainted with Professor
Young, or have ever spoken to him, still I may be
ranked among his
quacks." Surely mere acquaintance with the
speaker is not so injurious,
and ff Mr. Simpson's sensibilities could be
appeased, there is no one with
whom he would be more willing to act in common.
They both looked at
the subject in very nearly the same light; for
Mr. Simpson only mis-
understood the two cases quoted, and would, no
doubt, cordially agree
with the remarks of Professor Jenkin on the
defects of the English
system of education. The case is somewhat
different with Mr. Cowan,
who says, "Upon the whole I do not see that mine
engineering is
more dependent on the teachings of science than
any other branch of
engineering. I admit and agree that scientific
knowledge is of the
first importance to all classes of engineers,
although not more so to
mining than to others; and if it be deemed
expedient that mining
engineers should pass examinations in scientific
knowledge, every other
engineer should be subjected to the same testing
ordeal." Could
anything be more handsomely conceded ? It almost
makes him
ashamed to comment on the remarks amid which tbis
excellent
paragraph occurs. In truth it must be stated that
Mr. Cowan gives
two contradictory pictures of the engineer
connected with mines. He
says that the mining engineer has nothing to do
with the how or why
of minerals. The sum and substance of mine
engineering is the removal
of the minerals in the best aud cheapest way. But
this is a play on
words. It is truly mine engineering, but it is
only a part of what
the mining engineer is called on to do. Further
on Mr. Cowan demon-
strates the need of all sorts of knowledge to
qualify the mining engineer
properly; but as professional chemists, assayers,
metallurgists are always
to be had, and are frequently consulted, he sees
no reason for asking
the mining engineer to walk on his own legs as
crutches are so abundant.
As to geology, Mr. Cowan has not the same idea of
that science as is
entertained by members of his own profession
elsewhere, nor is his
language clear. But he admits the important
fact—that the mining
engineer ought to know something of geology. He
thinks that local know-
ledge is sufficient, as does her Majesty's
Inspector of Mines, whom he had
DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING ENGINEER. 45
o-ined to be the representat ive of the higher
culture in the profession. If
^eir views where acted on, Geddes and Landale
would find no employment
• the West of Scotland, and it would be
injudicious, in fact, to consult
them as they want the local opportunities. He
has noted one or two
oints only in these speeches, for the sake of
showing that there is no
agreement among the speakers, and would remark on
one point on which
there is agreement, namely, that this institution
is not the proper body
to act If tne institution endorses this opinion,
he must plead guilty to
having needlessly occupied its time. But no such
censure need be feared.
The body has higher aims than to make itself a
mere debating club; it
realises its responsibilities too thoroughly to
stand by and let the profes-
sion drift into a wrong position. The Institute
in London has taken
action, as the report already quoted shows. The
institution in Scotland
would take action if only some definite course
were made clear to it.
The discussion which has taken place will do
something towards matu-
ring some such scheme, and, therefore, he was
gratified at the attention ,
which had been bestowed on the subject of his
paper. The admission
into the profession by examination would do much
towards maintaining
the engineer in the dignified position he now
holds. It would guard
your ranks against invasion by the ignorant and
incompetent, who, Pro-
fessor Jenkin says, enter because there is no
preliminary examination.
This is a different thing from creating a close
corporation; but some
seem incapable of imagining any intermediate step
between the close
corporation and that perfect freedom which
permits a joiner to start in
bunness when and where he likes. The carrying out
of any of the
schemes to which reference is made in the London
report may take a
long time, but in the course of years some
organisation will be effected,
and it is satisfactory to know that the agitation
and discussion will', in the
interval, be productive of good. No one would
deprecate more strongly
an he did any attempt to introduce the foreign
system which Mr. Gale
that°r c°ndemned, nor can anyone be more emphatic
in the assertion
need univers]tJ nor school can supply the
practical instruction
wiU 6 ' ^ *s wanted is so well stated by
Professor Jenkin that he
ao. ^°te words, with the more pleasure
that their substantial
°reement Was the result of independent thinking.
" It is
aPprentic ^ °^ ^G ^uest*ou t^iat any c°Hege
training should replace the system of
Pared than ^' ^ ^ *S most desirable that pupils
should enter offices better pre-
durinr. +-l . at Present, and that they should
continue their theoretical studies
8 tteir apprenticeship."
46 DISCUSSION—EDUCATION OF MINING
ENGINEER.
"We do not require special institutions, or any
large number of technical
chairs, but rather,
" 1. Great improvement in secondary schools,
especially in teaching arithmetic,
geometry, elements of natural philosophy."
"2. The establishment in some large towns, such
as Liverpool and Birmingham,
of colleges on the Scottish model, or on that of
Owen's College—fairly well
endowed—giving chiefly general scientific
training, with a few special technical
chairs."
" 3. The practical recognition of the value of
scientific training by engineers
who take pupils."
" (a). By giving free pupilships or valuable
scholarships."
" (b). By admitting as pupils only those who have
passed certain recog-
nised examinations."
"(c). By co-operating with colleges as
examiners."
"(d). By inserting in agreements with their
pupils that during winter
they sha 1 attend certain classes."
" (e). By giving some privileges, in connection
with engineering societies,
to graduates."
In withdrawing from this discussion, the speaker
again desires to return
his sincere thanks to the members of the
Institute for the attention they
have given him, and to repeat the assurance that
his sole object is to
help in the onward movement which elsewhere it is
sought to impart to
the profession. To those who have criticised his
remarks, his thanks
are also due. From some he differs radically, in
assigning to the pro-
fession a higher status than they seem disposed
to claim; but they will
at least do him the justice to believe that his
crotchets, as they have
been called, do not tend to the lowering of the
profession.
PROCEEDINGS. 47
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 2, 1871, IN
THE LECTURE
BOOM OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., Vice-President of the
Institute, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous
meeting and also
the minutes of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected:—
Members—
Mr. H. D. Furness, Engineer, Whickham.
Mr. H. Chambers, Tinsley Collieries, Sheffield.
Students—
Mr. W. H. Chambers, ThorncliSe Collieries,
Sheffield.
Mr. G. B. Walker, North Hetton Collieries, Fence
Houses.
Mr. Cochrane wished to take the sense of the
meeting as to the
desirability of electing the Professors of the
College honorary members
°f the Institute; these gentlemen were all
eminent in their respective
spheres, and he had no doubt that their
contributions to the Transactions
discussions of the Institute would be of great
value. He proposed
^hat the necessary formalities should be taken to
have them admitted,
ut he thought in so important a matter nothing
should be done without
6 ful1 unction of the members.
^ Mr. Beanlands thought it most desirable that
the Professors should
niade honorary members, and had great pleasure in
seconding the
Motion.
Th
I e motion having been put to the meeting was
unanimously agreed to.
48 PROCEEDINGS.
The Secretary then read a paper, by Mr. Emerson
Bainbridge,
" On the Difference between the Statical and
Dynamical Pressure of
Water Columns in Lifting Sets."
statical and dynamical pressure. 49
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE STATICAL AND
DYNAMICAL PRESSURE OF WATER COLUMNS IN
LIFTING SETS.
By EMERSON BAINBRIDGE.
In arranging a plant for pumping water from
collieries, the dimensions
of the working parts of the pumps adopted are
frequently regulated by
the sizes of such descriptions of pumps as have
been employed without
accident to do similar work to that proposed.
Where this course is not
adopted, the bursting tension is generally
assumed to equal from six to
ten times the working tension of the pumps, and
the dimensions are
fixed accordingly. The breakage of the bucket
piece of a lifting set, at
a colliery under the charge of the Author, led
him to make a series of
experiments to ascertain the cause of such an
accident to pumps which
were actually stronger than those usually applied
under the same condi-
tions. A record of these experiments is laid
before this Institute, with
the hope that one or two important points,
suggested by their results,
may prove useful in pointing out how such
casualties may be avoided,-
and in indicating' the safe limit of strength in
an arrang*ement of pumps
for raising water by lifting sets.
The paper comprises the following heads:—
1. Description of the conditions under which the
breakage took place,
with calculations showing the pressure which must
have been
applied at the bottom of the column.
2. Record of experiments made with a hydraulic
gauge, to test the actual
pressure at the bottom of the column whilst the
water was in motion.
3« Remarks on the bearing of the experiments made
upon the general
economy of pumping water.
The general particulars of the engine, etc.,
connected with the
llfting set referred to, are as follows :—
Engine ... Diameter of cylinder ............
84 inches.
Length of stroke............... 10 feet.
Strokes per minute at time of breakage ...
5£ „
Do. maximum ...... 8 „
Four valves : condensing both in up and down
stroke.
vol. xxi.~187o. Q
50 STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE.
Pumps ... At the in-end of the beam : two lifting
sets, each 26 inches
diameter with a 9 feet stroke, raising water from
the upper
seam to the surface—a height of 339 feet. At the
out-end
of the beam : two lifting sets, 18 and 16 inches
diameter
respectively, with a stroke of 8 feet, raising
water from the
lower to the upper seam—a height of 345 feet.
On Plan No. 1, Plate IV., an elevation of the
bucket-door piece, to
which the accident occurred, is shown. This piece
formed part of one of
the 26-inch sets which rested upon it. The crack
was first visible as shown
by the line XZ, and it afterwards extended as
shown by the lines XZ
and VW. It will be seen that the thickness of the
metal forming the
upper part of the pipe is If inches, and of that
part where the circle is
broken by the bucket door inches, and 5^ inches
where the ribs are
situated. At the top of the stroke the bucket
just reaches the flange FF.
The pressure of the column of water resting upon
the bucket is 147 lbs.
to the square inch, when not in motion. Taking
this as the pressure
upon the bucket and upon the bucket-door piece,
the following is a
calculation of what thickness the metal of the
bucket-door piece should
be to resist such a tension.
This piece, as will be seen, may be divided into
two parts—the
simple cylindrical pipe above the line AB (Plan
No. I.) and the
U-shaped doorway (see Plan No. 2) below this
line.
The thickness of pipe to bear the given pressure
will be found by
the following formula ("Rankine's Rules and
Tables"), t = r * P
Where t = required thickness of pipe in inches.
r = inside radius of the pipe (— 13 inches).
p = pressure in lbs. per square inch on each
square inch of
the internal area of the pipe (= 147 lbs.),
f = working tension of cast iron in lbs. per
square inch.
liankine states this to be one-sixth of the
ultimate
, . \. . , 16,500 „
tenacity, and m this case it will equal —g— =
2;750
The calculation will then stand thus, t = ^oVr^ =
0695
inches, being less than f inch.
As this part of the bucket piece is If inches
thick, it would appear
to have a very ample margin for safety.
The calculation of the action of the pressure
upon the part of the
bucket-door piece, below the line AB, presents a
problem of considerable
difficulty.
STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE. 51
On Plan ~^0m ^ is snown a horizontal section of
the bucket-door
. ce in the line CD, on Plan No. I. It will be
seen that the breaking
train to cause the crack C, has been exerted in
the direction shown by
t^e arrows AA. As, however, the strong section
of the pumps at the
oint d will add some strength to the doorway, it
is clear that some part
of the pressure of the column will be met by this
part of the door piece.
j± vertical section of the front and back of the
bucket piece is shown on
plan No. I- To arrive at the pressure which
acts in the direction A A,
it has been thought advisable to consider the
section through the door-
way as having to bear the full pressure of the
column, and this may be
expected to give, as fairly as can be arrived at,
the resistance afforded
by the section of iron actually presented; and as
the section is so much
less in the front than at the back, this mode of
calculating will probably
be on the right side, in not crediting the pump
with more strength than
it really has.
In this calculation, the strength of the whole of
the bucket-door piece,
from top to bottom, will be considered.
The total amount of tension exerted on the line
of fracture will be as
follows:—
h sb total length of pipe subject to pressure (10
feet or 120 inches),
t = total sectional area of iron.
r = inside radius of the pipe. The average radius
may be taken at
14 inches. As, however, the pipe in question is
not a regular
cylinder, the calculation will probably be more
correct by
taking 1^ times the radius (= 21) to represent r.
The quantities p and / are the same as in the
preceding formula.
Then 1^-«M = 165-4 ton,
2,240
165*4 x 2,240
And to arrive at t we have-2j6^-= 139 ^ square
inches of
sectional area of cast iron to resist a tension
of 163>4 tons in
a height of 10 feet.
As the actual sectional area in this height is
170 6 square inches, it
will be seen that this bucket-door piece can be
taken as sufficiently
strong if the statical pressure of 147 lbs. per
square inch be considered
to be the maximum pressure it has to resist,
especially when it is
I ^membered the figures 2,750 represent the
working, and not the break-
%n9 tension of the cast iron forming the
bucket-piece.
The
result of these calculations is at least
sufficient to show that the
I pursting 0f the bucket-door piece was caused by
a pressure much greater
52 STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE.
than that due to the simple weight of the column
of water. To form
some idea what the actual pressure amounted to, a
hydraulic gauge was
attached to the bucket-door piece, at the point
h, about 18 inches above
the highest point to which the bucket rises. The
record of the obser-
vations of this gauge may now be described.
The gauge was capable of indicating up to 800
lbs. on the square
inch. The diagrams shown on Plates V., VI., VII,,
VIII., IX., show
the results of five observations, each diagram
exhibiting the indicated
pressure of the water at different points of one
complete stroke of the
engine, under various conditions of working. As
the gauge was not
self-registering, the diagrams were made by
carefully watching the pointer
and noting the time and pressures, and each of
the diagrams shown may
be taken as a mean of at least 100 strokes under
each condition.
It may be mentioned that the pipe from the pump
to the gauge was
made as short as possible.
The zigzag line on the diagrams represents the
pressure of the
column at different parts of one stroke, as shown
by the gauge. The
top line of the diagram represents the point at
which the bucket reaches
the top of the stroke. The vertical plain lines
indicate divisions of
10 lbs.: and the horizontal lines divisions of
one second.
The word "leave," below "top," signifies that at
that instant the
bucket commenced to descend; when the word "
bottom" occurs, the
bucket has reached the bottom of the stroke 5 and
at the word " leave,"
it commences to ascend. Thus the time taken for
each part of a stroke
is given in each case. The black-dotted vertical
line shows the statical
pressure of 147 lbs. due to a column of water 339
feet high. It may be
remarked, the conditions of working whilst the
experiments were being-
made caused the balancing of the pumps at each
end of the beam to be
in favour of the up-stroke.
The diagram on Plate No. V. displays the action
of the water whilst
being pumped at a speed of 6^ strokes per minute,
the engine working
without being touched by the engineman. It will
be observed that the
minimum pressure is 120 lbs., and the maximum 215
lbs.
The effect of handling the engine in such a
manner as to prevent the
sudden termination of the up-stroke, is shown on
Plate No. VI., where the
speed is 6^ strokes per minute as with the first
diagram on Plate No. V.;
here the maximum pressure shown is 200 lbs., and
the minimum 110 lbs.
To command the conditions under which the diagram
on Plate No. VII.
was taken, the engine had to move at the rate of
1\ strokes per minute.
In this experiment the handles of the engine were
dropped quickly in
STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE. 53
cause the up-stroke to end as suddenly as
possible, and thus
order 0 ^ a s]10Cfc t0 the pumps as could
be expected in ordinary
cause ^ result of this was to show a
maximum pressure of 270 lbs.
practice.^ ^ ^ lbs.), and a minimum
pressure of 110 lbs.
(and m 0 Qn pjate ]\j0> VIII. the result of a
stroke at a speed of
On tne uia0
4., Vp<* ner minute is shown, and in this case
the maximum pressure
three stro*v"& 1
h s 270 lbs., and the minimum 100 lbs.
rea rj^g diagram on Plate No. IX. was taken also
at three strokes per
'nute but the engineman kept hold of the handles,
thus regulating the
This shows a maximum pressure of 180 lbs., and a
minimum
(>1)oine.
of 120 lbs.
THE TABLE BELOW GIVES AN ABSTRACT OF THE RESULTS
SHOWN
ON THE DIAGRAMS.
The above figures represent the pressure in lbs.
upon the square inch.
I The following observations may be made on the
various points pre-
sented by these experiments :—
1- It will be seen that in every case, except
when the engine is handled,
the highest pressure occurs just when the bucket
reaches the top
of the stroke, and just when it arrives at the
bottom.
2. It will also be seen that just when the bucket
reaches the bottom of
the stroke, and also at the moment it reaches the
top, a suction
occurs, varying from 17 to 47 lbs. less than the
statical pressure
of the column. The sudden rebound of the column
of water at
the bottom of the stroke, and the momentary
movement upwards
of the column on the conclusion of the up-stroke,
are the probable
causes of the slight suction.
54 STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE.
3. The high and sudden pressure shown to take
place the moment the
bucket, at the top of the stroke, becomes at
rest, is due to the fact
that the water having acquired a momentum from
the rising bucket,
say of 5 feet per second, suddenly finds, when
the bucket stops,
the absence of an impelling force, and continues
in motion for a
fraction of an instant, then dropping on the
bucket, giving the
hio-h and sudden indications shown.
4. The small movements of the pointer are
probably only vibratory,
being sequent to the heavy shocks.
5. It is important to notice, that all the
high-pressures occur when the
machinery is at rest, and hence, they do not
influence the fuel
economy of the engine to any extent worthy of
note.
6. The proportion of time in the whole length of
time occupied by the
engine in the complete stroke, spent at rest, is
interesting, as
explaining one of the causes of the high velocity
of the stroke.
7. The penalty of having an engine badly balanced
is clearly demon-
strated, since were the two ends of the beam
equally balanced, the
strokes might be more easily made to end slowly.
The most important fact, however, illustrated by
these experiments,
is the extreme suddenness of the heavy increase
of pressure observable in
every case, as occurring when the top of the
stroke is arrived at; and the
question naturally presents itself, " What does a
rise of pressure from 110
to 270 lbs., occupying less, as nearly as could
be judged, than a quarter
of a second, actually represent as pressure upon
the bucket and bucket-
piece ?" The pressure of 270 lbs. is clearly not
dead weight, but acts as
an impact or concussive pressure, and, as such,
probably represents a
much higher pressure than that indicated. It will
be observed, on
reference to the diagram on Plate No. VII., that
the time taken by the
up-stroke is two seconds, and as the length of
the stroke is 9 feet, and its
speed increases towards the completion of the
stroke, the bucket may be
considered to be arrested at the top of the
stroke whilst moving at a
velocity of five feet per second.
To obtain a correct solution of this question,
the author commu-
nicated with Professor Rankine, to whom, together
with Mr. W. R.
Browne, he has to express his indebtedness.
Professor Rankine, in his
reply, states that, the total theoretical
pressure due to the shock of the
column, when checked in a velocity of five feet
per second, is 595 lbs.
on the square inch, but that the actual power
will be less than the
theoretical, owing to friction and other causes.
STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE. 55
With some conditions of working, it is quite
possible that the velo-
• r of the column in reaching the top of the
stroke will occasionally
°xceed five feet per second, and, hence, produce
a higher concussive
pressure.
To compare with the figure given above, it will
be interesting to
calculate the pressure which must have occurred
to cause the breakage
of the bucket door-piece through the line of
rupture. The full sectional
area of the front of the piece is, as before
stated, 170*6 square inches.
The ultimate tenacity of cast iron is generally
considered to equal
ahout 16,500 lbs. per square inch. It was,
however, well established by
a Committee who reported upon the strength of
iron as applied to rail-
way structures, that when cast iron is subjected
to a series of repeated
shocks it always gives way in the end to a strain
equal to about one-
third part of that which would break it at the
first application. In the
case of shocks applied to cast iron in the form
of a pipe, this may per-
haps be taken at one-half.
'Being the aggregate estimated
ml 16,500 „ , irt ™„ pressure in
lbs. upon the in-
Then —V- X 170-6 c= 1,442,000^ * . ,
-\ , ,
* ternal surface of the bucket
( piece.
Then, by the formula previously given :—
1 44^ 000 ( ^e*n» estimated pressure in lbs.
per square
120 x 21 =^^s. X inch on the internal
diameter of pipe at the
(_ instant of fracture.
This result does not differ very materially from
the figure 595, as
given by Professor Rankine.
The above calculation is made from the pressures
recorded in the
diagrams, but it is quite possible that a much
more serious shock may
take place than those recorded, should some
abnormal conditions of
forking the engine occur. The figure 572 appears
to apply to the
condition of things at the moment of fracture,
and probably represents
xtle pressure which a sudden rise from 100 to 300
lbs. in so short a time
as a quarter of a second would amount to.
However far from accurate these calculations may
be, the results
they exhibit will serve to impress one of the
objects of this paper—
which is to illustrate the large margin of
strength required in pumps
where the mode of pumping allows the possibility
of shocks similar to
tlxose described.
It will be seen above that the estimated pressure
which has been
tae cause of the breakage amounted to 572 lbs.
upon the square inch,
56 STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE.
or about four times the statical pressure of the
column. Hence, taking
the factor of safety as 0, it would seem
advisable for pumps having
similar shocks to have the bucket-door piece
strong enough to resist
24: times the bursting tension due to the
statical pressure of the column
of water they contain.
On this basis the section of cast iron for safety
in the case given
120 x 21 x 572
should be - " 0 . 0- = 1130 square
inches, being more than
six times the actual section, which was 170 6
square inches. The section
required to resist a brealdng tension will equal
= 188*3. The
actual section of the bucket-cloor piece, ordered
to replace the broken
one, amounts to 358*6 square inches.
A few observations may be made on the bearing of
the results of
the experiments recorded upon the general economy
of pumping water.
On reference to the accompanying diagrams, one of
the chief evils of
what may be termed "unbalanced" pumping engines
is clearly manifest,
viz., in the large proportion of time the engine
remains at rest, the
result being an increased velocity when in
motion, thus accounting for
the high speed acquired by the engine at the
point of reaching the top
or bottom of the stroke.
This points out the importance, firstly, of
having as small a propor-
tion of time as is possible occupied in the
pauses between the up and
down strokes, and, secondly, of endeavouring to
arrange the motion of
the engine so that the highest velocity is
attained in the middle of the
stroke, the beginning and end of the stroke being
made at a slow speed.
With conditions of working equivalent to these,
shocks would scarcely
ever be felt, and such conditions are probably
attained in three varieties
of pumping engines :—
1. The Cornish engine.
2. The ordinary balanced beam engine, working
lifting or other pumps,
but working Rotatively by means of a fly-wheel.
3. The Direct-acting force pump with a short and
frequent stroke, and
with an air vessel attached.
The action of the Cornish engine forcibly
illustrates the importance
of the two points relating to the velocity of the
engine referred to above.
In Mr. J. B. Simpson's valuable paper on pumping
engines he quotes
the division of time taken in different parts of
one stroke as given by
Professor Pole.
STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE. 57
This division is compared below with the
experiments recorded on
the diagrams
The short space of time taken by the Cornish
engine in traversing
the up-stroke would seem to indicate the
occurrence of a shock at the
beginning or end of the stroke, but the following
analysis by Professor
Pole, showing the velocity of each part of a
10-ft. stroke accomplished
in 1*5 seconds, explains how this is avoided :—
1st foot: velocity, 5 feet per second (bottom of
stroke).
I 2 „ „ 9
3 „ „ 10
4 „ „ 10£ „ Steam cut off about this point.
5 „ „ 10£
6 „ „ 9^
7 » „ 8f
it )) I 2 5)
10 » „ 0
|! It will be seen that no shock can take place
at the top of the stroke;
and at starting from the bottom where the longest
pause occurs, the
column does not follow the ram, and hence no harm
can result from the
suddenness with which the stroke is commenced.
¦(When a Rotary motion is imparted by a
fly-wheel, only a very slight
pause will take place at the termination of the
up or down stroke, and
^ ^e time will thus be nearly all utilized in
moving, the engine is able
0 obtain the same number of strokes per minute
with a much less
Velocity of the piston.
The quick reciprocating action of Direct-acting
force pumps, and the
continuous stream they produce, tend to lessen
the liability to shocks.
58 STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL PRESSURE.
Experiments made with one pump of this class
proved that the pressure
did not vary more than 30 lbs. in a column 600
feet high.
The author ventures, in concluding, to draw
attention to the
inadvisability (which has doubtless been
recognised by many members of
the Institute) in all cases where lifting sets
are employed, of allowing
the column of pumps to rest on the working barrel
and wind-bore; thus
rendering the removal of any part of the pump
which may get broken
a matter of great difficulty. If the pumps
immediately above the bucket-
door piece rested upon strong "buntons " fixed in
the shaft, this difficulty
would be overcome, and much time and expense
would be saved in
removing any part of the pumps below this point.
The Secretary added that when Mr. Cochrane had
learned that
Mr. F. W. Hall was going to read a paper " On the
Settlingstones
Pumping Engine," he had suggested the
advisability of making some
few observations there in confirmation or
otherwise of Mr. Bainbridge's
experiments. These experiments had been made and
were appended
to the paper, so that, possibly, it would be as
well to read both papers
and discuss them together.
The President asked if any gentleman had any
remarks to make
on Mr. Bainbridge's paper, which was certainly
very interesting. He
was not aware that anyone had personally gone so
minutely into this
point before; these indications of the weight of
water in the pumps
seemed to show the immense strain put upon them
by the water settling
back on the top at the clack, at the end of each
stroke.
Mr. W. Cochrane thought the Secretary's
suggestion had better be
adopted before any remarks were offered. The
Settlingstones engine
works a forcing set as well as a lifting set.
Similar experiments had
been made with both the sets; and if the two
papers were considered
as a whole it would be better.
BoOB^lSH PUMPING ENGINE AT SETTLINGSTONES. 61
boiler is 35 l°s- ^ne throttle vaAve, which is 8
inches diameter, and
*n o-ive its fullest area should open 2 inches,
is in fact only opened
which to ° jt wou](j seem^ therefore, that a
greater economic effect
of an l-*-
§ d he produced by cutting off still earlier and
keeping the throttle
W°U full open. But the insufficient size of the
suction clacks of the
*^e<r sets prevents this being taken advantage
of. The vacuum in the
^Pnder is also not so good (11^ lbs.) as might be
expected from the
^dication of the gauge 14 lbs., owing to the
packing of the piston having
been somewhat worn at the time the experiments
were made; otherwise
the diagram is most excellent,, and gives at
three strokes per minute 35
horse-power. The feed water is usually at a
temperature of 60°.
The economical working of the apparatus is not,
however, in the
application of the steam but in its production.
The principles of slow
combustion are carried out so fully that in
bright sunshine it is difficult
to see if the fire is alight or not.
In an experiment during 32 hours, the engine
counter giving 5,640
strokes, 26 cwts. of small semi-bituminous coal
from Fourstones Colliery
were burnt, which is equal to *516 of a pound of
coal per stroke of engine.
There was no direct means of ascertaining the
exact quantity of water
evaporated during this time, but if the water is
calculated from the
pressure, volume and quantity of steam used per
stroke, theoretically
the amount, though not exact, will err on the
safe side; that is, prac-
tically, more water will be used than the
calculation will give.
At the end of the stroke the pressure of steam
above zero is 9*5,
which gives a volume of 2551. The cubic contents
of the cylinder (196
feet) divided by this gives '0770 cubic feet of
water, or 4*8 lbs., or adding
5 per cent, for passages, 5*052 lbs. of water
evaporated by -516 lbs. of
coal, or 9*78 lbs. of water at 60 degrees,
evaporated by one pound of
small coal, or 10 lbs. of water at 100 degrees,
the Government standard,
taking the latent heat of steam at the pressure
of the atmosphere
at 988 degrees. This result is most exceptionably
good, and will
compare most favourably with the best result
obtained by the Govern-
me*ts at Devonport in 1863. (See Transactions,
Vol. XIV., which
^ave 10'?1 lbs. of water at 100° to 1 lb. of
Davidson's best Hartley,
ln an ordinary marine tubular boiler without
cleading.
9 lh^^eU Us*n£ l^ge splint from Mickley this
result was reduced to
^of water at 100 degrees per pound of coal.
qq . 6 Allowing table gives a comparison between
this engine and the
2l9UlSh 6ngine described by Mr. Simpson in Vol.
XIX., pages 203 and
C0B^ISH rUMrlNG ENGINE AT SETTLINGSTONES. 63
reference to Vol. XVII., page 22, it will be
found that Mr.
®U stated that Mr. Henwood, at Huel Towan,
after measuring
Steaven^ ^^n^j of water delivered by a pump,
estimated the deficiency
tlie aC q *r cent, of the calculated contents of
the pump, and that from
/ to & p"-"-
ients of his own h's deficiency ranged from 4 to
10 per cent.
eX^This offers an explanation to the various
pressures observed in the
eS placed in the pumps at the various portions of
the stroke given
in the table.
prom many causes it is absolutely impossible,
during the time occupied
the stroke, to fill with water a space suddenly
exhausted by the rapid
eep of a bucket or a plunger.
In the case of the ascent of the bucket, as
described, the whole
column rests on the rods till the return stroke;
and, at the moment of
reaching the top, a rising column is rushing up
through the suction
valves towards the bucket.
At this point the bucket and the column resting
on it drops suddenly
two inches and meets the column of water rushing
into the pump,
which it strikes with great violence and produces
the extraordinary
pressure indicated, which in this case is 1*7
times the static pressure due
to the column.
Precisely the same result is obtained when the
plunger of the forcing-
drops the two inches and meets the water rushing
up through the
suction valve, producing a pressure in this case
13 times that due to the
static pressure of the column. It will be
remarked here that the blow
takes place at a time when the column above the
delivery valve is and
has been at rest for some time.
There is, however, a physical difference in the
nature of the two
Wows, the one caused by the free fall of a heavy
column of water so
many inches striking a column rising at the rate
of possibly 5 or 6 feet
^second with little or no elastic medium between
them; the other, the
ow of a certain weight of plunger and spear more
or less balanced -and
restricted in velocity.
rpi J
the h 6 G °^ tn*s *s seen *n tne Pressure
increasing 1*7 times with
^ncket, ano^ only 1*3 times with the plunger at
the turn of the stroke.
at ea h CaUSGS wnich prevent a pump from filling
itself perfectly full
ac lift are various. Amongst others,
1st 'V'L
he suction clack valves fall as soon as the
stroke is completed,
2nd ^Ur*n§> tne ^ a certain portion of
water falls with them.
grcj* ^ne friction of the water entering the
snore holes.
The sufficiency of the packing of the bucket.
f plSCUSSION—CORNISH PUMPING ENGINE. 65
not always the only element in the question.
With regard
iron wa^^.ng,stones engine, the results obtained
seemed to be a little
I to the ^ ^ ^ gimpSon-s) experiments had
better exten(jeCl over a longer time. During
these four months, the
perhapB^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ engine at Hebburn was about 4
lbs. per
a° U wer per hour; the indicated duty about
3*6. The lowest
h°rSrimental indicated duty he had had was 2*6
lbs. per horse-power
hour He might say that at the present moment
the duty of their
at Hebburn, if they were to use the coal
ordinarily used by the
in°' engines in this district, would cost them
£2000 a year more
than it did at the present time. They were
pumping about 700 gallons
per minute from a depth of 120 fathoms; and he
thought this was a
practical application of the utility of the
Cornish engine.
Mr. Steavenson said, the question treated of in
these two papers
was very similar in its nature to that brought
forward by Mr. Daglish,
of the raising of cages. The power required to
lift a certain number of
gallons, or a certain number of pounds, can
easily be ascertained, and
that might be called the useful work; to this is
to be added the friction,
which is easily ascertained according to the laws
of the flow of water
in pipes; thirdly, the force of the vis inertia,
considered in this way,
and studied it in the light of these laws, it
would be ascertained that the
eriments which had been made would be simply in
agreement with
those laws. The laws of vis inertia depend upon
the relation of the mass
of matter to its velocity, and the experiments
which had been now shown
were a mere practical illustration of those laws
which had already been
ascertained by similar experiments. There was a
General Morin,Jn
France, some time about thirty or forty years
ago, who went into and
very fully investigated this subject, and any one
studying his works would
see very much the same as they had had
illustrated there that day. He
did not mean to say that he did not think the
subject was well worthy of
attention, and that they were not very much
obliged to the gentlemen
w o had brought a subject practically before them
which wras very often
one^00^^' (lues^10n as ^° ^e fly-wneel upon the
engine was
doubt^^1 ^ ^aC' 0n Prev*ous occasi°ns spoken
upon. There was no
wheel ^ Water was to he moved at a certain
regular velocity the fly-
w as advisable • but if there is sufficient
capacity of pump and power
preferr*1]^ ^ S^°Wer PumP works the better; and
for his own part he
when d 1'^° ^ 'm en&'*ne come t0 rest eacn
stroke. Observe a bucket
Water 1Verin§" a great body of water at a great
depth; we see that the
BvoLnv^Ues to A°w ai?ter tne en§'me has ceased to
move. They
66 DISCUSSION—CORNISH PUMPING ENGINE.
had there the work of the vis viva; and he
believed it was possible
to prove that a pump well adapted and perfectly
made would deliver
more water than its capacity would lead us to
expect. As they pro-
ceeded in the discussion, he should be glad to
illustrate his views farther,
if necessary. Much, too, of these remarks applied
in a similar manner
to Mr. Daglish's paper. There was no doubt that
when they came to
discuss that paper, the laws of vis inertia and
of vis viva, which apply
to the raising of weights at certain velocities,
would be found to explain
the diagrams which they had now brought before
them.
The discussion on Mr. Daglish's paper was
adjourned, and the
meeting separated.
KIVETTING REPORT. 67
-PORT UPON EXPERIMENTS OF RIYETTING WITH
DRILLED AND PUNCHED HOLES, AND HAND AND
POWER RIVETTING.
the experiment made before the April meeting, and
then described,
the plate broke in the punched holes under a load
of 18 tons, being 18
tons 2 cwts. per square inch of sectional area of
plate, and 17 tons 9-Jr
cwts per square inch of rivet. In this joint the
widest part of the
punched hole was found to have been laid to the
other plate, thus giving
an inferior bearing for the rivet. Plate XIII.,
Figs. 1 and 2.
The second experiment with the drilled seam,
after having been sub-
jected to the strain as above, did not carry the
load of 15 tons, one plate
being broken across and the other cracked at both
sides. Though this
was a double experiment, they are both noted in
the table. Plate XIIL,
Figs. 1 and 2.
In experiments Nos. 3 to 8 inclusive the strips
were planed at the
sides to about 2 inches wide, or the average
pitch of the rivets in boiler
work, and the holes were formed in the middle,
care being taken to keep
the drilled holes as nearly the same area as the
punched holes as possible.
A A and EE were drilled, BB and DD were punched,
CI and Fl were
punched, and C2 and F2 were drilled, the former,
CI, being left to be
filled by the closing of the rivet, the latter,
Fl, receiving the shoulder
°f the rivet. No. 3 was begun with too great a
load, and the rivet
Was sheared at once. The other five strips also
gave way at the rivet,
Ae greatest strain being 18 tons 14f cwts. borne
alike by CC and DD.
The least strain was 16 tons 6 cwts. per square
inch of rivet, giving an
ajerage, on the five tests, of 17 tons 9 cwts.
per square inch of section
nvet. The greatest load carried by the plate was
21 tons 6 cwts. per
Tare inch; and also by CC and DD; the least, 18
tons If cwts., or
S^ing the average of 19 tons 8| cwts. per square
inch of sectional area
°*P£te. Plate XIII, Figs. 3 and 4.
hol n exPer^ments 9, 10, 11, the plates broke
through the rivet
inch ' ^G ^Uncnec^ plate carrying 18 tons 12
cwts. strain per square
not ' ^ *S va*ua^e as showing the relative value
of holes that are
av PUncued fairly^ showing a considerable
diminution of strength. The
st*ain. °^ ^ tnree experiments was 17 tons 16
cwts. as the ultimate
Per square inch of plate, and 15 tons 1£ cwt. per
square inch of
68 RIVETTING REPORT.
rivet in sectional area, carried without
fracture. Plate XIII., Figs. 5 1
and 6.
In experiments 17, 18, one rivet only was sheared
in each, showino.
the average breaking strain of 17 tons 11 cwts.
per square inch of I
sectional area of rivet and 18 tons 15J cwts. per
square inch as the, strain
on the plate. Plate XIII., Figs. 5 and 6.
The other experiments were defective from giving
way in the
coupling eye, and are therefore not given ; but
it was intended to com-
plete the series had not the preparation of the
bars by the same parties
been prevented hitherto. Arrangements are now
being made for verifying I
those already made, as well as for extending the
set, which will prove
valuable for reference.
The comparison between hand and machine work
being incomplete,
the results cannot be taken into account.
The deductions from the above may be briefly
summed up :—. |
(1) That punched holes have not been found to be
inferior to drilled
holes; (2) That the breaking strain of the plate
when new is greater
than that of the rivet per square inch of
sectional area; and (3) That
the influence of bad workmanship upon the
strength of a seam is more
than is generally admitted, and as a rule drilled
holes would be more
accurate and less likely to overlap than punched
ones.
ABSTRACT OF TABLE OF RIVETTING TESTS.
PROCEEDINGS. 71
—
MEETING, SATURDAY, FEB. 3, 1872, IN THE LECTURE
ROOM
GENERA. ^ LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
E F BOYD, Esq., President op the Institute, in
the Chair.
The Secretary rend the minutes of the previous
meeting* and also
minutes of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected :—
Honorary Member—
The Very Rev. The Dean of Durham.
Members—
Mr. J. E. Pearson, Golborne Park, near
Newton-le-Willows.
Mr. John Moody, Bengal Coal Company, Raneegunj,
Bengal.
Mr. Arthur Woodgate, Chemical Manure
Manufacturer, Newcastle.
Mr. H. H. Wake, C.E., River Wear Commissioners,
Sunderland.
Students—
Mr. Addison Molyneux Potter, Heaton Hall,
Newcastle.
Mr. Daniel Gilmour, Towneley Colliery,
Blaydon-on-Tyne.
The following were nominated for election at the
March meeting :—
Members—
Mr. John B. Eminson, Londonderry Offices, Seaham
Harbour.
^ Thomas Clarke, South Benwell Colliery,
Newcastle.
• Andrew Farmer, Westbrook, Darlington.
Mr' pEX°LD Th"OMAS, M.E., Bilson House, near
Newnham, Gloucestershire.
Eorge H. Haswell, Mechanical Engineer, 11, South
Preston Terrace,
North Shields.
Mr. Wilt t
| liam Heppell, Brancepeth Colliery, Willington,
County of Durham.
Mr n St^Ents-
^Ir« Oswain ^
Mr. Wil Dyson> %e Hill Street, Newcastle.
Mr, ErkLUM ^0ses> Burnley Colliery, Fence Houses.
Vo* Xxi!-i87fAaUE' Towneley c°mei7>
Blaydon-on-Tyne.
K
y2 PROCEEDINGS.
The President remarked, that it had been
suggested to the Council 1
that it would he advisable to have the Institute
enrolled under thfl
Limited Liability Act, certain clauses in which
enabled members (fl
scientific societies to enrol themselves without
having the word u limite<W
attached. Under these circumstances it had been
deemed advisable tfl
consult their solicitor, Mr. Dees, who had
requested further time \M
make the necessary inquiries. Mr. Cochrane and
Mr. Newall havH
been kind enough to offer to make the necessary
inquiries and reporM
again to the Council.
Mr. W. N. Taylor then read a paper on " A
Description of Air-B
Compressing Machinery as applied to Underground
Haulage, etc., etc.*
at Ryhope Colliery."
cRlPTlON OF AIR-COMPRESSING MACHINERY. 7S
TPTION OF AIR-COMPRESSING MACHINERY AS
° PPLIED TO UNDERGROUND HAULAGE, ETC., AT
BYHOPB COLLIERY.
By Me. W. N. TAYLOR.
doubt it has been more or less familiar to the
members of this
ate that the application of compressed air as a
hauling power, and
•the ventilation of the mine, has been recently
on trial in Ryhope
Colliery.
Before commencing to read this paper in detail,
the author may be
[rutted to remark that the original intention was
to place the 150
IIP. engine, now supplying compressed air in the
Hutton seam, and
work all the Maudlin coals by drop staples or
inclines to the Hutton
seam, the roof of the latter being so much
superior to that of the
Maudlin, which is very bad indeed.
The time, however, required to make the necessary
engine roads was
found to be so long, and the cost of horses in
the meantime so heavy,
that it was determined to erect the 150 H.P.
engine on the surface, and
work the underground engines by compressed air
from it; and this has
accordingly been done.
The air compressing cylinders are two in number,
made by the Grange
Iron Company Limited, each 33 inches diameter and
5 feet length of
ke, which receive their motion from a pair of
steam cylinders, each
32 mches diameter and 5 feet stroke, placed at
the surface.
Plate No. XIV., Figure 1 is a longitudinal
section of one air
blinder through the delivery and inlet valves.
/°Ure ^ *s a *la^' section of the end showing the
delivery pipe, and
a atf elevation looking on the cover.
-pjgure 3 ls a cross section through the
cylinder.
Va|Vegate XV. shows a plan and elevation of the
inlet and delivery
^°th th*11^ ^ate XVI. shows a plan and elevation
of the cylinders,
tio-n of 6 C^nc^ers w^h their covers are
jacketted, and a strong circula-
te side^61" ^ k"6^ runnino a^ round them; this
water is admitted at
e th an(^ rUnS °Ut at Pipes ^ ^> which rise up
about 3 feet
valVes cect0ps of the cylinders. The inlet valves
B B, and the outlet
P*8tons p p are eacn $ inches diameter, and are
provided with small
> Plate XV., working in cylinders Q Q, with
India-rubber
74 DESCRIPTION OF AIR-COMPRESSING
MACHINERY.
stops R B, to prevent noise and cushion the hlow
when the valves are
opening- and closing-. D D, Plate XVI., are inlet
valves 1£ inch
diameter, with regulating- screws, connected hy
pipes with the bottom
of the receiver, which contains a few gallons of
oil, a portion of which,
sufficient to fill up the waste spaces at the
ends and also to lubricate the
pistons and valves, is admitted every stroke, and
is delivered again in to
the receiver with the compressed air through the
pipes E E, each 8
inches diameter.
The receiver at bank is 30 feet long, and 6 feet
diameter, and three-
eighths of an inch' thick, fitted with two
safety-valves, each 3 and 4
inches in diameter. The two delivery pipes join
the receiver on the side,
and the air is taken down the pit by 9 inch pipes
hereafter described.
The steam engine, Plate No. XVII., made by
Messrs. T. Murray and
Co., consists of two cylinders, each 32 inches
diameter, length of stroke
5 feet. The connecting-rods are connected to
wrought iron cranks
keyed on to a wrought iron shaft 18 inches
diameter, on which is placed
a massive fly-wheel 22 feet diameter, weighing 14
tons.
The air cylinders work direct from the
piston-rods of the steam
cylinders. Both the piston rods of the air and
steam cylinders are
connected to wrought iron cross-heads with loose
boxes on the ends of
the piston-rods of the air cylinders, so as to
allow the working of one
cylinder only when necessary.
The air is taken from the air cylinders in pipes
to No. 1 receiver at
bank. The receiver is, as stated before, 30 feet
long and 6 feet diameter,
and three-eighths of an inch thick, fitted with
two safety-valves 3 and
4 inches diameter, and loaded at 40 lbs. on the
square inch.
The air is taken from No. 1 receiver at bank to
No. 2 receiver at
the bottom of shaft, a distance of 518 yards
(Plate No. XVIIL), in
malleable iron pipes, 9 inches diameter inside,
three-eighths of an inch
thick, and 12 feet long, manufactured by the
Imperial Patent Tube
Company, of Birmingham; the flanges are
three-quarters of an inch
thick, welded on and properly turned and faced,
and secured together
by 8 three-quarter inch bolts; the faces of the
joints are plain, and made
with copper wire gauze and patent cement, and the
joints tested to 3000
lbs. on the square inch.
No. 2 receiver at the bottom of shaft is 12 feet
long, and 4 feet
diameter, and three-eighths of an inch thick, and
is fitted with one
safety-valve, 3 inches diameter, loaded at 50
lbs. on the square inch.
The air is taken from No. 2 receiver to No. 3
receiver, which is of
the same size, at the top of the South Steam
Engine bank, a distance
PBSCRIPTION OF AIR-COMPRESSING MACHINERY. 75
f 101 yards, in metal pipes, 8 inches diameter,
and five-eighths of an
. cn thick. The joints are secured with 8
three-quarter inch bolts,
and are so turned and faced as to receive India
rubber washers made
the proper thickness, while the metal is face to
face.
From No. 3 receiver the air is taken with 8 inch
pipes a distance
of 57 yards to the bottom of the engine bank to a
stop valve; the pipe
from the stop valve to No. 4 receiver, a distance
of 804 yards, is 6 inches
diameter, with two 1^ inch bolts in each flange,
jointed as before
described.
PThe air is taken from No. 4 receiver to a double
hauling engine with
cylinders 14 inches diameter by 18 inches stroke,
Plate No. XIX. (made
by Messrs. John Fowler and Co., of Leeds) ; the
rope drums are on the
second motion, with spur gear 2\ to 1; the main
rope drum is 4 feet
diameter, with a steel rope five-eighths of an
inch diameter; and the tail
drum is 4 feet 6 inches diameter, with a steel
rope half an inch diameter.
The distance from No. 4 receiver to the engine
hole is 25 yards, making
the distance from No. 1 receiver at bank to the
underground engine a
distance of 1505 yards. The bends and turns in
all the pipes from the
surface to the engine are made of as large a
radius as possible, and larger
in diameter than the inside diameter of the
straight pipes, so as to cause
the friction to be reduced as much as possible.
This engine hauls
the set, consisting of 30 tubs, each containing
18 cwts., from a distance
of 1300 yards, in 7 minutes, The gradients of
this plane are shown on
Plate No. XX.
¦The piston rods are taken through the back ends
of the cylinders, and
the engines are fitted with the common slide
valve; great care has been
taken to have the exhaust passage as large as
possible, so as to avoid
ice being formed therein; the engine exhausts
both out of the top and
bottom of the slide chest; glycerine is used to
lubricate the pistons and
slldes, and also to prevent the formation of ice.
Plate No. XXI. is
section of the cylinder of the hauling engine,
showing the exhaust
Passage A A arranged for the air to discharge
itself, both at top and
I 111 > this exception, the cylinder is similar
to that of an ordinary
steam engine>
Th f
the 6 ore8,°ing descriptions and plans will
show the precise nature of
mor^°Wer employed, and the mode of its
application; but what has
especially to be dealt with at present, is the
result obtained.
As already observed, the engine on the surface
has two horizontal
cyhnders • l \
°f]"n belies in diameter, representing a nominal
horse power
¦L°0 horses.
76 DESCRIPTION OF AIR-COMPRESSING
MACHINERY.
Diagrams showing the results obtained are given
in Plate No. XXII.?
and a description of each diagram for the various
engines now follows.
Only one 33-inch air cylinder driven by the two
32-inch engines is
now employed to drive the underground engine,
which consists of two
cylinders each, 14 inches diameter, as already
mentioned.
No. 1 Diagram.
Front end of right-hand engine, No. of
revolutions per ^
minute 12 ..................C h.p. = 40*28.
Average pressure per square inch, 13*77
lbs.......)
No. 2 Diagram.
Back end of right-hand engine, No. of revolutions
per \ hp- 48*25
minute 12 ... ... ... ...
... ... / --
Average pressure per square inch, 16*5
lbs.......j 2)88*53.
Average h.p. for one engine ............J 44-26
No. 3 Diagram.
Front end of left-hand engine, No. of revolutions
per ^
minute 18 ..................C h.p. = 9*102.
Average pressure per square inch, 2*07
lbs.......\
No. 4 Diagram.
Back end of left-hand engine, No. of revolutions
per "\ h p. = 11*186.
minute 18 ..................[ -
Average pressure per square inch, 3*05
lbs.......[ 2)20 288.
Average h.p. for one engine ............J 10*144.
No. 5 Diagram.
Back end of air compressor, No. of revolutions
per
minute 12 ..................(¦ h.p. = 55*574.
Average pressure per square inch, 17*87
lbs.......J
No. 6 Diagram.
Front end of air compressor, No. of revolutions
per % h.p. = 57*226.
minute 12 ................../ "*"
. - •„ t 2)112*800.
Average pressure per square inch, 18*4
lbs.......f __
Average h.p. for one compressor .........)
56*400.
No 7 Diagram.
Back end of air compressor, No. of revolutions
per ^
minute 12 ..................C h.p. = 74*51.
Average pressure per square inch, 23*9
lbs.......)
No. 8 Diagram.
Front end of air compressor, No. of revolutions
per "\ jj p = 77*74.
minute 12 ................../ _—
Average pressure per square inch, 25*0
lbs.......j 2)152*25.
Average h.p. for one compressor .........)
76*125.
pESCRlPTIo:tsr OF AIR-COMPRESSING MACHINERY. 77
Interior engines ..................N
Left.hand engine, back end ............f
' 30 empty tubs going in to far end ........I
Rp =
Air-pressure by gauge, 40 lbs.............
• Ho. of revolutions per minute, 94 .........
Average pressure per square inch, 10*45 lbs
......j
No. 10 Diagram.
Left-hand engine, back end ............\
24 full tubs from first branch ............/
I Air-pressure by gauge, 40 lbs.............>
H.P. = 14*13.
No. of revolutions per minute, 70 .........I
Average pressure per square inch, 14*5.........j
No. 11 Diagram.
Left-hand engine, back end ............^
30 empty tubs going into farthest branch ....../
Air-pressure by gauge, 39 lbs.............>
H.P. = 19*018.
No. of revolutions per minute, 90 .........1
Average pressure per square inch, 15*135 ......j
No. 12 Diagram.
Left-hand engine, back end ............\
25 empty tubs going into first branch.........
Air pressure by gauge, 42 lbs.............v
H.P. == 23*370.
I No. of revolutions per minute, 100 .........
Average pressure per square inch, 16*725 ......,
No. 13 Diagram.
Left-hand engine, back end ............*\
30 full tubs from far end...............
Air-pressure by gauge, 35 lbs.............V
H.P. = 29*702.
j> No. of revolutions per minute, 75 .........
I Average pressure per square inch,
28*3.........,
No. 14 Diagram.
I Left-hand engine, front end ............*\
I 30 full tubs from far end.............../
¦ Heaviest grad., f" per yard ............f _
I. Air-pressure by gauge, 33 lbs.............f
I No. of revolutions per minute, 70 .........\
Average pressure per square inch, 22*6.........)
No- 15 Diagram.
Left-hand engine, front end ............\
l 30 full tubs from far end.............../
Lighter part of bank ...............f
I Alr-Pressure by gauge, 42 lbs.............[
I No. of revolutions per minute, 70 .........\
I Average pressure per square inch, 174 ...
... J
78 DESCRIPTION OF AIR-COMPRESSING
MACHINERY.
No. 16 Diagram.
Left-hand engine, front end ............x
30 empty tubs going in .............../
Air-pressure by gauge, 40 lbs.............I
H.P. = 23'84.
No. of revolutions per minute. 120 .........1
Average pressure per square inch, 14*2.........j
Steam cylinder, 32 inches diameter; stroke, 5
feet; air-compressor 33
inches diameter, 5 feet stroke; interior
hauling-engine cylinder, 14
inches diameter, stroke, 1 foot 6 inches.
EXPERIMENTS WITH COMPRESSED AIR FOR WORKING
UNDER-
GROUND HAULING ENGINE.
The general result of the indications is, that
whilst the steam engine
is working at a net power of 78*4 horse-power,
the underground hauling
engine is working at 51*8 horse-power.
It will appear from the foregoing, that the
results obtained have
been highly satisfactory; 40 horses have been
dispensed with, and the
Company have made arrangements for erecting
another engine of similar
size in the mine, which will lay off from 30 to
40 additional horses; and
should success follow, they propose erecting as
many more engines
as can be worked from the power at bank.
Among other advantages resulting from the use of
compressed air
for underground engines, may be stated the
following:—
1st.—It is obviously of great importance to have
a large power which
can be applied for any purpose and at any moment,
to any part of the
mine.
2nd.—Possessing this power, it is a mere question
of detail to use
means for working the coal and bringing it to the
point from which it
is to be led by the air engine, thus dispensing,
in a great measure, with
DESCRIPTION OF AIR-COMPRESSING MACHINERY. 79
anual labour, both as regards hewing and putting
the coals. Small
I comotive compressed air engines might be used
for conveying the
coals from the hewer to the engine landing.
3rd —Compressed air, at a pressure of 40 lbs.,
has already been
ccessfully tried at Byhope Colliery, in airing a
stone drift. It is
carried in by a 1-inch diameter iron pipe, which,
say at 30 lbs., would
live about 115 cubic feet per minute.
This drift is 246 yards'from the pit, and is
driven about 200 yards,
rising 21 inches per yard.
Before the introduction of compressed air, the
temperature in the
stone drift was high, and consequently the men
could not work so
vigorously as they would have done in a lower
temperature.
Now, however, the change is very considerable.
The air-pipe, an
inch in diameter, is taken away from the receiver
at the bottom of the
pit into the drift, and the air, issuing from the
pipe at a pressure of
40 lbs. to the inch, instantly clears the drift
from any powder, smoke,
or gas, and being, of course, of low temperature,
it has very mate-
rially reduced the heat in the drift, the men
stating that they can do
much more work than before.
4th.—Assuming, as we have already done, that
these air-engines
are generally employed in mines, it will readily
appear, that a most
powerful agent is available at any time for
freeing any working place
from gas of any description, the only means
required being to take a
proper length of hose-pipe from the receiver to
the part required to be
freed from gas. The effect is instantaneous.
5th,—It having been shown and proved what the
effect is in clearing
a stone drift from gas, the next question would
be, whether the com-
pressed air might not be applied to the return
air courses.
Assume, for instance, that there is a large goaf,
which can only be
cleared from gas around its edges by the present
mode of ventilation,
the question is what effect would follow in the
goaf, if its contents were
exhausted by forcing air at 40 lbs. per inch into
the returns ?
The effect, no doubt, would be very much greater
than under present
C11'cumstances. This, however, is only referred
to, to direct to it the
Mention of the members of the Institute.
f 11^—^ ^ anticiPate(* tnat ProPortionately
favourable results will
ow tne erection of three or more underground
engines, which, it is
expected, can be driven by the power at bank.
7th.—Many attempts have been made to work coal by
machinery, and
S1 J failures have arisen from not having the
motive power in a,
vol. xxi.^1872< °
80 DESCRIPTION OF AIR-COMPRESSING
MACHINERY.
cheap, uniform, and compact shape. There can be
no difficulty in these
respects with regard to compressed air.
8th.—Among other advantages from using compressed
air, one more
especially important in deep mines is its
tendency to reduce the generally
high temperature, and there can be little doubt,
that the deep mines of
Great Britain will hereafter be worked chiefly
through the application of
compressed air, the exhaustion of which into the
workings tends mate-
rially to reduce the temperature.
The exhaust air discharged from the one pair of
hauling engines
now at work, assuming 120 strokes per minute at a
pressure of about
30 lbs. per square inch, gives 2160 cubic feet of
air per minute,
issuing into the workings at a temperature of
about 3 degrees below
freezing point.
9th.—It is obviously important to have
communication with the
interior of the mine in the event of anything
occurring, and air-pipes
will at once be available for this purpose,
either for the introduction of
water or the application of mechanical power.
Upon the whole it will be perceived from the
foregoing, that very
highly beneficial results may fairly be expected
from the use of the
compressed air engine, and these results, so far
as experience has
hitherto shown, may be classed under the heads
of:—
1. —Economy as regards its application to any
part of the interior of
the mine.
2. —Additional safety to the mine, inasmuch as
there is a more
direct communication with and control over all
parts.
3. —Having a power so easy of application to any
part of the mine,
its use for all purposes, where labour is
concerned, must necessarily
follow.
The President remarked, that the author was
entitled to the very
best thanks of the members present, for the pains
and trouble he had
taken in arranging and carrying out experiments
upon this most impor-
tant subject, and bringing the results to the
knowledge of the Institute.
He would not invite much discussion at present,
partly because
Mr. Taylor considered that sufficient time had
not elapsed to enable
him to speak with certainty on some points, and
partly because he was
empowered by Mr. Taylor to invite members to
inspect the machinery
any day that might be previously fixed; the
discussion, in his opinion,
would become much more interesting after this
inspection.
DISCUSSION—AIR-COMPRESSING MACHINERY. 81
]y[r. Lawrence, in. answer to a question from Mr.
Cochrane, stated
that the 51 horse-power in-bye and the 78
horse-power at bank were
arrived at by simultaneous diagrams, each party
conducting the experi-
ment being provided with a watch previously set
to a common standard.
I Mr. Southern inquired if Mr. Taylor had made
any experiments
in getting coal by means of compressed air ?
Mr. Taylor replied, that it was seriously in
contemplation to use
compressed air in the Hutton seam, for the
purpose of getting coal, and
he had no doubt but that the arrangement would
soon be carried out.
Mr. Boyd asked Mr. Taylor if any experiments had
been made to
ascertain how the loss of 27 horse-power in the
transmission of the
power from the original motion to the air engine
could be accounted
for, and what proportion of it was due to the
increase of temperature in
the cylinder, and from the friction in passing
through the pipes ? He
thought it would be an interesting investigation
to trace out and account
for that loss.
Mr. Lawrence stated, that the temperatures had
been taken, both
when the air left the compressing cylinder and at
several places in its
passage, so that all loss from this source could
be easily accounted for.
The temperature at the compressing cylinder was
216°, with the pressure
at 40 lbs. to the inch, and, strange to say, at a
distance of six feet
from the cylinder, this temperature was increased
to 236°, and as there
was no contraction of the pipe, or any sharp
bend, this circumstance
seemed to him unaccountable. It is true, two
thermometers were used,
and these might not have coincided. The exhaust
left the cylinder of
the hauling engine accompanied with ice, and the
temperature, close
to the cylinder, was three degrees below zero. He
had not made any
calculation of the quantity of air used by the
hauling engine, but it
usually went 120 revolutions per minute and cut
off, after the piston
tad traversed three-fourths of its stroke. He
would add, that the gross
torse-power at bank was 88; 10 horse-power was
lost by friction, and
was deducted from the gross horse-power, leaving
78, and this result was
an avei>age of the trials made at the time.
Mr. S. B. Coxon said, that it would be a great
advantage if the
Pfper c°uld be printed before the members availed
themselves of Mr.
} or s kind invitation to visit Byhope. They
might then prepare
and t0 °^serve ^le P°ints 011 which they wished
information \
adv' ^ ^S ^e^a^e(^ tneir visit for a few
weeks, it would have the
jyj- ^e °^ ^yino Mr. Taylor additional time for
obtaining more data.
I r. Southern observed that the paper was one
of very great
82 Proceedings.
interest, and that it came at a very opportune
time. It offered very many
interesting- subjects for consideration, and not
the least among them
was the effect it was likely to have on the
ventilation of the pits and
the cost of working the coal. It was also very
satisfactory that the
system had been adopted by such an influential
company and was in
such able hands. This he felt was a guarantee
that no pains would be
spared to give the whole matter a thorough and
impartial trial.
The President was sure that the meeting would
join in a cordial
vote of thanks to Mr. Taylor for his admirable
paper, and for his polite
invitation to Ryhope. He quite agreed with Mr.
Southern's remarks,
and considered these experiments an era in the
profession, which might
lead to very remarkable results, not only as
regarded hauling, but also
in the general question of economy of labour in
other respects, and in
the efficient ventilation of mines.
The President then stated that the meeting had
been made special
to consider the following alteration of Rule IV.,
which it was proposed
should stand as follows :—
" Honorary Members shall be persons who have
distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who
have made important communica-
tions to the Society, Government Mining
Inspectors during the term of their office,
and the Professors of the College of Physical
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, during
their connection with the said College."
The alteration was unanimously agreed to.
The President then stated as this was probably
the last time they
would meet in this room, he would propose that
they should pass a vote of
thanks to the members of the Literary and
Philosophical Society for their
great kindness, courtesy, and liberality in
allowing them the free use of
their premises during the erection of their new
offices, and also to the
Librarian, who had been so incessantly alive to
their interests and
convenience. The Contractor had promised that the
Wood Memorial
Hall should be finished in a month ; and it was
suggested that, as soon
as the necessary arrangements could be made, the
hall should be formally
opened, and advantage taken of the circumstance
to invite members of
other and kindred societies, whose kindness and
hospitality had been
extended to them on previous occasions.
Proceedings. 83
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, MARCH 2, 1872, IN THE
LECTURE
ROOM OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Mr. STEAVENSON in the Chair.
The Chairman said, the first business of the
meeting* was to appoint
a member of the Council, in the place of Mr.
Hoskyns, whose death
they would all lament. The deceased had been for
many years the
managing engineer at Messrs. Hawks, Crawshay, and
Co.'s, and his
long and successful professional career and
urbane manners had gained
him universal respect.
Messrs. Bailes, Morison, Crone, and Waller were
appointed scru-
tineers.
On the return of the scrutineers, Mr. Morison
reported that Mr.
Richard Hodgson had been unanimously elected.
The report of the preceding Council Meetings and
the report of the
last General Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed.
The following gentlemen were elected—
Members.
Mr. John B. Eminson, Londonderry Offices, Seaham
Harbour.
Mr. Thomas Clarke, South Benwell Colliery,
Newcastle.
Mr. Andrew Farmer, Westbrook, Darlington.
Mr. Arnold Thomas, M.E., Bilson House, near
Newnham, Gloucestershire.
Mr. George H. Haswell, Mechanical Engineer, 11,
So. Preston Terrace,
North Shields.
Mr. William Heppell, Brancepeth Colliery,
Willington, Co. Durham.
Students.
Mr. Oswald Dyson, 1, Rye Hill Street, Newcastle.
Mr. William Moses, Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses.
Mr. Ernest Hague, Towneley Colliery,
Blaydon-on-Tyne.
84 PROCEEDINGS.
The following" were nominated for election at the
April meeting—
Members.
Mr. Thomas Whitelaw, Shields and Dalside
Collieries, Motherwell.
Mr. Thomas Joseph, Tydraw, near Pontypridd, South
Wales.
Mr. Fred. W. Shallis, Bulman Village,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. Thomas Johnston, Widdrington Colliery,
Acklington.
Mr. Edward Joicey, Coal Owner. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. John Patton, Westoe, South Shields.
Students.
Mr. J. J. Hedley, Medomsley, Burnopfield.
Mr. Daniel Joseph, Tydraw, near Pontypridd, South
Wales.
The President said, the next business of the
meeting was to read
a paper by Mr. George Fowler, "On the Scroll
Drum."
ON THE SCROLL DRUM. » 85
ON THE SCROLL DRUM.
By GEORGE FOWLER.
In a late discussion on Mr. Daglish's paper upon
the Counterbalancing
of Winding Engines, reference was made to a
series of experiments
conducted by the writer upon the actual
expenditure of power in large
winding engines. These experiments formed the
subject of a paper
published in the Transactions of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers.
It was shown by these experiments that the
uniformity of load to be
obtained by a system of counterbalancing, or by
the scroll drum, was
merely one element in the question of winding
economy, and that the
mass of machinery in motion introduced dynamical
considerations of
even greater importance; that, in fact, it was as
necessary to compensate
for dynamical forces as for statical ones.
Since the date of those experiments, considerable
alterations have
been made in the working loads upon the scroll
drum there referred to,
and it may probably be interesting to compare the
results of the old
experiments with a set obtained under the altered
circumstances.
The Kiveton Park engines are a pair of 36 inch
high pressure engines,
having a 6 feet stroke, and driving a drum
varying from 20 to 30 feet
in diameter.
At the time of the former experiments, a single
decked cage, holding
two tubs, carrying 22 cwts. of coal, was used.
Now, a double decked cage, holding four tubs,
containing 44 cwts.,
is in use.
Diagrams 1 and 2, Plate XXIII., show the results
of the two sets of
experiments.
The lines AB, measured off by ordinates from the
vertical PP, show
the net load upon the engine for one journey; the
included area ABPP
representing the total useful work done. The line
DDTT gives the
actual positive or negative power expended in the
cylinders over the
same interval; this line being calculated from
several series of diagrams
taken with the Richard's indicator.
86 ON THE SCROLL DRUM.
The mass of matter in motion may be taken as
follows:—
No. 1 Exp. No. 2 Exp.
Drum .........45 tons. ... 45 tons.
Ropes ......... 4} „ ... 4i „
Cages, tubs, and coal ... 4 ,, ...
8 „
Pulleys ......... 6£ „ ... 6£ „
60 64
This is exclusive of main shaft, cranks, boss of
drum, etc., and the whole
mass may, without material error, be considered
to travel at the same
speed as the load.
It will be observed that in No. 1 series, the
engine is run with full
steam for nine revolutions, and that it is then
reversed and is converted
into an air pump for the remaining five
revolutions. It is thus usefully
occupied 65 per cent, of each journey. In the No.
2 series the engine
is run with full steam for twelve revolutions,
and is reversed for the
remaining two and one-eighth revolutions. It is
thus usefully occupied
85 per cent, of each journey.
It will thus be observed that a better ratio of
useful effect is obtained
with the greater loading.
The time occupied in running is forty-five
seconds in both cases.
With regard to the load line, it will be observed
that the increase in
the loading has entirely changed its character.
In the No. 1 series the
load for each revolution of the engine commences
at 286,026 foot lbs.,
and diminishes to 114,936 foot lbs. • whilst in
the No. 2 series it com-
mences at 330,255, and increases to 467,165 foot
lbs. Thus, therefore,
in one case the engine is under, and in the other
case overbalanced
with, as may be seen, a most material improvement
in the working of
the engine. In the latter case nothing can speak
more strongly to this
effect than the diagrams themselves. Twelve
revolutions of the engine
under steam serve to raise twice the load which
nine revolutions formerly
effected; that is, twice the work is done with
one-third more use of the
steam cylinders.
It will be observed also that the area of the
counter-pressure diagram
is reduced by one-half. Thus, therefore, there is
evidence of a very
decided improvement in the working of the engine.
It appears on the
diagrams, it is shown by the statement just
given, and it is shown by
the simple fact that the engine has just doubled
its useful effect.
Whilst, therefore, the Kiveton Park scroll drum
must now be con-
sidered a very successful application of the
principle, it still shows
clearly that farther and most material
improvements may be made by a
ON THE SCROLL DRUM. 87
reduction of the weights of machinery in motion,
and by a modification
of load line, to neutralize the effect of that
amount of weight, which is
unavoidably necessary.
At the Kiveton Park Colliery the mean velocity of
the cages is 31*5
feet per second; the maximum velocity probably 45
feet per second.
To get the 64 tons of matter up to this speed an
amount of power is
absorbed equal to 4,530,176 foot lbs., and this
is represented graphi-
cally by the line DD.
In other words, were the cages unloaded, five
revolutions of the
engine under full steam would be required to get
up the speed of the
machinery. This power is finally re-absorbed by
the counter-pressure
work, or by the break, and the capacity of the
engine to produce useful
work is thus diminished by both these amounts.
This is clearly shown by both 1 and 2 diagrams,
in which the steam
power exerted is three times greater than the
useful work done in the
early part of the run.
The first step, therefore, is to cut down the
weights. Massive cast-
iron spokes and drum rings must give way to
wrought-iron spokes and
wrought-iron grooves.
There is no reason why a well-designed drum
should not be built
on this principle of thirty feet in diameter, at
from 15 to 20 tons. The
other modification required is in the form of the
load line. This ought
to take the direction shown by the line MM, the
object being to so
lighten the load at the commencement of the run
that the power of the
engine is expended for the most part in getting
up the momentum of
the machinery; whilst, at the termination of the
run, this momentum
comes into action in assisting the engine in
completing the journey.
For two or three reasons, which it is not
necessary here to detail,
it is maintained that, for the depth of 400
yards, fourteen full revolu-
tions of the engine are too few for the
development of the best results;
increasing the number of revolutions to twenty,
and estimating for the
following working loads —
Cage and tubs ............ 50 cwts.
Coal.................. 50 „
Rope.................. 30 „
it will be found that a drum varying in the
proportion of 7'5 will give
the straight load line shown in Diagram 3, Plate
XXIV. This would
be a drum varying from 15*91 to 22'28 feet in
diameter.
To estimate the momentum of the machinery the
following weights
are assigned to the moving parts ;—
VOL. XXI,—1872.
88 ON THE SCROLL DRUM.
Drum ............... 15 tons.
Ropes and cages ............ 8 „
Pulleys ............... 7 „
Coal and tubs ............ 5 ,,
35 „
The time occupied in the shaft journey at Kiveton
is 45 seconds.
With a lighter drum and modified pitch there is
no reason why the time
should not be reduced to 40 seconds.
Assuming that five revolutions of the engine are
accelerating and
five diminishing in speed, the maximum speed of
running would be
qa^ = 40 feet per second.
To ascertain the power absorbed in getting 35
tons up to this
velocity the following formula is available :—
v2
P = - M:
2g
where P = work done in foot lbs.
„ M = weight of machinery in lbs.
v2
„ — = h height a body would fall freely in
space to acquire
given velocity. Substituting figures we have
P = ^ x 78,400 = 25 x 78,400 = 1,960,000.
The question, therefore, for consideration is how
to expend this 1,960,000
foot lbs. of potential energy usefully upon the
shaft load.
The simplest method of attaining this end is so
to modify the rise
of the drum, that the ascending cage shall
increase, and the descending
cage diminish, its velocity to an amount
sufficient to absorb this power,
or a considerable portion of it. To preserve a
proper proportion, this
increase and decrease of rise should be uniform
at both extremes of the
drum, and it may thus be ascertained.
The weights affected by an alteration of diameter
are the cages, coal,
and tubs, and so much of each rope as is in the
shaft. This amounts
to 180 cwts., or 20,160 lbs. It is immaterial for
purposes of calculation
whether a greater amount of travel is given to
the ascending load, a
less amount to the descending load, or whether it
is distributed between
them, the action on the matter in motion being
the same in any case.
If, therefore, we divide the potential energy of
1,960,000 foot lbs. located
in the matter in motion by 20,160 lbs., the
ascending and descending
ON THE SCROLL DRUM. 89
i . _ 1,960,000 < \
weights, we obtain a resultant ^0 = 97 =
number of feet the
ravel of ascending cage must be increased and of
descending cage
iiminished, to use up or absorb this energy. If
this be effected in the
97
five initial and terminal revolutions, we have —
= 19*40 feet per
1^ 40 n r -
revolution = g.j^g = 0 *eet increase, or decrease
m diameter of drum.
There are, however, one or two practical
considerations to be had in
view in the introduction of this modification.
Thus, the difference in
diameter must at no point be so great, that the
engine cannot be moved
from a state of rest.
In the Kiveton engines, the steam power is at any
point treble the
statical load. Taking it in the assumed case at
twice the statical load,
we have the following :—
With drum of uniform statical load, the net load
on engine in every
position of cages is,
| Loaded cage j Cage, tubs, j ^ 15*91
Poun£s-
( at bottom, { coal, rope, j X
2 X ~~" 8
{ B™tTopase {Cage and tubS;} 50 x ^ir x 112 =
62>384'
53,440*8
It is required to ascertain the terminal
diameters which will double
this load or increase it to 53,440*8 x 2 =
106,881*6 The increase
and decrease of diameter being the same, it is
necessary only to find the
value of this:—
Let x = the value required.
a ws larger diameter of scroll of equal loading.
b = smaller diameter of scroll of equal loading.
Then, when the loaded cages are at pit top, which
will be the most
nnfavourable statical loading on engine,
5600 (a + x) - 4480 (b - x) = 106,881-6,
, 53,394 koo.
and x = -i a aqA = 5"29 feet
10,UoU
Thus, the drum would vary from 22*28 + 5*29 =
27*57 feet to 15*91
- 5*29 = 10*62 feet in diameter.
This range in diameter is rather less than would
be adequate to
90 °^ THE SCROLL DRUM.
expend usefully all the power absorbed in the
mass of the machinery,
but it would do so to a very great extent.
It is probable that in practice, instead of
giving a variable slope to
the drum, one uniform rise would be better.
It would unquestionably admit of simpler
construction.
There is no reason why, with a drum of this
design, a pair of 30
inch cylinders, working at the same boiler
pressure and with the same
depth of shaft, should not raise a greater weight
of coal, than the 36 inch
cylinders are now raising at Kiveton, and that
with less wear and tear
and very much less steam consumption. This, of
course, means a cheaper
engine in first-cost, and a cheaper engine in
working cost, and that to
a degree by no means inappreciable.
The Chairman remarked, that it was not usual to
say much on the
day on which a paper was read ; but he believed
it would be quite clear to
them, that it was a very excellent paper, and
that it treated on a subject
of very great importance. Of course, the question
of first cost formed an
item of great consideration, and these immense
and complex drums cost
a large sum of money; so it became a question
whether the result
could not be obtained more advantageously by
putting this money into
the engine. The object of the scroll drum, as
they all knew, was to
regulate the power created, so that it should
agree as nearly as possible
with the work done; and those who observed a
brakesman at his duties
would see that he did to a great extent, by hand
labour, that which the
scroll drum is introduced to, effect. He did not
mean to say that the
engineman could do it so effectually; but still,
he thought, he might in
a great measure meet the necessities of the
circumstances, and these
should be taken into consideration as well as the
mere dynamical and
statical effects. If any gentleman wished to make
any further observa-
tions, he was sure the meeting would be glad to
hear them. He asked
them to give a cordial vote of thanks to the
reader of this paper.
A vote of thanks was carried unanimously.
DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S PAPERS. 91
DISCUSSION ON MR. BAINBRIDGE'S PAPER ON THE DIF-
FERENCE BETWEEN THE STATICAL AND DYNAMICAL
PRESSURE OF COLUMNS OF WATER IN LIFTING SETS;
AND MR. HALL'S PAPER ON THE SETTLINGSTONES
PUMPING ENGINE.
Mr. Boyd then took the chair, and said, the next
business was the dis-
cussion on Mr. Bainbridge's paper, "On the
Difference between the Statical
and Dynamical Pressure of Columns of Water in
Lifting Sets;" and as
Mr. Hall's paper, which was the next paper to it,
seemed to embrace very
many points of the same character, he thought
they might be discussed
together. He would call their attention to the
very great augmentation
of pressure which takes place in certain portions
of the stroke of pumping
engines, and he would be glad if any gentleman
there would give them a
satisfactory reason for it; for every one who had
had much to do with
pumping engines knew that it was a very great
source of expense. He
happened to have a high-pressure engine at a very
considerable pre sure
of steam, used for nearly 20 years, and his
difficulties were not in the
bursting of the bucket doors, nor in the bursting
of the pumps, which
seemed to have been old enough to have got
accustomed to the pressure
of a sudden shock of a high-pressure engine in
its revolutions; he had
not these difficulties, but he had others derived
from the same cause, viz.,
the breaking of the spears connected with the
bucket, and was often at
very great labour and very great expense to get
these repaired; he
had no doubt now, since he had seen Mr.
Bainbridge's very elegant form
of indications, that he might have avoided many
of the frequent accidents
which took place on those occasions. With regard
to the use of the fly-
wheel, he thought it could only be applied with
advantage to short depths,
such as 35 or 40 fathoms; but when it came to
very large sets and greater
depths, as in the case of an engine he might
mention to them at Lambton
Colliery, the same results were not obtained.
Mr. R. B. Sanderson had not the paper before him;
but he thought
ne could lead them to some information in
connection with another
branch of engineering, which would throw some
light upon the subject
°f this paper. They were aware that, as the
Chairman of the Newcastle
and Gateshead Water Company, he had some
experience in pumping,
aad with the inconvenience caused by fractures;
and they did not esti-
mate fractures merely by the mischief that was
done, but by the results
92 discussion on bainbridge's and hall's
papers.
which they caused upon the supply of water to a
very large community.
He might mention at once that pretty nearly the
same state of things, as
that described in the papers, arose in connection
with the very large double
engine they had at Newburn. The length of
stroke was, he thought,
10 feet; the plungers, two in number, one on each
side of the engine,
were 34 inches in diameter; the lift was equal to
about 270 feet, and
the length of the main, through which the engine
had to pump, was
about four miles. Upon these four miles there
were, as they knew, a
number of lead joints, and the effect of the
blows upon the water was
not only to break the pipes, but to cause leakage
from those joints. When
that engine was first started, it was not in a
very perfect state. It was
started with air vessels, 5 feet diameter and 18
feet high, 15 feet being
filled with air; but the means of charging these
with air not being
perfect, the consequence was, that the engine had
to act without them.
This was in 1867, and he was speaking from
memory; but he thought
that pretty nearly the same effect was observed
which had been described
by Mr. Bainbridge; for by means of pressure
gauges, which they had upon
the mains for the purpose, they found that the
oscillations were very
numerous, and represented as much as 100 feet of
water pressure, above
and below the pressure due to the column in the
mains, pretty much
in the same way as was indicated in that paper;
and, until the air vessel
was put right, they broke the 24-inch mains in
two or three different
instances; but as soon as the air vessel was
perfected, the diminution of
oscillation was from 100 feet on each side of the
main pressure, making a
total of 200 feet, to a total of about 30 feet,
when one side of the engine
was working, and 20 feet when both sides were
going; the diminution
of oscillation in the latter case being caused by
the engines being coupled
so that their strokes crossed each other. The
air vessel was, therefore,
the remedy for that oscillation, and he would be
very glad to give
the Institute a short paper on the matter;
because he thought it might
be the means, perhaps, of devising a remedy
suited to the bottom of a
pit. He was quite aware that it would be
exceedingly difficult to put
an air vessel of the size he was speaking of in a
pit, but it did appear
to him that by altering its general proportions,
so as to obtain the same
amount of cubic contents, they would be able to
find it a practical remedy
for the inconvenience described. He might mention
that the effect of the
air vessel is simply this: when the plunger ram
comes down, of course it
sets the whole column of water into motion, and
accordingly, when the
ram stops, the water continues still to pass
forward for a short interval
of time till it comes back again upon the upper
valve, which shuts
Idiscussion on bainbridge's and hall's papers. 93
with considerable force. One-half of the force
communicated by the
down stroke of the plunger drives the water into
the pipes, and the
other half forces it into the air vessel, and
when the stroke is over,
the water in the air vessel is ejected by the
compressed air, and
keeps up the motion of the water in the mains,
when the ram is
rising to make its second stroke, and in that way
the current of water
is nearly, not entirely, continuous, but is so
far continuous that the only
difference observable in the pressure, when the
air vessel was used,
was 20 feet. They had gauges near their air
vessel which show
exactly the height of the water in them, and they
could see by that
means, that just about a quantity of water equal
to half the contents of
the ram passes into the air vessel, and is given
off again by the
pressure of the air, when the engine was rising
again to give its stroke;
thus it produced a continuous stream. Now, he
thought it would
be possible in many shafts to put up a long main,
so as to form
an air vessel sufficient to take off a very great
part, not, perhaps, the
whole shock from the pumps, and thus prevent
fracture. He was aware
of the practical difficulty; but if the principle
was before gentlemen
conversant with the matter, it was possible they
could devise something
which would act as an air vessel in preventing
fracture of the machinery,
and the loss and damage in consequence. If it
had not been for the
air vessel, and another improvement which he
would speak of, the Cornish
engine which was so large a success in London and
in all water works,
would have been practically useless. They could
not have stood the
constant fracture of the mains and stoppage of
the supply from such
blows as the engine he was speaking of gave,
until the air vessel was
attached to it. There was another matter in
connection with these large
engines which he thought in colliery work had not
been sufficiently at-
tended to: that was the form of the clacks,
particularly of the suction
clacks. Some of the suction clacks in their
engines were double beat
valves, and on the engines at Newburn they had
what were called quad-
ruple valves. They rise a little way, and the
rise is so small as to
prevent that tremendous blow which the common
valve gives when it
shuts down, and which had been so often a cause
of fracture in pumps.
He would be very glad—as he thought it was an
interesting subject—
if they would allow him to give a short paper on
it, and to describe
some of those appliances he had been speaking of.
He would also
state, that unless they took means to keep the
air vessels charged, they
lost about half an inch of air from the air
vessel upon every stroke. In
connection with their engines at Newburn, and all
the engines where they
94 discussion on bainbridge's and hall's
papers.
had air vessels, they had a peculiar form of air
charging- arrangement. He
was rather fond of reading on these subjects, and
he got hold of a very
beautiful French work—a shilling work only in
price—but an admirably
got up one, belonging to the Library of Wonders
(Bibliotheque des Mer-
veilles); it gave a diagram of a mode of air
charging adapted in the air
vessels on the Seine for the supply of some part
of the water of Paris,
and this mode they adapted to their air vessels,
and it worked so as
exactly to balance the loss of air by each
stroke. If it was not so
replenished, the air vessel would become entirely
empty, and practically
it would be no air vessel at all. There were
other ways of charging air
vessels besides that, which he would describe in
the paper; but it was as
ingenious as it was simple, and besides that it
had some other advan-
tages over the common mode. They might charge
them with a sniff-
cock at a certain part of the pump; but that
admitted air not only into
the air vessel but also into the body of the
water, which did not prac-
tically matter in some works, but in water works
it was very mischievous.
It accumulated in the bends of the pipes, and
there stopped the supply
of water, and, in addition to that, was a
frequent cause of fracture. They,
therefore, did not like air introduced into the
body of the water if they
could help it. The small apparatus he alluded to
admitted the air into
the air vessel without passing it into the body
of the water.
The President was sure the Institute would be
very much obliged
to Mr. Sanderson if he would add a description of
this little apparatus
to his paper.
Mr. Southern would suggest that Mr. Sanderson
should take into
consideration the size of the pump he had to deal
with, and whether he
would not do harm by introducing a system of the
kind he mentioned
in pumps of the ordinary pit size.
Mr. Sanderson—They had rams and valves of
different sizes on
their different engines, and they had invariably
air vessels upon them,
and he did not think they would find the size
made any difference, pro-
vided the air vessel was adapted to it.
Mr. Bainbridge thanked the President for his
remarks on his
paper, but was afraid he might have given a
somewhat wrong impression
to members who had not lead it. He had not
confined his paper to the
simple experiments, but had endeavoured to show
the cause of the
shocks, and how such shocks could be prevented.
The cause was simply
that their engine was badly balanced. Their
stroke was made much faster,
and with much greater velocity than with the
Cornish engine under
favourable circumstances. In an engine well
balanced, and where the
discussion on bainbridge's and hall's papers. 95
speed could be reduced to a minimum at the
beginning and end of the
stroke, the shock would be very little felt. With
double acting force
pumps working at high speed, experiments had been
made which showed
hut small difference between the statical and
dynamical pressure of the
column. In their own case, unless they went to a
very great expense
in altering the arrangement of the pumps, they
could hardly change
their present condition; and he had, therefore,
been satisfied to make
his pumps twice as strong as before. He ventured
to say, that the
character of the paper he had brought before
them, was such as to show
the great importance, where an engine was badly
balanced, of having
the parts exposed to pressure, very strong. An
air vessel, he believed,
would act admirably in situations where the area
of the orifice from it
to the main pump was as large as the area of the
pumps themselves;
this, however, could hardly be effected in the
case in question.
Mr. Clark stated, that the President was right in
stating that the
application of the rotary motion by the addition
of a fly-wheel to the large
pumping engine at Lambton, was not so efficacious
as it had been in
Mr. Crawford's first application of it at Elvet,
Lumley, and other places.
Mr. Waller objected to the statement put forth in
the proceed-
ings as to water following a plunger, which had a
velocity of only
about 70 feet per minute, and meeting it with
little, if any, elastic
medium, at the rate of between 5 or 6 feet per
second, as being contrary
to fact. All pumps come to rest gradually; there
is no sudden stoppage,
as the action of the engine is first to check,
and then to arrest, the
motion.
If the title Statical and Dynamic Pressure really
represented the
subject under consideration, it might be argued
that while a sta-
tionary column of water can be readily calculated
as to its statical or
dead weight, its dynamic force is entirely
dependent upon its speed;
thus the pressure on the rope of a winding engine
varies with the speed
-—the insistent weight of a railway train upon
the rail is much altered
by the velocity—and so the pressure upon the
inside of a pipe must be
affected by the motion and speed of the water
within it.
The paper which the writer contributed to the
proceedings of this
Institute upon Pumping Engines was chiefly
directed to their relative
cost, and the consideration of the best kind of
engine for the purpose,
and may be supplemented, if this discussion is
adjourned, by some
illustrations taken from the engines there
considered. The weight of
the column of water being known and the velocity
determined, it is easy
to ascertain the power required to put it in
motion—a power which will
VOL. xxi.-1872, j^-
96 DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S
PAPERS.
be in excess of tbe statical force by a quantity
sufficient to overcome the
friction and give the velocity, and this force
may be called the dynamic
pressure.
The force which broke the bucket door piece has
been shown
to be greatest when the engine and pump are at
rest at the end of the
stroke, and is in reality to be estimated by the
lift of the clack, the
leakage of the clack and bucket, the play of the
rods, and other internal
causes, too often thought too trivial for
consideration, but which together
resolve themselves into a power of considerable
amount, and suggest the
question, What force would be given out by the
blow of a weight of so
many tons falling 9 to 12 inches ? This is the
real question raised by
the fracture of the bucket door-piece, and it may
be easily proved to be
so by the sudden closing of an ordinary domestic
service-pine tap, which,
when opened, will, for the instant, scarcely run,
but then coming with
great velocity, gives a violent thud when
suddenly stopped by the closing
of the tap. This unknown power, which is to be
heard, if not seen, and
the force of which may be estimated by sound,
acting more directly
and locally upon the flat surface of the doors
and door-pieces, is the same
in the service-pipe as in the pumps, and in all
questions like that under
discussion should be distinguished as the
percussive force from static
and dynamic pressure, and the centre of this
force will be found near
the bucket door.
The condition of water being lifted by a bucket
is different from
that which is being forced by a plunger. In the
Cornish engine there
is always an air cushion under the ram; careful
watching shows this
to be about 6 to 8 inches of the stroke, and
experiment has proved that
with a 9-feet stroke the average length was only
about 8 feet 4 inches.
This is the only point upon which the crank
system of pumping can
claim any advantage over the other—inasmuch as it
gives a more regular
length of stroke.
There is one other point opened up in the
discussion, the constant
flow of water through pumps attributed to the vis
viva of the rising
column of water. All the experiments that have
been made with pumps
have proved that the actual delivery of a pump is
less than the theoretical
capacity. There are globules of air which are
intimately mixed in the water
and form a compressible body, but which escape
upon delivery. To account
for the constant discharge of water from a pump
it is only necessary to
imagine the clack to be tight, the bucket
descending, and so many feet
of 9 inch square pump rod introduced into the
water displacing its own
bulk and forming the vis viva which has deceived
Mr. Steavenson. The
DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S PAPERS. 97
following description of a pump, in which both a
bucket and a plunger
work in the same barrel with but one set of
valves, will serve to explain
his (Mr. Waller's) meaning. Through the
stuffing-box, in the cover of a
12| inches working barrel, passes a plunger of
about 9 inches diameter,
and this plunger terminates in a bucket of the
full diameter of the pump,
in such a way that the plunger offers no
obstruction to the action of the
bucket valves. On the upward stroke the pump will
draw about 16*2
gallons per yard through the suction valve, and
will send about 8*1 gal-
lons per yard, or half of this quantity, through
the delivery valve. In the
down-stroke the ram passing into the full barrel,
the water in which is
prevented escaping by the suction valve,
displaces the other 8*1 gallons
per yard, and forces them through the delivery
valve, thus keeping up
a constant stream of water. One of such pumps was
erected at
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and another at Selby, besides
some in other places.
The lift of the clack is a consideration of the
first importance, as also the
speed of the pump. It has been found that the
best delivery has been
obtained at about 84 feet per minute, regular
speed. The tremulous
lines in the diagrams illustrating the various
pressures of the bucket lift
prove too great a speed; those in the plunger
lift may be due only to
the air present in the water, as in corresponding
cases an indicator
diagram would show water in the steam. Mr.
Sanderson has referred
to blows on the mains and consequent fractures of
the pipes, until a
proper means of keeping the air vessels charged
was adopted. It may
be interesting to remark, that in the engines of
the Liverpool Water-
works, referred to in the writer's paper in
August, 1867, all the engines
had either air vessels or stand pipes, and upon
examining the pressures
in the mains by means of a, pressure-gauge, there
was in all cases a
vibration or pulsation, and he believed that the
same would be found in
all pumps, more or less, according to the size of
the pipe and speed of
the engine. This is shown in a report made to the
Corporation of Liver-
pool in April, 1849, and will be interesting as
an addition to the paper
promised by Mr. Sanderson, and which he (Mr.
Waller), upon the request
of Mr. Steavenson, promised to include in his
paper.
Mr. Bainbhidge suggested that this report would
form a valuable
addition to the discussion.
The President said, they were very much obliged
to Mr. Waller;
the report would come in very well with Mr.
Sanderson's remarks upon
the air-vessel. As they had the presence of Prof.
Herschel, perhaps
the professor might feel inclined to make some
remarks.
Prof. Herschel said, with regard to what Mr.
Bainbridge remarked
98 DISCUSSIOSj on bainbridge's and hall's
papers.
in his paper, and also what the next speaker
said, his attention was
drawn to the explanation given in the paper as to
the probable cause of
the great rise of pressure upon the termination
of the stroke, which was
suggested to arise from the momentum existing in
the column throwing
the water up from the bucket, and allowing it
again to fall with a blow.
Now, if attention had to be directed towards this
as a dynamical problem,
it certainly did appear that the water would
rise; without reckoning
friction in passing, it would rise some 3 or 4
inches in the case of such a
column as that described in the paper, and with a
velocity of about 5 feet
per second. He found the resistances of friction
were almost insignificant
in the case. But this question arose, does the
bucket come to a stop in
the sudden manner supposed—was this taken for
granted, or did it really
do so ? Because, without it did so, they would
not have the rise of 3 or
4 inches from the bucket, but a considerably
reduced rise; and it was
in fact the suddenness of the stoppage of the
bucket, which was a very
large element in the question, and which would
determine whether the
water rose or not. If it did not take place at
all, he did not see how any
blow could be occasioned by that rise. If,
however, it did take place,
they then had the water suddenly brought to rest
from a fall, of say about
an inch or upwards; it would undoubtedly produce
a shock, but he
did not see how that shock could be estimated.
The elasticity of water,
although difficult to investigate, was known, and
the elasticity of cast
iron was also well known, but without the
elasticity of the joints and
seams, they would have difficulty in estimating
the actual pressure found
on a square inch, which would be the effect of
that shock. He had had
pointed out to him a fact, which he had not been
aware of, that in the
up-stroke of all pumps with plungers, and lifting
pumps with buckets,
it was customary to observe, that the water did
not follow in close contact
with the bucket or plunger; this must be the case
when the plunger
or bucket rises, as is the case with beam engines
with a pretty nearly
uniform speed, beginning and ending with nearly
the same speed.
The water did not begin to flow fast. They knew
that under the pres-
sure of the atmosphere, which urges the water to
fill the vacuum behind
the plunger or bucket, it should enter with a
speed due to the fall of about
34 feet; but it would take a little time to
attain that speed, especially
if obstruction in the valves occurs. Therefore,
although it would over-
take it at last, it might happen that during the
9 feet stroke the water
did not reach up to the plunger or bucket. The
bucket went to the top
with, say, a speed of 5 feet per second; the
water came after it, and by
the time the water had got to the top, it had
attained nearly the speed
DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S PAPERS. 99
due to falling about 25 feet, that is, a speed
approaching about 40 feet
per second. But the friction has been resisting
it and the speed has been
reduced, perhaps, to 20 feet or less; still the
fact remains that it has not
kept up to the bucket, and is making up for lost
speed at the end of the
stroke; the water would then strike the bucket at
the speed of nearly 20
feet per second. Might not the effect of this
blow be felt as a shock in
the water above the bucket and the valves, and
produce a similar
shock to that observed at the end of the stroke,
and attributed to some
unknown cause ? He would like to consider this as
the reason of the shock,
from the fact that he did not observe in the
diagrams of Mr. Bainbridge
a diminution of pressure, previous to and
corresponding with the rapid in-
crease, which takes place when the plunger had
made its up-stroke and had
come to an end. When the bucket had lifted the
water up, they did not
find in the upward movement of the water that
there was that almost total
relief from pressure, which would take place if
the column rose from the
bucket by its own impulse. Referring to the well
known combination of
the plunger with the lifting bucket described by
Mr. Waller, it was intro-
duced into the Richmond and Bristol water-works
by Mr. David Thomson,
and lately in the Lambeth water-works, and by its
action, both in the
down and up-stroke, it throws the water out. It
had occurred to him
that the continuous rise of water, after the
up-stroke of a bucket had
been completed, which had been alluded to,
probably did not depend
upon any dynamic force remaining in the water at
the end of the stroke ;
hut might, perhaps, be explained by the fact
mentioned by the last
speaker, that the pump spears followed the bucket
down and continued
forcing the water out, a principle which was, in
the plunger-bucket
pump, turned to practical advantage; but it did
not secure the effect of a
continuous stream, and therefore, did not relieve
the shock. The air
vessel evidently supplied them with the real
remedy for this.
Mr. Bainbridge said, he congratulated the members
on having
the assistance of so eminent a gentleman as
Professor Herschel in the
discussion before them. Might he ask the
Professor, if he had calculated
that it was possible, that the water, having a
velocity of 5 feet per second,
could rise a distance of 4 inches from the bucket
?
Professor Herschel said, at the speed of 5 feet
per second, suddenly
arrested, the water column would continue to rise
three inches and a
half before it came to rest; and if no water
followed it through the
bucket to support it, it would fall back from
that height upon the bucket
valves, and strike them with the same speed of 5
feet per second with
which it began to rise. The whole time taken by
the column of water
100 DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S
PAPERS.
to rise and fall would be about three-tenths of a
second; and the effect
of friction, in a smooth iron pipe of the size
and length described, even
at the greatest speed of 5 feet per second which
the water can possibly
have during its upward and downward motion, would
only add as much
resistance as about 2 feet head of water on the
top of the water column,
340 feet high, would produce; the effect which
that resistance would
have in diminishing the time and height of the
rise and fall of the
column may be quite safely overlooked.
Mr. Bainbridge thought it impossible, when the
bucket went up at
the rate of 5 feet per second, for the water to
leave the bucket; the
water being in motion at that velocity, and
suddenly stopped, probably
caused the shock. Mr. Herschel stated that he was
not quite sure
whether the bucket at the top of the stroke
really came to a sudden stop.
He might say, they were unfortunately placed
under such conditions
that he could not help seeing exactly what
happened. They had two
pumps with 100 yards lift upon one level, and one
of them was not at
work. He had the bucket door taken off, and had a
man to watch the
exposed bucket while he himself took the
indications, so that they saw
exactly the action of the bucket, which stopped
suddenly, and stood very
often at least two seconds at the top of the
stroke. He was obliged to
take these diagrams, not by an indicator, but by
sitting near the gauge
and sketching them, and, as slight alterations
might occur, he took care
to let at least 100 strokes go before finishing
the diagram.
Mr. Steavenson said Mr. Waller was mistaken in
observing that
when a large body of water was in motion there
was no vis viva. As
a fact, they knew that was not so, and he thought
the Professor
quite appreciated the view he took. He suggested
that Mr. Waller
should have some means of immediately checking
the flow of water as
soon as the bucket rises to the top of the
stroke, and he would guarantee
he would burst any pipe he could put there. He
did not speak of a
ram plunger, where it was impossible for the
water to pass, but he spoke
of a bucket with valves; in such a case he had
observed frequently
that when the bucket arrived at the end of the
last stroke, the water
continued to flow through the clack, the bucket,
and the valves above.
Mr. Waller contended that it had never been
proved that a pump
could deliver its full quantity under pressure.
What was gained at the
end of the stroke was lost at the beginning. To
assume that a pump
would deliver more than its cubic contents, the
supposition of which
Mr. Steavenson's remarks would seem to warrant,
was a fallacy which
had been exploded by actual experiment. Even in
a Cornish engine
DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S PAPERS. 101
they did not get the full quantity due to the
length of the stroke; and,
in addition, they had a heavy per centage of loss
in working from
air and other causes.
j\£r. Steavenson said, Mr. Waller did not admit
of machinery
being imperfect, and was not making allowance for
the water leaking
past the clacks, and the pump not delivering what
it ought to do. But,
he (Mr. S.) said, take a pump in perfect order,
mathematically perfect,
then the bucket should deliver the exact amount
due to the area of
the working barrel and the length of the stroke,
and not only that,
hut when this large body of water was in motion
it would continue to
flow on. If they took into consideration the
actual work done by an
ordinary pump, Mr. Waller was right. If they
referred to the pro-
ceedings of the Institute, they would find he had
shown that in the
practice even of good pumps they did not get what
they ought to do;
but in pumps mathematically perfect, when a
certain amount of water
was in motion, more was delivered than was due to
the capacity of the
working barrel.
Mr. Waller said, the argument which assumed that
the water con-
tinued to flow through its elasticity after
compression in the barrel must
be fallacious, since, if the water expanded in
the one case, they must
assume that it was compressed in the other. The
theoretical contents
of the pump could not be obtained in any way, any
more than the
perfect vacuum, which must be also assumed before
a mathematically
perfect pump could be obtained.
Mr. Steavenson was willing to submit the question
to Professor
Herschel, who was well qualified to judge of its
accuracy.
Professor Herschel—The amount of motion remaining
in the water
after the pump bucket comes to rest, would depend
only on the manner
in which the bucket ends its stroke. In
illustration of a case in which
the water would continue to rise after the bucket
was brought to rest, he
would lay a penny in his hand, raise it, and with
his fingers strike the
edge of the table; the momentum would cause the
penny to rise after
the hand had been brought to rest. Thus, when the
hand strikes the
table with a speed of 5 feet a second, the penny
will rise four or five
inches. Now, if instead of being brought to rest
suddenly, the hand
were gradually stopped in the course of that four
or five inches, the penny
would not leave the hand. So that it is a
question of the manner in
which the bucket was brought to rest in the last
four or five inches of
stroke. He questioned if the case had been
examined so closely as to
allow them to say in what manner the bucket came
to rest in the last
102 DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S
PAPERS.
four or five inches of its stroke. If it keeps up
to its full speed until
within the last four or five inches of the end,
and then moderates its
speed during that to the end, the water could not
leave the bucket at all,
and would constantly follow the speed of the
bucket to the last. When
the bucket stopped, the water would stop also;
there would then be
no motion remaining in the water at the top. It
was, therefore, he
thought, a question to be decided by some nice
means of examining
and observing the last few inches of the stroke
of the pump; and
although it was really but a small rise which the
water would have
with a speed of five feet after a bucket was
brought suddenly to
rest, yet, to determine exactly the amount of any
smaller rise than
this, in the short space of time available, the
observations would have to
be very carefully made. He was not, of course,
sufficiently acquainted
with the action of pumps to be able to pursue
this matter further. Those
around him would, therefore, know whether his
remarks were of any
value.
Mr. Southern thought Professor Herschel could not
have given a
better illustration than he had done with the
penny; because the
pump was prevented following up the rise in the
water the momentum
of the previous stroke had caused.
Professor Herschel—The remarkable fact is that
the water should
continue to flow while the bucket remains at
rest. It might be some
effect of the elasticity of the air in the pipes
recovering itself from that
violent shock, which had been given to it at the
end of the stroke. It
was difficult to explain how the water could
continue in motion for two
or three seconds of rest, when the period of that
small rise and fall,
after stopping the pump, could not possibly
exceed three-tenths of a
second, which was the probable limit of the time
of motion calculated
from the rise of five feet a second. After a dead
stop, from a motion of
five feet a second, they would have the motion of
the column upwards
for about a sixth of a second afterwards. It then
came to rest and
fell for the same fraction of a second; its
continued motion during
the whole period of rest could not be explained
by the impulse of the
water continuing to preserve it in motion during
that long time. On
the other hand, if a pump should draw but a small
quantity of air,
the gradual expansion of that air in rising
towards the outlet of the water
in the pipe, by displacing a certain quantity of
water, as it rose, might
perhaps afford a real explanation of the
occurrence of a constant flow of
water from the outlet during the whole of the
time that the engine was
at rest.
DISCUSSION ON BAINBRIDGE'S AND HALL'S PAPERS. 103
Mr. Southern said, it was a very common thing,
and could be seen
frequently over the country, that engines going
at the rate of seven
strokes per minute, would produce a constant flow
to the top of the
deliverer. In reply to the suggestion of a member
he added that he
did not think that, supposing the spears acted as
plungers when going
hack into the pumps, they would produce anything
like the quantity
that follows after the stroke is finished.
The Secretary thought they ought all to be very
much obliged to
Mr. Bainbridge for the very great pains he had
taken in the preparation
of this paper. These diagrams he considered to be
most exquisitely
done; and they really explained and carried out
his views in the most
excellent manner. He was sure that Mr. Hall and
himself were more
especially able to judge of the great care which
Mr. Bainbridge had
taken in producing these papers, because they
were down the Settling-
stones pit trying similar experiments, and he
assured them that watching
an indicator was, under the circumstances, a very
difficult operation.
With regard to noticing the rise and fall of the
bucket, they had a string
with a weight attached to it, so that they could
also observe that pretty
accurately. He did not think that the water ever
leaves the bucket, for
this simple reason, as Prof. Herschel said, that
if it did there would be
a vacuum formed, and that would be shown by the
indicator imme- ,
diately. He had the indicator on the suction, and
the very instant
the pressure was taken off, it was shown on the
gauge; and, again,
they would see that in the case of the plunger,
after it had delivered
its stroke and driven the water up the main, and
the water had been
at rest on the delivery valve, the plunger, as it
drew itself out of the
pump, still produced a shock, although the water
in the rising main
had been at rest during a considerable number of
seconds. Therefore,
he opined there must be a shock, due to the
incoming water; and he
thought that that possibly and probably was more
than that produced
by the motion of the column above the clack.
The discussion then terminated.
104 DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY
LONG-WALL.
DISCUSSION ON ME. LEWIS' PAPER "ON THE METHOD
OF WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL AT ANNESLEY
COLLIERY, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE."
The President then invited observation on the
paper upon the
working- of the long--wall by Mr. Lewis, because
Mr. Lewis had come a
considerable distance to be present, and it would
scarcely be fair to him
to ask him to come another clay. Mr. Lewis had
nicely elucidated the
subject, and the few remarks, which he himself
had to bring before
them, must have reference to two of the points
which were very promi-
nently brought forward, namely, as to whether the
coal should be worked
in angles, or by a square face. Mr. Lewis said,
distinctly, not by angles,
but by a square face, which was the best and
simplest mode. The next
point was with regard to ventilation. Mr. Lewis
said the principle of the
square face decidedly facilitated ventilation,
and he in the next place
clearly showed that no timber which might be
inserted into workings by
long-wall would answer the purpose of supporting
the roof by itself.
With regard to using timber chocks, instead of
metal props, which Mr.
Lewis said he employed, he would ask whether
these chocks would not
really meet the difficulty which Mr. Lewis said
always attached itself
to the face of a long-wall He would ask Mr. Lewis
only one question
more upon the whole case, and that was—what did
he consider the
shortest distance which the gateways should be
from each other in point
of econony, with respect to their being the means
by which the coal is
drawn from the face ? and if Mr. Lewis had ever
heard of a case,
where, at the termination of the day's work, a
moderate distance was
driven, say, five or six yards into the solid
face of the coal at each
gateway, of sufficient width to get a right angle
cutting, and so work
the face in the direction of one gateway to the
other ? They had cases
in each of these counties where such an operation
was carried on very
successfully. Perhaps Mr. Lewis would tell them
whether he would
admit that this might be advantageous, or would
abide by his original
principle, that the square face carried on was
the best.
Mr. Lewis said, that being a resident in one of
the Midland Counties,
where nearly all the collieries worked upon the
system of the long-wall,
or a modification of it, and a member of an
Institute located in the North
of England, he had been induced to write the
paper. Since writing it,
they had increased the length of their face till
now it was nearly a
DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL. 105
mile long-—not exactly in a straight line,
perhaps a little curved;
but at all events there was not a single cutting
in the whole length
of the face. They knew they could work their coal
properly-in that
manner; and he thought the proof was in the coal
they realized. In
the pit they realized 95 per cent, of large coal,
and it was reduced
to 80 per cent., because in the midland counties
they had a system
of making a number of sorts; and the 95 per cent,
was more than
any other system could produce, if tried at
Annesley. And with regard
to gates he still said that ripping was a very
serious item They would
see from Plate XXV. that ripping was only done in
the principal gates;
the others were cut off every hundred yards or so
by means of a cross-gate.
But supposing they continued the gates 200 yards
before cutting off,
the ripping would have to be done, and as this
would cost 3s. a yard,
each gate would cost something like £15 in
ripping, which was entirely
saved by the present system. A district generally
consists of eight
stalls, and putting in a new gate cost £1, so
that opening out quite a
new district cost eight times that amount. With
regard to the President's
observation about heading past the gate ends, as
they termed them, he
did not see any advantage to be derived from
that; the coals were holed
during the night, and in the morning the whole
length of face was
ready for getting off. They did not always go a
certain distance in their
holing, but sometimes 2, 3, or 4 feet, just as
far as the weight had gone
over the face of the stall. They found it did not
answer their purpose
to go past that.
Mr. Lewis, in answer to Mr. Crone, stated that
the rise of the seam
at Annesley is 1 in 60, and they work from the
dip to the rise, although
there are some dip workings as well; but the mile
of face alluded to is
on the rise.
Mr. Crone said, it would be very interesting if
Mr. Lewis would
give them the section showing the ripping- and
widths of the packs and
gateways.
Mr. Lewis said, that it was shown in Plate XXV.
which really repre-
sented the goaf as it was, and they would see
from that how impossible it
was for any gas to accumulate. As to the
cast-iron props sinking into the
roof, Plate No. XXVI. would illustrate this. They
would see the first
one as it was just set. The second prop had got a
little weight, and was
just entering into the "roof coal." The third
prop was nearly through
the roof coal; and, by the time it touched the
bind, they found the
weight had quietly settled on the packs beneath;
the props are taken
out as the face of the stall advances; the stones
for packing are obtained
from the fireclay overlying the coal.
106 DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY
LONG-WALL.
Mr. Southern—The main weight goes into the goaf?
Mr. Lewis—The old gates are entirely closed by
the refuse, and
there is no open space at all. The clunch on the
top of the coal, and
the small quantity of roof coal brought in,
entirely fills the goaf.
Mr. Bainbridge—The fact that Mr. Lewis can drive
his gateroads
more than 100 yards before making the cross way,
partly explains why
he is able to have a straight face for such a
distance as a mile. Mr. Lewis,
he thought, would admit that there were
conditions under which the
long-wall system was difficult to manage. He
thought these conditions
depended chiefly upon the character of the roof,
which overlaid the seam
for the first 20 or 30 yards. In his case there
were 400 yards, and
he (Mr. B.) had 200. He fancied that the adjacent
overlying strata
were very much heavier in the latter than in the
former case, yet in the
latter case they were able to get about 76 per
cent, of round; and if
they had no dirt band they would be able to get
more.
Mr. Lewis—Certainly, 20 per cent, more than that
is saved at
Annesley; and he did not think Mr. Bainbridge was
right in stating
that he had a heavier weight in the first 20 or
30 yards of the overlying
strata, than they had at Annesley. He said it was
simply the fault of
packing along the face, as it was the packs alone
that protected the
face; and where they came to make 20 per cent,
more of slack, it was
worth while trying a continuous face.
Mr. Bainbridge—The colliery in the case he
alluded to, was working
soft house coal; the coal at Annesley is hard
steam coal.
Mr. Lewis did not read his paper with the idea
that there was no
other method of working by long-wall, or that his
was the proper way,
but simply to give the way they worked at
Annesley, and the way they
found it to act.
The President asked if he was correct in
understanding that the
line of their face was never by the cleat ?
Mr. Lewis—Never by the cleat. When the colliery
was first opened
the workings were on the face, and by that method
at least 50 per cent,
of small coal was made, but by altering it and
keeping it, half-end and
face, 96 per cent, of large coal is realized.
The President asked the distance between the
metal props, the
face of the pack, and the face of the coal ?
Mr. Lewis—They never had more than 6 or 7 feet
from the first
metal prop to the face of the coal, and never
more than 6 or 7 feet from
the pack to the face of the coal. There are roofs
that will allow them
further, and there are some places where the
overlying clunch is 4 yards
in thickness, and the distance between the end of
the pack and the face
DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL. 107
of the coal has to be continually bared every
four feet—a bar of timber
running from the end of the pack to the face. If
the face of the stall
could be removed twice every day instead of once,
the advantage would
be greater, but they should be always moved every
day.
Mr. Bainbridge did not make his remarks in
disapproval of the
system at Annesley. He considered it the most
perfect and economical
way of working coal to have a straight face a
mile long when it
could be accomplished.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson said, it was an extremely
able and common sense
paper; but he took exception to the statement
that this long-wall was
the only system which ought to be worked, and
that all other systems
were erroneous. He presumed he might be allowed
to make an exception
in the case of a perfectly clean seam (as at a
colliery of which he had
charge), with a very strong upset roof and small
coals a desideratum
(they were in fact crushing the coal to make it
small). Mr. Lewis said
his pressure did not exceed 1,500 lbs. on the
square inch: how did he
arrive at that pressure ? Was it by calculating
the weight of the super-
incumbent strata ? Was it fair to take any such
means of arriving at
the pressure ? As to there being no gas, he could
quite understand that
there was comparatively very little room for it,
but still along the
edge of the goaf there were always a great many
cubic feet where the
gases might lodge. He had seen the working of the
long-wall in
Nottinghamshire and other places, and he always
saw room for the
gas to lodge. No doubt there could be no very
large quantity, but still
in that respect he did not think the long-wall a
success. Then, as to pillars
dividing the districts, he quite agreed with Mr.
Lewis, and thought them
so much waste; and he also thought him right as
to cutting off the
stalls by cross roads, but he would like to ask
whether he used powder,
and whether he had much trouble with accidents
from the coal falling
back upon the men while getting out the corf as
they called it.
Mr. Lewis certainly thought the long-wall adapted
to many seams
where it is not adopted at the present day. The
enormous amount of
heading and cutting that had to be done in
opening out a colliery by bord
and pillar, was entirely saved in long-wall. With
regard to the weight,
he took the superincumbent strata as exerting a
pressure of 1 pound for
every foot in depth, which at 1,500 feet would
give 1,500 pounds to
the square inch; and with regard to Mr.
Steavenson's observation,
that gas might run along the edge of the goaf in
long-wall working,
he could only say that at Annesley there was not
the slightest
room for gas to lodge along the face; and
considering that for each
300 yards of face, there were from 12 to 15
thousand cubic feet of
108 DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY
LONG-WALL.
air per minute, he thought every member would
agree with him that
it did not give it much chance to accumulate.
They sometimes had
accidents from holing, but seldom any fatal ones;
it would be seen that
much depended upon the supervision of the
deputies, as well as on the
care of the men themselves, as to whether they
were numerous or scarce.
The strata overlying the coal acted as a lever,
and as the coal stood above
three or four hours after it was holed, it simply
required the sprags
knocking out, and it was seldom they wanted
powder.
Mr. Cooper asked whether the 95 per cent, meant
the coal filled and
actually sent out of the pits ? He knew that in
working these long-wall
places they were not very particular in leaving
coal in the gob. Another
important question was the cost of getting the
coal on this method.
Mr. Lewis said, that in the Midland Counties they
paid so much per
foot per acre; and as the men were paid by the
ton, it was an easy matter,
after the half-yearly survey, to get the exact
quantity realized per acre.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson hoped Mr. Lewis did not
think he spoke in
antagonism to him. He thought it a very excellent
paper and a very
excellent system; but he happened to be down a
pit in the neighbour-
hood of Derby, a short time ago, where they
worked the long-wall, and
they used candles, and without thinking, he
raised his candle rather too
high, and was instantly told to keep it down, as
it was by no means safe
to raise it to such a height.
Mr. Lewis, in reply to Mr. Southern, stated that
they made half
coal and half slack when the line of face was in
the cleat; but by altering
it to half end and face, they made 96 per cent,
of large coal.
Mr. Southern could confirm that from his own
experience; because
at a large colliery that he had the management of
some time ago, they
found a very considerable difference by cutting
the cleat.
The President—Can the air be conducted along by
the face properly,
so as to keep it clear ?
Mr. Lewis—Of course there are very often
obstructions; but when
this is the case, the air can slip down one gate
and up the next.
The President—Are any means taken to keep the
goaves left
behind clear of gas ?
Mr. Lewis—There is no open space in the goaf at
all; the clunch,
and what small coal is made, completely fill it.
The President quite understood Mr. Lewis to mean
the pack was
complete. But did any gas accumulate in the
gateways after they were
abandoned ?
Mr. Lewis—No; as they are always filled by taking
in the dirt
made by ripping the principal gates.
DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL. 109
Mr. Crone said with' regard to the use of metal
props, very much
depended on the nature of the roof to be
supported; and Mr. Lewis' posi-
tion was very favourable for that purpose—the
props sunk into the soft
coal at the top, and were easily removed
afterwards; but, if sunk into a
hard stone, they became so firmly fixed as to be
almost immoveable.
It was in such cases that the chocks used in the
North of England were
found so useful.
Mr. Lewis said the metal props had been in use
something like four
years, and they never had a single prop broken.
The cost was much less
than others, and they never got fast in the pack.
They were set away a
short distance.
Mr. Crone thought, as to the long-wall system,
that very much
would depend upon the kind of seam they had to
work. If they had
to contend with a large amount of stone band, or
of inferior coal, all of
which had to be cast back, that of course formed
a packing which they
did not get out of a large and clean seam of
coal; and, he thought it
would be found in practice, that, where they had
a clean good seam of
sufficient height, it would work more easily, and
at less expense, by
the ordinary way of board and pillar than by the
long--wall. He
thought it resolved itself into this : that with
a thin seam, and a lot of
inferior material to contend with, the long-wall
system could be easily
adopted; but where the coal was clean, and
nothing available to form
the pack walls, with the exception of the stone
wrought down in the
gateroads, sufficient stone for the support of
the goaf would not be found,
and the consequence would be, that the stone to
make those packs in the
goaf would have to be sought, which would be a
very expensive pro-
cess indeed.
Mr. Lewis said that in the Midland Counties it
was a question of
large coal. Much of the coal in the North of
England would simply
sell for slack; so that the system there pursued
would not answer else-
where, but the long-wall system would answer in
many seams now
worked by other methods.
Mr. Crone said Mr. Lewis was mistaken in
supposing they did not
want large coals. What Mr. Steavenson had spoken
about was only
as to gas and coking coal; but in the steam coal
districts large coal
was a most important consideration, and they
would only be too glad
to adopt any system that would cause the yield of
large coal to be
^creased. No doubt Mr. Lewis was aware that small
seams were
coming into play, which required a considerable
amount of stone to be
removed for height to work, and that these seams,
and those containing
110 DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY
LONG-WALL.
bands, might have the long-wall applied to them;
he thought the
system would come into much more extensive use in
the north of England
than hitherto As yet they had always worked coals
in good seams,
and had not the necessity of having a goaf
immediately behind them to
pack in their refuse.
Mr. Lewis thought that any system by which
heading could be dis-
pensed with, whether large coal was in question
or not, must be more
economical than a system where the coal was
divided into pillars.
Mr. Crone said he had a long face on a thin seam;
but. unfortunately,
the rise of the seam was about 5 inches to the
yard, and he had found
very great difficulty, indeed, in working the
long-wall at that rise.
The President—Could it not be worked half and
half, and the
face kept edgeways in the open ?
Mr. Crone said it could not be done. The tubs
could not be
pushed up.
The President—But the gateways would be on the
same line as
the level. He had seen that in the north they had
two or three
instances of such seams, and they never attempted
to pursue them up
to the full rise; they simply put gateways in-bye
: here they have not
so many gateways as in the Midland Counties, only
one in 200 yards.
Mr. Crone stated that he worked some coal at one
in four by the
long-wall. In such cases they had a balance
weight or self-acting
incline. He found very great difficulty in
forming the gateways,
because, every gateway had to be an incline, and
that, of course,
required the gateway to be of considerable width,
and when the gate-
ways had to be enlarged—"ripped"—by taking down
the stone or
taking up the bottom, it must either come down
the incline to be sent
to bank, or dragged at a considerable expense to
the rise and packed
into the goaf. They could not gain the full
advantage from the goaf to
stow in or form the packing in a satisfactory
manner where the seam
had such a heavy rise. Every coal-seam had
peculiarities of its own,
which would have to be examined, in adopting the
system and direction
of working, whether on end, or parallel to the
line of cleat; and not
only the seam, but the overlying stone above, he
thought, would be
found safer, and the coal worked larger, when the
line of long-wall face
was at right angles to the " facings " of the
stone overlying the seam,
as the stone, in that case, was more likely to
stand firmer at the face
and droop gradually down behind, than if driven
parallel to the stone
facings, when it would be more likely to slip out
between the facings,
should any excessive pressure come upon it, or
throw unusual weight
DISCUSSION ON WORKING COAL BY LONG-WALL. Ill
upon the coal face, thus causing injury by
crushing the coal. Mr.
Lewis had worked coal rising one in three, and
found no difficulty, as all
places were taken parallel to the levels.
Mr. Burn said, he was in Nottinghamshire, a short
time ago, and
through the kindness of Mr. Lewis, was allowed to
go down the Annesley
Pit, and he certainly was much pleased with the
system carried out
there; he considered it the best long-wall pit he
had ever seen.
The President proposed a cordial vote of thanks
to Mr. Lewis, for
coming all the way from the centre of England to
read a paper for the
edification of the northern members. He, himself,
felt very much
obliged to Mr. Lewis, as the subject was one in
which he felt greatly
interested.
Mr. Lewis would be happy to show the system to
any member of
the Institute, and they would be able to judge of
the relative merits by
actual observation.
The President said they were very much indebted
to Mr. Lewis,
and he must not be surprised if they took
advantage of his offer.
The meeting then separated.
PROCEEDINGS. 113
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, APRIL 6, 1872, IN THE
LECTURE
ROOM OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
E. F. BOYD, Esq., President op the Institute, in
the Chair.
The Assistant Secretary read the minutes of the
last meeting
and of the Council meetings.
The President was glad to inform the meeting that
the gentlemen
of Glasgow, who entertained them so handsomely
last year, had accepted
their invitation to attend a joint meeting here
in July, and had given
notice for the preparation of papers to be read
on that occasion, and he
thought there was every prospect of the meeting
being a very interesting
one. No answer had yet been received from the
Lancashire and Cheshire
Coal Trade Association gentlemen.
The following gentlemen were elected:—
Members.
Mr. Thomas Whitelaw, Shields and Dalzell
Collieries, Motherwell.
Mr. Thomas Joseph, Ty Draw, near Pontypridd,
South Wales.
Mr. Fred. W. Shallis, Bulman Village,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. Thomas Johnston, Widdrin^ton Colliery,
Acklington.
Mr. Edward Joicey, Coal Ownci, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. John Patton, Westoe, South Shields.
Mr. John Hilton Ridley, Messrs. R. and W.
Hawthorn's, Newcastle.
Mr. William James Johnson, W.B. Lead Works,
Allendale.
Students.
Mr. J. J. Hedley, Medomsley, Burnopfield.
Mr. David Joseph, Ty Draw, near Pontypridd, South
Wales.
vol. xxi.—1878. q
PROCEEDINGS.
The following- gentlemen were nominated for
election at the May
meeting:—
Members.
Mr. George William Hick, Mechanical Engineer, 17,
Blenheim Terrace,
Leeds.
Mr. Charles G. Grey, Dilston, Northumberland.
Mr. Matthew robson, Coppa Colliery, near Mold,
Flintshire.
Mr. Llewelyn Llewelyn, Aberaman, Aberdare, South
Wales.
Mr. G. W. Wilkinson, Pensher Colliery, Fence
Houses.
Student.
Mr. J. J. Parland, Mining Engineer, Burnopfield.
Mr. Sanderson then read a paper " On the Use of
Air-Vessels in
Pumping Engines and the Means of Replenishing
them."
THE USE OF AIR-VESSELS IN PUMPING ENGINES. 115
ON THE USE OF AIR-VESSELS IN PUMPING ENGINES AND
THE MEANS OF REPLENISHING THEM.
By R. BURDON SANDERSON.
Before proceeding to the immediate subject of
this paper, that of Air-
vessels, the writer would wish to state forcibly
that there is no one point
that requires the constant attention of the
engineer having practically to
deal with water on a large scale and under heavy
pressure more than the
action of air within his apparatus. Of all
enemies that he has to contend
with it is one of the greatest. It is capable of
arresting the flow of
water under the heaviest pressure and in the
largest main, and of smash-
ing up the strongest available castings. At the
same time in its proper
place it is of the greatest use—literally a good
servant but a bad master.
If it is allowed to accumulate in a rising bend,
it soon forms an effective
valve, and gradually shuts off the flow however
large in the pipe, and if
in charging a long main under pressure, the
greatest pains are not
taken, in opening the sludges and the air-valves,
on the line, to keep
the air from accumulating in any spot between
either a dead end
or two columns of water, the fracture of the
main, at one, if not at two,
places at the same time may be almost guaranteed.
The writer has
known from this cause two breaks in a 24-inch
main at five miles
distant from each other at one moment, and is not
certain whether it
has not happened more than once. It is possible
that the air acts by
allowing the column of water the opportunity of
giving a ram blow of a
long stroke driven forward with all the force of
a cushion of air pre-
viously compressed behind it. What may be the
possible strength of this
blow it is almost impracticable to calculate. It
is, however, a subject
deserving of the closest attention, as it may
lead even to such a catas-
trophe as the fracture of an engine beam.
Tiie diagram in Plate XXVII. is, it is needless
to say, an imaginary
°ne, and represents the plunger of a pump P; on
one side a rising main,
KM:
on the other, and between them, an air-vessel,
AV, with the usual
clacks, &c, and suction pipe. The cross lines
on the plunger-case, air-
116 THE USE OF AIR-VESSELS IN PUMPING
ENGINES.
vessel, and rising-main represent equal cubical
contents, as do also the
half of these cross lines. It will be seen that
the air-vessel is made to
contain five times the whole and ten times the
half of the cubical con-
tents of the stroke of the plunger.
Imagine the engine set agoing, the water standing
at the. level
shown A B, with the exception of the plunger
case, which is charged
full up to the plunger itself; and, suppose the
air-vessel shut off;
the piston descends, and its first operation is
to overcome the vis
inertia in the water, trifling under light
pressure, but very large
when the rising main is fully charged. The water
rises by the descent
of the piston (the diameter of the plunger and
the rising main being
supposed equal) a space exactly equal to the
length of the plunger's
stroke (in the diagram supposed to be 9 feet).
The column would come
to a rest provided it possessed no vis viva and
the upper clack closed
instantly. Neither of these things happen. The
water possesses an
amount of vis viva not exhausted, remaining over
from that communi-
cated by the piston, in first setting the column
in motion from a stationary
state, and the clack, in its ordinary form,
stands open for some appre-
ciable time; consequently, the column of water
falls back a certain
space, with more or less force added to its
statical pressure, on to the
clack. But open the air-vessel, and a different
state of things takes
place. Suppose the head of water on the pumps, at
the level indi-
cated, equal to 50 fathoms, or 300 feet—equal
practically to nine atmos-
pheres ; to which, from the air-vessel and the
air in it being free at its upper
portion from atmospheric pressure, another
atmosphere must be added,
making ten atmospheres, by which the air at the
bottom of the air-vessel
is retained in its position, balancing the column
in the rising main. Let
the plunger be again at the top, and bring it
down upon the water in its
case to the bottom of its stroke, the water now
rises but half the length
of the stroke in the rising main, the other half
having passed into the
air-vessel.* The piston rises and the upper clack
shuts, but the column
of water in the rising main, though it may lose a
little pressure in the
closing of the clack, still continues its upward
motion with only slightly
decreased velocity, this being maintained by the
discharge again of the
half charge of water taken in by the air-vessel
in consequence of the
relief from the pressure which forced it in, the
air-vessel acting almost like
a second engine in alternation with the first. At
the end, therefore, of the
compound stroke (the up and down) of the piston,
and not at the end of
* That this is the case is shown in practice, by
a glass gauge tube, outside the
air-vessel, indicating the height of water
inside.
[THE USE OF AIR-VESSELS IN PUMPING ENGINES. 117
the down stroke, as in the first case, is the
water in the rising main found
to have made a progress equal to the length of
the plunger. Now con-
sider what is the effect on the pressure, and
what are the limits between
which this oscillates. Returning to the
diagram, and taking the lowest
pressure as equal to 300 feet (the air-vessel
standing charged at this, when
at the line A B), so soon as half the piston
stroke charge of water is forced
up into it, this half, being, as shown, equal to
a tenth of its contents, the
air in it, which occupied 10 spaces, now occupies
nine, and according to
the well-known law, the tension increases
inversely—that is to say,
in the proportion as 9 : 10 : : 300 to the new
pressure, namely, 333,
the difference 33 feet representing the limits
between the maximum
and minimum pressure on the rising main.
Suppose another state of
things : leave 300 feet still to represent the
pressure on the air in the
lower surface of the air-vessel; let this last be
only charged down
as far as the second line from the top; if it
were possible to force one-
half of the plunger stroke contents into it, the
air would be compressed
to the first line from the top, and the pressure
would become at the
bottom of the stroke precisely doubled, as will
be seen by looking at the
diagrams, and the head would be increased as 1 to
2, namely, from 300
to 600 feet. This, however, is quite
impossible, and the water would
relieve itself by simply rising in the
air-vessel, say half a division, repre-
senting one-quarter of the piston stroke
contents, and the remaining three-
quarters passing up the rising main, and so
approaching the state of
things where there is no air-vessel at all: the
variation would then repre-
sent a proportion of 3 to 4, or 300 to 400. The
writer, in these illustrations
has disregarded for simplicity's sake the
difference between the pressure
of the column of water at rest in the rising main
and the mean pressure
when in motion, which is of course greater.
From what has been stated
it is clear that the cubical contents of the
air-vessel must be made suffi-
ciently great, and that it must also be fully
charged. An air-vessel of
much less than a minimum of five times the
cubical contents of the
stroke of the plunger would not be large enough
to do much good; nor
would this do if not fully charged at a pressure
equal to the column of
the rising main. If for example the air-vessel
was standing filled with
air at its ordinary density, and the column of
the rising main at a head
of 300 feet was suddenly put on, the air inside
would be forced into one-
tenth of its previous space, and an air-cushion
would be formed of no
Practical utility, if not fraught with
considerable absolute danger. It
becomes necessary, therefore, to devise means to
charge and to keep
charged the air-vessel. For this, different
means are adopted, such as
118 THE USE OF AIR-VESSELS IN PUMPING
ENGINES.
the use of a special donkey air-pump, or a small
pump drawn by the
engine, or a sniff-cock under the plunger case.
None of these,
however, equal in simplicity, elegance, and
efficiency, the arrange-
ment now described, and of which diagrams
are given. Plate
XXVIII., Fig. No. 1, gives a section of the
apparatus. It consists of
a cylindrical case A, like a miniature
air-vessel, below which, and leading
from it to the portion of the pump-work below the
bottom of the plunger-
case D, Fig. 2, is a small pipe B. From the top
of it another small
pipe C leads into the upper portion of the
air-vessel. On the floor of
the small cylinder, and at the top of the pipe
leading from the bottom of
the plunger is a small valve D, opening upwards,
and below the small
cylinder on the right hand and opening out of the
lower pipe is a sniff-
cock E, opening upwards and inwards with a
set-screw into it so as to
adjust the lift of its valve or to close it
entirely as required. The action
of it is this—the lower pipe is kept filled with
water up to the level of
the sniff-cock- as the plunger rises it draws
this water down into the
pipe just as far as the ingress of the air
through the sniff-cock will per-
mit ; in the down stroke of the plunger the water
is forced up again
and the air before it; the sniff-cock closes, the
valves in the small
cylinder open, and the air is forced into this
latter and through the
upper pipe into the air-vessel. The quantity of
air admitted is regulated,
as before stated, by the set-screw of the
sniff-cock according to the re-
quirements. The author wishes to correct a
statement he made during the
last discussion, that one of the air-vessels on
the Water Company's engine
at Newburn lost 1 inch of air at each stroke.
It was so far true that it
did so at the time in question, but it was in
consequence of a leak in the
joints of the air-vessel, which was afterwards
remedied, and it is now
found that a small quantity of air only is
required in practice through
the apparatus to keep the air-vessels charged.
Plate XXIX., Fig. 1,
shows the actual arrangement of the air-vessel
and 'air-charger relative
to the plunger and delivery mains at present at
work at the Gateshead
Pumping Station of the Newcastle and Gateshead
Water Company.
The question now arises, of what use are these
suggestions in colliery
practice, as it would be in most cases
practically impossible to apply
in a shaft air-vessels of the size used
aboveground? The writer would
answer—by making a suggestion which the resident
engineer of the Water
Company, Mr. J. R. Forster, who is very
conversant with shaft work,
thinks quite practicable. Plate XXVIIL, Fig. 2.
Suppose, for illus-
tration, that it is proposed to adopt the
arrangement under circumstances
in which an 18 inch set would be used; at the
lowest joint, from which
THE USE OF AIR-VESSELS IN PUMPING ENGINES. 119
the 18 inch common pumps would take their origin,
an enlarging piece F
is inserted, and upon this as many lengths of 24
inch common pumps as
will make up 36 feet in length. Upon this,
again, a contracting piece G
is placed, reducing the internal diameter to 14
inches from which rises a
14 inch instead of an 18 inch set. Between this
last joint, and bolted in
with it so that it may be packed from the
outside, is inserted a collar H of
12 inches internal diameter, from which is
suspended a sheet iron cylinder I
of 12 inches internal diameter, also reaching to
nearly the bottom of the 24
inch common pumps. This last may be made of ±
inch plate iron, pro-
vided it is constructed thoroughly air-tight, the
pressure on both sides
of the plate iron being equal. Taking these
proportions, it will be
found that, assuming the set is worked by a 17
inch pump K of 9 feet
stroke, the contents of the space between the
inner cylinder and the
24 inch common pumps, forming the air-vessel,
will be five times the
contents of the stroke of the plunger, 24 inches
x 24 inches x 7853,
less 13 inches x 13 x 7853 X 36 feet, being equal
to 84 feet, or
thereabouts, and 17 inches x 17 inches x *7853 x
9 feet length of
plunger stroke, are equal to 14 feet, or
thereabouts. This makes
the contents of the air-vessel the proportion of
10 times the cubic
contents of half the plunger stroke, the minimum
that should be used.
But it may be objected, why should the 18 inch
common pumps be
reduced to 14 inches ? For this reason, that,
while in the arrange-
ment proposed, it has been shown that the water
column would be in
motion during nearly the whole of its time, in
the present it is so
during only half; consequently, in all
calculations as to size of pumps,
consideration must not be had as to what size of
set is required to
lift a given quantity of water per minute a given
height, but what
size is required to do this in half that time :
and this is probably the
reason that, in colliery practice, a main of
double the diameter is used to
convey a given quantity of water a given height
to the top of a shaft to
what would be used to convey the same quantity of
water the same
height for a distance of five or six miles in
water works. In the
diagram, however, the area of the proposed rising
main is not one-half,
°ut about three-fifths the diameter of that
superseded. If the arrange-
ment succeeds, as it is anticipated it must, the
following would be the
advantages. In the first place, an absence of
loss of power by the
excess required to overcome the vis inertice in a
column of water
alternately at motion and at rest, an excess
mischievously returned
gam by the falling of the column upon the upper
clack after the
end of the down stroke of the plunger; secondly
these shocks, so
120 THE USE OF AIR-VESSELS IN PUMPING
ENGINES.
mischievous and dangerous, are, in a great
measure, obviated; and, in
the third place, a much lighter rising set is
required, and a lighter column
by one-third, at least, of water in this set has
to be supported in the shaft.
The writer may mention, before concluding, an
incident which occurred in
connection with some experiments which he made
with Mr.. Forster by
way of verification, a few days since. At the end
of one of them, and
when the plunger had arrived at the top of the
stroke and the pressure
was at the lowest, a very violent series of rapid
oscillations took place,
of 100 feet or more in extent in the pressure
gauge, exactly similar to
what is described in some of the diagrams in Mr.
Bainbridge's and Mr.
Hall's papers. The engineman, by going outside,
discovered that a
portion of the packing of one of the joints
immediately above the
suction clack had been blown out, and that air
was being drawn in
which had accumulated under the plunger or under
the upper clack, or
both. There were no means of remedying it at the
moment, but it has
been since done to the entire removal of the
whole oscillation. The
engine was not in service or it would have been
necessary to have
stopped it until the damage was repaired; all
such vibrations indicate
a state of things which must be carefully
watched, and cannot be suffered
to continue without mischief occurring. The
writer is inclined to think that
the sort of accident related by Mr. Bainbridge,
may have occurred in the
same way. It is very difficult to make the faces
of such castings as described
by him perfectly water-tight, still more
perfectly air-tight; and if a small
quantity of air was drawn in at each stroke in
the manner just described
as having actually occurred, a quantity
sufficient might collect there
just underneath the bucket of the pump,
sufficient to create very great
mischief, causing such vibratory blows as are
indicated by the oscillations
of the pressure gauge. Heavy blows, not in
themselves sufficient to
break cast iron, may become so when accompanied
with a coincident
state of rapid vibration in the iron itself.
Fig. 2, Plate XXIX., is a diagram intended to
illustrate the use of the
air-vessel in modifying the variation in pressure
during each stroke of
the pumps, and was taken from an experiment made
with one of the New-
burn engines, the plunger of which is 34 inches
in diameter, and the stroke
10 feet. The letters T and B represent the top
and bottom of the stroke
of the plunger, and the 10 parallel spaces 1 to
10 the 10 feet of the same.
The upper crossed black lines A B show the rise
and fall of the water
line in the air-vessel as indicated by an
external glass tube. The longest
of the lower crossed lines C D shows the
variation of pressure when
the air-vessel is merely enlarged with its usual
contents of atmospheric
air compressed by the column] of water, in the
experiment equal to a
head of about 200 feet, into a proportional small
bulk, and the shorter of
the crossed lines E F the variation when properly
and fully charged down.
The air-vessel lines correspond to this latter.
It will be noticed that the
limit from minimum to maximum is 120 feet in the
former and 40 feet
in the latter case, and it will be observed that
the minimum pressure X
is reached in all the examples a little after the
plunger stroke commences
rising, possibly from the re-oscillation not
having been completed when
the plunger commences its stroke; and it will be
further noticed that
the maximum pressure Y is reached in both cases,
before the plunger
completes its down stroke. This arises from the
engine, for obvious
reasons, being so geared as to complete the last
foot and a half of its
stroke at a very reduced speed.
A paper "On Pumping Engines, Paper No. 2," was
then read by
Mr. W. Waller.
¦ ON PUMPING WATER. 123
ON PUMPING WATER.—PAPER No. 2.
By WILLIAM WALLER.
In the former paper on " Pumping Engines/' given
in the Proceedings
of August, 1867, the main consideration was given
to the best kind of
engine for the purpose, in reply to an enquiry
put by one of the members.
In working out the results, the standard of one
million foot pounds
was adopted, at the suggestion of Mr. Bunning, as
a tangible figure,
well calculated to supersede the various
standards in use, such as 1000,
or 1,000,000 gallons; but as subsequent papers
have not retained this,
it is not used here, for the double reason, that
it is not used in the
documents quoted, and that it may have been found
objectionable.
The process of pumping is supposed to be too well
understood to
need any explanation, and being governed by
simple known laws, would
render any general remarks upon it superfluous;
but there were some
assertions in the late discussion which invite
remark and explanation,
and must form the apology for a few sentences.
To illustrate one point, an anecdote, which came
within the knowledge
of the writer, may be excused. An engineer of
considerable experience,
the head of an extensive firm, turning out
perhaps the greatest number
of engines in the United Kingdom, had a common
hand pump in the
corner of his yard, so placed that there was very
little room for the
handle of his pump, which was provided with a
large knob on the end
of a straight arm. Finding the pump work stiffly,
he had the handle
taken off and sent to the works, where four feet
were added to the
length and the handle curled so as still not to
touch the wall; after which
he declared, and still believes, that he had
eased the labour by lengthening-
the lever. This shows two things; first, that
there are engineers who
are not thoroughly skilled in these simple
matters; and secondly, the
value of balancing the dead weight.
To raise the question of the process of pumping,
two main points
present themselves for consideration. What draws
the water into the
pump ? and what closes the valves ? and to
consider these, we will suppose
that the clack is not u drowned," but is clear of
the water. In the late
aiscussion, it would appear that much confusion
arose for want of a
definite understanding as to the position of the
water, for where the
plunger is below the water level the water will
rush in and fill the space
kft by its withdrawal and the consequent partial
vacuum formed, owing
124 ON PUMPING WATER.
to the head of water and atmospheric pressure;
but where the pump
barrel is some distance above the water, there
cannot be any spontaneous
rush of water into the pump barrel, it must be
drawn, and here arises
the first question—What draws the water ?
In the first place the air in the pump and
suction pipe has to be
pumped, drawn, and attenuated until a partial
vacuum is formed; the
water then enters and fills so much of the space
until it is in balance, or
until the atmospheric pressure on the water is
nearly regained by the
reduction of the air space—so again repeatedly
till nearly all of the air
has been discharged by the return strokes of the
plunger, and the water
is acted upon by the plunger • but it must be
borne in mind that as a
perfect vacuum is unattainable, there must be
always some air under the
plunger alternately attenuated and compressed,
and kept up by leakage
at the gland and joints (which will account for
the difference between
the theoretical and actual delivery of the pump),
besides the expansion
and compression of the air contained in the water
itself. Water then is
drawn by the action of the pump and the
exhaustion of air from tiie
pipes, and does not flow spontaneously.
What closes the valves ? The expansion of the air
contained in the
' barrel and the return movement of the column of
water together carry
with them the valve covers, and disprove
the theory of the vis viva giving a constant
delivery from the top.
To assume a perfect pump would be
also to suppose a perfect vacuum, the ab-
sence of any spring of the pump rods, of
any motion in the pumps themselves, and
of other evils which have to be contended
with, and which must be all remedied before
we can suppose perfection.
The necessary opening for a valve or
bucket is much less than is generally sup-
posed, and hence a greater amount of per-
cussive force is allowed. The dass barrel
pump, kindly lent by Messrs. Perreaux and
Co., of London, fitted with their patent valve in
both bucket and clack,
will show how little opening is really required;
the valves open more or
less as required, and do not readily gag when
passing pieces of stick or
coal. (See illustration.)
In the action of the steam engine and pump there
is a difference
from that of a hand pump, Avhich may be suddenly
put in motion and
ON PUMPING WATER. 125
as suddenly arrested; on the other hand, the
steam, being cut off before
t}ie stroke is completed, allows a gradual
reduction of speed until the
eduction valve is opened and the motive power
discharged, so motion is
arrested and reversed; the beginning of the
stroke being also gradual.
That the suction of the water is entirely
dependent upon the motion of
the plunger, can be proved by both hand and power
pumps; for where
a stroke is made suddenly and quickly the
quantity of water delivered
is less than where a steady motion is maintained.
Taking the quantity
delivered by pumps at various speeds, a certain
point will be found where
the best result is obtained, and this is believed
to be about 100 feet of
plunger per minute as the maximum. In the
simple illustration given
by Professor Herschel, of a penny placed loosely
on the hand, and the
hand being raised and suddenly stopped, by
striking it against a fixed
object, the penny will leave the hand more or
less according to the speed
at which it was moving at the moment of stoppage;
and this example
will hold good in the case of a hand pump, to a
certain extent. But
apply this example a little more closely to the
case of a pump; let the
hand be moist and the penny pressed to it so as
to cause it to adhere to
the skin by the absence of air between the
surfaces, and then see what
must be the velocity at which contact is broken
by sudden stoppage.
This is more nearly the case in pumping, for
there can be no air upon
the bucket, and the example is only applicable in
the case of a bucket lift.
It may be urged that the suction pipe being* less
in diameter than the
working barrel, the velocity of the water passing
through it will be
greater than in the upper part of the set of
pumps, and that this will
give a supply through the clack after the
pump-bucket or plunger lias
stopped; but if the velocity be greater, so will
the friction be; and where
there are different diameters, the motion of the
whole will be equal pro
rata as to quantity, for any vis viva that may
exist will have to be given
out under a considerable head of water, and so
the greater velocity of
the smaller stream is lost in the larger bulk of
the upper pipes. To
assume a speed of five to six feet per second in
water following a
plunger moving at only 100 feet per minute, would
be to assert that the
effect should be greater than the cause in the
ratio of nearly six to one.
Pumps have been designed to keep the water in
continuous motion
ln the suction pipes and delivery pipes—as the
centrifugal pump, the
chain pump, and the three-throw pump, but in each
of these there is a
bucket, or its equivalent, in constant action.
As the question has been raised as to the
comparison between the
theoretical and actual delivery of pumps it will
be interesting to know
tat has been proved to be the case, and to test
other results given by
126 ON PUMPING WATER.
the same enquiry. With this view the following*
tables of the engines
and pumps, at the Liverpool Corporation
Waterworks, are given, taken
from a report made by Messrs. Simpson and
Newlands, in 1849:—
* These pumps are here given as double-acting,
but they were bucket pumps with close tops.—(Seo
illustration.)
t Soho and Water Street were close top bucket
pumps also, though described as double acting.
TABLE No. 2.
Showing the Quantities of Water in the Wells on
Monday and
Saturday, with Speed of Engines, &c, for the Week
ending
10th March, 1849.
ON PUMPING WATER. 127
TABLE No. 3.
quantity of water raised, and coal consumed, in
the week
ending 10th March, 1849, and average quantity
raised
for each 1 cwt. of coal consumed.
The next is a similar table from Mr. Hall's paper
on the Settlingstones
Engine, and is inserted for comparison :—
TABLE No. 3 a.
In a report made by Mr. Robert Stephenson to the
Liverpool Cor-
poration in 1850, showing the actual quantities
of water delivered under
arious pressures and circumstances, is the
following table of experiments
^ade to verify the deliveries in order to test
the yield of the wells :—
128 ON PUMPING WATER.
TABLE No. 4.—YIELD OF ONE STROKE OF PUMP.
The manner in which the experiments were
conducted is alluded to
in the table, but a more detailed account will be
acceptable to prevent
mistakes.
One set of experiments was made by pumping- for a
number of
hours into a circular reservoir of known
diameter, carefully measuring the
water, and ascertaining the number of strokes
made by the engine.
Another set was taken by pumping into a large
rectangular vessel
divided across the middle into two tanks; each of
which was provided
with a large flap valve for discharging the
water. On the top was a
long box with a shuttle at either end, and into
this box the water was
pumped. About six inches of water were left in
each tank; pumping
began into No. 1 tank, and was kept up till it
was nearly full when the
ON PUMPING WATER. 129
shuttle was put down, and that into No. 2 tank
was opened; the water in
No. 1 was allowed to come to rest, the height
noted, and then the valve
was raised, and the water run off to nearly 6
inches of the bottom, when the
gauge was taken, and the action reversed by
closing No. 2 shuttle and
opening No. 1, No. 2 being then gauged and run
off, and so on alter-
nately for a certain time when the number of
strokes was taken, and so
many feet of water, of say 15 feet x 12 feet, had
been pumped and run off.
Intermediate observations were made at stated
intervals, of water and
strokes, to verify the results.
A third method was applied to the Cornish engine,
at Windsor, to
ascertain, by a self-registering apparatus, the
exact length of stroke
made, or more correctly the total number of feet
of plunger travelled,
and to observe this apparatus at the same time as
the ordinary engine •
counter. The following description will explain
it. Upon the main
gudgeon of the beam was fixed an arm of a length
apportioned to
the length of the half-beam, and a small
connecting rod, fitted with
ratches, was led to a ratchet wheel fitted with
palls, both ratches and
palls being so adjusted as to cover a tooth with
the smallest possible
loss. This ratchet wheel was keyed upon the first
spindle with a
pinion of 10 teeth gearing into a wheel with 100
teeth upon the
second spindle, the gearing being continued
through the train of
spindles forming a register of tens as in an
ordinary counter. The
ratchet wheel was of such a size as to show 100
feet travelled by the
plunger, and so the register could be read at any
time with the counter,
and the average length of stroke ascertained.
The fourth plan was by means of a notch and weir,
and the result
came very near to that taken by the cisterns or
tanks.
It will be seen that great care was taken to
ascertain the actual de-
livery of the pumps, because they were to be
employed to measure the
supply of water from the wells; hence, great
accuracy was necessary to
determine the point which was to form the basis
of Mr. .Stephenson's
report.
As a comparison has been made between the crank
and direct-acting
engines, and as both examples are found in the
tables appended, a
description of the several engines employed is
given, taken from
¦Messrs. Simpson's and Newland's Report, and
before alterations were
*flade in the pumping arrrangements; for
instance, at the B. Bush
Station the pump was afterwards altered from a
bucket to a plunger
Set; and a similar alteration was made at Soho
and Water Street.
The result of one week's working is given in each
instance.
vol. xxi.-1872. g
130 ON PUMPING WATER.
Bootle Station.—There were three double-acting
low pressure
engines with cranks and fly wheels, each separate
from the other, and
each working a single-acting, pump. Only two
engines were worked
at the same time, the other being kept in
reserve. There were five
boilers, but three were sufficient for two
engines. There was an air-
vessel outside the engine-house. Total lift,
170 feet.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
Capacity of pump ...... 34-7 ... 34'7
... 454 galls.
Engineer's adopted number ... 26*0 ...
26*0 ... 40'0 „
Average number of strokes per minute, llf.
Depth of well from surface about 40 feet.
Memorandum for Bootle Station.—The bottom of the
lodg-
ment was about the level of high water, spring
tides, in the Mersey, and
the water rose to about 22 feet depth. There were
16 boreholes sunk
into the red sandstone, and the yield was
1,033,984 gallons per 24 hours.
Fifteen of those boreholes were plugged up, and
the yield then was 921,192
gallons, showing the value of the others to be
only 112,792 gallons.
The cost of pumping 1 million gallons was, in
1849, £4 7s. 8d., and
in 1854, £3 2s. 11-^d., or for one million
gallons raised 100 feet in 1849,
£2 lis. 7d., and in 1854, £1 17s. Od.
ON PUMPING WATER. 131
The average yield at the end of 1849 was found to
be 850,691
gallons, and in 1854, 881,008 gallons ; the total
quantity pumped being
less than in 1849, or only 321,567,770 gallons.
Everton Station.—This was a supplementary lift
for high service,
at the north end of the town, and there was a
double-acting high pressure
engine with crank and fly wheel working a
double-acting pump, which
delivered over a stand pipe.
TABLE No/ 6.
Capacity of pump, 33*1 gallons per stroke.
Engineer's adopted number of gallons per stroke,
31'0.
Average number of strokes per minute, 17.
Bevington Bush Station.—There was one
single-acting low
pressure engine with a single-acting bucket pump
from the opposite end
°f the beam. The steam acted upon the top of the
piston, only raising
the pump rods and water, the return stroke being
made by the weight
°f the rods. During the last quarter of the year
1849, the pump was
altered, and a plunger substituted for the
bucket, the weight of the rods
aided by a weight on the beam forcing the water.
The capacity of the
pump, both" before and after the alterations, was
noted, and is given in
the duty of the engine. There was a stand-pipe
over which the water
132 ON PUMPING WATER.
was delivered, giving- a total lift of 228 feet
from the bottom of the well.
Well, 150 feet.
Note.—This engine was stopped at 12 noon, on 1st
November, and was started
at 7 a.m., on the 22nd. The depth of water, when
the engine stopped, was 12 feet
10 inches, and 44*10 when it was put to work
again.
TABLE No. 7.
Capacity of pump, 31*5 gallons per stroke.
Engineer's adopted number of gallons per stroke,
27*5.
Average number of strokes per minute, 17^.
Depth of well from surface, 123 feet.
Note.—By actual measurement, this was 149"6 below
engine room floor.
Memorandum for Bevington Bush Station.—The bottom
of
this well was 65 feet below the high water level
of the Mersey in spring
tides, and the yield at the end of 1849 was
180,875 gallons, while in
1854 it was 252,737 gallons per 24 hours.
The cost of raising 1 million gallons was, in
1849, £7 10s. Id.
including repairs, and in 1854, £5 10s. ll^d., or
for 1 million gallons
100 feet high, £3 5s. 9d. and £2 8s. 8d.
respectively, though the
quantity pumped in 1854 was only 92,250,018
gallons.
Soho Station.—This engine was low pressure,
double-acting, with
crank and fly-wheel. There were two pumps, the
one double-acting,
worked from the beam, the other single-acting,
worked from a crank on
the outer end of the fly-wheel shaft, both
delivering over a stand-pipe.
ON PUMPING WATER. 133
In the table of the capacity of these pumps, No.
1, there appears to be
an error, but it is given as stated in the
report. The lift was 247 feet
above the bottom of the well. Well, 140 feet.
TABLE No. 8.
Capacity of pump, 35*1 galls, per stroke.
Engineer's adopted number of galls, per stroke,
33'0.
Average number of strokes per minute, 16
Depth of well from surface about 123 feet.
Note.—This was measured 146 feet to bottom, which
was fully 2 feet
below the suction pipe.
Memorandum for Soho Station.—This well was 39
feet below
the high water level of spring tides, and the
average yield per 24 hours
was, in 1849, 497,869 gallons, and in 1854,
509,732 gallons.
The cost per million gallons was £4 18s. 9d. in
1849, and £4 6s. 3d.
in 1854, or per 100 feet raised £2 0s. 0d., and
£1 14s. lid., at which
186,052,194 gallons were pumped.
Hotham Street.—There was a double-acting beam
engine, with
crank and fly-wheel working a double-acting pump
from the beam, all
°f which were old and in a defective condition.
There was an air-vessel
in the well close to the pump, and a stand-pipe
on the top of the well,
134 ON PUMPING WATER.
close to the engine-house. The pump was placed
high in the well, and
was working under difficulties of position and
repair—with a total lift
of 205 feet. Well, 110 feet.
TABLE No. 9.
Capacity of pump, 17 galls, per stroke.
Engineer's adopted number of galls, per stroke,
1327.
Average number of strokes per minute, 25^.
Depth of well from surface, about 110 feet.
Memorandum for Hotham Street Station.—This well
was 26
feet below high water mark, spring tides, and the
average yield was
216,381 gallons in 1849, and 229,201 in 1854,-
the cost per million
gallons being £7 9s. 4d. and £8 3s. 4d., or per
100 feet, £3 12s. 10d.,
and £3 19s. 8d. in 1854, when the quantity pumped
was 83,658,450
gallons.
Water Street.—This station was called Park in the
former paper,
and was known by both names. There was a
double-acting low pressure
beam engine working two pumps, the one
single-acting worked from
the beam, the other single-acting worked from a
crank at the outer end
of the fly-wheel shaft. There was a stand-pipe
connected with one of
the pumps only. Total lift, 257 feet. Well,
157 feet.
ON PUMPING WATER. 135
TABLE No. 10.
* The single-acting pump was idle part of the
Wednesday and Thursday.
Capacity of pump, 38'75 gallons per stroke.
Engineer's adopted number, 36*7 gallons per
stroke.
Average number of strokes per minute, 17f.
Depth of well from surface about 156 feet.
Memorandum for Water Street Station.—The bottom
of this
well was 52 feet below high water mark, spring
tides, and the average
yield per 24 hours was, in 1849, 419,264 gallons,
and in 1854, 402,344
gallons.
The cost of pumping was £5 16s. 6d. and £4 4s.
6d., or for 100
feet lifted, £2 5s. 4d. and £1 12s. lO^d. for
1849 and 1854; the
quantity of water pumped being 146,855,645
gallons.
Windsor.—A single acting high-pressure condensing
engine worked
: a set of pumps in two lifts, the lower being a
bucket, and the upper a
plunger lift. There was also a jack pump to the
cistern for the upper
An air vessel was provided for this pump. Total
lift, 287 feet.
212 feet.
136 ON PUMPING WATER.
TABLE No. 11.
Capacity of pump, 77*3 galls, per stroke.
Engineer's adopted number, 75 galls, per stroke.
Average number of strokes per minute, 1\.
Depth of well from surface about 210 feet.
Memorandum for Windsor Station.—The bottom of
this well
was 37 feet below the high water mark, spring
tides, and the average
yield was, in 1849, 678,560 gallons, and in 1854,
1,020,493 gallons;
the cost of pumping being £4 Is. 6d. and £2 12s.
Od. per million gallons,
or for each 100 feet £1 8s 5d. and £0 18s. l^d.
in the years 1849 and
1854, in which latter year the quantity raised
was 372,480,000 gallons.
Green Lane.—There was a single acting
high-pressure condensing
engine working one set of pumps in two plunger
lifts (equal to 83*85
gallons per stroke), and there was also one
drawing lift (97 gallons per
stroke) for reducing the water to repair the
lower set of bucket pumps.
This engine delivered over a standpipe into a
reservoir, and worked under
regular conditions \ it had not been long in use,
and the valves were
worked by segments and cataract. Total lift,
270 feet. Well, 196 feet.
ON PUMPING WATER, 137
TABLE No. 12.
Capacity of pump, 86 gallons per stroke.
Engineer's adopted number, 83*85 gallons per
stroke.
Average number of strokes per minute, 9J.
Depth of well from surface, about 185 feet.
Memorandum for Green Lane Station.—The bottom of
the
well was 63 feet below high water mark, spring
tides, and the average
yield per 24 hours was 991,118 gallons in 1849,
increased to 2,413,068
gallons in 1854, the cost of pumping being in
1849, £2 10s. Id.,
and in 1854, £2 2s. 5|d. per million gallons, or
per million gallons
raised 100 feet, £0 18s. 6d. and £0 15s. 9d.
respectively; the quan-
tity raised in 1854 being 880,769,922 gallons.
The cost of the Green Lane Station is given by
Mr. Duncan, the late
engineer to the water-works, as under:—
Cost of the well .................. £6,600
"John Holmes" engine, 50 inch cylinder ......
5,782
Engine and boiler house and tower ......... 4,278
"George Holt" engine, 52 inch cylinder, including
buildings, boilers, pumps, and fixing ......
6,500
£23,160
While n some of the Liverpool wells there has
been an increase of
vol. xxL-1878. T
138 ON PUMPING WATER.
yield, it was found at Wolverhampton that there
was much less water
in the sandstone, one well producing" only
168,000 gallons per day; but
this may be partly accounted for by the fact that
where it was sunk the
ground was 450 feet above the level of the sea,
and partly by the
increased permeability of the one rock over the
other.
Most of these engines and pumps were illustrated
in the former paper.
The wells were not merely what are known as such
in ordinary terms;
wells were sunk, and from the bottom, tunnels or
lodgments were formed
of considerable extent, and in some cases
bore-holes were driven to a great
depth in the red sandstone to increase the
supply; in the Soho well
there was one about 300 feet deep. At Windsor, at
the end of the year
1849, a bore-hole was being sunk, which was
carried to a depth of 189
feet; on the 22nd of March, 1850, when the
increase was found to be
241,000 gallons per 24 hours, the yield obtained,
the depth, and the
strata passed having been recorded regularly. The
Bootle Station had
not a well, but a sump was formed, into which the
water was carried by
pipes from lodgments 46 to 50 feet deep, cut out
of the rock, and from
which bore-holes were run, varying in depth to
600 feet; and an interest-
ing set of experiments was here made to test the
value of boring, some
being plugged and others left open, to ascertain
the porosity of the red
sandstone, and so, on a small scale, to see
whether a greater number of
wells could give a proportionably greater supply
of water.
The Tables No. 3 and 3a show the consumption of
fuel and quantity
of water raised during a given time; and the same
is tabulated to show
the quantity of water raised by 1 cwt. of fuel.
In the examples given
in Table No. 3, the quantity of fuel stated
includes that used for raising
steam, and even that taken for the enginemen's
houses; while in
Table 3a there are some experiments given which
will most likely not
include more than the net amount burnt under the
boilers during the
experiments.
There is another thing to be named; the lift of
water is not given in
the tables. It will be seen that in the supply of
a town by means of
either air-vessels or stand pipes, there must be
pressures ever varying
with the services, and no engine was under worse
conditions on its high
services than Windsor, where, at one particular
service, the large pump
was kept going slowly on a small main. The
average lift may be taken
as 240 feet, but is believed to be more than
that.
The advantage of the Cornish engine consists
partly in its power of
being adapted to an increase of work, by allowing
the steam to act on
the piston for a greater length of the stroke; in
being usually constructed
ON PUMPING WATER. 139
I with a long stroke; in the perfect way in which
the number of strokes
1 can be regulated and its velocity checked at
any portion of its stroke.
Many of the American pumping engines are said to
be high pressure
non-condensing, and the duty is said to be for
each cwt. of coal:—
Feet pounds.
Pittsburgh Upper Water Works, 1852 ......
19,941,600
Do. Lower do. ...... 19,112,576
Alleghany City do. ...... 19,226,700
Detroit do. ...... 17,397,856
It is also recorded that American engineers are
in the habit of
allowing one-third for leakage in the pumps, so
as to ensure the delivery
of the quantity required.
The next table is one which gives an answer to
many opinions
expressed, and, having the weight of facts and
figures given by Mr.
Eobert Stephenson, will be received with its full
value. It gives the
quantity of water distributed by each station,
and the cost of the work
and repairs during the year 1849, and a column is
given in which the
cost of the Green Lane pumping engine on the
Cornish principle is
worked out on the quantities raised by the other
engines, and the loss
by comparison is shown, giving a decided opinion
upon the relative
value of crank and direct pumping engines.
TABLE No. 12a.
Cost of Raising Water at the several Stations,
and comparison
with Green Lane for the Year ending 29th
December, 1849.
Note.—It is believed that by an alteration of the
boilers at Windsor,
that station may be worked nearly as economically
as Green Lane.
To supplement the table just given, the following
extracts from the
official records of the Corporation will supply
full information as to the
a*nount of stores supplied, and will enable the
members to estimate for
I themselves the value of the work done at
present prices.
TABLE No. 13.
ABSTRACT OP STORES AND DUTY FOR QUARTER ENDING
31ST MARCH, 1849.
TABLE No. 14.
ABSTRACT OF STORES AND DUTY FOR QUARTER ENDING
30th JUNE, 1849.
TABLE No. 15.
ABSTRACT OF STORES AND DUTY FOR QUARTER ENDING
29th SEPTEMBER, 1849.
TABLE No. 16.
ABSTRACT OF STORES AND DUTY FOR QUARTER ENDING
29th DECEMBER, 1849.
TABLE No. 17.
ABSTRACT OF STORES AND DUTY FOR THE YEAR ENDING
29th DECEMBER, 1849.
TABLE No. 18.
SUMMARY OF STORES AND DUTY FOR THE YEAR ENDING
29th DECEMBER, 1849.
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146 ON PUMPING WATER.
yield of the several wells, and therefore the
full quantity available to
meet the requirements under the best conditions
:—
TABLE No. 19.
YIELD OF WELLS.—BOOTLE STATION.
TABLE No. 20.
YIELD OF WELLS.—B. BUSH STATION.
| ON PUMPING WATER. 147
TABLE No. 21.
YIELD OF WELLS.—SOHO STATION.
148 ON PUMPING WATER.
TABLE No. 22.
YIELD OF WELLS.—HOTHAM STREET STATION.
ON PUMPING WATER. 149
TABLE No. 23.
YIELD OF WELLS.—WATER STREET STATION.
150 ON PUMPING WATER.
TABLE No. 2i.
YIELD OF WELLS.—WINDSOR STATION.
i----i------!
TABLE No. 25.
YIELD OF WELLS.—GREEN LANE STATION.
mm
ON PUMPING WATER, 151
TABLE No. 26.
YIELD OF WELLS AT PRACTICAL LEVEL.
'---' ~ i I i "i
From the above tables it will be seen that the
greatest care was
taken to arrive at correct conclusions, and it
may be explained that at
the different levels the pumping was maintained
for three, four, or six
hours, and experiments were made both in pumping
down from foot to
foot of the water, and in the rising of the water
in the well, and the
results obtained are given in the tables. The
experiments extended
over nearly three months, and are compared with
the actual working as
recorded in the official documents kept by the
Corporation officials.
An interesting circumstance was noted during the
experiments, at
first chiefly at night, and it is referred to by
Mr. Stephenson in his report.
It was found in working at one level, and after
it had been maintained
for some time by the engine going a regular
speed, that the water began
to gain upon it, and this was at once set down as
being caused by the
sympathy or connection between the waterworks
wells and those of
private firms which were left to rise at night.
Upon continuing the
observations the same was found to occur at
nearly regular intervals,
but at varying times, and that at one time the
engine had to be eased,
at another quickened, to keep the water at the
desired point, and by
noting these facts and the times when they
occurred, they were found
to come very near that of two hours after high
and low water. Whether
this was caused by the rock being charged from
the sea filtration, or
°ther reason, is worth the careful consideration
of members having
pumping engines near to the sea, or to tidal
rivers.
The permeability of the sandstone rock has been
alluded to in the
Memorandum to the Bootle Station and in another
place, and observations
Made at Bootle upon the group of bore-holes
there, were supposed to
152 ON PUMPING WATER.
assimilate to the result of a group of wells. The
actual results are not
given, as, though very interesting, they do not
come within the subject
of this paper.
The object of the stand-pipe is to give a regular
head under which
the engine shall be worked and to prevent the jar
or blow of pumpino*
direct into the mains. The air-vessel is to
provide a cushion or spring,
against which the plunger shall work, and it
should be placed close to
the pump-barrel, and be connected to it by means
of a pipe fully as large
as the working barrel, so that the whole contents
of the pump may be
forced into it freely and be discharged in a
continuous stream by the
recoil of the air-spring. In discharging water
into an air-vessel the
water may take up some of the air and so
gradually exhaust the vessel,
or the air may escape through the interstices of
the metal itself, but
the size may have something to do with this
result. Air-vessels have
been placed upon suction-pipes, but what may have
been the intention
when they were so placed it is difficult to see,
as the air must have been
exhausted before the pump could draw. Perhaps it
may be allowed to
class this as another fallacy with regard to
pumping.
The delivery of water from a pump must
necessarily be intermittent
whether the shock be taken by air-vessel or
stand-pipe, and the diagrams
given by Mr. Bainbridge and Mr. Hall may be
partly confirmed by one
now given, Plate XXX., and which was briefly
referred to by the writer
at the last meeting. The pulsations of the pumps
must be more or less
communicated to the mains or arteries for
distributing what the engine,
the heart of the system, has forced; and the
diagram, Plate XXX.,
shows in one form what is tabulated and given
below:—
TABLE No. 27.—PULSATIONS IN THE MAINS.
B. Bush.—When the engine was delivering on high
service at 16*
strokes per minute, the index hand of the
pressure-gauge vibrated
on pumping water. 153
10 times from 10 lbs. to 35 lbs. on the square
inch, equal to 33 feet to
90 feet on the main.
Soho.—When making 17 strokes showed 34
vibrations, between 95
and 125 lbs. per square inch, or 228 to 296 feet
on the main.
Hotham Street.—Making 25 strokes showed 50
vibrations, from
40 to 75 lbs. per square inch, or from 101 to 181
feet on the main; and
at 20 strokes gave 40 vibrations from 95 to 110
lbs., or 228 to 2G2 feet
on the main; and it may be noticed that there is
an air-vessel in the
•well here, as well as a stand-pipe on the
surface, and the vibrations are
aS strong as in other instances.
Water Street.—At 10 strokes showed 32 vibrations,
from 73 to
77 lbs. per square inch, or 177 to 186 feet on
the main. Whether the
close-topped pump forms an air-vessel may be
considered in this case
and in the Soho pump.
The pressure-gauge was connected to the main by a
lead pipe, and
was placed 10 to 12 feet above the street main.
In the single-acting
pump the vibration was coincident with the
stroke, and the same with
each delivery of the double-acting pumps.
Indicator diagrams are given from some of the
cylinders of the above
engines (Figs. 1 to 10, Plate XXXI.), and may
prove useful in calcu-
lating the power expended under different
conditions; but all such
calculations are liable to error, owing to the
absorption of power by
the engine and pumps. The work done is given from
experiments of
long duration, and from the official records, as
well as tables of known
value, and may, therefore, be relied upon with
confidence; but in any
calculation, allowance must be made for the
effect of vibrations and per-
cussive force.
The cost of sinking wells and boring may be
allowed to be
inserted as an interesting note to the above
remarks, and these are taken
from Mr. Hughes' small work in Weales' Series.
Wells. Truman's Brewery ... ... 106 ft.
£4,056 or £21 per ft,
Reid and Co.'s Brewery ... 259,, *
7,454 29 „
5> Zoological Gardens, Regent's) goo
] 900 9
Park............J " * "
Model Prison, Pentonville ... 220 „ x 6 ft.
1,300 6 „
» Colney Hatch Asylum ... 188,,
991 6 „
|, " Wolverhampton Waterworks 150 „ X 5
„ 5 per yd.
B()ring. Lombard Street, e.c...... 252 „ 200
" Water Lane, Edmonton ... 66 „ 13
* Reid and Co.'s well has four tunnels and cast
iron tubbing-.
V<>b xxi.-1872. x
154 discussion on pumping water.
Boring. Waltham Abbey ...... 90 ft. £l6 "
Wigborough, Essex ... ... 300 „ 120
Mitcham ...... 211 „ 100
„ Lough ton, Essex ...... 535 „ 750
„ Cambridge ......... 150 „ 20
„ Green Lane Well, Liverpool ... 300,, *
350
„ Grenelle, Paris ...... 1,798 „ 14,500
„ Kissengen, Bavaria...... 1,878 „ 6,666
To the late Mr. James Newlands, Borough Engineer
of Liverpool,
and to Mr. John B. Palmer (who represented Mr.
James Simpson, C.E.)
the writer is indebted for much of the
information given above; and the
late Mr. Thomas Duncan, Engineer for the
Corporation Water-works,
also gave the result of subsequent working, which
confirms the above
statements, and places the Cornish engines, by
Messrs. Harvey, of
Hayle, at Green Lane, in even a better and more
favourable position.
The President was sure they all felt very much
indebted to Mr.
Sanderson and to Mr. Waller for the careful
manner in which they had
prepared their papers. If any gentleman had any
questions to ask
Mr. Sanderson or Mr. Waller, they would be very
ready to reply.
Mr. Lawrence might mention that with the firm of
Messrs. James
Simpson and Co., whose name had been mentioned by
Mr. Waller, their
rule was to make their air-vessel not only five
times, as Mr. Sanderson
had mentioned, but if possible fifteen times the
contents of the working
barrel. He ought to mention that, so far as his
experience went, an air-
vessel could not be made too large. He very much
admired the means
of charging an air-vessel pointed out by Mr.
Sanderson. Their own •
plan used to be that of having a sniff-cock in
between the two valves,
but there was the disadvantage Mr. Sanderson
pointed out—that the air
had to rise up to get into the air-vessel, and
also got mixed with the
delivery. Now Mr. Sanderson admitted the air at
the top of the air-
vessel, and it simply came down and never mixed
with the water, but
was delivered into the air-vessel at the place
where it was most required.
This plan of air-vessel with internal pipe was
not new. It had been in
use in Cornwall, and was a very neat way of
applying an air-vessel.
* The cost of the 6-inch hore-hole in the hottom
of this well, 185 feet deep, was
£2 10s. Od. per yard for the first 20 yards.
3 0 0 „ second „
3 10 0 „ third
4 0 0 „ fourth „
U0 0 „ fifth
discussion on pumping water. 155
put there was one remark which Mr. Sanderson made
which he certainly
I olid not agree with, that was, that if the
rising main was larger than
necessary it put an additional pressure on the
plunger. Again, he did
not see how Mr. Sanderson could support his
statement that half the
water was delivered up into the air-vessel at
each stroke. For instance,
when the plunger came to the bottom of its stroke
Mr. Sanderson stated
half part of the water would go into the
air-vessel, and the other half
up the rising main; hence, the rising main might
be proportionably
decreased. Now he (Mr. Lawrence) thought that
when the air-
vessel had been at work for a few strokes the air
was under a
constant compression due to the pressure of the
rising main; and
hence, as soon as the plunger started it would
still have that pressure
to contend with, for when the delivery valve was
open, the main
being in free communication with the air-vessel,
the pressure would
be identical. When the plunger receded nothing
further took place
if that valve was in good order. He thought,
therefore, that at the
commencement of each stroke there was delivered
into the air-vessel
only a quantity of water which would be just as
much as would over-
come the blow of the pump and the friction of the
column in the pipes.
He might add that at Castle Eden Colliery a
pumping engine had lately
been erected underground, with four rams, working
alternately with an
air-vessel; and after they had been at work a
short time the air-
vessel blew off: since that time they had been
working exceedingly well
without one. The water delivered at the bank rose
up several feet above
the end of the pipe. In all cases where large
quantities of water were
delivered after an interval of rest, it was
absolutely necessary to have as
large an air-vessel as could be applied; but he
thought that where water
. was delivered by a series of small pumps in
small quantities, so as to
keep the column in constant motion, there was not
so much need of an
air-vessel.
Mr. Sanderson—With regard to Mr. Lawrence's
remark as to
the size of the air-vessel, he thought there was
a limit; for as the size
increased, so did the necessity for strength in
every part of the apparatus.
The difficulty and cost of erection increased
likewise, so that in water-works
particularly, as in collieries, it was well to
ascertain the reasonable mini-
mum of the size and strength in any of the
articles. No doubt, the air- .
vessel would be better if twice the diameter; but
it would be much heavier
and have other disadvantages in the room it would
take up. He did not
Say it would be better to reduce it, except for
the reasons he had stated.
With re gard to Mr. Lawrence's other question, he
knew the quantity of
ffater passing up the air-vessel by using a
water-gauge outside the air-
156 DISCUSSION ON PUMPING WATER.
vessel, which showed exactly the separation
between the water and the
air; and as the rise at each stroke was exactly
equal to one-half of that
of the contents of the pump, he presumed that the
other half had gone
up the main. In the case he alluded to, the
pressure was about 200 lbs.
to the square inch.
Mr. Steavenson said, if he understood the two
papers rightly, the
last entirely answered the first. Mr. Waller
stated there was no
such thing as momentum in water when being
pumped, and Mr.
Sanderson's paper was entirely devoted to
providing for that momentum,
and preventing accidents from it. He should like,
if they would allow •
him, to put his views into writing. Since he was
here last month,
he had read a paper on the momentum of pumping,
and he found
that the gentleman who read that paper before the
South Wales Insti-
tute, had not only observed the momentum of water
when raising it,
and that the bucket carried that water above the
pumps after the engine
ceased to move; he had made a pump for the
purpose of trying it, and
found the results which he obtained were
considerably more than he
would have been led to expect, from the
displacement of the bucket,
entirely proving the views which he (Mr.
Steavenson) had enunciated.
There could be no doubt at all, that in raising,
say, five tons of water,
at a speed of five feet a second, a very large
amount of vis viva was
imparted to it; that vis viva, if unchecked,
would continue to flow on
after the engine stopped, so long as there was no
friction to prevent it.
Mr. Waller thought that there were very few pumps
worked at
5 or 6 feet a second, the usual speed would be
only from 60 to 100 feet
a minute, and to assume such a speed was to place
upon the proceedings
of the Institute an assumption contrary to fact.
The President asked Mr. Lawrence if he had ever
had the
opportunity of noticing an air-vessel
horizontally laid instead of
perpendicularly, and the effect of it ?
Mr. Lawrence said, the effect of a horizontal
air-vessel could not
be so good as that of a vertical one, and it
would be very much more
difficult to keep supplied with air. In
water-works, the great difficulty
of making air-vessels was to get them so
perfectly sound that the air
at such high pressure would not pass through the
pores of the cast iron.
Hence it was, that unless the air-vessel could be
charged either by the
method pointed out by Mr. Sanderson, or some
other, the air-vessel,
with heavy pressures, became useless. He would
like to ask Mr.
Sanderson what pressure there was upon the
Newburn engine when
they made these experiments ?
Mr. Sanderson—About 200 feet. There was a
little difficulty in
¦
DISCUSSION ON PUMPING WATER. 157
[' getting the pressure correct, as they were
pumping against a loaded
« balance valve," and not against a column of
water in a pipe.
rfhe President considered that the continuous
supply of the four
I sets at Castle Eden quite justified Mr.
Lawrence in leaving them without
an air-vessel.
Mr. Lawrence would not like to say that there was
no use in an
air-vessel, even in pumps arranged as at Castle
Eden, because he had
not had an opportunity of finding out exactly
what the air-vessel was
doino- before it was blown away. He was quite
convinced that if they
were to attempt to raise that quantity of water
at one lift, it would be
an impossibility to get anything to stand it,
without the introduction of
a perfect air-vessel, which he did not think they
would be able to get at
155 fathoms.
The President asked if there had been an
apparatus to supply
the top air-vessel with ?
Mr. Lawrence did not think there had. He had
recommended
them to have a pump put in, and he believed that
Mr. Morison was
invited to go out and make experiments; the
experiments had not been
made, but would be shortly, and he would
communicate the results
to the Institute.
Mr. Southern would like to ask Mr. Lawrence
whether he would
not get as good a result from the three pumps as
from four, and if he
could tell them the size of the plunger and of
the pumps ?
Mr. Lawrence's answer to that question would be
this:—In the
case of the Castle Eden plungers, he believed
there were four rams, each
of ten inches. His own experience was, that,
instead of pumping off the
water at four intervals, if it could be done in
twenty intervals during
the same time it would be better, because there
would not be the same
strain on each point to contend with. If it had
to be lifted at once,
everything must be in proportion to the area in
the large sized plunger.
If four pumps or twenty are used, instead of one,
there is, of course,
°nly the area of these small plungers to deal
with.
I'he President would now close the discussion,
and at his suggestion,
a cordial vote of thanks was given to Mr. Burdon
Sanderson and to
Waller for their very excellent papers.
*he President announced that a subscription list
had been opened,
0 defray the expense connected with inviting the
Institution of Engineers
and Shipbuilders in Scotland and the, Lancashire
and Cheshire Coal Asso-
°1<ltion to Newcastle. £500 would be required, of
which £200 had already
bee* Promised.
158 PROCEEDINGS.
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, MAY 4, 1872, IN
THE WOOD
MEMORIAL HALL.
A. L. STEAVENSON, Esq., in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last
meeting- and reported
the proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been
nominated at the
April meeting:—
Members.
Mr. GEORGE William Hick, Mechanical Engineer, 17,
Blenheim Terrace,
Leeds.
Mr. Charles G. Grey, Dilston, Northumberland.
Mr. Matthlw Robson, Coppa Colliery, near Mold,
Flintshire.
Mr. Llewellyn Llewellyn, Colliery Manager, South
Wales.
Mr. G. W. Wilkinson, Pensher Colliery, Fence
Houses.
Student.
Mr. John James Parland, Mining Engineer,
Burnopfield.
The following were nominated for election at the
next meeting:—
Members.
Mr. Patrick Hill, Mining Engineer, Littleburn
Colliery, Durham.
Mr. George Wright, Mining Engineer, Babbington
Collieries, Cinder Hill, I
Nottingham.
Mr. E. B. Marten, C.E., Pedmore, Stourbridge.
Mr. M. W. Peace, Wigan, Lancashire.
Mr. Robert Nicholson, Engineer, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
Mr. Robert Tinsley, Agent, Seghill Colliery, near
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Students.
Mr. B. Fujimato, Engineer, 2, Bedford Place,
Newcastle.
Mr. James Lisle, Washington Colliery, County of
Durham.
The Chairman thought they might congratulate
themselves on the j
increasing number of their members. He wished
they could congratulate I
themselves also on the increasing numbers of
those who attended the I
meetings.
The following paper, by Mr. Ralph Moore,
"Arrangements 0 I
Machinery adopted for Pumping Water in Dip
Workings, at the Kintiel I
Iron Works, at a distance from the Shaft," was
considered as read.
¦
PUMPING WATER IN DIP WORKINGS. 159
ARRANGEMENTS OF MACHINERY ADOPTED FOR PUMPING
WATER IN DIP WORKINGS, AT THE KINNEIL IRON
WORKS, AT A DISTANCE FROM THE SHAFT.
By Mr. RALPH MOORE.
In writing* the following paper, the author has
endeavoured to show
the arrangements of machinery adopted for pumping
water in dip
workings, at the Kinneil Iron Works, at a
distance from the shaft.
Plate XXXII. represents the arrangements lately
put up in No. 24
Store Pit, Kinneil Iron Works; but arrangements
almost similar have
been at work for a number of years back in three
other pits in the
same works.
The pumps are placed in the ironstone workings at
a distance of
765 yards from the shaft, and the power is
conveyed by a double set of
iron rods attached to the dry rods in the pit,
and carried into a beam,
B, at that point which works the pumps. The rods
are placed at each
end of this beam, and each alternately draws it
back, thus producing a
reciprocating motion. The level road is crooked
and uneven and the
rods are carried in on quadrants, etc., as shown
in the plate.
The water in the pit is raised to the surface by
four 15-inch buckets
worked by bell cranks. Of the two bottom sets
each discharges the
water into a lodgment made in splint coal 18
fathoms from the pit bottom,
and the top sets deliver the water at 80 fathoms
from lodgment in coal
to an aclit driven in fire-clay.
The small circles (AA, Fig. 5) show the position
of dook rods in pit;
the rods are of malleable iron, each 18 feet long
and \\ inch in
diameter (all the iron rods used being nearly of
the same dimensions);
they
are connected by glands to the pit dry rods, one
at 18 fathoms, and
tne other at 48 fathoms, and are conducted down
the pit and connected
*here to the perpendicular cranks 5 feet 3 inches
from the centres; the
horizontal rods are connected 4 feet from the
centres, which gives at
tli 7 °
e pit bottom nearly 3 feet stroke (the length of
pumping engine stroke
eing 4 feet), which is further reduced so as to
give 2 feet 6 inches
Str°ke in dook pumps.
The iron rods from the perpendicular cranks are
joined to the horizontal
rajiks at a distance of 10|- fathoms from the pit
bottom, the top rods being*
apried 011 pui]eyS at a g.raclual rise to the
horizontal cranks placed 4 feet
160 PUMPING WATER IN DIP WORKINGS.
7 inches, one above the other, to work the rods
along the straight level
mine, driven nearly at right angles to level from
pit.
The rods being joined to each horizontal crank
are carried on pulleys
(placed 4 feet 7 inches, one above the other)
along the side of the mine
and level road for a distance of 291 fathoms to
top of the dook, and are
continued down the dook, dipping 1 in 9 for a
distance of 81 fathoms to
the working barrels, the rods being connected to
the beam to work pumps
as shown in drawing.
There is connected to the same line of rods a 4^
inch working barrel
to pump a feeder of water that runs from the
roof, about half-way down
from top of dook mine (4± fathoms). Pulleys for
the support of iron
pump rods are placed along the road nearly every
5 fathoms, beams everv
50 fathoms, and quadrants at all the angles, as
will be seen in plan of road.
The working barrels are each 6 inches inside
diameter; the working
pipes are each 4 inches inside diameter; length
of stroke, 2 feet 6 inches,
and number from 8 to 9 per minute, raising the
water at present to the
perpendicular height of 13 fathoms.
Level, from pit to top of dook, will average from
feet to 7 feet
high by 6 feet to 6^ feet wide; and dook, from 7
feet to 7\ feet high by
9 feet wide.
These arrangements for pumping water in dip
workings, work
smoothly, and need very little attendance, the
rods only requiring to be
occasionally tightened by the screws when they
become loose by
friction, the greatest amount of friction being
caused by the chains
rubbing on the quadrants. It has been observed
that the links wear
very quickly where the angle is acute; and it is
considered that it would
be better in all acute angles where quadrants are
used to adopt flat wire
ropes instead of close-linked chains.
The pumps here are generally known by the name of
Garibaldi pumps. ;
A number of years ago, in this same pit, a single
wire rope was
adopted, with back-balance, to pump water from a
dook with one work-
ing barrel; but it was obliged to be abandoned,
owing to the continual i
attendance and expense necessary to keep it in
working condition, ft
worked best when the pump was going at the rate
of 4 strokes p?r
minute so long as the rope did not break, which
was indeed very
frequently the case; but when the motion was
increased from 4 to 8 i
or 9 strokes, the friction, caused by the wire
rope, wore the pulleys very
rapidly, owing to the large quantity of
back-balance weight required;
and the rope being carried over pulleys in an
unsteady, jerking motion?
caused it to be almost daily necessary either to
renew some of the
pulleys, repair the rope, or refit some of the
other parts of the machinery-
ON TEN YEARS' MINERAL STATISTICS. 16 L
ON TEN YEARS' MINERAL STATISTICS OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM.—1861 TO 1870.
By W. F. HOWARD, Chesterfield.
PRODUCTION.
It may well be thought by those most able to form
competent judgment
upon the matter, that the truly able and
elaborate annual publication
of the Keeper of Mining Records fulfils all
requirements and needs no
illustration.
Those rich quarries of facts do, indeed,
illustrate themselves frequently
and variously; but they are also suggestive of
many valuable deductions
unexpressed. They have furnished the whole of the
data upon which
the present paper is based; therefore, whatever
practical or educational
value attaches to the results of the writer's
labours, obviously owes its
origin to these national records that are
inseparably associated with the
name of Mr. Robert Hunt.
Where much may be inferred, something can be
advantageously
expressed; thus, in reviewing and comparing the
statistics of a series
of years, changes and results appear of national
moment, which may
°e, to some persons, suggestive also of local and
particular application.
To form standards of comparison by which the
amount and values
°f the mineral productions of the United Kingdom,
during ten recent
years, are made to exhibit accurately the
relative proportions of the
several minerals raised, and of the districts
furnishing contributions
hereto, can but tend conveniently to elucidate
the Mining Records.
Such has been the writer's aim, and hence the
present synopsis,
consisting of tables, to which the following
explanation is intended to
te simply introductory.
Mineral production is the only feature of the
statistics at present
attempted to be illustrated.
Value, and not quantity or tonnage, is solely
considered in the tables,
Ullless otherwise expressed, except in Table IV.
VOL. XXI.-1872. y
162 ON TEN YEARS' MINERAL STATISTICS. ¦
There are four series of tables herewith,
numbered I., II., III., and
IV.; each comprising* ten years. Tables I., II.,
and III. contain,
under the heads of each year, totals, and
averages, per centages of
values as will be described. The actual values
upon which the per
centages are based are given in Table I. In Table
III. are given the
actual values to which the per centages in that
table and also in Table
II. refer. The values in Table I. will be
observed to be the totals of
the other two tables last mentioned. The figures
in Table IV. are
tonnages and rates of value to which further
reference will be made.
Confining remark at present to the per centage
features of the tables,
for Table I. the standard taken is, that the
total annual value of all the
minerals raised in the United Kingdom is
represented invariably by
100-000. Whence is deduced the annual per centage
value of each
mineral, subdivided into the annual per centage
value of each district's
yield of such mineral.
Table I. is an abstract of the series, and shows
the relative values
of all the minerals to each other and to the
total value, but omits details
of districts : such details, it has been thought,
will be found to be more
usefully confined to bear reference to each
mineral separately, as in the
second series of tables.
For Table II., being the second series first
mentioned, the standard
taken is, that the total annual value of each
mineral raised in the
United Kingdom is represented invariably by
100*000 • whence is de-
duced the annual per centage value of each
mineral contributed by each
district.
For Table III., or the third series, the standard
taken is, that the
total value of the production of each mineral
separately, in each district
separately, for the whole ten years' period is
represented invariably by
1000*000 • or in other words, that the average
annual value is 100*000;
whence is deduced the annual per centage value of
each mineral,
denoting clearly the stability of its yield, or
the periods and amounts of
its increase or decline, simultaneously with the
state of progress of
other districts.
In comparing the values of the different minerals
before their con-
version into metals and manufactured articles, it
is evident that, between
the ultimate value of the minerals and their
apparent relative value
taken simply as the produce of mining in the
manner here represented,
there may, and doubtless do, exist wide
differences. With regard to
coal, however, its low specific gravity or excess
of bulk in proportion to
weight, as compared with nearly all other
minerals, must always make
¦
ON TEN YEARS' MINERAL STATISTICS* 163
it the ruling mineral in this and every other
highly-populated country
(as well as on account of its furnishing the
motive power of modern
machinery, both stationary and for transit, and
its use in converting all
other minerals and itself into more finished
articles), in respect of the
superior facility and less cost with which
materials of greater density
can be transported. Hence, in great measure, the
chief assemblages of
manufacturing establishments and of populous
places are upon and in
contiguity to coal-fields• a rule that holds good
throughout this country,
except in such instances as the metropolis, where
objects of national con-
venience and the extraneous tendencies of
commerce prevail.
Restricting consideration to the apparent
relative values,—the enor-
mous preponderance of coal, 75 per cent., and of
iron ore, 10 per cent,
upon the total value of all the minerals raised
during the ten years in
value and also in tonnage (see Table IV.) over
other minerals is strikingly
exhibited. The annual, the ruling, and the recent
rate and condition
of development, decline, or fluctuation of the
several mineral industries
are made visibly clear, presenting interesting
confirmation of known
circumstances and interesting problems for
enquiry. Thus, the vast
and steady development of the coal trade, the
more than doubled weight
and value of iron ores production, the remarkable
declension of copper,
the steadiness of lead, and the variableness of
tin, are most clearly
indicated.
Confining attention to each mineral
separately,—the changed and
changing proportions contributed by each district
to the national aggre-
gate are highly instructive • and the more
remote, the average and the
present yields of different or competing
districts are well calculated to
convey just ideas of their relative importance.
Of change, Table II.,
under head of Iron Ore, exhibits remarkable
instances : thus, with
Scotland, which in 1861 contributed 28J per cent,
of the annual national
^eld, falling to one-half of that quota in
1864-5, and to percent, in
1866, being one-third of the proportion first
mentioned. The recent rise
of Ae same district in 1870 to 17f per cent, is,
if possible, even more
noteworthy.
The decline of South Wales from 1\ to 4 per
cent., with Monmouth-
re deluded, and of South Staffordshire from 10 to
3 per cent., denote
present depend ence of those great iron-making
centres upon ex-
the f SUPP^es an(^ em3ct °f competition.
The marvellous rush to
^6^ront °f the North Riding or Cleveland District
from 1\ per cent, in
^ned^0 ^ Cent* ^ a Pos^on nas since more
than main-
> shows how quickly dormant resources may be made
to yield
164 ON TEN YEARS' MINERAL STATISTICS.
enormously. The too limited but most valuable
hematite district of
Cumberland, with part Lancashire, rivals its
great Cleveland competitor :
while the lias and oolite new ironstone fields of
Lincolnshire and
Northamptonshire, by having doubled and trebled
respectively their
former produce, give tokens of a greater future.
Derbyshire, with its
many new additional furnaces, shows a decline,
having obtained supplies
from these fields more advantageously than from
its native ore.
Durham and Northumberland from about an eighth of
one per cent,
have risen to 1^ per cent. Cornwall is weakly
represented in this
metallic mineral only, having declined from *4 to
'1; whilst Ireland
from 0 had achieved *4.
Of steady maintenance of general position,
through great and almost
continuous increase of production, coal affords
illustration. Durham
and Northumberland, averaging 24J per cent., show
an increase from
first to last of 2§ per cent., namely, from 22J
per cent, in 1861 to 25
per cent, in 1870. Scotland stands second at 13£
on the average : then
Lancashire, 12|; Stafford and Worcester, llf;
Yorkshire, 10; South
Wales, 8J; Derbyshire, 4§ ; Monmouthshire, 4^;
and other districts
of less importance, as shown in the table. The
undeveloped Notts dis-
trict of the great Midland Coal-field, having
more than doubled its
proportion, has responded to the introduction of
capital in pits that have
pierced the magnesian limestone.
Of lead, Durham and Northumberland have
contributed on the
average 24 per cent., Wales 27f, Yorkshire 9,
Cornwall 7f, Derbyshire
6f, Cumberland 6§, Shropshire 4f, Isle of Man 3f,
Westmorland 2|,
Scotland 2f, Ireland 2\ per cent.
Of tin, 98^ per cent, was produced in Cornwall,
and 1^ in Devon.
Of copper, Cornwall yielded 58^ per cent.,
Devonshire 17|, Anglesea
3£, Cheshire If, Ireland 11 per cent.
Of zinc, 34£ per cent, has come from the Isle of
Man, 36^ from
Wales, 10^ from Cornwall, 9^ per cent, from
Ireland.
Of iron pyrites, 67| per cent, was yielded by
Ireland, 14J Cornwall,
6| Durham and Northumberland, 4^ Yorkshire.
Of metallic minerals and earths, besides its
contributions of tin,
copper, lead, iron, zinc, and iron pyrites,
Cornwall chiefly supplied
manganese, arsenic, gossans, ochres, and umbers,
and the whole of the
small quantities of antimony, fluor spar, nickel
ore, oxide of iron, tung-
state of soda, uranium, and wolfram.
Of salt, Cheshire furnished 84| per cent.,
Worcestershire 13|, Ireland
1^ per cent.
ON TEN YEARS' MINERAL STATISTICS. 165
Of fine and fire clays, Cornwall yielded in
Porcelain clays 28-J- per
cent., Devon 7, Dorset 12, and the Midland
District fire clays about 50
per cent.
The Eastern Counties, true to their agricultural
character, contributed
only coprolites manure.
Surrey yielded Fuller's earth.
Gold has been produced in Merionethshire and
Sutherland, but of
small amount; and in 1870 this mineral is
unmentioned.
About half the produce of barytes is reported
from Derbyshire;
Northumberland and Shropshire next. The returns
of this mineral and
of some others have been evidently imperfect.
The instruction conveyed by the publication of
grouped tabulated
abstracts of estimates and returns of the
national mineral production is
most valuable in many ways and to many classes of
persons. The
localities from which supplies of the various
minerals have been, are,
and will probably hereafter be, derived, appear
in evidence well calculated
to command the attention of all who are, and of
others who ought to be
interested.
To mining and other engineers and students,
geologists, property
owners, agents, and financiers of all
descriptions, statesmen and political
economists, they convey information suggestive of
direct application in
their respective pursuits, and invite
remunerative research.
From the exhaustive effect of mining operations
upon the stores of
mineral creation, from the ever increasing
absorption of materials as
civilization and inventions progress, from our
growing population and
consequently greater home consumption, and from
the encouragement
afforded of late years, at least to the present
time, for export trade, the
older and the more limited mining localities are
being continually
diminished in their natural resources, and
inducement with necessity
arises for the discovery and opening of new
fields. Hence the appoint-
ment of the Royal Coal Commission, by whom the
invaluable services
°f Mr. Hunt have been most judiciously applied in
ascertaining the
mineral position and prospects of other countries
to afford evidence for
judging of our own.
The conspicuous absence or insignificance of
certain districts in
gelation to certain minerals invites
investigation. Of this Ireland may
be mentioned in illustration.
An examination of the results and tendencies of
each mineral industry
as a whole, and of each district contributing
thereto, would be incomplete
wUhout comparison to a standard common to the
series of years under
166 ON TEN TEARS' MINERAL STATISTICS.
consideration, and affecting each industry and
district separately. The
series of Tables III. are arranged to effect this
object, and show both
actual and per centage values, the former being
here placed specially to
prevent erroneous inferences, inasmuch as great
per centage differences
upon smaller values are balanced by less per
centage differences upon
larger values.
The actual values column in this table may be
consulted in connection
with the other tables. Without extracting
instances in illustration it
may suffice to direct attention more particularly
to the districts and
minerals previously mentioned as having changed
or fluctuated the most.
To quote instances, many of which will be found
on examination of this
table to be extremely forcible and interesting,
might it is feared tend to
confusion by appearing to conflict with the
proportions quoted in showing
the relations of particular districts to the
general amount of all. It is
evident however, that there would be no
discrepancy in reality.
In the Tables I., II., and III., hitherto
particularized, value and not
weight or tonnage has been adopted, from the
convenience thus afforded
by employment of the pound sterling (£) as a
common denomination •
upon which basis, comparisons of dissimilar
materials, that would be
impracticable or absurd upon a tonnage basis, are
enabled to be made.
Table IV. gives the tonnages corresponding to the
values in Table
III., and shows the rate per ton at which the
production of each
mineral district has been taken.
The writer is perfectly aware that both the
values adopted by Mr.
Hunt, and the dissection of the same for
districts by himself, are open to
criticism, especially under the head of iron, for
which reason indeed he
has considered it proper to show the facts in
their entirety. Another
ground of objection is that the areas included in
counties are not
generally coincident with, or inclusive of entire
mineral districts. To
this, the writer can only say that he has
endeavoured to use to the best
advantage the materials at his command, and that
he has followed the
arrangement of the Government publication of
Mineral Statistics.
Those acquainted with local facts may, where it
is desirable to do so,
be able, as they very probably will prefer, to
adopt natural mineralogical
divisions for distinction of districts.
There are other aspects and features of the
Mineral Statistics of the
Kingdom for the same period that the writer has
now in hand to
illustrate, but it has been thought undesirable
to delay the present
paper, particularly as its interest depends to a
considerable extent upon
the recency of the subject matter referred to.
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TABLE II.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL.
TABLE II.—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL.
TABLE II—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL.
TABLE II.—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL,
f ~ "-'-~-----___
TABLE II.—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL.
TABLE II.—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL.
I
TABLE II.—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE
OF EACH MINERAL.
TABLE II.—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL.
I '---1--———-.___
TABLE II.—Continued.
PER CENTAGE VALUE OF EACH DISTRICT ON TOTAL
ANNUAL VALUE OF EACH MINERAL.
w
"I °
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S f s
g2 a h
§ tei o >*
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1 w S §
g M Q o
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198 on ten years' mineral statistics.
The Chairman said, he felt sure they were very
much obliged to
the writer of the valuable paper they had just
heard read. It would
form an item of considerable importance in their
proceedings for that
year; he thought, they might point with
satisfaction to the conspicuous
place occupied by coal, which was represented as
forming something
like three-fourths of the total mineral out-put
of the country. These
statistics, which exhibited such an immense
out-put of mineral wealth
would very clearly indicate the source from which
the prosperity of
England was at present derived. He thought there
was no need of
discussion, and all they had to do that day was
to pass a vote of thanks
to the writer, and then proceed to the next
paper, which was unanimously
concurred in.
Mr. Howard, in acknowledging the compliment, said
he would
endeavour to attend the discussion, to give any
further explanation
that might be needed.
Mr. John Daglish read a translation of a paper
"On the Appli-
cation of Machines worked by Compressed Air in
the Collieries of Sars-
Longchamps and Bouvy, at St. Vaast, in Belgium,
by Mons. F. L.
Cornet."
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 199
oN THE APPLICATION OF MACHINES WORKED BY
COMPRESSED AIR IN THE COLLIERIES OF SARS-
LONGCHAMPS AND BOUVY, AT SAINT-VAAST, IN
BELGIUM.
By M. F. L. CORNET
(Translated from the French by Mr. John Daglish).
[Sometime since, the translator, having" occasion
to erect machinery
for working with compressed air, had his
attention called to the valuable
paper read by M. Cornet to the "Societe des
Anciens Eleves de l'Ecole
Speciale des Mines, du Hainaut," and published in
their Transactions.
More recently, air-compressing machinery, on a
scale of considerable
magnitude, has been erected at Ryhope Colliery
with much success, and
has been fully described in a paper read to your
Institute.
Perhaps, at this juncture, M. Cornet's paper may
aid in the discus-
sion that will arise on this interesting and
important subject.]
Towards the end of the year 1863 the Colliery
Company of Sars-
Longchamps and Bouvy resolved to drive below the
amain level"
gallery (driven at that concession at a depth of
366 metres) some drifts
to the dip, for the purpose of working the
different seams intersected by
that gallery.
It was decided that a system of working should be
arranged so as
to produce 72,000 tons of coals annually, and
that it should be applied
nrst to the seams farthest from the pits, i.e.,
to the seams "Huit paumes"
Pre" and "Marie" forming a group intersected by
the "level" at
600 metres, and also in the "Caroline" cut at 770
metres (see
Plate XXXIII.).
The seams are very regular in positions. Their
inclination varies
from 25° to 32°, and their thickness of coal from
0 38 metres to 0*55
Metres. They yield refuse stones, which it is
necessary to draw to the
^rface t0 the extent of about 30 per cent, of the
weight of coal. The
°0r is generally good; but the roof very
variable. In some parts it is
®tr°ng and requires hardly any kind of support;
in other parts it is bad
can only be kept up by numerous props. The
overlying strata are
°* Water; but there is not an important
discharge.
200 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR.
In the calculations which have been made to
estimate the expenditure
of mechanical work required in drawing from the
dip, the maximum
height of the panel is taken at 160 metres, the
average inclination
of the seam at 28°, and the quantity of water to
be extracted from the
workings in twenty-four hours at 100 cubic
metres.
The quantities to be raised annually are,
therefore,
72,000 tons of coal.
21,600 ,, refuse stone.
36,500 „ water.
Total 130,100 tons.
Taking 290 working days per year, the quantity to
raise per day,
therefore, is 448,620 kilogrammetres. With an
inclination of 28°, a
dip drift of 160 metres in length would be 75TO
metres in vertical
depth.
Suppose a daily working of twelve hours, of which
four hours are
occupied in changing and short stops, there
remain eight hours for effectual
working. The theoretical quantity of mechanical
power to be produced
per second is, therefore,
448,620 kil x 75-10 m. -
-—I-——- = 1,170 kilogrammetres.
8 hours x 3,600 sees.
The resistance of the wagons and ropes on the
inclined planes, and
the friction on the axles, absorb 20 per cent, of
the theoretical power,
20
so that the practical power required would be
1,170 + ^qq x 1,170 =
1,404 kilogrammetres. This is equal to 18*72
horse-power per second.
This large requirement excludes at once the idea
of using animal
power. A man working a winch can only produce, on
an average,
6 kilogrammetres per second; it would require,
therefore, 234 men to
obtain a total power of 1,404 kilogrammetres.
A horse attached to a wagon produces 40*50
kilogrammetres per
second; on these conditions it can work eight
hours on the surface, but
at the bottom of the mine, not more than six
hours of effective work
should be calculated on. It would require,
therefore, 47 horses to
obtain the work of 18*72 steam horse-power; and
for 47 horses employed?
there would be continually 3 in the infirmary,
which would bring the
actual number required to 50. A horse in a mine
costs, on an average,
1,242 francs annually, keep and upholding
included, but without driver- I
The total expense, per annum, for 50 horses would
be 62,100 franco I
or nearly 0*08 francs per hectolitre of coal
drawn out from the dip.
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 201
It was necessary, therefore, to have recourse to
one of the following
!; jECchanical powers :—
1st.—Steam engines placed at the top of the dip
inclines with boilers
adjacent to them.
2nd.—Steam engines similarly placed, with boilers
at the bottom of
the winding shaft or on the surface.
3rd.—Steam engines placed at the bottom of the
winding shaft, with
boilers adjacent or on the surface, and acting by
ropes carried
along the level to the dip inclines.
4th.—Steam engines placed on the surface, and
acting by ropes
carried down the pit and along the levels to the
dip inclines.
5th.—Hydraulic engines placed at the top of the
dip inclines and
worked by water coming from a higher cistern.
6th —Engines analogous to steam engines placed at
the top of the
dip inclines, but working by compressed air,
produced by an
engine specially constructed for this purpose on
the surface.
The different systems were seriously considered,
and it was decided
that only compressed air could be employed. It
is not necessary to
enter on the reasons which led to this choice;
they arose entirely from
the position of the works of the Sars-Longchamps
Company.
Having adopted, in principle, the application of
engines worked by
compressed air, the Company, before absolutely
deciding, determined
that an excursion should be made to the mines of
England, where
apparatus of this kind is employed. M. Cornet, in
describing the obser-
vations made in that visit, stated that he was
accompanied by Messrs:
A. Halbrecq, engineer of the workshops at
Jemappes ; and Victor
Plumat, formerly of the School of Mines, of Mons,
attached to the
"Levant du Flenu Co."
Until recently the use of mechanical appliances
in the interior of
mines has been very little adopted in Belgium.
The practice of the
mmer h;is been to obtain traction-power, solely
from the muscular force
°* men and animals, or by gravity. But it is not
so in the coal mines
111 England. The most of the important mines in
the basins of Durham
ailo! Newcastle, Lancashire and South Wales,
employ, in their interior
Workings, numerous machines, the power and
dimensions of which
4St°nish the engineers of the Continent who visit
them.
¦*^ho motive power is steam or compressed air.
With the first, the
^acbines are placed on the surface, and transmit
their power to the
^srior of tin* works by means of ropes; or they
are placed in the
fcvol.xxi.--1872. D2
202 machines worked by compressed air.
galleries adjacent to the upcast shafts, which
serve for the escape of
the gaseous products of combustion. In the second
case, the air is
compressed on the surface and conveyed through
pipes into the interior
of the mines, where it acts on the machinery
usually placed far from
the ventilating shafts.
The steam engines are much the more numerous and
powerful agents
employed; compressed air machines being of more
recent application do
not exist in great numbers, and are not of
dimensions to be compared
with those of the steam engines. However, at the
commencement
of the year 1864, a dozen machines of this class
were in operation
in the coal-field of Lancashire alone, and others
were either projected
or in course of construction. But with their
system of working,
and with the large quantity of air in the
workings which they generally
have, English engineers will always prefer steam
engines to all other
machines, when they can place them on the
surface, or underground,
in places adjacent to the ventilating shafts.
Compressed air can only
be advantageously employed when far from the
ventilating shafts, or in
places too much charged with gas to permit the
employment of boilers.
Still, however, many of the English engineers are
convinced that air
machines will spread rapidly in the mines of
Great Britain.
The engines used underground in England are
chiefly employed for
conveying minerals on level roads or inclined
planes, some are employed
in drainage, and others more rarely in hewing
coal; these latter are
still under trial, but the others have proved
their success.
The principal application of engines for
transport is on inclined
planes, which sometimes exceed in length 2,000
metres. Dip working,
far from being the exception as in Belgium, is
almost universal in
England. That part of the seam situated to the
dip of the pit is nearly
always worked by dip inclines. Generally, a
"hanging on" is arranged
at the lowest seam that is intended to be worked;
at that level the
higher seams are cut by a level drift driven
across, and the parts to the
dip and to the rise are wrought successively or
simultaneously, sometimes
descending in the seam to a depth that would
appear impossible to many
persons who have not visited the English mines.
This method of working appears very rational for
the English
collieries, and would be quite as much so in many
of the BelgiaX1
collieries; and, sooner or later, perhaps sooner
than some may think, certain
circumstances, perhaps not altogether connected
with mines, will oblig"6
the Belgian adventurer to adopt this application.
machines worked by compressed air. 203
It is not intended to discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of
I "dip workings," nor to describe the steam
engines employed in England
i in similar works; but it may be useful to say a
few words on certain
I underground arrangements which have been
visited.
(The writer then shortly describes the steam
engines at Pendleton,
which description it is unnecessary to give
here.)
The first important application of compressed air
as a hauling power
appears to go back to the year 1851. The
apparatus erected at Govan
Colliery, near Glasgow, has been described in
detail in the "Revue
Universelle de Liege," Vol. 1; the air,
compressed to 1£ atmospheres
aDOve the atmospheric pressure, is forced into
the mine at a depth of
161 metres, and works an engine erected at a "
staple " in the interior
about 600 metres from the shaft.
The compressing engine is a beam engine; it works
two single-acting
air pumps, acting alternately; these pumps are
0*533 metres in diameter,
and 0*457 metres length of stroke. Each suction
and delivery valve
consists of 44 spheres of brass of 0*05 metres
diameter, always covered
with a layer of water; the use of the water is to
reduce as much as
possible the injurious spaces, to prevent all
escape of air, and to cool, to
a certain extent, the air heated by compression;
the temperature does
not exceed 30° to 45° centigrades.
The compressing machine at Govan, perfect as
regards its mechanism,
was very costly to erect; other apparatus met
with in Lancashire was
much simpler and less costly, and easily kept in
repair at little cost.
At Scot Lane Colliery, near to Blackwood, to the
west of Manchester,
the most extensive application of compressed air
for working in the interior
of mines was met with. The air is compressed on
the surface by two
horizontal steam engines, one of which also works
the drainage pumps,
and the other a circular saw. The steam cylinders
and the air cylinders
are placed one behind the other, and the pistons
are placed on the same
piston rod; the compressing* cylinders are double
acting, and are enclosed
m a bath through which there is a constant
current of water. The suc-
tion is made through holes of 0'01 metres
diameter, pierced in great
numbers in the end of the cylinders; the falls
are simple sheets of India-
rubber, of 0-012 metres in thickness, fastened at
the centre. The
delivery is effected by ordinary brass valves,
the lift of which is regu-
lated by a screw bolt which passes through the
valve corner.
Before entering into the mine the air passes into
a receiver formed of
tw° old steam boilers, one 1*10 metres diameter
and 5 metres long, the
204 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR.
other 1*50 metres diameter and 9 metres long;
each of these boilers is
fitted with a safety-valve and sludge-cock.
The compressing pistons are constructed similar
to steam pistons;
they have springs and rings of cast iron j the
inside of the cylinders are
not lined with brass as in the Govan machine.
At the time of M. Cornet's visit, the first of
these compressing engines
only was at work; the other is only employed when
the quantity of work
to be drawn out of the mine requires it. The
velocity was 20 double
strokes per minute (1*42 metres per second), the
pressure of air in the
receiver was 52 lbs. per square inch (or 3^
atmospheres), the refrigera-
ting water entered the bath at 12° c. and left it
at 56° c. A sensation of
heat was felt when the hand was placed on the
discharge pipe between
the cylinder and the receiver, but it could be
kept there without incon-
venience. On placing the hand on the pipe leading
from the receiver
to the mine, no heat could be perceived; the air,
therefore, was cooled
down in its passage through the receiver.
The following are the dimensions of the
compressing engines :—
1st Machine—Steam Cylinder, diameter ...... 0*61
metres.
„ „ stroke ...... 1'52 „
1st Machine—Air Cylinder, diameter ...... 0*305 „
„ „ stroke ...... 1*52 „
2nd Machine—Steam Cylinder, diameter...... 0*41 „
„ „ stroke ...... 0*915 „
2nd Machine—Air Cylinder, diameter ...... 0*37 „
„ „ stroke ...... 0*915 „
The pipes conducting the air from the cylinders
to the receivers are
of cast iron, 0*075 metres diameter; they are
fastened by flanges and
bolts, with India-rubber weazes. The same
material is used for the
joints of all the apparatus for carrying the air,
except for the pipes
which go down the shaft. These are of wrought
iron, and are fastened
by screwed collars. These pipes are 0*05 metres
interior diameter; the
shaft is 137 metres in depth.
The compressed air is used to drive five small
machines in the mine,
two of which are used for hauling coals from the
dip, and three for
pumping water.
There is nothing in these machines to distinguish
them from ordi-
nary steam engines. The first we visited is
placed 125 metres from the
shaft; it works an endless rope on a dip inclined
plane, 457 metres, h1
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 205
¦engtn? incline(i °"05 Per metre i il nas a
horizontal cylinder of 0*20
metres diameter, and 0*45 metres stroke, and
works by means of mitred
heels, a vertical shaft carrying a pulley with a
deep groove, round
' nich the endless cord passes one and a half
times. The rope is of wire,
q.q-35 metres in diameter; the wagons are
attached at a distance of
h 15*50 metres apart, they contain 5 to 6
hectolitres.
£l\ the machine is contained in a timbered
excavation, of 3 metres
lon°' hy 2*75 metres wide, and 1*50 metres high.
A second hauling machine is erected in another
part of the mine;
the cylinder is horizontal, of 0 34 metres
diameter and 0*75 metres
stroke; it works by means of toothed wheels, a
double drum 150 metres
diameter, round which are wire ropes which haul
trains consisting
0f six wagons, on a dip incline of 915 metres
inclined 0*05 per-
metre; each drum can be put out of gear on the
shaft, which allows the
descent of the empty train by the braise. This
arrangement, which is
adopted in nearly all the engines employed in the
interior of mines on
inclined planes, is for the purpose of expediting
the working from the
bottom of the planes, and to enable the haulage
from several levels.
The three other compressed air machines at Scot
Lane Colliery are
erected at the bottom of dip inclines, where they
pump water; these
engines are horizontal, with cylinders 0*20
metres diameter and 0*45
metres stroke ; they work ordinary forcing pumps.
It was not possible to measure the useful effect
of the interior
machines at Scot Lane, nor the difference in
pressure of the air at the
two extremities of the conducting pipe; but much
practical information
on the subject of compressed air machines was
obtained.
All the joints of the bolted flange pipes which
carry the compressed
air should be made of India-rubber of a fixed
thickness (*005 metres to
'012 metres); cement of all kinds and
India-rubber weazes of 1 to 3
millimetres allow the escape of the compressed
air. It is indispensable
to place on the receiver, on the surface, and on
the pipes near the under-
ground machines, taps which can be opened from
time to time to blow
°ff the water which condenses there. If this
precaution is neglected,
^ exhaust parts of the machine are obstructed
with ice which forms
there.
One of the machines at Scot Lane was only able to
work properly
^er a waste cock had been placed on the bent pipe
below the valve
Compressed air machines ought to be calculated to
work at pres-
206 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR.
sures which do not exceed 45 to 60 lbs. per
square inch. At Scot
Lane an attempt was made to work at 100 to 120
lbs., but there were
frequent interruptions from the deposition of ice
in the machine and
discharge pipes.
The inconvenience of using air at too high a
pressure was also felt at
the machines in the Haigh Collieries, near Wigan.
They were at
first erected to work, and did actually work, at
8 to 9 atmospheres
M. Devilliz has given a description of these in
his work on the
" Employment of Underground Machines in Mines."
But in May, 1864
the necessary changes had been made to work at 3
to 4 atmospheres.
These machines are erected at the Bridge Pit of
the Haigh Collieries.
The air is compressed by a vertical engine with a
double-acting air-pump
of 0*23 metres diameter and 1*83 metres length of
stroke, making 22
double strokes per minute (1'34 metres per
second). The conducting
pipes are of cast iron, attached by flanged
joints with weazes of India-
rubber. Their total length is about 720 metres.
Circumstances pre-
vented a visit to the interior of the mine.
An air compressing machine, arranged specially
for this purpose, is
erected at Ince Hall Pit, near Wigan. It is
horizontal, and the compressing
cylinder is arranged exactly like the one at Scot
Lane. The diameter of
the air piston is 0*455 metres, that of the steam
piston 0*66 metres,
and the length of stroke 1*47 metres. The
pressure of air is 45 to 60 lbs. I
per square inch, and that of the steam 45 to 50
lbs.
This machine supplies air to a " hewing machine"
which was visited,
but is not described here, as it is foreign to
this enquiry.
Before describing the apparatus erected by the
Sars-Longchamps j
Company, it will be well to enter on some
theoretical considerations I
on the application of compressed air.
The work done in compressing air may be divided
into two heads :—
1st. The work necessary to compress the air from
the pressure of the I
atmosphere to that required.
2nd. The work expended in propelling the air out
of the cylinder m j
which it has been compressed.
Air is a body eminently elastic—that is to say,
that whatever may °e
the compression to which it has been submitted,
it will always expand i
again to its original volume when the compressing
force is removed
During its return to its original pressure it
gives out again all the work
expended in compressing it. It might, therefore,
be thought th^
machines worked by compressed air are able to
give out again all the i
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 207
oVk that the air required for its compression.
This would be so if there
did not occur during the compression of the air
several remarkable
lienomena, to which attention is now drawn.
^ Air when compressed becomes considerably
heated, but the heat pro-
duced disappears very rapidly, even when no
cooling apparatus is
employed. If the conducting pipes are of a
certain length the tempera-
ture of the air passing out of them will exceed
very little that of the
external air. M. Develliz (Report, p. 16) has
mentioned this rapid
disappearance of the heat at the Mont Cenis
works; and it was also
ascertained at the Scot Lane Collieries. If the
air remained at the
same temperature during compression, its tension
would increase accord-
ing- to Mariotte's law; but its heating tends to
increase this tension
more rapidly, so that in order to obtain a given
volume of air at a given
tension, it is necessary to compress it to a
greater tension. Hence so
much loss of work.
When the cool, compressed air is reduced by
expansion to the
atmospheric pressure, an extreme coldness is
produced, which diminishes
its volume. The expansion, therefore, is not
according to Mariotte's
law. Hence another loss of work.
The production of cold causes the freezing up of
the machinery
when the expansion takes place unless the air is
perfectly dry, which is
practically impossible ] it always contains
vapour, the condensation of
which covers the sides of the engine with ice and
stops the machinery.
The intensity of the cold increases with the
tension of the air and
the amount of expansion, consequently at Scot's
Lane and Haigh
Collieries the use of air compressed to 8 or 9
atmospheres has of
necessity been abandoned.
Even when the machines, work at full pressure
throughout, the
expansion of the air during its discharge causes
the freezing of the
vapour. The machines which work the main shaft of
the hydraulic
compressors at Bardonniche, are constructed to
work with three-fifths
expansion (M. Devilliz, Report, p. 92), but they
can also work at full
P^ssure. In the first case it has been found
necessary to warm the
cylinder to avoid the production of ice; in the
second, the lowering of
^he temperature is considerable, but no
inconvenience arises.
It is useless to expect, therefore, to obtain
from the air more than a
P°rtion of the work expended in compressing it.
The proportion will be
greater according as the degree of expansion is
increased.
But where should be the limit? At Mont Cenis
three-fifths of
208 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 1
expansion causes inconveniences, which can only
he avoided by the use
of heaters. M. Devilliz (p. 129) believes that it
is quite possible to
work the expansion up to double the original
volume. Possibly this
could be done up to 3 or 4 atmospheres, but not
to 8 or 9. However that
may be, the apparatus for compressed air, erected
at Sars-Longchamps
has been calculated to do the work without
expansion. But the under-
ground machinery has been arranged in such a
manner that the
entrance of the compressed air can be cut off at
will when the piston
has passed one half its stroke.
The employment of expansion has an immense
importance in relation
to useful effect in machines worked by air. This
importance can be
ascertained by an examination of the figures of
the following table, in
which are given the quantities of work necessary
to compress from 1 to 7
atmospheres effective, a litre of air taken at
the atmospheric pressure.
These calculations have been made without taking
into consideration the
loss of work which results from the heating of
the air in its compression,
and from the cooling in the cylinders when
expansion is used.
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 209
jnto effect), and diminishes with the pressure,
but in a less degree with
\ expansion than with full pressure.
From these calculations the following conclusions
can be drawn :
" having regard to the useful effect it is
advisable to employ air at the
lowest possible pressure"
Another very important point to consider is that
of the conducting
pipes : in order to examine into this let the
particular case of the Sars-
Longchamps Company be considered. The above table
shows that it is
necessary to produce at the head of the incline
plane an actual power of
1-404 kilogrammetres per second, if we suppose
the machine in the
\ interior of the mine to give out only 50 per
cent, useful effect, then to
obtain 1,404 kilogrammetres of actual effect it
will be necessary to
expend theoretically 2,808 kilogrammetres, and
this work will require
the expenditure of compressed air as follows:—
TABLE No. 2.
It will be seen by examining this table that the
useful effect that
can be obtained from a litre of compressed
atmospheric air increases
considerably when expansion is used (even when it
is not carried &r
The volume of compressed air expended to produce
a given effect
diminishes proportionably to the increase of the
pressure, if full
Pressure only is employed; it diminishes a little
more rapidly still if
^pansion is used. The result of the experiments
made by order of
^ Sardinian Government as to the resistance of
air in pipes shows
^iut the loss of pressure due to the friction of
air in the conducting
vol.xxi.-1872. e2
210 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR.
pipes is almost in direct ratio to the squares of
the velocity, in direct
ratio to the length, and in inverse ratio to the
diameter of the pipes.
This law, already admitted by M. D'Aubuisson, has
been verified in the
works of the Mont Cenis Tunnel, by M. Devilliz
(Report, pp. 54 to 59).
The following* table is a resume of the results
of the experiments
made by the Commissioners of the Sardinian
Government (Revue
Universelle de Liege, Vol. IV.):—
TABLE No. 3.
The volume of air employed to obtain a desired
effect is, as has been
shown, in the inverse ratio of the pressure,
hence it results that for
an equal diameter of pipe the velocities which
the air will attain will
also be in the inverse ratio of the pressure.
Consequently the loss arising'
from the friction will increase in the inverse
ratio of the squares of the
pressures; that is, it will be 49 times greater
at 1 atmosphere than
at 7 atmospheres. Whatever may be the pressure,
to have only the
same loss by friction the section of the pipes
ought to be in inverse
ratio of the square of the pressure, and the
diameter in the inverse ratio
of the pressure. If at 7 atmospheres pipes of
0*10 metres diameter
are used, it will be necessary at 6 atmospheres
to use pipes 0*20 metres
diameter, at 5 atmospheres of 0*30 metres
diameter, at 4 atmospheres of
0*40 metres diameter, at 3 atmospheres of 0*50
metres diameter, at
2 atmospheres of 0*60 metres diameter, and at 1
atmosphere of 0'70
metres diameter.
In case of using expansion, the volume of air
expended being lesS
than at full pressure, it follows that for a
given section there i$ a
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 211
diminution of friction; this allows of a
diminution m the diameter ot
the pipes, if it is desired not to vary the
resistance.
The following table will show how the loss of
pressure, the area, and
diameter of pipes vary for the same volumes and
pressures given in
Table 2:—
TABLE No. 4.
Such are the considerations on which the "
Societe de Sars-Long-
champs" based the determinations for the power,
and the dimensions of
the apparatus for the compressed air, and the
diameter of the conducting
pipes.
compressing engine.
The compressing engine has been constructed by
the " Societe des
Ateliers de Haine-Saint-Pierre," from the designs
of M. Chenard,
Mechanical engineer. The principal condition
imposed on the con-
struction was to furnish a machine capable of
supplying 5*300 cubic
I Metres of air compressed to 3^- atmospheres
effective, with a maximum
I velocity of piston of 1*50 metres per second,
the steam being at 2|
I effective atmospheres in the boiler, cut off so
as to give an expansion of
| - four times the original volume.
The volume of 5*300 cubic metres of air pressed
to 3J defective
212 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR.
atmospheres represents an accumulated work of
531,401 kilogrammetres
per minute, or 8,85G kilogrammetres per second.
The machine has
8 856
therefore, a practical power of ' =118
horse-power.
It was at first the intention to arrange this
engine like those
inspected in the English mines, that is to say,
to place the compressing
cylinder behind the steam cylinder and to attach
the two pistons to the
same rod; but this arrangement, which causes no
inconvenience to the
English machines, where the steam works at full
pressure during the
whole stroke, and where the power is far from
reaching that of 118 horses,
would have presented here a serious
inconvenience, resulting from the
great differences between the power expended and
that absorbed in a
given instant of time, for at the commencement of
the stroke the pressure
of the steam would be at its maximum, and the
resistance of the air at
its minimum, whilst at the end the expanded steam
would have to over-
come the resistance of atmospheres in the
compressing cylinder;
this would only have been partly overcome by
employing a fly-wheel,
the weight of which for a diameter of 5 or 6
metres should have
exceeded 60,000 kilos. Such a mass, besides
considerably augmenting
the price of the machine, would have caused a
considerable loss of work
due to the friction on the bearings of the shaft.
The difficulty has been most happily overcome by
M. Chehard, who
decided to work the compressor from a crank
placed at one end of a
shaft, worked by a crank from the steam cylinder
attached to the other
end, and to arrange the two cranks so that the
moment of the greatest
power corresponded to that of the greatest
resistance. This arrangement
has permitted the attainment of a regular
movement of the engine with
a fly-wheel of 5*50 metres diameter, of which the
rim only weighs
3,645 kilos.
The cranks are at an angle of 72°.
The steam piston is 0*90 metres diameter, and
1*50 metres length of
stroke. The expansion is produced by the system
of valves of M. Farcot.
The compressing piston is 0*60 metres diameter
and 1*5 metres
length of stroke. If all loss and injurious
spaces could be avoided,
it would compress, at the velocity of 1*50 metres
per second, a volume of
(0-785 x 0-602 x 1-50) 60 _ k. wg
^-j^r--— = 5*655 cubic metres of air at 3^
atmosphere*
effective.
The area of the injurious spaces has been reduced
as low as possible?
nevertheless, it amounts to 0*007950 cubic metres
at the end of each
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 213
troke, this space is filled with air at 3^
atmospheres effective,
rliich expands when the piston
commences its return stroke.
The suction commences as soon as the air has
reached the volume
f 0*007950 X 4-5 = 0-035775 cubic metres, i.e.,
when the
ii -j ,.0-035775 x 0-007950 a aao
piston has travelled a distance or —Q785 x
0*602----------- = ^° metres,
the useful stroke is then really only 1*50 metres
— 0*098 = 1*402 metres,
r , . ^ . (0*785 x 0-602x 1-402)60
Band the volume realized per minute is---4-5~" ==
metres, supposing there is no loss of air through
the valves and piston,
¦it will be seen further on that these losses are
insignificant.
The suction and delivery of the air in the
compressing cylinder is
accomplished by clack valves of India-rubber of
003 metres thick resting
on grates; the openings of the grates are 14 for
the suction and 9 for
the delivery; the first are 0*07 metres long and
0 025 metres wide,
Bthe second are 0*10 metres long and 0*025 metres
wide.
The compressing cylinder is immersed in a bath,
the water of which
is being constantly renewed. This water is drawn
from the foundation of
the machine by a double-acting pump, worked by a
lever attached'to a
rod behind the steam piston; it is raised into a
cistern of sheet iron
at 2*50 metres above the floor, and flows from
this receiver into the
lower part of the bath to cool it, by a pipe
fitted with a regulating tap.
The hot water passes out by an overflow pipe at
the higher part of the
hath, and flows into the receiver of the feed
pumps for the steam boilers.
All the joints in the cylinder are of
India-rubber of 0*05 metres to
0*10 metres in thickness. Doors are constructed
in the sides of the bath
to afford means of examining the packing and the
piston.
The apparatus differs in two points from those
seen in England.
The delivery takes place through valves of
India-rubber, instead of
valves of bronze or iron; the piston-rod passes
constantly through
water, and does not heat much; whilst at the
collieries of Scot Lane and
Vlg*an the bath only envelopes the body of the
cylinder, the ends of
which are clear and the piston-rod remains dry,
thus it heats and rapidly
destroys the packing.
The compressed air passes from the cylinder by a
pipe 0*20 metres
ln diameter into a receiver of plate iron 1*20
metres diameter and 7*40
etres long. This receiver is placed below the
floor, and is fitted up
a waste cock, a mercurial gauge, thermometer,
safety-valve, and
valve to place the receiver in communication with
the mine. The
r Passing engine commenced working in the early
part of February,
214 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR.
1865; several experiments have been made to
observe the phenomena |
which take place during* the compression of the
air, but these have not I
yet been carried out with sufficient exactness to
be spoken of in this I
treatise.
CONDUCTING PIPES.
The compressed air is delivered into the mine by
a main pipe of 0*12 I
metres diameter and 274 metres long, of which
each piece is 2*50 metres I
long and weighs 132 kilogrammetres; at a depth of
230 this pipe js I
divided into two branches formed of pipes of
0*085 metres diameter and I
2*0 metres in length, and weighing 74
kilogrammetres. One of these I
branches is actually at work; it is 863 metres in
length, and is placed in I
an air-way partly level and partly inclined. The
engine is fixed at 351
metres below the level of the compressing
machine; the second branch I
will be 476 metres in length, and will descend
like the first 351 metres I
in depth .
All these pipes are of cast iron, and are
fastened by flanges and I
bolts, with weazes of India-rubber of 0*005
metres thick. The I
principal column is supported in the shaft by 9
lug pipes resting on I
two pieces of wood 0*15 metres square, built into
the masonry. The I
pipes of 0*085 metres are simply placed on the
floor of the galleries, I
they are shorter than those of the main pipes, so
as to facilitate the I
carriage and placement in the smaller galleries;
in some places, where I
the floor is subject to heaving, pipes with
copper ends are placed at I
certain distances, which allow of the pipes
yielding a little.
All the pipes are tested in the first instance to
a hydraulic pressure
of 12 atmospheres. The flanges are turned, and
3 small grooves of I
triangular section, called u grains d'orge," are
arranged, which are for I
the purpose of increasing the resistance of the
India-rubber to the force I
of the air.
The volume of air which the compressing machine
can supply being I
5 284 metres per minute, the velocity of the
current in the main pipe I
t 5*284 metres „ „or,
will be per second 7-^--tt-^z-z-^ = 7*787 metres.
r 60 x 0*785 x T22
The machine erected at the end of the branch pipe
of 863 metres, and I
that which will be afterwards erected at the end
of the branch pipe of ^ I
metres, being calculated to produce the same
work, will absorb the same I
5*284 metres I
quantity of air, the velocity will therefore be 9
x 6Q ^ Q.?85 ^0 I
MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 215
I jt nas been noted above that the loss which the
air undergoes by its
¦Lenient in the pipes is independent of pressure
and is in the inverse
m<tio ()T diameter and the direct ratio of the
length, and of the squares of
the pressure. These laws permit, by means of
the results of experiments
jven in Table HI., a calculation of the loss of
pressure which will
arise when the whole air that the engine can
produce is made to pass
thr0ugh the pipes.
The loss in the main pipe, 0*12 metres, of which
the entire length
.g 074 metres, may be thus considered. In Table
III., in a length
0f 1000 metres, a diameter of 0*10, and a
velocity of 6 metres, the
loss reaches 0*233 metres of mercury. For a pipe
274 metres long,
0-12 metres diameter, and a velocity of 7787
metres, the loss will be
.0S33 x 274 X 010x^787. = 0.0896 M
1000 x 012 x 62
The pressure of the air at the bottom of the main
pipe, at 230 metres
deep, will therefore be (3*5 x 0*76) = 0*0896 =
2*57 metres of
mercury or 3*38 atmospheres.
The loss of pressure at the end of the pipe of
863 metres is found to =
0*233 x 863 x 0*10 x 7*762 . Q_ + T.
+ ,
--2qqq x -085 x 62- = metres, lhe total
pressure at
the extremity farthest from the compressing
machine will be (3*5 x 0*76)
- 0*0896 - 0*395 = 2*175 metres of mercury or
2*86 atmospheres,
and the loss from 3*50 — 2*86 is 0*64
atmospheres.
But the loss is decreased by the increase of the
pressure which
results from the weight of the column of air
itself, according to the
calculations made by M. Devilliz (Report, p. 127)
The weight of a
column of 500 metres in height of air compressed
to 3^ atmospheres
effect is equal to that of a height of mercury of
0*154 metres. The
difference of level at Sars-Longchamps is 351
metres. This column
^•111 1 351 x 0*154 rt-Ar; „ .
wiu be equal to -^—-- z=z 0*108 metres;
the effective pressure
at the end of the pipe will therefore be 2*175 +
0*108 = 2*283 metres
°f mercury or 3 atmospheres.
At that pressure 5*300 cubic metres of compressed
air produced on
the surface contains 4(5] ,074 kilogrammetres, of
which 184,837 only in
^°rk stored up can be restored by working at full
pressure, whilst
*f it expanded to double the original volume,
308,070 kilogrammetres
W°uld be obtained.
In the first case, 118 horse-power expended on
the surface only
Vlelds in the mine 41 horse-power, and in the
second case 68*40.
216 MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR.
MACHINES IN THE INTERIOR OF THE MINE.
Only one engine has yet been erected at the point
A (Plate XXXlH ) I
in the works of the Sars-Longchamps Company, at
the top of one of the dip I
inclines, which is being driven in the Caroline
seam. Two other engines
of this kind will be erected in a few months; one
at the point B will be I
used to win out to the dip the seams u Huit
paumes" "Pre" and I
" Marie? the third at the point C will work the u
Grand Vein" and
the " Sehu " seam.
The machines A and B have the same dimensions,
but the first will
only work at full pressure, whilst the second
will work expansively up
to double the original volume. They are
constructed identically like I
steam engines, except the ports of admission and
discharge, to which I
are given much greater area than those of a steam
engine of the same I
dimensions and working at the same pressure. The
velocities of dis- I
charge of gases are in inverse ratio of their
densities, and the density I
of air at 15° c, compressed to 3 atmospheres, is
to that of steam of the I
same pressure as 5*172 : 2*119.
In order that there may be no more resistance to
the entry and I
discharge of the air than there is in a
well-proportioned steam engine, j
the area of the ports of the machines A and B are
increased in that I
proportion.
These two machines are calculated to draw at a
velocity of 1*33 I
metres per second (on an incline plane of 28°)
three mine wagons of 990 I
kilogrammetres of coal, each empty wagon weighing
160 kilogrammetres. I
The haulage is effected by ropes which roll on a
drum of 0*60 metres I
in diameter. Movement is given to this drum
through a pinion and a I
spur wheel, the diameters of which are in the
ratio of 1 to 2. The piston I
is 0*30 diameter, and 0*60 length of stroke; it
is made like the piston I
of a steam engine, the rings being of cast iron.
The compressed air, before reaching the cylinder,
passes into a receiver, I
1*20 metres in length, and 0*60 metres in
diameter. This Deceiver is I
required to receive the water drawn along by the
air, and is furnished I
with an escape cock and a mercurial gauge.
The machine B will be arranged so that the air
will work with I
expansion up to double its original volume, but
the cut-off will be able I
to be instantly suppressed. I
The machine C will be similar; this is an old
steam engine which I
was used some years ago at one of the dip
inclines. It has a cylio^er I
of 0*25 metres in diameter, and 0*50 metres
length of stroke; tu<3 I
diameters of the pinion and spur wheels are in
the ratio of 1 to 3; &e I
plSCUSSION-MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED AIR. 217
I r0pes are rolled on a drum of 0*50 diameter.
This last engine, the
I erection of which has recently been decided on,
will be placed 405
! metres in depth, in the workings of the No. 6
Pit. It is near this
winding shaft where the compressing engine is
placed, and it is down
a compartment reserved at the side of the winding
pit that the main
pipe descends into the workings, to supply the
interior machines; this
main pipe will be prolonged to a depth of 405
metres, and will be placed
in communication with the machine C, by pipes of
0*085 metres diame-
ter, of which the total length will be 110
metres.
Since the different apparatus, actually erected,
has been at work,
i.e.j since the early part of February, 1865, no
derangement has occurred.
At the commencement some joints of the conducting
pipes allowed a
considerable quantity of air to escape; but in
all cases it was only
necessary to tighten the bolts to stop the leak;
so that now, if the engines
are stopped when the air is at 3| atmospheres in
the receiver and the pipes,
it requires more than 10 hours to bring down the
pressure to \ atmosphere.
The working of the compressing engine is most
satisfactory; the
India-rubber falls, after working more than two
months, are almost
uninjured. The escape of the air through the
piston is insignificant;
this fact has been ascertained by experiment, by
calculating the number
of cylinders full, necessary to bring the
pressure in the receiver, of which
the capacity is known, from 0* to 3 J
atmospheres.
The temperature of the air in the receiver never
exceeds 40° c.;
but the quantity of water which will be required
to be used in the bath,
to keep it down to this temperature, when the
machine works with
all its power, will be considerable; it will
require, probably, at least 3
htres per second.
The machine underground works most
satisfactorily; however, a very
•considerable heating of the cylinder takes place
; this increase in the
temperature is due to friction (although the
cylinder is greased like a
steam engine cylinder), and will disappear as
soon as expansion is used.
The Chaikman said, it was a very satisfactory
paper. Mr. Daglish
^ad put in plain language a great many laws and
formulae, which in
Mathematical works were often given in a shape
which was extremely
difficult to follow or understand; for gentlemen
in their position had
°iUite enough to do with the ordinary business of
life, and could not
vol. xxi.-1872. F2
218 DISCUSSION-MACHINES WORKED BY COMPRESSED
AIR.
afford very much time to study. As to compressed
air, there was very
often a great amount of mistaken confidence
placed in it; they could
not for a moment expect to receive in useful
effect anything like what
might be obtained from the ordinary steam-engine.
No machine
developed the full amount of power supplied to
it, and this loss was at
least doubled when one engine had to develope
power for another engine
to use. He had heard very different views
expressed; but still he had
never seen any experiments which could in the
least controvert what
he had stated. He asked Mr. Daglish to put in the
form of a diagram
some of those tables, which would then be more
easily appreciated, and
thereby add to the value of the paper. It was not
customary to discuss
papers much at the meeting at which they were
read ; but if any gentle-
men would like to ask any questions, while Mr.
Daglish was there, they
would be very glad to hear them.
Mr. Daglish mentioned that the paper was not by
him; it was
simply a translation. If there was any gentleman
there who could give
them information on the matter, he was sure his
doing so would be
very pleasing to those who had taken an interest
in this special power,
because there were some very intricate questions
connected with it, on
which they wanted information.
The Chairman said, as they had not got Mr.
Taylor's paper before
them, and as it was understood that they should
soon have an oppor-
tunity of going to the colliery and examining the
machinery therein
described, perhaps it would be well to postpone
the discussion on Mr.
Daglish's paper until they had done so, and thus
take the whole question
of compressed air together. If they agreed to
that, they would go on j
with the discussion on the Counterbalancing of
Engines. He would 1
like to hear some of their views upon this
question.
Mr. Bunning would like to ask if any gentleman
had had any j
experience with engines which, as it were,
counterbalanced themselves; I
that is to say, where the drum had no conical
arrangement or balance 1
whatever, but where the cut-off of the engine was
so arranged that J
they could get the full steam when the cage was
first lifted and the 1
whole of the rope was down the pit, and gradually
cut-off the steam as 1
the load came to bank, and was thereby lightened.
He thought it would I
be very interesting, and would add very greatly
to the interest of the I
papers on the scroll drum if any gentleman who
had experience in engineS I
similarly arranged, would be kind enough to give
it.
Mr. Daglish, before they left the subject, would
observe tb^B
Mr. Fowler spoke in his paper of the dynamical
action of win^n°l
DISCUSSION--COUNTERBALANCING ENGINES. 219
engines, and the inertia of large masses of
machinery and rope at the
! conamencement of the lift and the momentum at
the end of the lift, to
; equalise which effectually would require a very
exaggerated scroll drum.
, jt seemed to him that the dynamical action
could be overcome more
I easily by a separate counterbalance chain
attached to the scroll drum,
the scroll drum being used solely for statical
requirements. He had a
diagram prepared which had been calculated to
illustrate this. This com-
bination of the two could make the action
throughout pretty nearly per-
fect, so that a much smaller winding engine and
much less power than
usual would be required. He might mention that
during the last fortnight
or three weeks there had been some experiments
made with Story's power
meter, which would be ultimately laid before the
Institute. It was an ex-
tremely ingenious instrument, and showed the
action of the winding engine
very clearly and in a very interesting way
throughout the whole of the
winding. The experiments were not yet in a form
to lay before the
Institute, but he believed he would be justified
in saying there was a
saving by putting on that extra counterbalance,
of something like five
seconds out of fourteen of the winding, and a
saving of absolute power in
the engine of something like seven to nine, but
these experiments would
be laid before them afterwards.
Mr. Bainbridge said, the power required to move a
load in winding,
especially where large weights were employed,
must be exceedingly
difficult to ascertain. He had seen a scroll drum
in Nottingham which
required four times the actual load to move. A
perfect scroll drum,
or rather one with the degree of perfection which
Mr. Fowler thought
would do, would require 10 or 15 tons more actual
weight than the
present drum and would possibly require still
more than four times
the load to move; the effect of putting on a
counterbalance chain
w°uld be to increase very much the load upon the
shaft of the lifting
engine; and as that meant increased size of
shafting it would be a very
Sepious thing.
The Chairman stated that he had lately got out
the weights of some
r r°Pe rolls at present in existence, and he
found that they were quite
heavy as the scroll drum. The remarks of Mr.
Daglish reminded
111 that he thought Mr. Fowler was mistaken in
calculating the
P°Wer necessary to move the drum. It was a very
different thing
ln& a body of 35 tons, or whatever weight the
drum might be, to
Ve> and lifting it bodily up from the bottom of
the pit to the top.
to ^0w^er appeared to have treated the weight of
the drum as weight
¦e Actually lifted up the shaft. Now, the drum
had simply to be
220 DISCUSSION-COUNTERBALANCING ENGINES.
turned round, and it required a very different
amount of power to cause I
a body to revolve from what it did to lift it.
Mr. Waller remarked that the diagrams on the wall
indicated the
combined defects of both engine and ropes, and
the discussion again
assumed perfection of machinery. While
considering the balancing
of the winding engine, they ought to direct the
discussion to two
points; first, balancing the engine; and second,
balancing the ropes
On the first point, it would be found that few,
if any, winding engines
were balanced in their parts, or in the action of
the steam at either
end of the cylinder. On the second point, though
it might be theoretically
easy to calculate and make a scroll drum which
should be in perfect
balance when at rest, at any point in the length
of the rope, such a
drum would be open to the same objection of not
being in balance when
in motion, owing to the difference in the
velocity of one rope and that of
the other, and the consequently increasing vis
vivd as the cage came to |
the surface, hence the two would be in actual
balance for a moment only.
Now, when this difference is ascertained and
worked out upon a rope,
where the average speed is about thirty miles per
hour, it will be
found to be very considerable, and would astonish
the advocates of the
scroll drum. Then, to put a fixed weight upon a
chain or rope as coun-
terpoise, would be, as Mr. Bainbridge expressed
it, to add considerably
to the load; but to carry this weight out to the
point suggested, to load I
the engine until the momentum was lost, as soon
as the steam was shut I
off, would be to multiply the cost of working.
In the question under I
consideration, it is only fair that the engine
and drum should each bear I
the blame of its own defects.
The discussion then terminated.
PROCEEDINGS. 221
PROCEEDINGS.
JOINT MEETING WITH THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS
AND SHIP
BUILDERS IN SCOTLAND, AND THE SOUTH LANCASHIRE
AND
CHESHIRE COAL ASSOCIATION, JULY 2nd, 1872, IN THE
WOOD
MEMORIAL HALL.
it Ma. Alderman GREG SON, the Mayor op Newcastle,
in the Chair.
. The Mayor—Ladies and Gentlemen, we are here
to-day on a very
important occasion, to receive the Mining and
Mechanical Engineers
and the Coal Owners of both the North and the
South. We are also here
to inaugurate this splendid building, erected to
the memory of one of
England's worthies, the late Nicholas Wood, a
gentleman to whose
energy and untiring zeal in practical and
scientific pursuits the country
!s deeply indebted. We are here also to give a
cordial welcome to the
Members of the Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland,
and to the Members of the South Lancashire and
Cheshire Coal Associa-
tion. The hospitality of these gentlemen is
well known to many of the
Professional gentlemen of this district who had
the good fortune to be
present at the magnificent entertainments given
to the members of the
*ewcastle Institute at Manchester and at Glasgow
some years back;
and the papers read at these meetings, and those
printed in the Transac-
k°ns of the Institute, bear record to their
scientific attainments. In the
**ame of the inhabitants of Newcastle I bid them
welcome to the canny
n; and trust that they will enjoy their visit.
With regard to this building, I am convinced that
no more appro-
^ate means could have been conceived for
perpetuating the exertions of
r| Wood in the cause of science than erecting
this structue to his
v°l. xxi.-1S72. Q2
222 PROCEEDINGS.
memory and devoting* it to scientific pursuits;
and I trust that it
will in future be the arena in which each
successive President Willi
add his quota of assistance to the great work of
scientific progress s I
ably furthered by Mr. Wood. I cannot quit this
subject withoui i
alluding to the very great and untiring labours
of Mr. Boyd, y011r I
present President, in promoting the establishment
of a College i I
Newcastle. This gentleman, in connection with
the Dean of Durham
the Rev. W. C. Lake, a man of large, liberal, and
comprehensive views I
and other leading gentlemen, have at length
succeeded in procuring this I
boon to the district, and in bringing to a
successful issue the work con-1
templated by Mr. Wood, in his first address to
the Institute, in 1852.
With these few observations I have great pleasure
in declaring thatl
the inauguration of the building is complete.
I have also great pleasure in most cordially
thanking our visitors I
who have honoured us to-day with their presence,
and I trust thatl
their remembrance of their Newcastle visit will
be as pleasant as that I
which we have of the visits we made to Manchester
and Glasgow. In I
conclusion, I have great pleasure in vacating the
chair, in favour of 1
Dr. Rankine, of Glasgow.
Dr. Rankine stated, that it was a subject of
great regret to him,H
though, at the same time, one of satisfaction and
gratification, that he fl
took the chair on this occasion. It was to have
been taken as previous I
announcements have shown you by the distinguished
President of I
the Institute of Engineers in Scotland, Mr. R.
Bruce Bell; and hem
lamented sincerely that the state of his health
has made it absolutely!
necessary that he should be absent on this
occasion and remain in a 1
southern climate. He would not detain them longer
but would ask 1
Mr. Boyd to read the Inaugural Address.
JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 223
INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
By Mr. E. F. BOYD, President of the Institute.
Ladies, Members of the Institute, Friends,
Gentlemen, and
Strangers—During the three years in which it has
been your pleasure
to honour me with the position of your President,
I have had many and
various instances of conferring and debating with
you on subjects of great
interest and usefulness to your Society, under
circumstances of con-
siderable anxiety and concern for its welfare,
and upon matters though not
immediately a part of its nature, yet growing out
of it, and in the success
or failure of which the prestige of your
Institute was ultimately concerned.
I have also in the same capacity had cause to be
made earnestly alive to its
credit and standing in the eyes of other
societies, whilst taking advantage
of the polite and generous invitations to other
centres of arts and sciences.
Yet, I may without hesitation avow, that never
during my intimate
connection with, and earnest endeavours in its
behalf, have I been called
upon to introduce to your notice any subject with
which its welfare is
more deeply concerned, and possibly, its future
more earnestly involved,
than the cause of our meeting on this day, viz.,
the inauguration of the
" Wood Memorial Hall."
The topic we have to talk over is one of a calm,
conciliating, and
complimentary character, perpetuating the memory
of pleasing by-gone
associations, and I am sure no one whom I have
the pleasure to address,
wdl find any opinion of his ruffled by any
counter sentiment which I
may nave to offer.
What interests a large family more than the
nature and character
°* its home ? In what could the objects and
intentions of the establish-
^nt of your society be more entirely answered,
than in possessing a
l^tre of action, a place for the interchange of
the thoughts, observations,
jpd experiences of each of its members, at which
the originations of
0lle ^ay be checked, guided, and counselled by
the suggestions and
Criticism of another, as well as an almost sacred
place of deposit for all
224 JOINT MEETING-INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
the collected plans, documents, and instruments
which may have hitherto
or may hereafter flow from and be collected by
such a Society ?
If your own want of such a centre of action in
the increased and
increasing* value of your Society had not
prompted the erection of such
an edifice, you have the authority of all example
before you. Each of
the renowned kingdoms of the world, as it came to
cultivate the arts
and sciences, was in its turn possessed with the
advantage and even
necessity of a "Hall" or place of public resort.
We believe it to have
been the case with Thebes and Babylon, as well as
Nineveh. Athens
was not without her " Areopagus" or place where
her citizens could
hear or "tell of some new thing;" and Rome was
not without her
"Forum;" and the latter never made a permanent
settlement in any
part of her wide-spread territory, unless she
provided there too a place
of public resort and communication; so in our own
times and coun-
try, almost every city of importance has its Town
Hall or its Literary
Institute.
You need not, in my opinion, seek for any
palliation or excuse, then,
for the erection of such an edifice, nor for the
costly manner in which
you have thought proper to adorn its structure.
The several purposes
and uses in which it will become an accessory to
the intention of the
establishment of your Institute, are evident and
obvious.
Prior to your existence as an Institute, scarcely
one standard treatise
on the Coal Trade could be referred to, either as
a model for the training
of "noviciates" in your engrossing and widely
influential profession, nor
for consultation in cases of difficulty and
danger; and now, your twenty
volumes form a reference text, an exposition,
such as I know you seek
in vain for, in any Encyclopaedia, any chemical,
or mechanical, or com-
mercial dictionary to yield to the enquirer the
information therein
contained.
If heat is power, and heat is best and most
easily obtained as yet
from coal, then you hold a charge of great
responsibility in your hands,
for the economical and safe working of coal must
always be a matter of I
vital interest, not only to all of us here
assembled, but to the world at i
large. It needs very little consideration to
come to a conclusion, under I
the present extended ramifications of our
underground operations, that
the duration of the supply of our mineral fuel
depends largely on the
application of scientific improvements to the
ventilation and advan-
tageous access to our extensive coal-mines.
When we have exhausted I
those portions lying under the dry land, we must
endeavour to make I
that which lies under the sea yield up its
treasure; when we hav
JOINT MEETING-INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 225
; cropped and culled all the thick and richer
seams, we must invent
: schemes to bring those which are thinner and
poorer within the bounds
0f utilization; and where manual labour is
incapable of application to
I sueh production, we must endeavour to make
machinery and science
I prolong the duration of England's wealth and
happiness, even beyond
i the period defined by the interesting report of
the Royal Commission,
recently published on this subject. »
It would appear then, that you cannot give too
much attention to
this important subject, you cannot give those
employed in its studies
too many facilities for the cultivation and
expansion of an occupation of
so wide-spread an influence, and one which
requires in its professional
emergencies of difficulty, danger, and difference
of opinion, a union in
one mind of the concentrated intelligence of so
many other professions;
from the handler of the pick-axe and the trowel,
to the wielder of the
most delicate or most powerful appliances of
machinery, from the intricate
experiences of a veterinary surgeon, to the nice
distinction of legal
phraseology or the delicate results of chemical
manipulation; and to
I this must be added the almost boundless
responsibility of a manager of
¦ collieries who, frequently alone, is suddenly
called upon to form an
opinion in cases of extreme danger and
difficulty, involving the lives of
many in whom he is intimately interested, and the
safety of property of
incalculable value, and to act upon such opinion
with promptness and
llvdecision; the catastrophies of Hartley, Page
Bank, and Lundhill Col-
|;;lieries afford apt illustrations of the
magnitude of these responsibilities.
In a speech made by the Premier (Mr. Gladstone)
at the annual
dinner of the Civil Engineers of England, at
which, in compliment to
yours as a sister Society, I was, as your
President, invited, in endeavouring
to define the high standard to which Civil
Engineering in England had
reached, he remarked, " This is an age,
gentlemen, which appears to have
" been given in a special degree to you. During
our own time, over which
four memory reaches, it has arrived at gigantic
development. There is
but one personage, who, if she were gifted with a
mouth and a tongue,
would raise her voice against you, and that is
your ancient mother earth.
'Whatever benefits you have conferred upon human
kind, on her you
| have inflicted cruel suffering. The guilt of
parricide, Mr. President
| and gentlemen, is great, but your iniquities
are greater still; for you
jrhave mutilated and mangled your first parent
without putting an end
| t0 her existence. And when is this to end ?
You have already covered
|phe civilized portion of the world, and you will
rapidly pierce the un-
mCivilized. The cataracts of the Nile are no
longer secure, I believe
226 JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
u that the next step will be a railroad across
the great desert of Africa •
" underground as well as aboveground you will be
compelled to employ
" yourselves, and when you have dealt
sufficiently with the bowels of
" the earth, there will remain to you the regions
of the air. No doubt
" a period will arrive when, like Alexander,
sighing for new worlds to
" conquer, you will begin to think of the other
members of the planetary
" system—but I do not think that will be in our
day—for the present I
" think you have before you sufficient
occupation."
Our Society may, like the Civil Engineers,
content itself with the
idea, that even if we have not other worlds to
conquer and deeper seams
to explore, the day of exhaustion of Britain's
resources under present
explorations will not appear in our time.
What immense value and interest the papers to be
read and the
discussions to be held in such a Hall must be to
the improvement of the
minds of the junior members of your profession.
Within a very few
years the term of apprenticeship was confined
strictly to the works under
the charge of the gentleman to whom a young man
was apprenticed, and if
the experience thus attained was not supplemented
by a term of collegiate
study the young aspirant necessarily laboured
under disadvantages;
for there must be a certain debateable line
beyond which the defectively
educated cannot expect to progress. Let us hope
that it is not presumptive
now to- believe that the advantages of a
collegiate education, recently,
by great united effort, brought within the
district of the Tyne, and the
experiences and discussions which occur
periodically within these walls,
may jointly be the means of removing the
disadvantages hitherto
experienced, by breaking the line of demarcation
and by erecting new
landmarks, thus giving our younger members the
privilege of entering on
the arena at once with those of longer probation
in the various intricacies
of their profession; and by making his starting
point at a higher level
than heretofore, not only place the acquisition
of University honours and
diplomas within his reach, but also tend to
elevate the title and character
of the Association generally, and raise to the
highest standard the tone
of the profession; each one in his station
ardently applying himself
to the acquirement of the rich stores of
knowledge placed within his
grasp, and following the laudable example of our
first President,
by generously devoting his accumulated fund of
wisdom to the advance-
ment of his profession, the encouragement and
direction of those around
him, and in founding institutions of a similar
nature as our own for the
good of his species in this and future
generations.
In further encouragement of the youthful amongst
us, and in order
JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 227
to induce them to take an interest in this
building and the purposes to
which it may be used, let me remind them that,
although they may
I oDServe how very much of the work is
accomplished by a few only of the
members, yet each may derive individual benefit
by interesting himself
in its proceedings, and in a hundred ways add to
its efficiency; the
intention of our Society being to show a sort of
corporate life amongst us,
ready to feel sympathy, and to communicate
energy, "to assist the
struggles of the weak and to applaud the success
of the strong" in the
daily duty of exciting ingenuity and stimulating
discovery.
It will be well to bear in mind that, although
the nature of the
engrossing* and busy occupation of a mining
engineer would seem, to a
certain extent, to interfere with the attainment
of a high standard of
literary acquirement, it is not from the quarters
that the most brilliant
contributions to human advancement have been
always made; it was not
from this class that Stephenson, Watt, Burns,
Chantrey, or Elihu Burrett
rose; indeed, in the case of the latter, a remark
was judiciously made, that
if he had not been forced to labour, he would, in
all probability, have
devoted himself so incessantly to his books that
he would have ruined his
health and been carried to a premature grave; and
thus is drawn the
conclusion, that work may not only be no
impediment, but even an
assistance to intense literary labour, and that
genius and the results of
well directed industry are confined to no order
of our species.
If then these are but few of the advantages and
privileges which I
have endeavoured (however meagrely) to point out
as those to which
your Hall may be made applicable, whose name
could you, in the exercise
of the kindly spirit of giving honour to whom
honour is due, more cor-
rectly attach to your home of resort and council,
than that of the man
whose mind first suggested the idea of the
foundation of your Institute,
and to whose memory but his could you more
appropriately dedicate it 1
His large and generous heart was uneasy in so
frequently witnessing
the dreadful calamities consequent upon accidents
in mines, and a large
portion of his life was devoted to the
encouragement, development,
and perfecting the Institution which became,
towards the latter end of
his useful career, his " favourite professional
child." He would if living,
have rejoiced to see the day which I am sure will
prove a memorable
\ epoch in the history of your Institute.
Permit me to bring before you a few of the chief
incidents of his life,
^hey have been very neatly and elegantly detailed
by your late Secre-
tary, Mr. Doubleday, in a memoir of Mr. Wood in
the 15th volume of
I.your Transactions; and, though reading it at
length might by some
I ^e considered tedious, yet a few of the leading
points in the eventful
228 JOINT MEETING-INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
life of him we are met to honour maybe well
brought more immediately
on this occasion to our recollection—his birth,
in 1795, at Sourmires, in
the parish of Ryton, on the south side of the
river Tyne—his first school-
master, Mr. Craigie, of Crawcrook; and his
apprenticeship at Killingworth
Colliery, through the influence of Sir Thomas
Liddell, of Ravens-
worth. At Killingworth Colliery the young man
was thrown into the
society of one who exercised a considerable
influence over his future
life; and whose own arduous and successful career
his young companion
unquestionably assisted to bring to a fortunate
issue. This was George
Stephenson, then himself a young man whose
persevering ingenuity
had already begun to attract attention, notably
in the case of the pit
which was sinking at Killingworth being flooded
with water, and which
he, being the engineman, offered to clear " If
they would let him so
increase the powers of the pumping engine, *by
changing the nozzles, as
to cause it to command the feeder." This was
done, and the pit was
completed; at the same time he was made directing
engineer of Killing-
worth High Pit. In young Nicholas Wood,
Stephenson would find
exactly the coadjutor he wanted. His young
companion was endowed
with imperturbable good temper, a docile
disposition, great power of
application, and perseverance under difficulty
scarcely inferior to his
own. Young Wood became his confidant, the
depository of his plans
and schemes, and his assistant in that series of
experiments without
which the locomotive engine might yet have
remained unknown. Mr.
Wood also assisted George Stephenson in his next
interesting invention,
viz., that of the safety-lamp, inasmuch as he
made the first drawing,
while Mr. Hogg, the tin-worker in the Side, made
the metal part, and
the Northern Glass Company, the glass. After
great consideration and
study, and numerous experiments, the "Geordie"
lamp was produced I
in such a condition as to be capable of being
burnt with comparative j
safety in an explosive atmosphere. Young Wood
was one of those who I
had courage to attend his friend and witness the
testing of the lamp at I
a blower in Killingworth Colliery—a perilous
experiment, but one I
readily fronted by men enthusiastic in pursuing
scientific improvements
and inventions of whatever nature. In 1815 the
lamp was exhibited I
at the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Newcastle, at that time m I
the Bigg Market, young Wood adding to George
Stephenson's explat^' I
tions many proofs and details elucidating its
peculiarities. Sir H. Davy I
lamp has, in some cases, superseded Stephenson's,
which proves noting I
more than that an original inventor rarely brings
his own idea to entu I
perfection. The Marquis of Worcester, Savory,
and Newcomen had the
notion of the steam engine before Watt developed
it. However, the I
JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 229
gafety-lamp, as invented and matured by
Stephenson, is still in use at
I Killingworth Colliery, under the suggestive
title of the " Geordie" lamp.
I Mr Wood warmly advocated the claims of
Stephenson in the controversy
0f these simultaneous efforts of Davy and
Stephenson, for the latter, like
I jjjany eminent men, was deficient in the art of
expressing his thoughts
I c]early either in speech or writing.
Of Stephenson's appreciation of the acquirements
and abilities of Mr.
Wood we cannot have a better proof, than the fact
that he apprenticed
to him his son Robert Stephenson, who afterwards,
when the eminent
engineer, was not slow to acknowledge his
obligation to his early
instructor.
About this time the railway system began to be
developed, the first
projected being that between Stockton and
Darlington. George Stephen-
son was employed upon its construction by Mr.
Pease and the other
promoters, and Mr. Wood accompanied his friend to
Darlington.
Stephenson and Wood might then be considered the
practical
engineers of the day; and in 1855 the latter
published a "Treatise on
Railways," which, to this day, remains a standard
work. In 1827 Mr.
Wood gave evidence of the practicability and
desirability of the then
projected line of railway between Liverpool and
Manchester, before the
Parliamentary Committee appointed to investigate
the subject. It was
before this Committee that Mr. Stephenson
underwent a searching
examination, during which his ready wit and
powerful reasoning com-
pletely overcame the opposition of his
adversaries.
In 1838 the British Association held their Annual
Meeting in
Newcastle, and this afforded Mr. Wood an
opportunity of producing
his elaborate essay on the Geology of
Northumberland, which forms a
part of the 7th volume of the Transactions of the
British Association,
and of the 2nd volume of the Transactions of the
Natural History
Society of Northumberland and Durham.
I he subject of this paper, though at that time
confined to the Geology
°f Northumberland, was in a subsequent paper
printed in the 11th
v^ume of your Transactions, greatly enlarged upon
by Mr. Wood
^ his endeavour to establish the connection of
the Northumberland and
^ rnam coal basins with the smaller coal-fields
of Berwick and Plashetts,
coal basin of Canobie, on the borders of
Scotland, and the coal-
ds °f Scotland generally.
^ *n 1844 Mr. Wood removed to Hetton Hall,
where he spent the
finder of his arduous and useful life.
^ 11 -^39 one of those melancholy explosions,
which cause such destruc-
T °f human life, occurred at Hilda Colliery, and
public attention was
vol.xxi._1872. H2
230 JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
strongly drawn to the necessity and desirability
of some system 0f
inspection, by which the working of coal mines
might be regulated, and
rendered less perilous to those engaged in it.
Mr. James Mather, a man
of talent and considerable energy and
perseverance, was one of the
many members of a Committee appointed at South
Shields to investigate
the circumstances attending those casualties, and
their report was
published two years afterwards.
This drew the attention of Government, who sent
down two Com.
missioners, Sir H. de la Beche and Dr. Play fair,
and afterwards two
others, Professor Phillips and Mr. Blackwell, to
investigate the circum-
stances connected with the catastrophe, and these
gentlemen advocated
the necessity of some system of inspection which
should be sanctioned
by Government. In the necessary investigation Mr.
Wood, with other
leading coal owners and mining engineers, took an
active and important
part. In the general principle of inspection the
coal trade unanimously
acquiesced, and the result was the enactment of
the first Inspection Act,
Vic. 18 and 19th, cap. 108.
One of the earliest consequences of this combined
action, on the part
of the public and the Government, was to convince
the leading members
of the coal trade of Northumberland and Durham
that some further j
efforts were required on their part to improve
both the theoretical and 1
practical departments of mining science; and on
July 3, 1852, a I
meeting of coal owners and viewers of collieries
was held at Newcastle, j
the late Mr. W. Anderson occupying the chair.
This and a second 1
meeting resulted in the formation of your
Society, the North of England 1
Institute of Mining Engineers, which is now
entitled the North of I
England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers. The Institu- j
tion was formally inaugurated in August, 1852,
when Mr. Wood was I
elected the first President; the four
Vice-Presidents being Messrs. 1
Thomas J. Taylor, T. E. Forster, W. Anderson, and
E. Potter; Mr. B-1
Sinclair being Secretary, and myself Treasurer.
The President sfl
inaugural address was delivered on the 3rd of the
following September; 1
and the number of members enrolled during the
first year was 100.1
The Institution has gone on steadily increasing
in numbers and
utility up to the present time; and although the
officers were annually I
elected, so highly were Mr. Wood's services as
President estimated byl
the body over which he so long presided, that he
was annually chose*1 j
President by a great majority of votes, and held
the office up to the da«
of his lamented death.
Such are a few of the principal incidents of an
active and useful K e'fM
the recollection of which would, in all human
probability, have succuml) ' I
JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 231
f ]']ce the history of our own, to the inexorable
doom of oblivion, but for
I the compliment you this day assemble to pay to
his memory.
A monument is the erection of a subject of beauty
to satisfy that
] honourable pride with which a high-spirited
community cherishes the
\ memory of its great men. The question may
occur to some, do men like
George Stephenson and Nicholas Wood, who have
done so much for the
generation in which they lived, require a
monument of bronze or
marble ?
What needs my Shakespeare for his honor'd bones,
The labor of an age in piled stones ?
Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid
Under a starry pointed pyramid 1
Dear Son of Memory, great heir of fame,
What need'st thou such weak witness of thy name ?
Thou, in our wonder and astonishment,
Hast built thyself a life-long monument.
And, so sepulchred, in such pomp dost lie,
That kings, for such a tomb, would wish to die.
Such a pyramid I do not think the retiring
temperament of our
friend would have sought for, but such it is your
pleasure to dedicate to
his memory. He was a geologist, a
mathematician, an engineer, and a
practical miner, a large-hearted lover of, and an
unwearied worker in,
scientific pursuits, and he always had a word of
encouragement for those
The following is a list of Papers read before the
Institute by Mr. Nicholas
Wood :-—
Vol. Page.
lst Inaugural Address ............... 1 ...... 13
Value of Steam Jet compared with Furnace
Ventilation I ...... 71
Safety-lamps..................... 1 ...... 301
Haulage of Coal Underground ... Vol. 3, p. 239
5 ...... 65
Sinking through Magnesian Limestone—Seaham and
Seaton ..................... 5 ...... 117
Explosion at Lundhill ............... 5 ......
231
Magnetic Ironstone at Rosedale............ 7
...... 85
Memoir of George and Robert Stephenson ...... 8
...... 33
Accident at Burradon ............... 8 ...... 85
Explosion at Seaton Bum............... 8 ......
86
I Memoir of Joseph Locke............... 9 ......
56
I Explosion at Hetton.................. 9 ......
93
I Memoir of Thomas John Taylor............ 9
...... 237
j Inaugural Address at Birmingham ......... 10
...... 3
Upper and Lower Coal Beds of Durham and Northum-
, berland....................11 ...... 101
Exhibition of 1862 .................. 11 ......
227
1 Coal Mining.....................12 ...... 149
I Joint Paper by N. Wood and E. F. Boyd on the "
Wash"
I through a portion of the Durham
Coal-field «>» ...^13 ...... 69
; , He also presented a set of Thorpe's Diagrams
of the^Yorkshire Coal-field to
the Institute.
232 JOINT MEETING-INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
similarly employed. His influence over this
Institute was powerful and
beneficent, and surely your desire this day to
combine his name with
that Institute must be a laudable one.
Do not let me omit before closing* the few words
you have done
me the honour so patiently to listen to, to
introduce words of compliment
(and in which I am sure you will each and all of
you unreservedly join
me) to Mr. Arch. Dunn, the architect, whom you
have chosen for
designing and carrying out the details of your
Hall, as well as to
Mr. Wyon, whose powers in the art of sculpture
have so forcibly and
enduringly brought to your vision the features of
our friend. Science
has the strongest claim to all the fealty which
we, as a society, can
pay; and there is happily no reason why art and
science should not
dwell together in amity.
In the mediaeval ages they went hand in hand
together, and were
often excelled in by the same individual (for
example the immortal
Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci), and it was
hard to define whether
sculpture, architecture, engineering, or painting
shone the more brilliantly
in their transcendently accomplished minds. I may
be excused in
quoting the elegant allusion to this union in the
speech of Professor
Tyndall, on behalf of the Eoyal and other learned
Societies, when he
said :—" Art and science are indeed both suitors
to the same mistress,
" nature; they are so in a sense and fashion
which precludes the thought
" of jealousy on either side; the one loves her
for her beauty, the other
"for her order and her truth. The dry light of
the intellect, the warm
" glow of the emotions, the refined exaltation of
the aesthetic faculty,
" are all part and parcel of human nature, and to
be complete we must
"be capable of enjoying them all."
It is a happy coincidence that in this same good
old town of
Newcastle, the two monuments of George Stephenson
and Nicholas
Wood should exist in such close proximity, and,
if it be correct that
the spirits of good men are permitted a
consciousness of the acts of
those from whose midst they have departed, must
it not add somewhat
to the encouragement of each of us on approaching
this emporium of
activity and industry to be assisted by the
thought that these two happy
spirits, once fellow-labourers in the same field,
together view with
satisfaction the mode in which we have chosen to
perpetuate then'
memory and their worth ?
Gentlemen, I am sure you will excuse me adverting
on this occasion
to another event which may be of life-long
interest to your Institute,
I allude to the formation of a College of
Physical Science in this centre
JOINT MEETING-INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 233
f the arts and sciences in the North of England.
The establishment
f such a College was earnestly desired by Mr.
Wood, and it is a matter
f o-reat gratification to myself to have been
your President during its
•naUguration, and to have -been permitted to
assist in the great work.
jn order to make*'you aware of this pleasure now
realized, I need not
dwell on the many earnest conversations
concerning it which I held
with my late lamented friend, Archdeacon
Thorpe, one of the
founders of the Durham University, or his anxious
canvassing of the
subject with Mr. Wood and Mr. Thos. John Taylor,
and of the scheme
falling through or remaining in abeyance for many
years in consequence
of the difficulty of parties agreeing as to the
relative merits of Durham
and Newcastle as the proper site; on the happy
resumption of the
question within the last twelve months; on the
renewed appeal to the
generosity of the public, by your Institute,
through its council and
members, and after mature deliberation, and the
hearty response and
co-operation on the part of the Dean and
authorities of the University
of Durham, all of which has happily terminated in
the inauguration of
such a seat of learning for the cultivation,
improvement, and teaching
of Mining and Physical Science, in this district,
the northern centre of
their practical existence.
You must please excuse the amount of pride which
I cannot help
feeling, when I reflect on the part
(howeverjnsigniflcant) which I have
been permitted to take in this work, which we all
consider will be of the
greatest assistance to our Institute, and
expressing the satisfaction which
will accrue to me during the few remaining years
of my existence in
the knowledge that the work was completed during
the period in which
you permitted me the honour of presiding over
you.
I think we cannot be wrong in considering this
matter as not only
of local but of great national importance. The
education of a large
proportion of the youth of this district in
natural philosophy must
elevate the general tone of the community, and
conduce to the honour
and prosperity of the nation, and enable it to
develope the vast
lndustrial advantages which it possesses, and we
cannot but feel that
such objects and institutions ought to be made
matters of national
concern (of which there are numerous instances on
the Continent) and
^t left, as heretofore, to private enterprize or
the possible undulations
°f societies however well conducted.
•Although from the nature and connection of the
subject, we have
Ilesessarily dwelt more particularly on the
encouragement of the culti-
Vation of physical science, I^quite coincide with
the observation of your
234 JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
late President, Mr. Geo. Elliot, in his inaugural
address, when he remarks
that all the qualifications of a gentleman are
capable of being blended
with the technical knowledge required for, and
the anxieties incidental
to, your difficult profession. Therefore let us
hope that the day is not
far distant when the objects and aspirations of
this College we have seen so
favourably commenced may not limit its teaching
to Natural Philosophy
and Chemistry, but may extend its professorships
to the chairs of Biology ?
Ancient and Modern Languages, English History,
Political Economy,
and the Arts, ancFthat it may continue to be so
well supported, whether
nationally or individually, as to allow of its
having a collegiate building
set apart for its sole use, comprising lecture
and experimental rooms,
and accommodation for resident and enrolled
students, within its walls,
like the older universities.
Then may I hope that there may arise in the minds
of its Council
of Management the admission of the principle—the
indispensable prin-
ciple, in my humble opinion—that all acquirements
should be grounded
on a religious basis. Depend upon it, there is no
more fitting and genial
shelter under which all sound and useful studies
and ornamental accom-
plishments can thrive and spread—a shelter which
protects them alike
from the chilling and nipping blight of
indifference and from the blasting
breath of bigotry—tempering habits of
independence and self-relying
thought with profound humility for that which is
supreme, and with
tenderness and reverence for the conscientious
convictions of others.
From my inmost heart, then, I join in the wish,
which I feel sure
will be entertained by all who have now this day
been brought together,
that this building, which we have been permitted
to inaugurate to the j
memory of our friend, amid so many demonstrations
of goodwill and I
concord, may become the resort of your members
when they meet j
together to compare their experiences, and that
these discussions will I
elicit facts, truths, and intelligence, which
shall tend to extend and I
widen the sphere of usefulness of this Institute,
and promote the original I
intentions of its founders by increasing security
and well-being of the I
sons of toil, without whose aid all our science
would be as nought? ¦
Finally, may Almighty God (through whom your
highest intelligenceS I
are permitted to you) vouchsafe His best
blessings upon the undertaking ¦
and upon every one through whose instrumentality
it has risen to lts fl
present state of usefulness.
JOINT MEETING-INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 235
Mr. C. L. Wood—I cannot allow this opportunity to
pass, with-
out, in the name of my family and myself,
publicly thanking those who
organised the idea of erecting this Hall to the
memory of my father, and
have carried it out so well. I have to thank you
for the way in which
you have spoken of my father through Mr. Boyd.
The Chairman—It is now my duty to propose a vote
of thanks to
Mr. Boyd for the admirable Inaugural Address you
have just heard. He
has set forth, in the clearest manner, the
advantages of such institutions
as the scientific college we are now opening.
He has put it in so clear
a manner, that it is almost impossible to add any
words of remark; but,
further, he has, I am sure, given the greatest
gratification to the feelings
of all here present by his account of the merits
of that noble man to
whose honour this Hall has been dedicated—Mr.
Nicholas Wood. I
confess that I cannot refer to him without much
emotion of a personal
kind. His memory is honoured by the whole of the
profession to which
he belonged for his great practical skill, and
his great scientific know-
ledge, and his indefatigable energy in devoting
these to the good of his
species; but I may say his personal character is
a matter of not less
regard. I cannot help expressing my own
feelings on the subject. I
was fortunate enough to know him well; he was the
contemporary and
personal friend of my own father. I have known
him from the time
that I was a boy, and I have often received from
him much kindness
and hospitality. You must excuse me saying
this: for I cannot help
expressing my own personal feelings. The body I
have the honour to
represent here will, I am sure, join with the
North of England Institute
in honouring the name of Mr. Nicholas Wood. We
are all deeply
indebted to his labours for our knowledge; and I
may say that I feel
there is something appropriate in the honour that
has been done us in
asking a representative of our body—the Institute
of Engineers in Scot-
land—to take the chair just now. It is a kind
of mark of this being
an occasion not merely of local importance to the
inhabitants of Newcastle
and the North of England, but of national
importance, that the represen-
tee of a body, whose home is at a distant
locality, should be asked to
Preside. In conclusion, I will again move a
cordial vote of thanks to
Boyd for his Inaugural Address; and I may add
this, that a great
^ead more might be said than he has said
regarding his own share in
^e Section of this Institute. Mr. Boyd, I beg
to express the thanks
this meeting to you for your address.
The Very Rev. the Dean of Durham said—Mr.
Chairman, Ladies,
^ Gentlemen, I should hardly have ventured to
rise if some remarks
236 JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
p
which Mr. Boyd was kind enough to make with
reference to a body
with which I am intimately connected, and whose
pride and pleasure I
may say are associated not only with the meeting
to-day, but with the
interest and advancement, intellectual and moral,
of the town of New-
castle, had not induced me to do so. We are
assembled here to-day to
do honour, as Mr. Boyd in his singularly
appropriate language has
expressed it to you, to the great man whose
statue has just been unveiled.
Mr. Boyd asked the question, with great
propriety, whether great men
who have served their country in any branch of
action or thought need
any monument; and he was disposed, quoting those
great words of
Milton with reference to Shakspeare, to answer
the question in the
negative. Undoubtedly, sir, that great man
[pointing to the statue]
needs no honour from us. Whether we honour him
or not, whether
we honour the Watts and Stephensons and the great
men of our country
or not, their fame will force itself upon the
knowledge of the whole world.
But though he does not need it, we need it. It
is we who are honoured
in honouring genius and virtue. It is the
proudest opportunity which a
nation can possibly have; it is the greatest
means of encouraging its
sons hereafter to like deeds when, on an occasion
like this, it meets in such
numbers as I am proud to see gathered together
to-day to do honour to
the memory of a truly great man; and I must say
that the man whose
statue we contemplate was a truly great man. He
was, in the first place,
of the practical stamp of the Watts and
Stephensons of this country; and
although he may not have been endowed with an
equal amount of emi- I
nence or achieved a similar European reputation,
yet he devoted his
whole energies—and what can man do better—to
objects of great public |
utility; and not only that, not only was Mr. Wood
a man of eminent I
practical abilities, but (and this is the reason
why we who have intel- I
lectual and scientific interests especially at
heart are proud to honour
him) he was a man who, being in a great measure
self-raised and I
self-educated, distinctly saw the enormous
advantages of the combi-
nation of science with practice. Your President
has just read to you |
a very remarkable quotation, which we were all
pleased to hear, I
from a speech lately delivered by Mr. Gladstone;
and he delivered m I
words complimentary, and at the same time
somewhat sarcastic, how |
you, the miners, by diving into the depths of the
earth, perform a I
more cruel act than even the murder of your
parent, by mutilating her I
while she still lives. Alas, it is too true.
We see around us abundau I
instances of this mutilation; but I may perhaps
be allowed to supp^e j
ment the remark by saying that the same science
which tempts sotf1"3!
JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 237
I ^en to mutilate, places in our hands the means
of repairing the muti-
I iation. It is—and I wish I could impress it
upon practical men as it is
I impressec^ uPon many °f them who are engaged in
the work of mining
I in this beautiful country—it is perfectly
within the power of science to
reserve the beautiful face of nature even while
it draws from her bosom
all her rich stores. I am proud to offer the
compliment to one, par-
ticularly, of my friends whom I see here, in
saying, that in the beautiful
neighbourhood in which my lot is cast, it is a
pleasure to think that we
shall not lose the beauty of our woods and of our
streams, because he
and those who are engaged in the great work of
industry, have done the
very simple act of forcing their colliers and
miners to consume their own
smoke. I wish their act was widely imitated by
the very large posses-
sors of property, the men of great intelligence
and of high position,
who, alas! unfortunately, are not so ready to
follow the same good
example; and I would just make one more remark
with reference to what
was said by Mr. Gladstone, and it is a remark
which has to do with the
advantage of combining something like science
with practice. He told
us that we had already, as it were, soared up
into the realms of air ; but
allow me to tell you that no merely practical man
will soar into the
realms of air, or that, if he does, he will share
the well-known fate of
old Icarus. You must have science to teach men
how they can soar into
the realms of air as well as dive into the depths
of the earth; and this
recognition of the necessity of combining science
with practice is one of
the greatest advantages which we derive from the
example and teaching
of men like Mr. Wood. Well, then, gentlemen, I
am loath to detain
you at any further length to-day; but it is for
these reasons—it is for
the pride with which we in Durham have in
connection with you in New-
castle—it is from the strong sense that we feel
that, having the means
°f intellectual education in our hands, we wish
that we should do a
combined work in every respect with the town
which of necessity has a
much greater practical sphere. It is, in a
word, because we rejoice in
having been the means of founding here this
College of Physical Science
that we are so glad to be among you to-day. I
would not detract one
Particle from what Mr. Boyd has said with respect
to the immense pros-
pects which this teaching opens out. I would
appeal to my friend who
^ at my right hand, Sir Wm. Armstrong, whose
words I heard with
Very utmost pleasure at the banquet with which we
inaugurated the
Pining 0f c0iiege^ when he reminded us
that unless we were
j^ualised *n science to our eminent - neighbours
it was impossible that
ritish enterprise should long hold its place in
the world. That is one
238 JOINT MEETING—INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
reason, no doubt, why we should found a College
like this. But that is
not the only, and I do not think it is even the
highest, reason. The
highest reason is that it will elevate the
characters of every class in
society. It will elevate the characters of those
who are at the head of
I the mining and engineering interests, because
it raises those interests at
once into the dignity of a cultivated profession.
It will elevate the
characters still more of those who may hold the
middle and lower
positions, because it will place in the hands of
every young man of talent,
of energy, and of moral good conduct the means of
rising as that eminent
man did. Well, then, a word more : It is because
in the examples of
those great men we see such a stimulus to exert
ourselves in practice,
but still more in that which is the basis of all
sound practice, thought;
and that which is the highest part of thought,
moral and religious feeling,
devotion to our neighbours, because we have first
a sense of duty to God
—it is on all those accounts that we rejoice to
be with you to-day, and
to do honour to the memory of one of our greatest
citizens.
The following gentlemen were then elected—
Membeks.
D. H. Goddard, Branch Bank of England,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
E. Goddard, Oak Hill, Ipswich.
j. Johnasson, 5, Gloucester Square, Hyde Park,
London.
G. T. Dickinson, Wheelbirks, Northumberland.
R. Linslet, Seghill Colliery, Northumberland.
G. H. Wright, Heanor Hall, Heanor, near Derby.
R. Nicholson, Engineer, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
M. W. Peace, Wigan, Lancashire.
E. B. Marten, Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
P. Hill, Littleburn Colliery, near Durham.
james Spence, Printing Court Chambers, Newcastle.
George Dove, Portland Square, Carlisle.
j. A. G. Ross, Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle.
M. W. Lambert, 44, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Richard Owen, 40, Dean Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
C. D. Austin, 40, Mosley Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
John Laverick, West Rainton, Fence Houses.
J. R. Forster, Water Co.'s Office,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
John Sneddon, 149, West George Street, Glasgow.
John Wilson, 69, Great Clyde Street, Glasgow.
Thos. Slinn, RadclifEe House, Acklington.
W. S. Daglish, Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
A. S. Palmer, Wardley, County of Durham.
- l
JOINT MEETING. ' 239
geo. Scoular, Parkside, Frizington, Cumberland.
J. M. Redmayne, Chemical Manufacturer, Gateshead.
Wm. Stobart, Cocken Hall, Fence Houses.
Thos. Taylor, Chipchase Castle, Northumberland.
Thos. Archer, Dunston Engine Works, Gateshead.
John Young, 3, St. Paul's Terrace, Newcastle.
R. C. Fisher, Ystalyfern, near Swansea.
John Mills, Forth Banks Brass Works, Newcastle.
J. F. Weymouth, King's House Engine Works,
Sunderland.
C. J. Smith, Darlington.
J. E. Toller, Royal Engineers, Archcliff Fort,
Dover.
THOS. Farrar, Engineer, Barnsley.
Students.
James Lisle, Washington Colliery, County of
Durham,
B. Fugimato, 2, Bedford Place, Windmill Hills,
Gateshead.
Henry Jepson, Durham.
John Fletcher, Kelton House, Dumfries.
H. N. Geound, Moor House, near Durham.
W. C. Cockburn, 8, Summerhill Grove, Newcastle.
J. F. White, Wakefield.
T. y. Greener, Peases' West Collieries,
Darlington.
Harry Hargreaves, Nunnery Colliery Offices,
Sheffield.
g. S. Bragge, Nunnery Colliery Offices,
Sheffield.
Wm. Moore, Jun., Hetton Collieries, Fence Houses.
Dr. Page then read the following paper:—
GEOLOGY INCOME OF ITS PRACTICAL ASPECTS. 241
GEOLOGY IN SOME OF ITS PRACTICAL ASPECTS.
BY PROFESSOR DAVID PAGE, LL.D.
jT is sometimes asked—though less frequently now
than it was a dozen
year ago—whether a theoretical knowledge of any
science is of essential
importance to those who have merely to attend to
its practical applica-
tions ? The sailor, it is said, may navigate his
vessel without a scientific
acquaintance with mathematics or astronomy; the
operative may manu-
facture chemical products without a knowledge of
the laws of chemistry;
and the miner may profitably extract from the
earth's crust its minerals
and metals, and yet be altogether ignorant of the
deductions of geology.
But while this is true—and it is true only in the
sense of making these
men the tools of the scientific skill of
others—it will surely not be gain-
said that neither the sailor, the operative, nor
the miner would discharge
his duties less efficiently were he possessed of
some knowledge of the
principles upon which his own special art is
founded. A man may proceed
a certain length upon mere empirical skill, but
empiricism is always
restricted—has no progressive elasticity about
it—and is totally helpless
when new conditions or unusual phenomena present
themselves. It is
science alone which can explain such appearances,
and suggest the
methods by which the new difficulties may be
surmounted. Scientific
knowledge and the practical applications of that
knowledge cannot be
dissociated; the more exact and extensive the
one, the more certain and
successful the other. What is often held up in
laudation as " practical
skill," is but the result of long observation and
deduction, and the
wider that observation and more exact that
deduction, the sounder and
more successful that practical skill. The
observation and deduction may
n°t have shaped themselves into any system of
science, but they are
science nevertheless, and the offspring of much
comparing, reasoning,
and reflecting; and what is science but the
observation of phenomena,
tae marshalling of facts, and the drawing of
legitimate conclusions ?
pA man's practical skill is but the methodical
arrangement of his ex-
periences • and such an arrangement is science in
the best and truest
242 GEOLOGY IN SOME OF ITS PRACTICAL
ASPECTS.
sense of the term. There can be no antagonism,
therefore, between
science and art—between theoretical knowledge and
its practical
applications. This truth is gradually deepening
its impression in the
public mind, and hence the recent anxiety of
civilized nations to dis-
seminate a knowledge of the sciences among their
artizans, and to
foster their study not only in the higher seats
of learning, but in
mechanics' institutes and elementary schools. A
few, it is true, may
still have their sneer at " theory," and their
laudation of " practice,"
but the number of these is rapidly declining, and
not many years hence
will become altogether extinct and fossil. The
practical expression of
a truth can never be divorced from its theoretic
conception.
These remarks are preliminary to some
observations the writer is about
to offer on geology; a science which, from its
comparative recentness, is
still, in a great measure, ignored, and even
sometimes made light of,
by those " practical men " who would profit most
by a knowledge of its
deductions. It is true geology has its
theories—but what science in its
onward progress has not had its fanciful
hypotheses and visionary
speculations 1 It is also true that geology has
still much to accomplish
and a great deal to reject, but it is equally
true that the science is
pregnant with practical value, especially to the
agriculturist, to the
land valuator, to the architect, the civil
engineer, the mining engineer,
and to all, in fine, whose arts and manufactures
depend directly or
indirectly on the mineral metallic products of
the earth. Man cannot
make progress in civilization without drawing
from the mineral and
metallic stores of the earth's crust. He may
lead a savage or a nomadic
life, and subsist on roots and fruits, by
hunting, by fishing, or on the
produce of his herds and flocks, but he cannot
settle down in civilized
communities or combat successfully with the
forces of nature till he has
learned to arm himself with tools and implements.
Personally, he is
weak• weaker than many of his fellow-creatures;
and it is not till he
has furnished himself with implements, and these,
the best of them
drawn from the earth, that he can till the soil,
reap his harvests, hew
the wood, fashion the stone, or reduce the ore.
And the more numerous
his civilised wants become the more he draws from
the earth—rearing
his cities, decorating his mansions, erecting
bridges, piers, and harbours,
creating new sources of heat and light,
fabricating machinery, laying
railways, building steamships, and stretching
telegraph cables—the raw-
materials of which he obtains, and obtains alone,
from the earth. In
this way a knowledge of the composition and
structure of the earth's
crust becomes more and more indispensable, and
hence an acquaintance
GEOLOGY IN SOME OF ITS PRACTICAL ASPECTS. 243
with geology if he would learn where this or that
mineral is to be found,
the abundance in which it occurs, and the
facilities with which it can
be obtained for his purpose. The minerals and
metals are not scattered
broadcast through the earth They have their
places and relations, and
these places and these relations it is the
function of geology to determine.
Whoever, therefore, has to deal with the products
of the earth in their
economic or commercial aspects, cannot fail to be
benefited by some
scantling of geological knowledge. This may be
made clearer by a
few illustrative examples.
First, the soils man cultivates depend for their
fertility on their
composition and texture. This composition and
texture may be naturally
unfertile, and yet may be capable of improvement
by simple admixture
of other soils, by drainage, or by mineral
manuring. The agriculturist
who knows the nature of his soils and subsoils,
and of their underlying
rocks, is surely, therefore, in a better position
to correct their deficiencies
by admixture, by draining, and by manuring, than
one who cannot
discriminate the nature of these soils or detect
their deficiencies. The
elements of fertile admixture may be within the
same farm; the defects
in composition may be corrected by the
application of appropriate
mineral manures; but how can the farmer obtain
this needed information,
save through a geological acquaintance with the
nature of the materials
he has to operate upon? "Let him obtain it from
the geologist,"
say some, "and apply it empirically;" so far
good, but infinitely better
that the agriculturist knew something of the
matter himself, and could
separate the wheat from the chaff of his
scientific advisers.
Secondly, as the worth of an estate depends not
only on its agricul-
tural, but also on its mineral value, the
land-valuator who is unable to
determine the character of its soils and
sub-soils, and is ignorant of its
mineral structure, can never do justice to his
client. A knowledge of
the geological structure of an estate is not less
necessary to fixing its
real value than a knowledge of its various soils
and climate, and it is
often for want of this knowledge that estates are
sold either under their
value, or bought at unremunerative prices. At
the present day, when
farm produce meets so ready a market, and the
minerals and metals bring
such high prices, no estate should be bought or
sold without a thorough
survey alike of its surface capabilities and of
its mineral stores, and this
cannot be done with any degree of satisfaction
without appealing to the
mineral surveyor as well as to the mere
agriculturist. No estate agent
is worthy of the name who is incapable of
appreciating this twofold
aspect of the value of landed property.
Again, take the case of the architect who has to
deal with
244 GEOLOGY IN $OME OF ITS PRACTICAL
ASPECTS.
beauty and durability of structure without, and
with elegance of decora-
tion within. The beauty and durability of a
building stone, and the
facility with which it can be obtained dressed,
is of prime importance in
architecture. The stone which will keep its
colours in the open country
may not do so in the smoky city; and the rock
which will resist the
action of the weather in its normal state may
waste and crumble under
the carbonated atmosphere of the manufacturing
town. Nor is it
structure and decoration alone that call for the
assistance or suggestions
of the geologist. The mortars, the cements, and
concretes of the builder
are yearly assuming a greater importance and
receiving a wider appli-
cation ; and as the component materials of these
are all drawn directly
from the earth, geology comes in with important
information to the
manufacturer—indicating the nature and abundance
of the limestones,
sands, and gravels with which he has to operate.
It is ignorance on
this point which often causes the builder to
bring from a distance materials
which could be obtained of equal quality and at a
cheaper rate in his
own immediate locality. It is also a want of
knowledge on this head
that permits the artificial manufacture of
hydraulic cements and concretes,
while limestones of natural hydraulic energy lie
unknown and neglected.
In the next place, take the case of the civil
engineer who has to
plan and lay down roads and railways, to execute
cuttings and tunnels,
to excavate docks and harbours, to erect piers
and breakwaters, to deepen
and widen tidal rivers, and bring in water
supplies to towns. Not a
step can he take in any of these important
operations without coming
in contact with geological phenomena, not a plan
can he lay down
which does not depend more or less on a knowledge
of rocks and rock-
formations. It is true, he may obtain
information from geological maps
and from professional geologists; but, even with
this aid, his work will
be executed with feebleness and uncertainty
compared with that of one
who can discriminate the geological structure of
a country for himself:
and it has simply been, and still is, for want of
this geological knowledge
that so many of our engineering works have been
executed at so much
cost and with so little pecuniary satisfaction to
their proprietors. The
profession of civil engineer is at present a wide
and ill-defined one, and
greatly needs some qualifying test of admission;
but certainly no one
should be entitled to add C.E. to his name who
cannot show a fair
acquaintance with the leading facts of physical
geology. Once more,
take the mining engineer, whether working among
stratified rocks
for such products as coal, ironstone, limestone,
and fire-clay, or follow-
ing veins and lodes in search of the metals and
metallic ores. In
either case some knowledge of geology is
indispensable; and though it
GEOLOGY IN SOME OF ITS PRACTICAL ASPECTS. 245
I js true that mining was largely followed ere
geology had shaped itself
into a science, yet the practical skill of the
miner in dealing with
successions of beds, with dykes and dislocations,
and with kindred
phenomena, is geology of a kind requiring the
noting of facts and the
drawing of generalizations not less real and
serviceable than the deduc-
tions of the theoretical geologist. The wider,
however, the geological
knowledge of the mining engineer, the better will
he be able to cope with
the difficulties that present themselves in his
arduous calling. His
services may not always be restricted to the same
district. His advice
may be sought in other districts where there are
other rocks, other suc-
cessions, other dislocations and appearances, and
he will be but poorly
prepared for these unless he is in some measure
acquainted with the
general principles of geology. Besides, new
substances are yearly
being utilised; and it is the duty of the mining
engineer to keep pace
with this progress, and to see that nothing in
his workings be left
unnoticed or unused. The writer is old enough to
remember when there
were only four or five fire-clay works in
Britain; now there are scores
of them. He has seen back-band ironstone used
for a dry-stone wall;
now enough of it cannot be obtained for the
furnace. Forty years ago the
cannel coals of Scotland were seldom brought to
bank, and when brought,
worth only some four or five shillings a ton; now
the same coals are
selling at thirty and thirty-five shillings, and
the Forbane Hill coal at
double that price. Sixteen years ago the
bituminous shales of Britain
did not bring a sixpence to their owners- now
they are bringing
hundreds of thousands. Five-and-twenty years
ago many may have
walked over the Cleveland hills clear in their
pastoral purity; now
they are beclouded with the smoke of the
iron-furnace and resonant
with the sounds of a gigantic and varied
industry. There is no standing-
still; not to keep abreast with the progress is
to perish. Some of the
olden school may affect indifference to science,
but the younger members
of the profession may lay it to heart that the
knowledge which sufficed
even twenty years ago will not sustain them in
the race of life in these
days of gigantic undertakings and more exact
calculation. If they will
not prepare themselves for the contest, they need
not feel surprised at
being outstript by those who have had the better
sense to seek the
necessary scientific training. While every
region of the globe is being-
ransacked to supply the mineral and metallic
requirements of Europe
and America, the mining engineer may safely
calculate upon a wider
field for his services; and these services can
only be valuable and reliable
in proportion to his scientific knowledge of the
subjects with which he
vol. xxi.—1872. K2
246 GEOLOGY IN SOME OP ITS PRACTICAL
ASPECTS.
has to deal. Sinking* shafts, driving* drifts,
pumping-, and ventilation
are arts of prime importance; but where to sink,
the nature of the
minerals sought, their mode of occurrence, and
the dislocations to which
they may have been subjected, are of equal
importance, and can only
be known through some acquaintance with the
science of geology.
It is not alone to the farmer, the land agent,
the builder, the civil
engineer, or the mining engineer that some
acquaintance with geology
is of importance. Its applications to the arts
and manufactures are
numerous and direct; to the fictile arts of the
potter and glassmaker,
to the manufacturer of mineral pigments and dyes,
to the metallurgist
and chemist, to the lapidary and jeweller, and
even to the mechanical
engineer and machinist. The potter and
glassmaker derive all their
clays and sands from the earth; all mineral
pigments are procured,
directly or^indirectly, from the same source; so
likewise are all metals,
whether native or as ores; and so also fossil
fuels and lights ; mill-
stones, grindstones, and whetstones; salts and
saline earths; gems
and precious stones. In fine, there are few of
the arts and manu-
factures which do not, more or less, depend on
the mineral and
metallic treasures of the earth; and surely some
acquaintance with the
composition and structure of that earth, so that
the place of these
minerals and metals may be known, their abundance
ascertained, and
the facility of obtaining them be determined,
cannot fail to be of advan-
tage to those who have to fashion and fabricate
them into objects,
whether of utility or ornament. It is not
required of practical men to
go deeply into the theories of geology, for that
is impossible, and useless
even if it were possible; but surely an
intelligent acquaintance with the
nature and design of the materials they are daily
manipulating cannot
be otherwise than a gain, and a source of
satisfaction even where the
thought of pecuniary gain is altogether out of
the question.
Such is a glance, and on a semi-holiday occasion
like the present any
thing beyond the merest glance would be an
intrusion, at a subject of
infinite importance to civilized man.
Civilization depends in a prime
degree upon man's mastery over the opposing
forces of nature, and he
cannot conquer any force or forces save by the
application of a superior
one. Physically man is weak and helpless ; armed
with implements and
machinery he becomes a Titan. Without tools and
machinery man has
to succumb to the forces of nature ; equipped
with these, they become
his willing servants—turning his wheels, raising
his weights, wielding
his hammers, lessening his labour, and carrying
him over land and sea
with unparalleled celerity. His main implements
and machinery are
GEOLOGY IN SOME OF ITS PRACTICAL ASPECTS. 247
derived from the mineral world; the heat that
sets them in motion is
obtained from the same exuberant source. How
direct, then, our
civilized dependence upon the earth and a
knowledge of its mineral and
metallic treasures! How important to every art
and manufacture to
learn something of the nature and character of
the source from which
they are obtained !
As a geologist perhaps the writer may appear to
over-value this
knowledge, and may likely be met with the taunt
that " there is
nothing like leather." He is quite willing to
bear it, if only he can
succeed in engaging the attention of the younger
portion of the practical
men now assembled in this Hall. The older section
are not likely—
unless in rare instances—to be driven from their
accustomed routine;
in this marvellous age of progress it would be
dealing unfairly with the
young not to apprise them of the wider range of
information they must
acquire if they would keep abreast with the
demand of the day. The
hour is fast passing—if not already passed—when
my lord's patronage,
my father's name, or my uncle's influence can
secure to any young-
aspirant the place he desires. The ordeal of
competitive knowledge is the
fashion of the times. Certificates of
qualification by authorized boards
will shortly be demanded in mining and civil
engineering as they are
already in other departments. With all this
gathering and growing
around, it behoves every one, in his own special
department of science,
to point out its utilities and advantages, and to
do what he can for its
recognition and dissemination. This, so far as
the writer's branch is
concerned, he has briefly endeavoured to do, and
he' trusts the few
remarks he has offered will not be altogether
unacceptable to this
assemblage of shrewd heads and minds, of very
practical tendencies.
Mr. Steavenson proposed a vote of thanks to Dr.
Page for his
very able paper on a very interesting subject.
The Chairman begged himself to second the vote of
thanks. He
thought the paper very well deserving of it. In
common with every
one who really understands the nature of
scientific education, he con-
curred most thoroughly with all Dr. Page had
said, and in particular,
from his own official duties in connection with
the scientific education of
young engineers, he might state his firm
conviction that a knowledge
of geology is absolutely essential to the
students in this branch. He
was sure that anybody connected with the
scientific education of pro-
248 GEOLOGY IN SOME OF ITS PRACTICAL
ASPECTS.
fessional men of every kind whose professions
were connected with th
earth s crust and its materials would concur in
that opinion; and he W
to^press now to Dr. Page the thanks which the
meeting had I
pastTtenmeeting ^ ^ adj°Urned UDtil the following
morning at half. I
PROCEEDINGS. 249
PROCEEDINGS .
JOINT MEETING WITH THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS
AND SHIP
BUILDERS IN SCOTLAND, AND THE SOUTH LANCASHIRE
AND
CHESHIRE COAL ASSOCIATION, JULY 3rd, 1872, IN THE
WOOD
MEMORIAL HALL.
Professor RANKINE in the Chair.
Professor Rankine, in opening the proceedings of
the day, said they
would observe that it had been announced that the
chairman of that day
was to have been Mr. Joseph Evans, President of
the South Lancashire
and Cheshire Coal Association, in order that that
distinguished Society
might be represented, it being one of those whose
members were now
enjoying the hospitality of the North of England
Institute. But, un-
fortunately, Mr. Evans was necessarily absent, he
being detained in
London to attend to the progress of the Mines
Regulation Bill. In fact
there were a great many gentlemen, Mr. Peace and
others, who other-
wise would have been present at that meeting, but
had been detained
in London in order to attend to the progress of
that most important
bill. In the absence of Mr. Evans, he proposed
that, in order that the
chairman might still represent the South
Lancashire Coal Association,
Mr. John Knowles take the chair.
Mr. Knowles having taken the chair, thanked the
meeting for the
honour done through him to the Association of
which he was a member.
He was sorry that the President had not been able
to be present, and,
also, that they had lost the presence of many
gentlemen who had been
detained in London on the important business of
the Mines Bill.
Mr. W. Cockburn then read the following paper "
On the Carboni-
ferous Limestone of South Durham and North
Yorkshire."
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 251
ON THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE OF SOUTH
DURHAM AND NORTH YORKSHIRE.
By WILLIAM COCKBURN.
In Volume XVIII. of the Transactions of the
Institute a paper on
Mining* in the Mountain Limestone was read by Mr.
T. J. Bewick, C.E.,
F.G.S., and it occurred to the writer that it
might not be out of place
to read a paper on the Working of the Mountain or
Carboniferous
Limestone, especially as that gentleman stated,
at the outset, that it had
not received so much attention from the members
as the coal and iron
fields of the east coast.
Within a short time this limestone has given rise
to an important
industry, it being an essential element in the
smelting of iron ore, which
has risen into gigantic proportions in this
district and is still progressing
onwards at a rapid rate, thereby causing demand
for limestone to be on
the increase.
In the year 1868 the quantity of pig iron made in
the North of
England district, including Newcastle, Durham,
Cleveland, and Whitby,
was 1,233,418 tons; and, as the writer is
informed by gentlemen imme-
diately connected with that branch of industry,
that it requires from 10
to 12 cwts. of limestone to make 1 ton of pig
iron, there must have been
a consumption of 678,379 tons of limestone. In
1869 the make of pig-
iron was 1,459,508 tons, and the consumption of
limestone 802,729 tons.
In 1870 the make of pig iron was 1,695,377 and
the limestone required
was 932,457 tons; and in the year 1871 the make
of pig iron had
reached 1,884,239 tons, and the limestone
required to smelt it 1,036,331
tons, and this independent of the regular
consumption for agricultural
purposes and building, so that it will be seen
from these figures that its
extraction forms no mean part of our industry.
The geographical extent of the mountain
limestone, as stated by
Mr. Bewick, is 4,000 square miles. It comprises
the counties of
Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland,
Yorkshire, and
Lancashire. This paper is confined to the county
of Durham and part
of Yorkshire.
252 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. j
Taking* Stanhope-in-Weardale as a starting-
point, the mountain
limestone is fully shown, and favourably situated
for open quarry work
and is extensively worked by Messrs. Ord and
Maddison; it is also
extensively worked at Newland Side. Messrs. Bell
Brothers have
recently opened out a quarry at Jack's Craggs,
and Messrs. Pease have
extensive royalties at Frosterley and Broadwood,
while further towards
Middleton-in-Teesdale is the Old Bishoply quarry,
and another belono--
ing- to Ord and Maddison; also one recently
opened out at Fine Burn
by Mr. Jacob Walton.
Plates Nos. XXXV., XXXVL, and XXXVII. show
sections of
Stanhope, Frosterley, and Broadwood respectively.
Analyses of the
stone from these quarries will be given.
Plate XLI. shows a clay dyke running through
Broadwood, or
rather between that place and Bishopley, which
clay dyke completely
cuts off all the limestone : how far it goes down
the writer has not been
able to prove, but an under-level drift many feet
below the limestone
now being driven may throw some farther light
upon it. There are two
cross veins shown running through this quarry,
crossing the river Wear
to a considerable distance up the north bank.
These veins of ironstone,
as they are called, materially affect the
limestone in their passag'e.
From this point, marked on Plate XLI., the
limestone rapidly descends
beneath the river Wear, and so continues until it
reaches Wolsingham
station, where the first patch of limestone is to
be seen. A line drawn
from this point across Durham and Northumberland
to near Radcliffe,
shows the first limestone of the carboniferous
series.
From Stanhope to Middleton-in-Teesdale, and up to
the High Force,
no quarries are in operation until reaching
Teesdale. The river Tees,
as is well known, takes its rise among lofty and
lonely mountains on
the Penine chain. The main stream comes from
Cross Fell, and
continues to gather until it falls over Cauldron
Snout, and forms the
boundary between Yorkshire and Durham. From Maize
Beck a very
interesting and instructive lesson may be learned
by geologists, and the
description of it by Professor Philips so exactly
coincides with the writer's
own experience, that he may be pardoned quoting
it. The Professor
says:—"For about two miles above Cauldron Snout,
Maize Beck runs on
the greenstone- then Limestone Rock (called Tyne
Bottom Limestone)
appears over the greenstone, and continues
without interruption to the
western front of Dufton Fell, in Westmorland,
where the greenstone
appears again below this limestone, but reduced
in thickness to 24 feet."
It may be added, that for a short distance Maize
Beck divides York-
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 253
shire and Westmorland. Proceeding down the Tees
from Cauldron
Snout, it will be found that greenstone continues
in bold cliffs with
limestone over it, the limestone being in some
places bleached and
re-crystallized where it comes in contact with
the trap, so as to resemble
coarse statuary marble. Examples of this may be
seen at Cronkley Scar,
Plate XXXIV.
The waterfall called High Force is about 70 feet
high and runs
over greenstone, which rests on shale and
limestone. The shale shows
evidences of prisms, from the heat of the trap;
the limestone underneath
not being bleached like that above. This fall is
generally seen rushing
over the rock in one grand sheet, but when it
descends in two currents,
as the writer on one occasion saw it, the effect
is extremely fine. Below
the High Force high cliffs of greenstone run
parallel with the river on
the south-west side to Lorton.
At Middleton-in-Teesdale the basalt is
extensively quarried near
the railway station by Messrs. Ord and Maddison,
and sent to several
' parts of the country for road material.
The face of the quarry opened
out here is about 80 feet perpendicular. See
Plate XXXV.
While on a visit to this district the writer had
an opportunity of
seeing two of Burleigh's rock drilling machines
at work. As it is well
known that material such as basalt is very
difficult to work by manual
labour, it may not be out of place to state here
the results obtained from
• the use of these machines.
The first machine was driven by a perpendicular
boiler, of 3-horse
power, at a pressure of 60 lbs. per square inch,
at the rate of one inch
per minute, the drill being 1£ in. diameter. The
second machine, drilling
a hole 3 in. diameter, was driven a little slower
by a boiler of the same
description as the above, but considerably
larger. These machines are
on the percussion principle, and are so placed
upon their carriages that
they can be applied at any angle that may be
required. It cannot be
denied that the work done by them is well done,
but, in a financial
point of view, considering the original cost of a
machine (£217
complete for driving a drill of 1£ in. diameter),
and the great amount of
wear and tear, the writer would hesitate to
recommend their adoption in
place of hand labour, more especially in working
limestone, as the results
obtained from working basalt are not so
satisfactory as was expected.
The Cockfield Dyke, known also as the Great Whin
Dyke, the ^
Willington Dyke, and the Auckland Dyke, will be
found shown on Plate
XXXIV. as accurately as could be made out from
personal observation,
vol. xxi.—1872. l2
254 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
from information kindly supplied by various
gentlemen, and with the
assistance of Professor Philips's map of
Yorkshire. The first-named Dyke
commencing at or near Middleton-in-Teesdale,
passes in an E.S.E.
direction, cuts through the upper part of the
mountain limestone and
through the coal measures, catches a little of
the western crop of the
magnesian limestone, and crops out again both at
Preston, near Yarm,
and near Nunthorp. At Langbray ridge it is
extensively quarried for
road material, and passes south of Roseberry,
through Kildale and
Lonsdale, past West House and Castleton, and so
on to the Valley of
the Esk, where it is lost to view between Slights
and Maybecks, having
run a course, with very slight divergence, of
above 70 miles.
Through the kindness of Mr. T. Allison, of
Guisborough, an analysis,
made by Mr. W. Crossley, is given of the
filling-in of this dyke. The
specific gravity of this stone is from 2*5 to
3*0.
ANALYSIS.
Water and carbonic acid ... ... ...
2*30 per cent.
Silica ............... 58-40
Alumina ... ... ... ...
... 14*70 „
Protoxide of iron ... ... ... ...
10*27 „
Lime ... ... ... ... 7*80 „
Magnesia ... ... ... ...
... 2'00 „
Potash ... ... ... ...
... 4*80 „
100*27
It is not the writer's intention to touch upon
either the Willington
or Auckland Dykes as they do not materially
affect the limestone. It
was intended to have presented with this paper a
horizontal as well
as a vertical section from Stanhope to
Middleton-in-Teesdale, but at
present it has not been possible to accomplish
this beyond giving the
vertical sections given in Plates XXXV. to XL. In
Plate XL., sections of
strata at Carr's Cragg, there are 72 divisions of
the local names classed
under four heads, viz.:—limestone, plate,
sandstone, and hazel. There
are 306 feet of limestone, 786 feet of plate, 60
feet of sandstone, and 258 feet
of hazel. This section was carefully taken by a
local gentleman whose
remarks thereon are given below, and for the
accuracy of which the writer
can vouch, from having made a careful personal
examination of the
strata.
1.—The grindstone sill or millstone grit is most
conspicuously seen
at Carr's Craggs. Millstones are lying on the
place cut by Simpson of
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 255
X>angdale, of very large size, and there are
stones at present which may
De cut to any size as far as 13,000 solid feet,
or 39 feet in length, ac-
cording to the information of W. Cameron, Mason,
and adapted for any
building purposes. This sill is firm and sound.
2. —This large plate bed in different parts
contains large quantities
of iron ore, but the lower plate beds contain the
most.
3. —This hazel sometimes produces fine slates to
the thickness of
5 or 6 slates. Thick flags may also be got at
the bottom.
4. —Iron is contained in this plate bed.
5. —This limestone, or Fell top lime, when lying
bare at the surface,
gives a red appearance to the earth, thereby
showing the presence of
iron.
6. —This hazel contains a great number of
cockle-shaped shells as
well as those of other descriptions.
7. —This plate bed contains a great quantity of
iron ore as is evi-
dent by the red water flowing from it.
8. —In some places this hazel contains slate, but
generally of too
soft a nature for slating purposes.
9. —This plate bed contains small quantities of
iron ore.
10. —This hazel is quite brittle and contains
very much iron ore.
11. —This plate contains small particles of iron
ore.
12. —The upper slate sill is useful for masons as
it contains slates,
flags, firestones, and wherever it is found it is
worked on account of its
great utility.
13. —This plate contains iron ore.
14. —This sill is valuable for building purposes.
An excellent lead
mine is worked here at Wire Gill by the London
Lead Company.
15. —Contains iron in abundance.
16. —The hazel or high Pattinson sill contains a
great number of
shells of a very light nature.
17. —These plate beds contain in abundance large
quantities of
iron ore.
18. —Freestone is of a very coarse nature but has
produced very
good lead ore at Cold Berry (the London Lead
Company's mine), and is
said to produce iron ore likewise.
19. —This large -plate bed_contains a vast
quantity of iron ore, and
where a level is driven there issues very thick
iron water. It may here
be observed of this water that, if properly
applied, it is said to be a
cure for the itch. There are no doubt a great
many iron veins in the
256 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
Duke of Cleveland's manor, exclusive of the iron
in the beds of p]ate
which generally lie in flats of 1, 2, 4, 7, 10,
and sometimes 12 inches'
and are very advantageous in driving levels.
20. —The low Pattinson sills are very productive
of lead, especially
in weak veins. ' '
21. —This plate is of quite a soft nature.
22. —The little limestones are productive of lead
ore, especially in
the veins, which also produce blue, grey, green,
and white ores in
abundance.
23. —This sill seldom fails to produce lead ore.
24. —Plate of a grey beddy nature, where the
veins are sparry or
riderey they produce ores.
25. —The upper coal sill is productive of lead
ore and has a small
coal seam upon it commonly called Cran coal.
26. —This plate bed is much the same as the above
No. 19 bed, of a
grey, beddy nature, producing ores where there is
a space ridered.
27. —The lower coal sill is productive of lead
ore, especially in the
veins. There are also veins producing ores,
though of a harder nature.
28. —This plate bed is of quite a soft nature and
has a small
coal seam at the bottom of it.
29. —This is called the great limestone, and from
its value it may
not be improper to call it the mother sill of the
earth. It produces lead
ores, especially in flats where there are a
number of veins. The value of
the lime produced by burning it is very great ;
this lime when laid on
the coldest and coarsest land gives an immense
increase of corn, vegetables,
and herbage. The land under which it lies is easy
to distinguish from
other lands by the nature of its produce. This
has been proved by
laying it on boggy land without sowing any seeds,
and the result has
been a production of a great variety of all sorts
of useful herbs, good
for food, milk, and honey.
30. —This tuft is productive of stone that will
resist fire; it is there-
fore useful in kilns; the purest water also
issues from the top of it.
31. —The plate bed produces iron in small
quantities.
32. —This limestone is seen at Stoney Gill Head,
and is of a hard
nature.
33. —This plate contains small particles of iron
ore.
34. —Is of a sulphury nature, and produces red or
iron water.
35. —This plate contains some iron, but is more
of a grey, beddy nature.
36. —This is useful to masons as it produces
slates, flags, &c.
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 257
37. —This plate is excellent for driving levels
in, for draining or
letting off the water, and is productive of iron.
38. —This is of a hardish nature, producing bad
ore, water springs
from it that has the power of marmoration.
39. —This is of a very grey, beddy nature.
40._Out of this, hazel ore has been dug at
Grasshill and other places;
^ is of a hard nature with strong posts in it.
41. —This plate contains a rather strong grey bed
and iron ore.
40_This is more of a dun, shelly nature than most
of the other
limestones.
43. —This is soft and contains a strong cran-coal
seam, 2 feet thick
in places, useful for burning lime; it is used in
Harwood for domestic
purposes.
44. —Wearhead Bridge stands in this sill. It has
produced lead
ore at Harwood, Grasshill, Hawkesyke, &c, and is
useful for building
purposes.
45. —This plate is of a soft nature, and
therefore of importance in
levels, &c.
46. —The water that proceeds from this sill is of
a petrifying nature,
and deposits incrustations of marble at its
spring.
47. —This is quite hard, grey and beddy.
48. —This has yielded a large quantity of ore at
Hawksyke, in
Harwood.
49. —This bed is quite shivery and important in
driving quick levels.
50. —Has been productive of lead ore at Willey
Hole, Troph Head,
and Scarhead, in Harwood.
51. —This is of a soft nature.
52. —This is hard and sulphurous.
53. —This is of a soft and murky nature.
54. —This is of a soft nature and suitable for
bricks if properly
prepared.
55. —This bed is soft and shivery, and contains
small particles of
iron ore.
56. —This is of a close hard nature and has
produced ore at Willey
Hole, in Harwood.
57. —This is of a sulphurous and hard nature.
58. —This is grey, beddy and impregnated with
iron.
59. —This sill is open and hard, and shells of
various descriptions
are imbedded in it; hence the purest water
springs from its bottom.
258 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. j
60. —This is quite of a soft nature, and in it
are embedded screw
shells.
61. —This contains a great deal of sulphur and
copper, and is of a
hard igneous substance.
62. —This is of an adamantine nature, and
impregnated with iron.
63. —This bed is of a strong slaty nature, and
has sometimes produced
lead ore.
64. —This is a close and firm sill, and is
productive of lead ore
g'enerally in flats.
65. —The top and bottom of this sill in their
natures are very
opposite, the top is of a hard sulphurous nature,
the bottom the reverse.
66. —This is of quite a soft and lightish nature.
67. —From this sill very fine stones have been
dug for sharpening
razors, &c.; it is seen at the Wheel and Cauldron
Snout.
68. —The great whin sill is of a very hard
nature, and is the most
valuable sill known for making roads; it is
clearly seen at Falken Clint,
on the south side of Cauldron Snout, where it
shows a face of 20 fathoms
perpendicular; it may also be seen at High Force
and Holweck Scarrs a
great height; every sill in the section, from the
bed of the great
limestone, has produced ore, notably at Pasture
Grove, Weardale (Col.
Beaumont's). This is the deepest sill wrought.
69. —This is of a hard and durable nature.
70. —This is at the top and bottom of the
whetstone hard, but at the
centre fine pencil may be obtained for school
use.
71. —Black marble; this is of an extremely hard
nature and full of
shells. In Westmorland this sill has produced
lead ore, but in Teasdale
it is as yet unexplored; it is seen at High Force
very clearly.
72. —This may be cut into large masses, and would
be useful in
slating houses, &c.; it is seen at High Force.
Referring back to the greenstone at Lonton, near
Middleton, lime-
stone is found cropping out into Lunedale, and
prominently shown at
Mickelton and various other places. There is not
so much prominently
developed limestone about Mickelton as the
Millstone Grit is overlapping
the limestone at Romaldkirk and Cotherstone,
extending up Balderdale
and Lartington, and so by Startforth and
Deepdale. At God's Bridge
the Greta enters the limestone, and proceeding on
its course passes *
Rutherford Bridge, Stargill, Brignace, and Greta
Bridge, into Rokeby,
a little below which it joins the Tees. At Bowes
and Boldron the
mountain limestone is again fully developed, and
crops out to the surface.
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 259
Quarries have been opened out by various parties
and worked, but only
t0 a limited extent. The section below is taken
from a quarry which
is being opened out, and only part of it is laid
bare.
BOWES' QUARRY.
Ft. In.
Bed No. 1—Limestone..................10 0
?> » 3— » ••• ••• ...... •••
**• ,( 9
Remainder not opened.
The writer was informed that this quarry was not
what the proprietor
expected it to be, which was what might have been
anticipated from its
position. On the west side of this quarry there
are two others, and on
the south side of the Bowes' and Greta Bridge
road there is a bold cliff
of limestone upwards of 70 feet in height.
In reference to this district Professor Philips,
after describing various
antiquities preserved at Rokeby, says :—" The
line of country drained
by the Greta deserves the attention of the
geologist for another reason;
this being the great line of transport of the
erratic blocks from the
Cumberland Alps towards the eastern parts of the
island—thus presenting
one of the strangest phenomena of physical
geography. Some of these
blocks may in fact be traced from their parent
mountain at Shap and
Cannock, across Edendale to Brough, and up the
slope towards the
summit of Stairmoor; on the eastern side of the
summit they follow
radiating" lines towards Romaldkirk, Cotherstone,
Barnard Castle,
Brignall, and are scattered over many parts of
the vales of Cleveland and
York, the sides of Eskdale, the cliffs of
Scarborough, Flamborough, and
Holderness.
The outcrop of limestone can be traced from the
last-named quarries
at Boldron and Rokeby down to Whorlton, Wycliffe,
and Forcett,
extending inland to Hutton Aalton, Gaylee, and
Wharton—the mile-
stone just intervening between Forcett, Stanwick,
and Aldbrough, down
towards Melsonby : or, in other words, from
Gatherby Moor down nearly
to Moulton.
SECTION OF FORCETT LIMESTONE QUARRY.
The average height may be taken at 40 feet,
although at the crown
of the hill a little more puts on, which has been
proved by boring to have
increased its height to 53 feet. The 40 feet
worked is divided into 20
beds, as per following section :—
260 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
THICKNESS.
Feet. Inch.
SOIL ..................... 8 0
r Ft. In.
Limestone. No. 1 Bed. 0 10
Do. „ 2 „ 1 10
Do. „ 3 „ 12
Do. „ 4 „ 10
Do. „ 5 „ 3 5
Do. „ 6 „ 3 0
Do. „ 7 „ 2 4
Do. „ 8 „ 2 0
Do. „ 9 „ 3 0
Blue I Do. „ 10 „ 2 2 I 39 7
Limestone. Do> „ U „ 2 6^
Do. „ 12 „ 3 8
Do. „ 13 „ 19
Do. „ 14 „ 0 11
Do. „ 15 „ 10
Do. „ 16 „ 2 0
Do. „ 17 „ 0 9 \
Da » W „ 3 0 L infer.or
Do. „ 19 „ 19 / in quality.
Do. „ 20 „ 16 /
Bed No. 17 in the section contains a large
quantity of magnesia, and
Nos. 18, 19, and 20 being of inferior quality,
have been left unworked
over most of the quarry. There is a vein running
N.W. and. S.E.,
cutting the royalty into two parts. The west side
of this quarry is
thrown down considerably by this fault; the vein
crops out half a mile
below the village of East Layton, where it can be
seen advantageously.
It is worked for copper at Middleton Tyas, near
Barton. The extent of
Forcett quarry is 120 acres. See analysis,
given further on.
At Forcett limestone is now very extensively
worked for blast
furnace purposes. This limestone was used
originally for agriculture
and building only, but the increased demand for
it has caused new
fields to be opened out, of which that at Forcett
is one.
A new railway has lately been constructed (the
Merrybent and Dar-
lington), which leaves the Darlington and Barnard
Castle branch of the
North-Eastern at or near the township boundary
line of Cockerton, and
proceeds to its terminus at or near the High
Street, with a branch
running from it. Particular reference is made to
this line of railway,
as it goes into a limestone district (of which a
fuller description will be
given) that has for many years formed the source
from which agricul-
tural and building lime have been derived.
[CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 261
Following up the remarks upon Forcett, and
allowing for a small
patch of millstone grit between Forcett and
Melsonby, in the neighbour-
hood of Stanwick and Aldbrough, it will be
necessary to define more
particularly the district opened out by the line
of railway just spoken
of, as far as Leybourne, beyond which it is not
intended to proceed in
the present paper, although the writer hopes to
be able to do so on a
future occasion.
From Moulton, in addition to the trias or new
red-sandstone, a large
portion of millstone grit covers the country down
to Holtby, which is
nearly in a line with Leybourne. Between the two
last-named points,
fiilling, Aske, Uckerby, Hipsuell, Hawkswell, and
Bellerby, are situated
on the millstone grit, and patches of the
limestone occur at Marske,
Stainton, and Downholme, while close on the
outcrop edge, but not
yet developed, there is a patch of magnesian
limestone at Brough and
Catterick.
The writer is able to define the above-named
field, from having
recently visited the district. The old Barton
quarry is situated about
3 furlongs 143 yards, or nearly so, from the
town. The limestone in
this quarry has in former times been worked to
the depth of about 30 feet.
And it is reported that a well was sunk in it 24
feet deep, and the
bottom of the limestone was not even then
reached. In a field adjoin-
ing the High Street, a limestone quarry has
originally been worked to
the depth of about 25 feet, the limestone
continuing still deeper. At
Ducket Hill a quarry is partially opened
immediately adjoining the
High Street, the section of which is as
follows:-—
Ft. In.
Baring soil...... *......... 4 0
Limestone, 1st Bed ......... 4 0
Do. 2nd „............ 2 6
Do. 3rd „............ 2 0
Do. 4th „........... 1 0
Do. 5th „............ 2 6
Do. 6th „............ 4 0
Do. 7th „............ 12 0
Do. 8th „............ 8 0
31 0
The remainder of the quarry had not been opened,
but the writer was
informed that it was about 30 feet thick; see
Plate XXXVIII.
A bore hole was put down immediately adjoining
the High Street,
and only 100 yards from the aforesaid quarry, but
no limestone
VOL. XXI.-1872. M8
262 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
was found. The dip is here N.E., and the
termination of the railway is
about 40 or 50 yards across the street. A little
beyond this point an
under level drift is being* driven, and at 60
yards from the mouth is
completely underneath the limestone, which proves
the dip to be N.E
There are two pits sunk immediately on the line
of this drift, through
the limestone, which looks shaley and much broken
up.
A very considerable quantity of copper was found
here by the Com-
pany, close to the surface, and a pit having been
sunk 50 fathoms, further
search for copper was being made.
In an examination of this district, it is found
that the millstone grit
and the top of the limestone are very difficult
to identify, especially
between Forcett, Aldbrough, Stanwick, and
crossing Gatherly Moor,
where the millstone grit has been quarried to a
considerable depth. The
piece of limestone lying between Barton and Low
Hang Bank, and the
road from Barton to Middleton, including
Merrybent, Melsonby limestone
kilns, a portion of Middleton Caves and the
quarry at Barton, shows a
very good face; thence, continuing this line on
to Little Hang Bank
Bridge (where a face of quarry is standing), and
on to Melsonby kilns,
it still shows a good face. A vein, of what
dimensions could not
be ascertained, after running nearly parallel
with the Melsonby and
Barton road, throws it down almost immediately
opposite the Melsonby
lime kilns, and cuts it off from view on the
opposite side of the beck in
West Pasture, where the hole previously mentioned
never found it«. A
little further E. a sandstone quarry is standing
open at Mickelhow Hill,
which, in fact, is a part of the millstone grit.
In Bussey's Quarry the height of the limestone is
at least 23 feet, and
probably 15 or 16 feet more. The dip is nearly
N.E., and about 10
inches to the yard, being very much affected by a
vein at about 150
yards S. There is also another vein running
nearly E. and W., and a
pit put down immediately east of it proved the
limestone to be only 9
feet thick.
At Hartforth Lane End all trace of the limestone
disappears. This
lane runs in a westerly direction, and about 400
yards S. and E. a cross
vein cuts the limestone, and it must be thrown
down a great depth as
the millstone grit is quarried to the depth of 25
feet about half a mile
south of it. Mr. Wallace, in his "Mineral
Deposits," says, "The total
thickness of this limestone is about 2,800 feet,
and consists of a series of
alternating strata of limestone, sandstone, and
shale, and one layer of
trap." The number of feet is given on the section
as 1,410; but
Mr. Wallace gives the aggregate on Alston Moor to
be 1,037 feet, and
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 263
compared as follows: limestone, 183 feet;
sandstone, 349 feet; and
shale, 505 feet.
As stated at the commencement of this paper the
consumption of
limestone in this district, for smelting purposes
alone, is the enormous
quantity of more than a million tons, and the
three great sources from
which that supply is obtained are Weardale,
Forcett, and Merrybent,
although there are other places from which
limestone is obtained. The
following table shows the quantity sent from
Weardale for the three
weeks ending 22nd June, 1872:—
° Tona. Cwte.
Newlandside ... ... ... ... ... ... 7,964 17
Bell Brothers ... ... ... ... ... 1,093 8
Frosterley ... ... ... ... ... ... 4,158 3
Broadwood.................. 17,901 11
Bishopley ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,172 7
Fine Burn ... ... ... .. ... ... 3,748 14
Forcett ... ... ... ... ... ... 3,600 0
39,639 0
This shows an average of more than 13,000 tons
per week, equal
to about 700,000 tons per annum. -The remainder
is made up from
Merrybent, Raisby Hill, Pickering, and also a
little from the district
of Bowes and Boldron, but from the figures it
will be seen that
the Valley of the Wear sends the largest
quantity. The reason of this
will be apparent from a reference to the
following correspondence and
analyses supplied by various managers in the
Cleveland district. It is
worthy of remark that the appearance of the
various limestones is widely
different, the Weardale being a clear deep blue,
the colour changing at
Bowes and Forcett to a considerably lighter
shade, and at Merybent it
gets nearly white. In the districts described a
few fossils are found, and
the writer has in his possession one or two good
specimens, said by com-
petent persons to be of the orthocedea.
It will no doubt have been noticed that in the
previous remarks no
mention has been made of the magnesian limestone,
or the oolitic lime-
stone, as any observations thereon could not be
sufficiently condensed
within the limits of this paper. A seam of the
oolitic is passed through in
the neighbourhood of Stanghow, in Cleveland, with
a bore-hole made by
Captain Beaumont's diamond rock-borer. A
representation of the out-
crop of the limestone, as well as the magnesian
(except the magnesian
which has not been completed) is shown on Plate
XXXIV.
In concluding this paper the writer may be
excused quoting the
remarks of Professor Page, who, in reference to
the mountain or carbo-
264 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
niferous limestone, says that it is one of the
most distinct and unmis-
takeable in the whole crust of the earth. Whether
consisting of one-
thick reef-like bed of limestone or of many beds
with alternating shales
and sandstones, its peculiar corals, encrinites,
and shells distinguish it at
once from all other strata.
In fact it forms in the rocky crust a zone so
marked and peculiar that
it becomes a guiding post not only to the miner
in the carboniferous
system but to the geologist in his researches
among other strata.
In the district, which the writer has attempted
to describe in the
present paper, the mountain limestone is true and
fully developed, and
certainly forms a very important portion of that
system.
In Scotland the limestones of the lower part of
the carboniferous
system are very thin, as will appear from the
following section of the
rocks in the country between Edinburgh and
Glasgow.
Feet.
Red sandstone (carboniferous)...............
Alternations of sandstone and shales with coal
and ironstone 130*0
Limestone........................ 1*0
Alternations, &c, five beds of coal four feet
thick and )
many others less ............... { lbd5"u
"Gare" limestone .................. 4*9
Intermediate strata .......*.......... 150*0
Ochrey limestone .................. 3*0
Sandstone with shale, &c, one coal............
51*0
Limestone ..................... 4*0
Alternations, &c, four beds of coal, two or three
feet thick, ^ An^o
and many ironstones ...............$
1st Cawmey limestone.................. 1*6
Shale ........................ 8*6
1st Kinshaw limestone.................. 2*0
Alternations and one little coal bed............
16*4
2nd Kinshaw limestone.................. 2*1
Shale with ironstone bulls ............... 29*5
2nd Cawmey limestone ............... 4*6
Shale with ironstone band ............... 42*0
Foulband limestone .................. 3*6
Alternations, &c, one coal bed, 1 foot 8 inches
thick ... 86*0
3rd Cawmey limestone.................. 2*6
Shale with ironstone band ............... 20*0
Main limestone..................... 4*6
Shale and fire-clay with one coal ............
29*0
Coarse limestone with intermediate band of
fire-clay ... 5*6
Sandstone with shale and a little coal .........
54*0
Limestone........................ 2*0
Fire-clay, sandstone, and shale, with one small
coal ... 34*0
Oystershell limestone (producta, &c.)............
4*0
Alternations of shale, whitish sandstone, and
fire-clay ... 104*0
(Old red sandstone to an unknown depth.)
Total.................. 2840*1
LETTER No. 1.
In reference to yours of the 14th, on limestones
of the district, I
think those that suit us best are the purest
carbonates of lime. Lime is
—.....- -
[ ^nat we require for fluxing our ironstone, it
suits us better than mag-
f neSian, and therefore the pure limestones are
better for our purpose than
mao*nesian limestones. Any silica or alumina in
the stone or attached to
it in the shape of dirt is objectionable,
inasmuch as it in itself requires
a portion of the lime to flux it, and thus the
slag becomes short of lime
although the proper weight of stone has been put
in. My opinion is that
the mountain limestone from Weardale is the most
suitable we get, as when
clean it is very pure. There are several places
in what is considered
the magnesian limestone country, where a very
pure carbonate of lime is
worked, such as in Mr. Morrison's workings at
Ferryhill, and also at the
Haisby Hill quarries. I do not know how it lies
with the magnesian
limestone bed, but it certainly does not contain
more magnesia than the
mountain limestone. In appearance it is scarcely
to be detected from
magnesian limestone. The Raisby Hill is used in
the district. The
Forcett and Merrybent you will know, but never
having worked them I
have no trustworthy analysis, but they may both
be considered inferior
to the Stanhope stone. The Harmley stone has been
used more or less
in the district, portions of the bed are very
good, but in the bulk it is not
so good as the Weardale. The Pickering oolitic
limestone is used at
Grosmont for smelting. It is pretty fair, a
portion of it good, but in
the bulk inferior to the Weardale.
I do not know I can do any better than subjoin
you analyses of the
various sorts in use, and I believe they may be
considered as fair
samples.
ANALYSES.
WEARDALE LIMESTONE.
Carbonate of lime ..................94*50
Carbonate of magnesia.................. 2*71
Peroxide of iron..................... 0*17
Alumina........................ 0*75
Siliceous matter..................... 1*54
Moisture ........................ °'34
100*01
FERRYHILL LIMESTONE.
Carbonate of lime.....................95*74
Carbonate of magnesia.................. 2*12
Peroxide of iron..................... 0*30
Alumina ........................ 0*74
Siliceous matter.................... l'OO
Moisture ........................ 0*24
100*14
266 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
RAISBY HILL LIMESTONE.
Carbonate of lime..................... 96-20
Carbonate of magnesia.................. 1*80
Peroxide of iron..................... 0*37
Alumina ........................ 0*67
Siliceous matter ..................... 1*04
Moisture ........................ 0-10
100-18
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE.
Carbonate of lime..................... 57*68
Carbonate of magnesia.................. 39*12
Peroxide of iron..................... 1*48
Alumina ........................ 0*60
Siliceous matter..................... 1*20
Moisture ........................ 0*13
100*21
HARMBY LIMESTONE.
Carbonate of lime..................... 91*52
Carbonate of magnesia.................. 2-77
Peroxide of iron..................... 0*28
Alumina ........................ l'OO
Siliceous matter.................... 4*72
Moisture ........................ 0*14
100*43
PICKERING OOLITIC LIMESTONE.
Carbonate of lime.............. ...... 90*76
Carbonate of magnesia.................. 1*48
Alumina ........................ 0*76
Peroxide of iron............ •........ 0*36
Siliceous matter..................... 6*60
Moisture ........................ 0'36
100*32
LETTER No. 2.
The following are analyses of limestone that we
have worked here:—
WEARDALE LIMESTONE.
Silica ........................ 0*41
Alumina ........................ 0*50
Carbonate of lime .................. 96*70
Carbonate of Magnesia.................. 2*30
99*91
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 267
BOLDRON LIMESTONE.
Sample 1. Sample. 2. Sample 3.
Silica ......... 5*68 ... 5*76 ... 2*40
Alumina ......... 0*77 ... 0*55 ... 0"36
Carbonate of lime ... 91*44 ... 91*38 ...
95*28
Magnesia......... 1*86 ... 2'40 ... 1*98
Peroxide of iron ... 0*15 ... 0*08 ...
003
Moisture......... 0*23 ... 0-20 ... 0*17
100*13 ... 100*37 ... 100*22
RAISBY HILL LIMESTONE.
Silica ........................ 1*42
Alumina........................ 0*11
Carbonate of lime .................. 96*23
Do. magnesia ... ........... 1*75
Peroxide of iron .................. 0*37
Sulphur........................ 0*08
Water ........................ 0*15
100-11
MERRYBENT LIMESTONE.
3 ft. deep. 4} ft. 6 ft. 12 ft. deep.
Silica ...... 2-65 ... 2-18 ... 2-00 ... 1-28
Alumina ... ... 0'48 ... 0*53 ... 0*38
... 0*28
Carbonate of lime... 95*28 ... 96 53 ... 97*17
... 97'78
Magnesia...... 1*75 ... 1'57 ... 1*72 ... 1*72
100-16 ... 100*81 ... 101-27 ... 101*06
The Forcett limestone is very much like the
Boldron limestone,
containing from 4 to 7 per cent, of silica The
Weardale, of course,
works well upon the furnaces. The Raisby Hill
that we got turned
out also very good when clean and free from clay
and dirt—the latter was
against it. The Boldron and Forcett limestones
are poor in carbonate of
lime, and contain too much silica. The bottom
Merrybent is a clean, good
stone and calcines very much easier than
Weardale; the top Merrybent
is rather too soft and friable and falls to dust
in the kilns, but it works
very well when used as it comes from the quarry;
it is difficult to break
into small pieces, and does not cleave like the
blue limestone. The top
Merrybent runs as low as 93 per cent of carbonate
of lime.
LETTER No. 3.
I have only used Weardale and Forcett since I
have been in the
North, of course you will know their per cent
ages as well or better than
| I do. For furnace purposes I consider
Weardale limestone equal to the
1 best in the kingdom.
268 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
LETTER No. 4.
Weardale Limestone.—This blue mountain limestone
is no doubt
the most uniform in quality of any we have ever
had and works best in
the furnace. The distance, and therefore the
price, is against it.
Forcett Limestone.—Except in a bed of about 2 or
3 feet in
thickness occurring at the last " lift" but one
in the quarry, this stone is
very good, and we find it to work satisfactorily
in the furnace. Enclosed
analysis is a fair average sample of what they
are now sending out.
They exclude the brown bed above mentioned, and
you will see by the
enclosed analysis it is necessary to do so.
Merrybent.—The stone they have sent out up to now
is not good,
and it contains too much silica, which has a
tendency to work cold in
the furnace and fill up the hearth. They are
pushing the workings
forward towards the Duchess of Northumberland's
Eoyalty, and the
samples we have received from the full face of
the seam there are much
better, and this stone would without doubt answer
our purpose well. It
is a clean looking stone of a bluish brown
colour, and appears free from
fossil remains.
Boldron.—We have never used any quantity of this,
but from what
I have heard and from analysis we have taken of
samples, it works
irregularly and contains too much silica (see
analysis). The silica varies
very much in different parts of the seam, but I
never examined the
quarry, and cannot say where the good and bad
stones occur.
Raisby Hill.—A peculiar deposit of stone of a
mountain limestone
character in a magnesian district. The bulk of
the stone is very pure and
good, and with care in working it can be said to
answer our purpose well.
The seam is much broken up with partings, and the
stone is smaller in
size and more easily broken than the Weardale. It
also calcines more
easily. Some portions of the quarry are a browner
stone, which must be
kept out. Enclosed analyses are of a fair average
sample, collected from
200 trucks, and of a sample of the brown stone.
Harmby, near Bedale.—We have sometimes had
occasion to
resort to this stone in winter. It is rather
magnesian in character, and
does not act particularly well as a flux, but
still I think it might come
into the market if carefully and energetically
worked.
Aycliffe, Eldon, Ferryhill, and Carlbury are
magnesian
limestones, containing about 50 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, and 40
per cent, of carbonate of magnesia. They do not
answer our purpose.
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 269
ANALYSES.
Boldkon.—Silica, in various samples, from the
quarry.
No. 1 = 5*40 (Samples.)
„ 2 = 8-15
fi 3 = 13*83
„ 4 = 5-32
„ 5 = 1-25
Raisby Hill.—Dark brown sample.
Carbonate of lime.................. 88*52
Do. magnesia.................. 7-31
Peroxide of iron and alumina............... 3-20
Silica....... .................. 0*20
99-23
Merrybent.—Samples received from the new workings
on the
Duchess of Northumberland's royalty.
Top of Seam. Bottom of Seam
Carbonate of lime ............ 94*67 ... 95*44
Do. magnesia ......... 2*75 ... 2*12
Oxide of iron and alumina ......... 0*40 ... 0*35
Silica .................. 1-70 ... 1-85
99*52 99*76
Merrybent.—As at first received.
Carbonate of lime ........ ......... 89*61
Do. magnesia.................. 0*69
Peroxide of iron and alumina............... 1-40
Silica .., ..................... 7*50
99*20
Forcett.—A fair sample of what they are now
sending.
Carbonate of lime .................. 91*430
Do. magnesia ............
... 3*268
Peroxide of iron and alumina ............ 1*300
Silica ....................... 3*050
Organic matter.................... 0*450
99*198
Forcett.—From the Brown Bed.
Carbonate of lime .................. 85*37
Do. magnesia.................. 8*42
Peroxide of iron and alumina............... 4-45
Silica ........................ 1*23
Organic matter (water and loss) ............ 0*53
100*00
Boldron.—Average of one train load.
Silica ........................ 5-8655
Oxide of iron and alumina............... 2*8460
Carbonate of lime ......
¦........... 90*8060
Do. magnesia ...............( 0.4825
Organic matter (water and loss) ............S
100*0000
vol. xxi.—1872. n»
272 ON THE TEETH OP WHEELS.
the position of his centres by a construction
(shown in Plates XLII. and
XLIII.) in which a line at 15° to pitch line is
drawn at a point half the
pitch distance from 0, and the distance along-
the 15° line to the centre
is given either by a small table or by the
formula,
Distance = No. of teeth x i itcL qx
No. of teeth ±12 yj
While Adcock gives at once, by tables, both the
radius, and the distance
of the centre within or without the pitch line.
His radius agrees with
the formula:—
-p , No. of teeth ±6 .
Rad' = No.ofteeth±-12Xpitch- &
This being obtained from the former by adding
E*^1 to it. In both
cases the + sign is for the face of the tooth or
part above the pitch line,
and the — for the flank or part beneath the pitch
line.
This was for a rolling circle = 6 teeth, or, as
it is usually expressed,
for smallest pinion = 12 teeth, which is also
Willis's assumption. But
Adcock also gives tables for rolling circles of 4
and of 5 teeth (or smallest
pinion 8 and 10 teeth); and (n being No. of tteth
in rolling circle)
these agree with the formula,
T. , No. of teeth ± n ., , /ox
Rad- = No. of teeth ±2n x Pltch' (3)
And as these radii, &c, are given for every
tooth, from 8 to 300 teeth,
the tables appear very elaborate and promise
great utility.
But they have the same faults as Willis's method,
aggravated by
the circumstance, that while the latter is
adapted to a height of tooth of
about *35 of pitch, Adcock directs a height of
only *2 of pitch (above
pitch line) to be used. The consequence is that
the tabular radius is
really the radius that is normal to the
epicycloid arc almost at the top
of his tooth ; while a radius normal, at the
middle of it, on Willis's
principle, would have been a better
approximation.
The diameters of the wheels are given in these
tables on the suppo-
sition that the pitch is the straight line
distance between pitch points,
making the diameter of a 10-tooth pinion 3*236
times pitch, instead of
3*183 times, as it ought to be j while for the
higher numbers of teeth
such a loose value of it seems to have been taken
as to make the dia-
meter for 300 teeth 95*474, instead of 95*493
times pitch, while affecting-
accuracy to five places of figures.
3. Nystrom's, given also in Molesworth's Pocket
Book as "an
ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS. 273
American plan."—This plan follows Willis in
drawing a "fifteen degree
line," but at the distance of the other side of
the tooth or space, instead
of the half pitch, from the pitch point; and the
distance along that line
is given by the formula :—
Distance = '11 pitch No. of teeth (4)
to give the centre for the face arc.
This agrees with what is required fully as well
as Willis's up to about
100 teeth, but beyond that it goes on
indefinitely increasing the radius
with the number of teeth ; whereas, there is a
limit which should not be
passed, viz., the proper radius for a rack (which
is just part of a wheel
of an infinite number of teeth). The formula is
only empirical, and the
objection referred to is roughly avoided by
saying that a wheel above
200 teeth is treated as a rack; it would be
better at above 100 teeth.
The distance, outwards, along the 15° line, for
the centre for the
flank arc is given thus :—
-T. No. of teeth + 6 . , ,„
Distance = =r=-tt-—;-x pitch. (o
No. of teeth — 11 r
This formula happens to agree very closely with
the writer's principle.
If it is the assumed thickness of tooth = *45 of
pitch, and rolling circle of
5J teeth, it agrees almost exactly. But this
agreement is obviously
accidental. Not to speak of the thickness of
tooth varying in different
cases, we have the direction of the centre
determined by the 15° line,
which is only adapted to the 6-tooth rolling
circle. For the term — 11,
in the formula, determines that the -pinion of 11
teeth has the flank
radius infinite, i.e., the flanks are straight
lines, and they ought to point
to the centre of the pinion, according to the
property of the epicycloid
traced by a rolling circle equal to half the
pitch circle, being simply a
straight line through the centre. But the 15°
line used makes these
flanks diverge inside of radial lines about 3°.
The flanks of pinions of
12 and 13 teeth, and so on, partake of the same
error, rendering them
all gratuitously weak at the root. (See N N,
Plate XLIII.).
4. The "trial radius" plan. This consists in the
draughtsman
actually drawing the epicycloid curve, or at
least finding a few points
therein, by construction, in such a way as
directed by Molesworth; or
by having the rolling circle drawn on a piece of
tracing paper, with a
series of equidistant points laid off on it and
on the pitch circle. Then
by trial finding a radius and centre to suit the
part of the curve required
as well as possible.
In principle this method is just the right way.
But practically—
274 ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS.
lst. If the draughtsman trusts to Molesworth's
construction (p. 202,
new edition) nine persons out of ten will apply
it wrongly (the language
is so defective) by taking the distances " dj = y
d" &c, as straight
line distances, instead of measured on the curves
as they should be. The
effect of this erroneous construction is shown in
Plates XLII. and XLIII.
by curves marked 0 M. 2nd. Suppose the curve
correctly constructed,
the arc is usually so short that the proper
radius can only be got very
roughly; the direction of the centre may be found
pretty well, but the
length of radius may often be varied nearly 50
per cent, without the eye
being able to say which point suits best. So much
is this so that for
small pitches it is found advantageous to draw
the diagram to an enlarged
scale. The writer, for some years, followed the
plan of calculating the
radius by formula (2) (having derived it from
Rankine's Applied Mecha-
nics), and then rinding the direction of the
centre by the above con-
struction. And it was only when he tested the
method on the scale of
10-inch pitch, that it became evident that the
radii so found were always
too great, and that something better should be
obtainable.
Further investigation resulted in the obtaining
of a principle on which
tables could be calculated, by which both the
length of radius and the
position of centre would be got at once, for an
arc of circle that would
in all cases coincide with the true epicycloid
curve in the best possible
way.
PRINCIPLE OF THE NEW METHOD.
Let H = the height of curve required above or
depth below the
pitch line.
r = the radius of rolling circle,
m — the ratio of pitch circle to rolling circle,
so that
m r = the radius of pitch circle,
x — the divergence of the curve at the height H,
from"a
radial line.
Then, by an approximate equation to the
epicycloid (omitting details
of mathematical demonstration), we have
-S*- m + 2 _ m + 2 I 2H*
3 Vr V m (m + 1) 3 Nf.m(w + 1) ^'
By this equation we can also find the divergence
from radius of any
H x
other point of the curve, say, at • ,it is
then = —- = -354 x (2)
and, having now three points in the curve, we can
find the radius and
position of centre of the arc of circle passing
through them.
ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS. 275
This radius, R, is found = 2—T^r-^---—7,— ' for
tne fa<?e
f v 2 — 1 m + 2
aYC, == practically to 1*81 s/~Rr~ • ^ ^ \ (3)
and for the flank arc the last factor becomes
g W
so that in' future the double sign ± will
represent both.
The face arcs thus obtained are shown in Plates
XLII. and XLIII.
and marked 0, C, a, d, b. They coincide with the
epicycloid curve at the
points 0, a, b, and have a divergence inside at
C, and outside at d, not
more than one-fifth of that of Willis's at EW.
Practically, the arc
can be carried to a height beyond H, as to e, so
that the divergence at
e does not exceed that at c or d. This increased
height is distinguished
as h, = from 1*06 to IT H.
The position of centre is found to be at a
uniform distance from the
tangent at the pitch point.
TT
This distance, a = —== = -354 H (5)
V o
We may assume a = *3 h, or h = 3 a; and then
R = 176^.^-| (6)
or, independent of the exact h used, R = 3*045 ^
a r • ^^r^ ^
This does not yet give the ratio of R, or of a to
the pitch, because
these vary with the rolling circle and the height
of tooth assumed.
Of the three methods first described, of drawing
an approximate
arc by rule or table, none make any provision for
difference of height of
tooth, and Adcock only provides for three special
rolling circles, viz.,
equal to 4, 5, and 6 teeth, without showing how
to modify for others.
Now teeth are used at different heights, from
Adcock's -2 of pitch to
about *36 of pitch. (Higher teeth are met with;
but usually only in
the case of gearing for small rollers, &c, which
have to vary in their
distance of centres considerably.) The less the
height of a tooth the
stronger it is, and in cases where the greatest
strength is wanted,
while the wheels have only to move occasionally,
there is no objection
to having h as small as just to have one tooth
taking hold before another
lets go, i.e., the "path of contact," M N, Plate
XLIV., must be not less
than the pitch * h = '25 p is about the smallest
convenient proportion.
But wheels that are working constantly, and it
may be rapidly, for
from 9 to 24 hours a day, require to provide for
wear as much as possible.
This makes it an object to have the teeth as high
as is consistent with
276 ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS.
strength, and to have several teeth in contact at
once if possible.
This last condition is also favourable to
smoothness of motion. The
almost unanimous voice of practice seems to
favour the proportion of
h = from *3 to -35 of pitch.
A large rolling circle increases the number of
teeth in contact at
once; and, giving a more vertical-sided tooth,
diminishes the " push
apart" thrust of the wheels. But it is usually a
condition to have all
the wheels of one pitch (and height of tooth)
able to work correctly
together, and for this they must all have the
same rolling circle, and as
the pinion of double the size of the rolling
circle has straight radial
flanks, it is usual to count that the smallest of
a set, and 12 teeth is the
largest number that can well be taken as the
smallest of a set; corres
ponding to 6 tooth rolling circle; but 4, 5, or 7
teeth may be preferred
in different cases.
And there are special cases when the engineer
will prefer to have his
wheels to suit their own work independent of such
a condition as work-
ing correctly with other wheels, and then he may
use a rolling circle as
large as he pleases up to one-half the size of
each wheel for its own
flanks (making them straight radial lines), and
the other wheels' faces.
Then equation (6) (p 275) gives the radii; and
when h is fixed it may
be written E = A sj r m± | (8)
Dr putting t for No. of teeth in wheel.
7i ,, „ in rolling circle.
R = A vV i^JL (9)
t±2n w
Where A = 1 • 76 s/h, and has several values,
given in Table I.
If the rolling circle for faces be made = half
the wheel then
R = 1 • 1 X vTr = B sjr (10)
ry h, and R being in any units and irrespective
of pitch in all these
equations; but if h be stated in terms of pitch,
the pitch is the unit for
r and R also.
For fixed rolling circles of n teeth :—
np np , G'28r
R=-7^.i||w.p (12)
_ t ± n- t ± *
ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS. 277
TABLE I.
Values of A, B, C, D, E, in the above.
When the value of h, and rolling circle, are
fixed on for a set of
wheels, a table of the values of D E for
different numbers of teeth can
be made. The writer has prepared specimen Tables
XLIII. and XLIV.,
for the cases marked * in Table I., where the
co-efficient D becomes 1,
as they are most easily calculated, and tables
for other cases are easily
derived from them by multiplying by the proper
value of D.
The radii thus given will suit practically well
enough for values of h,
varying from 2*9 to 3*1 times the value of A in
the table, if that A be
adhered to. But if h be wanted further altered,
in a particular case,
the table may still be utilized by altering R in
half the ratio that h is
altered, and making A = J the new h.
The cases shown in Plates XLII., XLIII., and
XLIV. are all to
rolling circle of 6 teeth, and h = '34 p. It will
be at once seen how
much closer the approximation to the epicycloid
curve is than by the
other methods; also that the angle with radial
line at pitch point is
much less. It may be observed that the
approximation obtained is better
the larger the rolling circle,
the smaller h is,
the greater the number of teeth for faces,
the smaller the number of teeth for flanks,
vol. xxi.-1872. 02
278 ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS.
Taking the worst case shown in Plate LXIIL, the
maximum divergence
at the points c, df e, is only -g--^ of pitch,
while Willis's is or 5 times-
and an arc drawn by the ahove rules, for h = *2,
Adcock's height,
would have only \ of his divergence.
In passing from this small pinion to larger
numbers of teeth, and to
a straight rack, the divergences diminish to
about one-half the above.
The rack's face and flank are alike; and in
passing again to a small
pinion the flank arc approaches more and more to
a straight line, and the
divergences referred to also get less till at the
pinion of straight flanks
they disappear. The tabular R at this point
becomes infinite; and if
formula (12) be used to find flank radius for a
less number of teeth, it
gives a negative quantity, as shown in Table II.,
at 11 teeth. This
means that the radius is turned the other way, in
same direction as the
face radius (but with centre outside the tangent
as usual), and the flank
is convex, turned inwards from the radial line.
Of course this, per se,
is a weak form, but when flanged or capped as
such pinions usually are,
they can be made as strong as others; so that
such pinions can be made
use of down to the point at which the path of
contact M N (Plate XLI V.)
becomes no more than the pitch.
Plates XLIV. and XLV. show the comparative
accuracy of working
of the new and old methods* the working sides of
a pair of teeth in
contact being shown in successive stages of
progress of one-sixth of
the pitch *. the pitch lines being supposed to
advance uniformly in both
cases. It will be seen that the "new method"
teeth keep contact almost
perfectly, while Willis' teeth fail to do so
after the first stage on each
side of pitch point.
While this is conclusive as to the superiority of
the new over the
old approximate methods, it may be objected, why
not use the epicycloid
arcs themselves, are they not best of all ? They
certainly are. And
wherever teeth of wheels are actually made so, by
a rolling circle
template applied to outside and inside templates
of the pitch circles, and
the model tooth so found accurately copied in all
the teeth, there the
method described becomes unnecessary.
But the trouble involved in making four templates
(besides rolling
circle one) for every fresh pair of wheels, and
the skill necessary to use
them rightly, are such that in general circular
arcs are still preferred.
If preferred, the divergence of the centres for
the face and flank arcs
from the pitch line instead of from the tangent,
can be used and inserted
in the tables; or in all cases except the flanks
of small pinions it may
be got by the rule,
ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS. 279
(7YI -f- 1 \
i lr 1*55 ^ + (13)
The — for the face and + for the flank.
The following part of the paper is equally
applicable, whether the
exact epicycloid curves are used or an
approximate method.
THE WORKING OR CONTACT PART OF THE FLANK.
This is never equal to h, rarely four-fifths of
it. It is shown in
Plate XLIV. thus. The parts of the rolling
circles which pass where
the teeth are in contact are the theoretical "
path of contact," M 0 N
(exactly for epicycloid teeth, and approximately
observed by the
approximate teeth). Its ends are fixed by the
points M N, where
each rolling circle passes outside the circle of
the points of the
teeth of the other wheel. In the case shown, from
M to pitch
line of rack = '72 h, and from N to pitch line of
pinion *53 h, it
is less as the Nos. of teeth are less, and least
in the smallest of the
two wheels. It is called the " contact depth"
in the tables. Its defect
from h varies almost exactly as—+~- the sum of
the reciprocals of the
Nos. of teeth. It is rare to have spur wheels
gearing together, so that
|*-+ — is less than *04, i.e., it is rare to have
equal wheels of more than
t tj
about 50 teeth, or a rack with a pinion of more
than 25 teeth (except in
change wheels of lathes, &c).
The part of the flank below this " contact depth
" does not need to
follow the curve as already found; and, if
desirable for strength, it may
be swelled out to any shape that will clear the
corner of the other tooth.
In the case of small wheels or " pinions" this is
desirable, and as the
contact depth is least in them, there are the
means of strengthening the
teeth considerably where most required. The tooth
of pinion in Plate
XLIV. shows one way of doing this • and Table II.
has columns showing
how this "contact depth" varies for an assumed
value of — + — and
t tf
the extreme size of wheel that each wheel will
work with correspondingly.
Another column gives the smallest wheel that each
will work with
without the path of contact becoming too small.
THE PITCH OF TEETH.
It was mentioned that Adcock's tables assumed the
pitch to be
the straight line distance between pitch points,
so as to make the
280 ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS.
diameter of pitch circle greater than by the
exact rule,
_. No. of teeth x pitch .
Diameter = -3-1416—-; esPecia^y Wltn smah
pinions.
Adcock is not alone in this. A similar table of
diameters to suit " poly-
gonal" pitch is given in Lockwood's Weale's
Pocket-Book, and one in
the last edition of Molesworth's. Nystrom also
introduces the same
idea, mixing up rules on both principles.
Still the author cannot understand how any one
should retain this
idea alongside of the fundamental principle that
accurate working
requires that the teeth act together precisely as
if the pitch circles
rolled continuously on each other without
slipping.
But, assuming that the circumferential pitch is
always equal, then
the straight line pitch, which the draughtsman or
pattern-maker takes in
his compasses, is less; and in small pinions
sensibly less. And for
drawing teeth, when only a part of the circle is
wanted, it is useful to
find the exact size without having to draw the
whole circle to divide it.
7r2 1*645 p
This "deduction from pitch" = — p = —(14)
It is shown in a column of Table II., up to 40
teeth, when it is only
jqqq p, while at 20 teeth it is four times, and
at 10 teeth 16 times as
much; varying inversely as the square of the
number of teeth.
BEVEL WHEELS (INCLUDING MITRE WHEELS).—SIZE OF
ROLLING CIRCLE.
Bevel wheels differ from spur wheels, in what
affects the forms of
the teeth, in three respects.
1. —If teeth be made with any needless amount of
slope or angle
away from the radial line through pitch point,
the resulting pressure
tending to push the pitch lines apart is
particularly objectionable, as it
introduces angular and lateral pressures on
wheels, bearings, and frame-
work, and end wear on bearings; hence, to have a
large rolling circle
is desirable.
2. —The special object of bevel wheels being to
change the direction
of motion, it is usually not so much an object to
get change of velocity
thereby, and small pinions are certainly less
employed than in spur gear.
The difficulties of suitable point bearings and
extreme lateral pressures
also discourage the use of such pinions. Hence, a
large rolling circle
is more admissible; and the more so from the
consideration under the
head "Virtual numbers of teeth."
ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS. 281
3.—It is not usually made a condition that bevel
wheels be able to
work correctly with any others of the same pitch
besides their own
fellows.
Hence, when this last is the case, a rolling
circle may be used up to
half the virtual number of teeth of each wheel,
for its own flanks and
the other wheels' faces.
And if they are wished to work with other wheels
(as afterwards
described) the rolling circle may still be kept
about double of that for
spur wheels. This will require separate tables
for R and R, from those
for spur wheels.
VIRTUAL NUMBERS OF TEETH AND RADII OF WHEELS.
The number of teeth, or the factor m, to be used
in the formulae, or
to go into the tables, is not the real number of
teeth, nor the real radius
of wheel -r- radius rolling circle, but is to be
found thus :—
Let the lines A B and B C
be the diameters of a pair of
bevel wheels, seen in edge view,
and D G, D H, the centre lines______
of their shafts. Draw also B D
and G H at right angles to B D.
Then, for the forms of teeth,
the "virtual radius" of wheel
A B is B G, = B E and
' D E
of wheel BCisBH = B F
BP
D F
u . . ,„ -1 virtual radius
The " virtual m is the —--.
r
The " virtual number of teeth," always greater
than the real number,
isM1 =M^5andN1 =N?-5.
CAPABILITY OF WORKING WITH OTHER BEVEL WHEELS.
Although each pair of bevel wheels is usually
designed to work only
with each other, and that at right angles; yet,
if there be any two pairs
of bevel wheels of same pitch, having the
dimension B D the same
(and of same rolling circle and h), then any of
the wheels will work
with any of the others; of course at angles
determined by the angles
« and p in each case.
282 ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS.
It may be said that cases where this is done are
rare; but it is some-
times wanted, and would likely be much oftener
resorted to, if facilities
were afforded for obtaining' wheels to suit.
Now, in arranging- sets of bevel wheel patterns,
or deciding on exact
size for a pair for a given purpose, it would be
a simple matter, when
other conditions did not prevent, to prefer such
sizes as would produce
series of wheels of the same " conical" radius B
D.
The sum of the squares of the numbers of teeth in
any pair of such
a series will equal that of any other pair (a
difference of 2 or 3 will
be immaterial) and will be more easily calculated
than the length of
B D itself, as the radii B E, B F, are usually
fractional numbers. Let
the square root of this "sum of squares" of M and
N = T.
Then Mi = M — and Nx = N ^
TABLE IV.
Examples of such Sekies op "Interchangeable"
Bevel Wheels, with
their Angles a and /3, and virtual Nos. of Teeth.
Only a few pairs in such a series as those marked
* can be exactly of the " conical
radius " mentioned ; but the others, though a
little less or more, are practically
near enough.
ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS. 283
When bevel wheels are designed, let the conical
radius B D, and
angles a and /3, be marked on the plan; and in
the list of wheels let
columns be given for them. Let these columns be
inserted also in the
published lists. Then whenever a pair are wanted
to work at any
special angle, it will be a simple matter to find
out from those of same
conical radius if there are any whose ratio and
angles will suit, instead
of having to draw them as at present.
TABLE II.
Radii for Faces and Flanks of Teeth in the case
of Rolling Circle
= 6 Teeth, h = 'U p and A = -113 p.
284 ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS.
TABLE III.
Radii for Faces and Flanks of Teeth in the case
of Rolling Circle
= 7 Teeth, h = *29 p and A — -97 p.
Mr. Thos. Adams then read a paper " On a New form
of Direct-
acting- Spring Safety-valve."
DIRECT-ACTING SPRING SAFETY-VALVE. 285
ON A NEW FORM OF DIRECT-ACTING SPRING
SAFETY-VALVE.
By THOMAS ADAMS,
For some time past considerable inconvenience has
been felt by the
marine engineer from the unpractical nature of
the rules and regulations
of the Board of Trade, which give half a square
inch of area of safety-
valve for every square foot of grate. This rule
gives a very large
amount of dead weight to balance the 80 lbs.
internal pressure now
universally used afloat, and also contains an
erroneous element of
calculation, since the relieving power of the
valve is directly, as ics
diameter, multiplied into the cosine of the angle
of lift measured from
the horizontal line of valve face and by the
relative volume. But as
the velocity of the issuing jet at the orifice of
the valve bears a relative
proportion to the relative volume, the density
and the pressure, it follows
that only one of those elements need enter into
the calculations of the
proportions of safety-valves, and the writer
prefers taking the relative
volume.
The Board of Trade, alive to the necessity of
making improvements
in safety-valves, has offered a reward of £100
for the best design of a
spring safety-valve j the spring to be protected
from the action of
steam or sea water, and in case of breaking the
valve to be protected
from flying away, to have facilities for easing,
&c, and to be locked up.
And a Committee of the Institution of Engineers
and Shipbuilders of
Scotland, under their late President, Mr. David
Rowan, are now making
experiments upon safety-valves, and have had the
good fortune to secure
the aid of that most distinguished mechanic,
Professor W. J. Maquome
Rankine, in making the requisite deductions.
The writer now describes the valve he proposes to
use. Plate XLVI.,
figure 1, shows a direct-acting spring
safety-valve, as applied to marine
boilers, where V is the valve and S the spring; C
is a casing cast with
V, which surrounds the spring; N is a nut with
which to put force on the
spring, having a cylindrical part B built on it
and fitting inside of casing
VOL. XXI.-1872. p2
286 DIRECT-ACTING SPRING SAFETY-VALVE.
C • D is a small packing ring fitted into B and
pressing gently against
the shell C for the purpose of preventing the
waste steam from acting on
the spring; W is a washer on which the spring
rests; T is a steel
spindle holding the valve to its seat, square
inside the boss P for turning
the valve with, but round in the point for
bearing • H is a cross-head
under which the lever L acts, for the purpose of
easing the valve or for
blowing off, but no weight can be put on the
valve by it, for if lifted
up it leaves the cross-head; Y is the seating of
the valve * A is a double
handle, balanced, to turn the valve round on its
seat in case of dirt
getting between the faces- J is a cap covering
nut N; E is an
excess of space in which the steam is partially
confined after it escapes
through the seat, in order that it may act more
directly on the lower
face of C, and thus overcome increased resistance
of the spring after
the valve rises from its seat.
The main novelties in the valve are the area of
concentric space R,
and the mode of exposing the face C to a given
pressure; the height of
the edge Z, above the edge C^ and the width of
the orifice X. These
improvements cause this valve to rise at the
appointed pressure, relieve
the boiler, and return to its seat again in a few
seconds of time.
Plate XLVI.; figure 2, is the method adopted for
getting at the
proper amount of extra area necessary to overcome
the increased resis-
tance of the spring. 0 is a round nut screwed on
to the seating S, by
which the top edges Z may be raised or lowered
above the lower edge
C of the valve, thus widening or narrowing the
orifice X, until the
proper proportion is ascertained. It may be
admitted that a good
safety-valve should, 1st, under no conditions
whatever permit a
pressure to generate within the boiler greater
than that represented
by the load placed on the valve; 2nd, that it
should return to its seat
with the least loss of internal pressure below
that represented by the
load on the valve- 3rd, that it should perform
its duty in the least
possible amount of time; and it is urged by the
writer, that the valve
now described fully satisfies all these
conditions.
In the evening a large party of the members and
their visitors
dined together in the Banquetting Hall of Sir W.
G. Armstrong at
Jesmond.
PROCEEDINGS. 287
PROCEEDINGS.
ANNUAL MEETING, SATURDAY, AUGUST 3, 1872, IN THE
WOOD
MEMORIAL HALL.
WILLIAM COCHRANE, Esq., in the Chair.
The election of officers for the ensuing year was
proceeded with.
Messrs. A. L. Steavenson, J. Bailes, Jun., J. B.
Atkinson, and
E. Hague were appointed scrutineers of the voting
papers.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last
meeting, which were
confirmed and signed, also the report of the
Council and the report of
the Finance Committee, which, on the motion of
the Chairman, were
unanimously agreed to.
The following gentlemen were nominated for
election :—
Members—
Mr. Hugh Andrews, Coal Owner, Eastfield Hall,
Warkworth.
Mr. C. T. Maling, Ford Pottery,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. William Refeen, Coal Owner, Teplitz, Bohemia.
Mr. J. G. KlMPTON, 40, St. Mary Gate, Derby.
Mr. Richard Forster, Coal Owner, White House,
Gateshead.
Mr. Grainger Heslop, Whitwell Colliery, County of
Durham.
Mr. James Cope, Port Vale, Longport,
Staffordshire.
Student—
Mr. Alfred Winter Barnes, East Hetton, Coxhoe.
The Chairman thought they would be glad to hear
that their late
288 PROCEEDINGS.
President, who that day resigned his post, was
progressing as satisfac-
torily as could be desired after the late painful
operation which he had
undergone in London. Very few people knew the
anxiety which his
family had about him when he came down here to
attend their last
meeting, and what a dangerous operation was
imminent. But he had
passed most successfully through it, and the
latest information about him
was highly satisfactory. It was hoped that he
would be able to leave
London in the course of a few days to come home
again. With respect
to the reprinting of certain of their volumes,
referred to in the minutes
of the Council, Mr. Reid's offer was, without
colours, £137 for vol. 3,
£136 for vol. 4, and £168 for vol. 5; 250 copies
of each unbound.
The number of applications made during the last
six or seven years for
these volumes had been very great; and the
printer believed that there
would be a very ready sale. They were all
valuable, and they were
especially valuable for those who had not and
could not get them to
make up their sets; and, therefore, it had
occurred to the society that it
was desirable to reprint them.
Mr. R. S. Newall thought it a matter of very
great importance to
the Society that the illustrations in the
Transactions, if reprinted, should
be the same as in the original volumes. Of
course, if uncoloured, they did
not convey to the reader so easily and so
satisfactorily the information
which he desired; and, therefore, although it was
a considerable addition
to the cost, he would be glad to move that they
be reprinted the same as
the original; that was, using colours for the
illustrations.
Mr. I. Lowthian Bell—If Mr. Newall's suggestion
be agreed to,
the cost of the three volumes would be £650. From
that sum they
would have to deduct the number of the volumes
sold; but it was a very
large question, and he would rather hesitate in
involving the Institute in
so large a transaction at so small a meeting.
The Chairman was quite of Mr. Bell's opinion. He
thought it
would be better to postpone the matter until the
next general meeting.
Mr. Bell said they must remember that it was not
an expenditure
which they were going to incur in order to
promote the well-being of
the Society as it was ; it was for the new
members entirely. He thought
with Mr. Newall that if it was to be done at all,
the proper way was to
do it well. Either do it well or not at all.
Mr. Newall withdrew his motion.
The matter stands over for consideration at a
future meeting.
PROCEEDINGS. 289
PROPOSED INCORPORATION.
The Chairman read the following letter from Geo.
Elliot, Esq.,
M.P.
23, Great George Street, Westminster, London,
S.W.,
2nd July, 1872.
T. W. Bunning, Esq., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Dear Sir,—I regret that, owing to my having to
move and support this
evening in the House of Commons several important
amendments to the now pend-
ing Mines Regulation Bill, I shall be unable to
have the pleasure of dining with the
Members of the Institute to-morrow. I regret this
very much, as I had intended to
confer with some of the members on the subject of
several of the provisions of the
Mines Bill, which will materially affect the
prospects of Mining Engineers. I refer
to those clauses which provide that in future the
responsible Managers of Mines shall
pass an examination in Mining Engineering, and
shall not be allowed to exercise their
profession unless they hold a certificate of
competency.
If you will refer to my inaugural address, when I
had the honour of being nomi-
nated your President, you will find that I
strongly advocated the co-operation of the
Institute with the Institution of Civil
Engineers, " a body possessing a Royal Charter
"and other privileges, and having the power of
conferring various degrees of profes-
sional rank upon those obtaining its
certificate." I would suggest that the Council
and members generally should consider the
desirability of applying for some such
Charter as that possessed by the Institute of
Civil Engineers, and under which they
would grant certificates of competency to
precede, and probably, in time, to super-
cede the certificates now to be granted under the
provisions of the Mines Bill. I
regret that I have not the opportunity at present
of explaining my views more fully,
but if you will kindly give our worthy President
and Council a hint of what I was
about to propose, they will probably consider the
question in all its bearings.
It is quite certain that the Mining Engineer of
the future will have to act under
entirely new conditions, and the question of how
this altered state of things can be
best turned to account, for his and the public
benefit, cannot be too soon dealt with
by the Institute, which has at heart the welfare
of the Mining Engineer, and the pro-
gress of Mining Science.
I am, dear Sir, yours truly,
GEORGE ELLIOT.
In consequence of that letter, the Council asked
the Secretary to see
Col. Manb^, the Hon. Secretary of the Institute
of Civil Engineers in
London, to explain fully what this Royal Charter
meant, what process had
to be gone through to get it, and what advantages
were derived from it.
He should also tell them that Mr. Newall and
himself were appointed a
committee some time ago to wait upon Mr. Dees
with respect to the
subject of incorporation, and Mr. Dees found
insuperable difficulties at
the moment in entertaining the question, or
recommending them any
course to adopt. But he waited upon Mr. Dees only
ten days ago, and
that gentleman stated there was an Act under
which he thinks he will
be able to deal with it, and to carry out the
wishes originally expressed
290 PROCEEDINGS. —
by the Institute something like six months ago.
Therefore, all was m
abeyance, and he thought that with the permission
of the meeting, the
matter had better be postponed until they got Mr.
Dees' information
upon the subject; and in the meantime they would
get all the infor-
mation they could from the Civil Engineers, and
then they could con-
sider it again.
Mr. J. J. Coleman, F.C.S., read a paper c( On
Mineral Oil as a
Lubricant for Machinery/'
mineral oil as a lubricant for machinery. 291
MINERAL OIL AS A LUBRICANT FOR MACHINERY.
By J. J. COLEMAN, F.C.S.
The attainment of a good, efficient lubricating
oil for machinery, of
constant quality and cheapness, has always been
an important and
difficult object amongst machinists.
From time to time engineers have fixed upon
special oils as being
suitable for their purposes. Increased demand for
such favourite oils
uas then caused prices to advance to far more
than can be afforded.
This occurred with lard oil, which, once a
favourite oil, reached and
maintained for a long time a value of about £70
per ton; but a still
better example is afforded by sperm oil, which
attained and kept for
some time a value of twenty-one shillings per
gallon. The majority of
the railway companies use rape oil; the
Franco-Prussian war threw
up the price of this article about 40 per cent.
The ever-increasing demand for lubricating oils,
owing to extension
of works, railways, and engineering operations,
renders it more difficult
every year to supply, economically, the requisite
quantity of oil.
Most engineers are familiar, to some extent, with
mineral oil; some
condemn it in toto, and unreasonably; others like
it.
The importance of the matter is, however, evident
from the fact,
that in the United Kingdom there is material and
plant in existence for
making annually about ten thousand tons.
Mineral oil has one great advantage, that it is
not liable to absorb
oxygen and cause gumming. The progress of science
has latterly
enabled it to be produced quite as free from
smell as any oil in existence,
and in colour equal to finest refined seed oils.
Mineral oil has, however, little body or
viscidity. A vessel filled
with mineral oil, having a fine pointed aperture
from which the oil can
run out, empties itself in about one-third the
time that would be noticed
in case of rape or olive oil being put in similar
apparatus.
This very quality of thinness caused it to be
noticed by the cotton
spinners some twenty years ago. Mr. James Young
conceived the idea,
that mixing mineral oil with rape or lard oil
would result in a product
as near resembling sperm oil as possible.
Sperm oil is a peculiar oil as regards body, not
so thick as other oils,
but having more body than pure mineral oil.
292 MINERAL OIL AS A LUBRICANT FOR
MACHINERY.
Hence if any thick bodied oil like rape, olive,
or lard oil is mixed in
proper proportions with mineral oil, a product is
obtained having exactly
the consistency of sperm oil.
Each class of machinery requires meeting
specially. An oil that will
suit spindles will be so thin as to squeeze out
of the bearings of heavier
machinery. An oil suitable for an engine will
rather retard than facili-
tate the motion of a spindle.
It was in consequence of this peculiar
requirement that sperm oil was
formerly the only oil cotton spinners used, but
latterly for many years
the majority of spindles have been run with
mineral oil—in probably 75
per cent, of the mills in the United Kingdom. For
the purposes of light
machinery mineral oil is now established as a
most valuable article of
commerce.
About three years since the writer's attention
was directed to the
possibility of further extending the use of
mineral oil for heavier ma-
chinery, particularly railway purposes, and
through the courtesy of the
locomotive superintendent of one of our principal
Scotch railway com-
panies an engine was placed at his disposal for
experimental enquiries.
A great number of journeys were made between
Glasgow and Edin-
burgh and Carlisle and Edinburgh—the point
observed being to take the
temperature of the axle box with each oil and the
temperature of the
atmosphere at the end of the journey, and (if not
an express train) at
certain points on the road.
The object was to find whether any mixture of
pure mineral oil with
ordinary fatty oils, such as rape, olive, or
castor, would answer the purpose.
Mixtures containing 40 per cent, of mineral oil
would not do at all;
30 per cent, produced occasional heating; 20 per
cent, was passable. The
general impression formed in the writer's mind at
the time was that no
mere mixture of mineral oil with other oils gives
a resultant having
sufficient body.
Mr. Jno. Orr Ewing, at whose suggestion the
experiments were
made, came to the conclusion, with the writer,
that there ought to be a
method of imparting chemically the requisite body
to pure mineral oil.
Ordinary oils are compounds of fat acid and
glycerine. Why not
make mineral oil a compound oil ?
After a time it was found that, by the use of a
small proportion ot
natural solid hydrocarbon, the body of the pure
mineral oil could be
increased so as fully to equal that of the best
rape. With this new pro-
duct, which is patented under the name of Mr.
Jno. Orr Ewing and that of
the writer, experiments were resumed on the
locomotive engines. About
twelve express train journeys were made between
Glasgow and Edinburgh
MINERAL OIL AS A LUBRICANT FOR MACHINERY. 293
and Carlisle and Edinburgh. The gain of
temperature per mile with
rape oil was 0*507° Fahrenheit; the gain with the
writer's new oil
was only 0 360° Fahrenheit; these figures being
the averages of the
whole number of experiments.
These results were satisfactory, precise, and
conclusive to the writer's
mind, and were arrived at in June, 1870.
Since then the new oil has been actively
manufactured, and from
200 to 300 tons practically applied on two
railways, who are at the
present moment using the oil with satisfaction.
It is satisfactory also
that, at the end of twelve months' general use of
the oil, the statement
is made that there is less tendency to gum with
this oil than when pure
rape oil is used.
Considering that this is the most important step
yet made in extend-
ing the use of mineral oil for heavy machinery,
and that it offers great
encouragement to perseverance, the writer hopes
that machinists and
engineers will give the matter the attention he
thinks it deserves.
EXPERIMENTS MADE WITH NORTH-BRITISH ENGINE, No.
239.
294 MINERAL OIL AS A LUBRICANT FOR
MACHINERY.
The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr.
Coleman for his
paper. There was no doubt that if mineral oil
could be so cheapened
in cost, and be made as efficient as the
other—for it was a mere question
of cost—under those circumstances mineral oil
would come very largely
into use. Whether the experiments which Mr.
Coleman had shown
pointed to a very great gain in the use of
mineral oil he was not
prepared to say without further examination. The
comparison seemed
to be rather a rough one; and he confessed he was
not quite clever
enough in the comparison of mineral oils to say
whether it indicated
a very great gain. Perhaps some gentleman better
acquainted with
subjects of that nature would be able to offer
some remarks upon it.
Mr. Coleman, in reply to some remarks, said the
temperature of
the air varied very much during these
experiments; that was, one day
was a hot summer day, and the other was a cold
wintry day. When
the air was lower in temperature there was less
tendency to gain heat,
because there was a loss of heat by radiation.
The Chairman asked, if there was a difference of
temperature
between Edinburgh and Glasgow, would the gain
include this differ-
ence ?
Mr. Coleman—No; the gain was simply the
temperature of the
atmosphere at the end of the journey, deducted
from that of the axle
taken also at the end of the journey.
The Secretary then read a paper by Mr. R. Miller
" On a New
and Improved Method of Screening and Loading
Coals."
SCREENING AND LOADING COALS. 295
ON A NEW AND IMPROVED METHOD OF SCREENING
AND LOADING COALS.
By ROBERT MILLER.
Whilst much attention has, of late years, been
bestowed on the inven-
tion of improved machinery to expedite the
various operations connected
with the winning* and bringing to bank of large
quantities of coals, very
little improvement has been noticed in the means
employed for ex-
peditiously screening and loading coals into
wagons without waste and
breakage, and at the same time taking out the
small coal and dirt, in
anything like an effectual manner.
The apparatus commonly used for screening is only
of a rude
description, for it is ineffective for removing
all the small coal, while it
causes great waste and loss from breakage of the
larger coals.
It is proposed in this paper to describe a screen
of an improved
description which has been invented and patented
by Mr. G. W. Hick,
of Leeds, and has been successfully in operation
at the Strafford Main
Colliery, near Barnsley, for more than a year.
Plates XLVII. and XLVIII. show the screen which
is composed of
a number of bars set in frame, at a slight angle,
so that each bar can be
made to revolve slowly. The bars are oval in
section, and revolve
with the long diameter of each bar at right
angles to the long diameter
of the bar next to it.
The bars have a longitudinal space between each,
which remains of
the same width during all parts of the
revolution. These spaces form
the openings for the passage of the small coals,
which, as the bars
revolve together in the same direction, are not
crushed nor broken, but
pass freely down between the bars.
The relative position and configuration of these
bars will be readily
understood by reference to the section, figure 2,
Plate XLVIII. The
arrows show the direction of motion.
Figure 1, Plate XLVIII., shows the method
employed for driving the
296 SCREENING AND LOADING COALS.
bars at the upper end, whilst figure 3, Plate
XLVIII., shows an end
view of a portion of the screen frame at the
lower end, explaining the
manner of carrying the bars.
The method of working is as follows:—Attached
over the upper end of
the bars and covering the gearing is an inclined
dead-plate, or hopper,
Plate XLVIL, on to which the coals are shot from
the tub, and fixed at
such an angle that the coals will slide on to the
bars by their own weight,
where the easy undulating motion produced by the
slow revolution of the
bars facilitates the free passage of the small
coals down the spaces already
mentioned as formed between the bars 5 whilst the
larger coals are carried
forward along the upper surface of the bars into
the wagon, over which
the lower ends of the bars project.
The comparatively slow, yet contiuous, speed at
which the coals travel
forward over the screen bars, enables an
attendant to pick out from the
moving mass all dirt, brasses, shale, etc.,
before the coals arrive in the
wagon, and from the slight fall required (about
20 inches in 6 feet)
the coals are not knocked about with rakes nor
shovels, as is the case
with ordinary screens, but are passed forward
into the wagons with no
more breakage than if dropped over the
wag'on-side by hand.
The screen at Strafford consists of eight oval
bars about eight feet in
length, and is driven by a strap from a small
donkey engine, fixed beneath
the dead-plate, and easy of access to the
attendant on the screens.
The lower ends of the bars, figure 3, Plate
XLVIII., revolve on fixed
pins attached to the frame, the ends of the bars
being bored out and fitted
on to the pins. The lubrication of the pins is
effected through holes in the
bars, kept closed against the access of dust by
countersunk-screws.
The single screen at the Strafford Colliery will,
when required, screen
and load an eight-ton wagon in fifteen minutes,
well cleaned and picked,
by two boys, one on each side of the screen.
With a moderate height of pit-heap, so that tubs
can be emptied on
to a dead-plate large enough, and with a descent
so as to serve coals on
to the revolving bars, it will be found that
coals can be loaded fully
twice as fast as by the ordinary method, where
the tub of coals goes
with a rush, either into the wagon or against a
screen door, and is to be
cleaned there before the next tub comes in a
similar manner.
It is evident that by making the bars each of two
separate diameters
or sections for a certain part of their length,
thus causing the spaces
between the bars to be differential, the large
diameter being at the
upper end, the spaces at that end are narrowest
and the smallest coal or
dust passes down there. The next series of
diameters being less, the
SCREENING AND LOADING COALS. 297
spaces between the bars are of course wider, and
the smithy coal or nuts
pass down. Anything larger than these spaces will
admit goes over
the ends of the bars.
Hoppers or wagons are placed beneath for the
reception of each
class of coals.
The bars so made can either be made round, or the
same two or more
sets of diameters and spaces can also be applied
to the oval bars quite
as well.
It may seem strange on first thought, yet it is
proved by experiment,
that with so few bars and spaces in the width of
the screens, the small
is taken out more effectually than with many
spaces in the same width
of fixed bars; this result arises from the
revolving bars producing a
continuous easy motion of the coals sideways,
thus continually feeding
the few spaces there are with small coal, which
is depositing freely from
the mass of loose coal in motion; and owing to
the revolution of the
bars the spaces are not blocked with pieces
sticking as in the ordinary
way. This arrangement passes coals into wagons
with the small all
deposited through the spaces, without any great
elevation of pit-head,
and without any tumbling or raking by hand.
Besides the advantages here noted, this system
seems to give
greater facilities for picking and separating
coals, or other minerals,
which may be necessarily brought to the screen in
a mixed state, for the
bars in motion will spread the material over any
length or width that
may be required; it being only necessary to limit
the width, so that a
boy on each side of the screen can reach to pick
out any substance from
the mass of coal that is not required to pass
into the wagon.
The screen which works now constantly at the
Strafford Main
Collieries has but one size for its spaces, so
that the small goes through
alto«"ether; this is all that is required there,
for a most effective system
of separating the small into as many sorts as
required had been in
operation some time previous, and is still used
with excellent results.
The writer still thinks that in screening and
loading tender coal, an
important saving may be made in the breakage
compared with the old
olan of coals £-oing over the screens with a rush
into the wagon, or
being stopper un the screen and then shovelled
into the wagon ; and it
may now be said, in conclusion, that when a load
of coals comes to bank
to be loaded into wagons into two or three sizes
and sorts of coal, one
representing say 100 in worth, and the others
from 50 down to 10, it
then becomes important to arrive at a system of
handling which makes
most of the best, and least of the worst; and if
this method here
298 SCREENING AND LOADING COALS.
described can effect anything- towards these best
results, then it will be
wise to extend its adoption.
It will be noted that a small steam engine is
required • the same
engine, however, would drive a number of screens,
and by an easy ar-
rangement of clutch gear, idle screens may be put
into motion or stopped
as required.
The Chairman suggested that the discussion should
be adjourned
until the writer of the paper could be present.
The scrutineers announced the result of the
election, when it was
ascertained that Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S., had been
elected President.
Mr. I. Lowthian Bell proposed, and Mr. Newall
seconded, a
vote of thanks to Mr. Boyd, the retiring
President, for the attention he
had at all times displayed to the interests of
the Institute and for his
great service in regard to the foundation of the
College, which was
carried by acclamation.
The meeting then separated.
APPENDIX No. I.
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS
FOR 1871.
By the SECRETARY.
These readings have been obtained from the
observatories of Kew and
Glasg'ow, and will give a very fair idea of the
variations of temperature
and atmospheric pressure in the intervening
country, in which most
of the mining* operations in this country are
carried on.
The Kew barometer is 34 feet, and the Glasgow
barometer 180 feet
above the sea level. The latter readings have
been reduced to 32 feet
above the sea level, by the addition of '150 of
an inch to each reading,
and both readings are reduced to 32° Fahrenheit.
The fatal accidents have been obtained from the
Inspectors' reports,
and are printed across the lines, showing the
various readings. The
name of the colliery at which the explosion took
place is given first, then
the number of deaths, followed by the district in
which it happened.
The non-fatal accidents are indicated in the same
way; but where
the name of the colliery has not been given a
simple-has been
substituted.
The writer here begs to thank those inspectors
who were so kind as
to send him particulars of the non-fatal
accidents.
At the request of the Council the exact readings
at both Kew and
Glasgow have been published in figures.
The writer makes no attempt to offer any remarks,
but hopes his
efforts will be acceptable, and form data on
which to build more effectual
arrangements for the safety of life.
APPENDIX NO. II.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS
connected with
MINING OPERATIONS,
Taken out between January 1, 1871, and December
31, 1871.
BEING A CONTINUATION OF APPENDIX TO VOL. xx.
By the secretary.
The descriptions have been mostly given in the
words of the patentee, all matter
being excluded except that which is actually
necessary to give some idea of the
general principle involved. The exact details, if
required, can readily be obtained
from the Specifications. The patents are
classified as before, viz.:—
1. —Lifting and winding, including safety-hooks.
2. —Mining, boring, and sinking.
3. —Pumping and modes of raising water.
4. —Ventilation.
5. —Safety-lamps and lighting mines.
6. —Coal cutting, getting, and breaking down.
7. —Explosive compounds.
8. —Miscellaneous.
first division.
LIFTING AND WINDING, INCLUDING SAFETY-HOOKS.
1871. No. 1571. Walker.
A safety apparatus composed of two links hinged
together at the middle of their
length, the lower parts of which project at an
angle from each other, and are
connected to the load to be raised, while the
upper parts are held close together
by a guard plate, through which they pass and
hold the winding rope or chain
between them. At the point beyond which the load
must not be raised is a
fixed beam with an aperture through which the
upper end of the links pass
until the guard plate bears against the under
side of the beam. If the wind-
ing is continued beyond this point the links are
drawn through the guard
plate, whereby the lower ends of the links are
brought close together while
the upper parts are opened out, and thus release
the winding rope, while at
the same time the links take a bearing on the top
of the fixed beam and thus
sustain the load.
VOL. XXL—1872.—Appendix No. II. J
10 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
1871. No. 1481. Clarke and Hughes.
Improvements in safety apparatus to be connected
with cages for mines and shafts.
(No description given.)
SECOND DIVISION.
MINING, BORING, AND SINKING.
1871. No. 1072. Appleby.
Machinery for sinking bore holes, consisting of
the use of steam, air, water, or
other fluid for balancing the weight of the
boring rods and apparatus for im-
parting a rotating, reciprocating, or combined
action to the boring tool.
1871. No. 1612. Cowper.
Machinery for driving drifts. Consists in
employing a series of jumpers or chisels
separately actuated by means of compressed air or
steam, and moved so as to
produce parallel chases or grooves in the rock,
the portions of the stone or
rock between such grooves being subsequently
broken off by hand or otherwise.
Each chisel is fixed to the piston rod of an air
or steam cylinder, all the cylin-
ders being fixed either to a vibrating frame so
as to cut rectilinear grooves,
or to a revolving head so as to cut circular
grooves.
1871. No. 2748. Dunn.
Improvements in boring and winding machinery for
boring the first holes down
through rocks, for searching for minerals, and
for other purposes, and for
winding, or raising and lowering the wire rope
and pump within the hole or
bore, for clearing it out when the boring rods
are withdrawn therefrom from
time to time, and, secondly, and especially, in a
new construction and arrange-
ment of the immediate actuating mechanism, for
giving the vertical recipro-
cating or "jumping" action to the boring rods and
tools of the said machine.
Applicable also to other such like boring
machines.
THIRD DIVISION.
PUMPING AND RAISING WATER.
1871. No. 88. Mills.
Improvements in pumps. Working barrel in the
centre between two suction and
discharge chambers, cast parallel in one piece
with the barrel on each side.
The whole three being closed in by ends and
flanges, on which are bolted
the suction chamber or well, at one end opening
straight into the main suc-
tion pipe, a discharge chamber at the other.
1871. No. 247. Galloway and Beckwith.
Improvements in pumps. Constructing the valves
of thin loose metal discs.
1871. No. 298. Walker.
Improvements in the construction of steam pumps.
An arrangement whereby the
piston of the steam cylinder acting at each end
of its stroke against a pin
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 11
fixed in a cored piston valve, and projecting
into the cylinder, causes the said
valve to slide in one direction or the other, and
thus admit steam behind a
solid piston fixed on the end of the spindle
which carries the slide valve, and
this steam acting against the solid piston
changes the position of the slide
valve immediately, and thus effects the return
stroke of the steam piston,
which then comes against the other pin and
reverses the operation.
1871. No. 454. Budenberg.
Improvements in injectors. A chamber is situated
between the steam nozzle and
the back pressure valve. A vacuum is formed
within the said chamber by
blowing steam through it, and water will thereby
be lifted and will rise into
and remain at the same level in the said chamber
and when the steam valve
is opened the water will be injected into the
boiler. In the second part of the
invention a regulating chamber is employed, the
said chamber communicating
with the inlet pipe for water, and also with the
part of the injector where the
overflow pipe is fitted in ordinary injectors.
The overflow passes into the
said chamber and flows therefrom into the
aforesaid inlet pipe. In a modi-
fication the inlet passage is contracted to suit
the average force of the steam
jet, and when the said inlet does not pass
sufficient water, the deficiency is
made up by water flowing from the said chamber,
and on the said inlet
passing too much water, the surplus flows into
the said chamber and returns
to the inlet pipe.
1871. No. 489. Jackson.
The pump cylinder has a valve at the upper part,
and the plunger is constructed of
a hollow cylinder with two valves, one placed at
the top of the suction pipe
which extends nearly to the top of the inside of
the plunger, the other being
placed in the centre of the plunger on the top of
a pipe which extends nearly
to the bottom of the plunger.
1871. No. 531. Guthrie and Stevenson.
Constructing motive-power engines, pumps, and
meters, by placing radially several
cylinders, the outer end of each being closed,
the inner ends open (open top
cylinders) between two circular discs, each disc
being supported by a shaft
working in suitable bearings.
1871. No. 595. budenbebg.
Improvements in the valve seats of pumps, which
are formed to carry their valves
in a slightly conical cylinder.
1871. No. 646. Murphy.
A rotatory pump, composed of two concentric
cylinders, with an annular space
between them, one cylinder carrying a projecting
block or piston, and the
other provided with stops or flaps to serve as
obstructions for the steam or
water to act upon.
1871. No. 807. Porter.
An apparatus for raising water, which consists in
substituting for the ordinary flap
valve used in the cistern in connection with the
ram, a self-acting valve
opened and closed by the aid of a float and a
tipping lever, and actuated by
the filling and the emptying of the cistern.
1871. No. 906. Johnson.
Relates to a pump composed of an oscillating
cylinder having a curved port face,
12 A DESCRIPTION OP PATENTS.
which is supported by and rocks on slides in a
to-and-fro curvilinear direction
upon a corresponding curved bed, each curved
surface containing inlet and
outlet ports, which are caused to coincide in
proper order by the oscillations
of the cylinder.
1871. No. 1007. Lake.
Raising water by buckets or scoops placed at the
periphery of a drum, which is
driven therefrom to the centre of the same. The
drum is firmly secured to a
shaft driven by a strap passing over a pulley
fixed thereon. The case in
which the drum is arranged is hermetically
closed. The buckets have pointed
edges and are constructed in such a manner that
they do not exert any back
pressure.
1871. No. 1199. Brown.
Improvements in pumping. Consist in combining
with the oscillating cylinder
mounted on trunnions, chambers upon opposite
sides, and between which the
cylinder oscillates.
1871. No. 1368. Walker.
Improvements in pumps. Consist in a steam
cylinder having ordinary steam and
eduction ports and fitted with a hollow piston
made a little longer than the
stroke. The valve chest is made cylindrical and
fitted with two small pistons,
between which is a slide valve for opening and
closing communication between
the exhaust passage and the ends of the steam
cylinder. At or near each end
of the valve chest is a drilled supply passage
leading from the steam chest to
the back of the small pistons respectively. There
are also two supplementary
exhaust ports leading from the spaces behind the
small pistons to the central
exhaust passage, but there is a break or
interruption of continuity in these
passages at or near the centre of the cylinder,
past which point, the communi-
cation is only opened at a certain point of the
stroke by means of one or the
other of the two pockets formed in the outside of
the steam piston, one at or
near each other.
1871. No. 1376. Reinlein.
A new pump for raising water, using steam
directly, and without employing any
mechanical agency, substituting for such agency
that of atmospheric air, as
an intermediate body between steam and water.
1871. No. 1576. Evans and Evans.
The inventors employ a vertical shaft working in
suitable bearings and set in motion
by a lever or by means of wheel or other gearing.
The pump is arranged
horizontally and worked by means of a connecting
rod from a crank, eccentric,
or suitable equivalent fixed either at the bottom
or some distance up a vertical
shaft.
1871. No. 1740. Ramsbottom.
A triplicate cylinder hydraulic engine; the
cylinders are faced on each side and
an orifice made through each, in which orifice is
received an elongated valve
divided by a midfeather and having six orifices,
two for each cylinder, so as
to admit and carry off water employed for
actuating the said cylinders, which
are each connected by a triplicate crank at
equidistant centres.
1871. No. 2103. Jones.
Pumps in deep mines. This invention consists in
effecting the working stroke of
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 13
the plungers or pistons of pumps by the direct
application thereto of hydraulic
pressure conveyed thereto through pipes from an
engine producing the said
hydraulic pressure. The plunger or piston rod may
for this purpose be made
hollow, and a pressure pipe communicating with
the supply pipe be made to
enter the same so as to admit the water under
pressure into the hollow. Or
a rod or small plunger on the pump piston or
plunger is made to work in a
cylinder into which the water under pressure is
admitted. Two-way reversing
cocks are arranged to establish a communication
alternately with the supply
pipe and with an escape pipe.
1871. No. 2401. Barlow.
Constructing pumps, water meters, or engines of a
hollow cylinder in which a smaller
cylinder is made to revolve or is carried round
so that the exterior surface of
the smaller cylinder is always kept in contact
with, or very close to the inner
surface of the larger cylinder.
1871. No. 2507. Smith.
A pump for raising liquids within a hollow
cylinder—a cylindrical barrel piston—
with two thin broad vanes passed radially and
longitudinally through its axis
at right angles to each other, so as to slide in
corresponding slots as the
pressure acting pistons of the said barrel
piston—is made to revolve close up
to a quarter circular segment in the upper part
of the outer casing, and a short
distance into close cylindrical recesses in the
end covers ; with the pressure
inlet duct and port entering into one side, and
the outlet port and duct
passing out on the other side of the actual
acting part of the cylinder, made
in the form of a concentric or segmental hollow
cylinder, below the barrel of
the piston, so that the projecting four ends of
the said two sliding and acting
pistons, as they come round to this large
segmental part, fill and close the
space while passing through it.
1871. No. 2794. BURR.
An improved steam pump. This invention relates
to an apparatus for elevating
water or propelling vessels, wherein the water is
first drawn into a cylinder
by means of a condensation of steam therein, and
then expelled by a direct
pressure of steam thereon.
1871. No. 2937. Newton.
An engine for raising water. This invention
consists in the employment of two
cylinders surmounting and opening into a
channel-plate. In each of said
cylinders is a piston connected through its rods
and links to either end of a
walking beam for producing a steady continuous
discharge of water. By
means of a peculiar arrangement of valves and
tappets, steam is alternately
let into each cylinder on top of the piston,
forcing it down and expelling the
water from its under side through the channel
plate and discharge pipe.
1871. No. 2980. Okes.
The use of a multiplicity of independent engines
and pumps in mines for draining
purposes.
1871. No. 2985. Webb.
An improved injector for forcing water.
1871. No. 3189. Abel.
A rotary or centrifugal pump with a piston wheel
revolving in a scroll cylinder or
14 , A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
casing of ordinary construction, such piston
wheel having hollow curved arms
extending from a central chamber to a circular
rim forming the periphery of
the piston wheel; secondly, in combining with
such centrifugal pump an
auxiliary force or suction pump for priming or
filling the pump when this is
required for use as a suction pump.
FOUKTH DIVISION.
VENTILATION.
1871. No. 915. Thomas.
Improvements in ventilation. Consist of a belt
or layer of pipes placed in the
upcast shaft of mines, and of a series of jets or
blowers for steam, or instead
thereof or concurrently therewith for atmospheric
air forced through them,
to establish a current from downcast along the
workings of the mine to the
upcast shaft, the current carrying off the
noxious vapours along with it.
1871. No. 1530. Poupard and Thomson.
Improved means of ventilating tunnels.
Atmospheric air is forced from a reservoir
through pipes leading to different parts of a
tunnel, the reservoir having a
heating or cooling medium to act upon the air.
1871. No. 2626. Ellis.
Machinery for forcing air, and consists of
apparatus for the exhaustion, or exhaustion
and forcing simultaneously, or alternately, of
air or other gases, in which one
cylinder is used revolving inside a larger, fixed
eccentrically with the smaller
one, with two or more fan blades or vanes, which,
whilst revolving round a
shaft concentric with the outer cylinder are
driven by the inner one.
1871. No. 2647. Scott.
This invention consists in ventilating mines and
tunnels through the agency of
steam.
1871. No. 3339. Tylor.
Improvements in apparatus for regulating the
working and ventilating of mines,
buildings, sewers, and underground workings, and
for increasing the certainty,
safety, healthiness, economy, and facility of
conducting such operations, and
for the distributing, regulating, measuring, and
purifying of liquids and fluids,
such as air, vapour of water, smoke and water,
and in setting out and pro-
portioning liquid and fluid passages and channels
for irrigation and other
purposes, and in the arrangements connected
therewith.
1871. No. 3428. Scott.
Ventilating mines and tunnels. This invention
refers to improvements upon the
method for which provisional protection was
granted to the inventor, dated
October 5th, 1871, No. 2647, and consists in the
use of a series of tubes and
steam jets.
A DESCRIPTION Otf PATENTS. ^5
FIFTH DIVISION.
SAFETY-LAMPS.
1871. No. J448. Plimsoll.
Providing a safety-lamp with an internal air
chamber, through which the air must
pass to the burner, so that when the air becomes
explosive, it will, on entering
the air chamber, immediately be ignited by the
flame, explode, and extinguish
the light. The explosion is limited to the air
chamber by a wire gauze or
perforated metal covering at the mouth of same.
1871. No. 1896. Irvine.
Safety-lamp. The invention consists in forming
an inlet for air in the bottom of
the flame chamber, such inlet being covered with
wire gauze or other suitable
permeable material, whilst the sides of the
chamber are made close and im-
permeable, or nearly so.
1871. No. 2677. Yates.
Miners' lamps are constructed in such a manner
that they cannot be opened by the
miner without first extinguishing the light. This
is effected by adapting to
the body of the lamp a locking pin which will
prevent the lower part from
being unscrewed or detached from the upper part
until such pin is drawn
back.
1871. No. 3057. Plimsoll.
The improvements are applicable to the
safety-lamp provisionally protected by the
inventor on 31st May, 1871, No. 1448, and
consist, 1st, in using in combination with
the air chamber therein referred to, a slow
threaded screw for connecting the oil
box with the casing, whereby the light is
extinguished before it can be with-
drawn through want of air. Another improvement in
this lamp consists in
the use of two chimneys having an air space
between them communicating
with the air chamber above mentioned. The outer
chimney serves to protect
the inner one from sudden changes of temperature,
and the light is not
obstructed as when a gauze cover is used as in
ordinary. The chimneys are
protected by metal-ribs and wire netting on the
exterior.
1871. No. 3181. Eley.
Improvements in miners' lamps. There is a double
oil vessel, so that part of the
supply shall be inside the lamp proper, and part
outside, and connected so
that the supply shall be equal to the demand, as
long as the outer fountain
contains any. The outer part is preferably
semi-annular. Also a damper
protects the wire gauze of safety lamps by
suspending or supporting it near
to the top; it may consist of a piece of metal,
round, domed, or otherwise,
and loosely fitting or filling up about fths of
the opening.
SIXTH DIVISION.
COAL-GETTING.
1871. No. 133. Williams. , , , ^
1 * a r backwards and forwards)
Consists of a frame in which a sliding head is
wor&ea ^
,,1 +M veiling on screws, so that the
thus operating on a screw block or blocks
traveu^b
16 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
position of the cutting tool may be from to time
adjusted in position so as
to cut out square blocks of coal or mineral as
required.
1871. No. 445. Ball.
The combination of a crane with a stretcher, bar,
or tube, for the purpose of raising,
lowering, and fixing rock drills and other
similar mining, tunnelling, and
quarrying implements in mines.
1871. No. 468. Macdermott and Williams.
Apparatus for boring, in which the particular
points are, first, the use of automatic
feed mechanism; second, the application of brake
power to a nut through
which a driving screw or spiral passes, so that
the nut is made to revolve at
a rate differing from that of the screw, which
rate adjusts itself to the resis-
tance the boring tool has to overcome; third,
arrangements for seizing and
letting go a boring bar; fourth, a "pneumatic
holder," and expanding circular
lewis for the purpose of retaining in position
the boring machinery.
1871. No. 1471. rothery and rothery.
Improvements in machinery for cutting coal.
Consist in cutting a much narrower
groove than has heretofore been found practicable
by continuous revolving or
rotatory cutters, whereby the power required is
considerably reduced and less
waste of the coal or other mineral is effected;
facility is also afforded by
means of the invention for cutting a groove to
any desired depth without
reference to the size or diameter of the rotatory
cutter employed.
1871. No. 3004. Watteeu.
Machinery for driving holes in rocks. Where a
piston receiving reciprocating
motion by compressed air or steam inside a
cylinder carries a chisel for driving
holes by concussion, the improvements consist,
firstly, in a peculiar arrange-
ment for actuating the slide valve of the
cylinder. The slide valve is con-
nected at its opposite ends to two pistons
working in cylindrical holes in the
slide valve box ; the steam or air under pressure
has access to both sides of
the one piston, while the other piston (of
smaller diameter than the first) is
acted on the one side only by the steam or air
under pressure, the other side
being open to the atmosphere. An escape valve
actuated by a trigger and a
tappet on the piston rod of the machine allows
the steam or air to escape
from the one side of the first slide valve piston
at the end of the back stroke
of the machine, whereby the one motion of the
slide valve is effected for pro-
ducing the forward stroke of the chisel. On the
closing of the said valve an
equilibrium of pressure is re-established on the
said slide valve piston so as
to produce the return stroke of the slide valve.
The driving chisel is rotated
at each stroke by a pawl and ratchet-wheel
actuated by a bar receiving a
rocking motion from two small pistons in
cylinders into which the steam or
air under pressure is admitted alternately.
1871. No. 3270. Haseltine.
An improved method of excavating rocks. The
object of this invention is to effect
the removal of a large quantity of material in a
short time and with a saving
of labour and expense, and this object is
accomplished by first boring all the
drill holes, then filling them with suitable
material, and then gradually-
shattering the rock in successive lifts by
repeated explosions until it is torn
away to the bottom of the drill holes.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 17
1871. No. 3438. Alexander.
Machinery for getting coal. The working parts are
carried on a horizontal iron
frame running on four wheels, which rest on a
pair of rails, and are by pre-
ference quite plain or unflanged, displacement
off the rails being prevented
by pins or lugs fixed to or formed on the frame
and projecting down beside
the rails. The cutting of the mineral is effected
by a modification of the well-
known arrangement of cutters on an endless chain,
distended by a gib projecting
out horizontally from one side of the frame.
SEVENTH DIVISION.
EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS.
1871. No. 311. Smith.
Improvements in the manufacture of gunpowder or
explosive compounds of the
character described in the Specification of a
Patent granted to Ernest Dronke,
dated 11th April, 1864, No. 900.
1871. No. 921. Sprengel.
The preparation of explosive compounds, based on
the well-known principle of
keeping separate the oxidising from the
combustible agent until such time as
the effect of their chemical combination is
required.
1871. No. 776, Welch.
Apparatus for generating a current of electricity
for discharging fuses for mining
and other purposes. It consists of an arrangement
of a permanent magnet
and soft iron cores furnished with coils of
insulated wire, a soft iron armature
being provided, which is capable of being removed
and replaced, and a current
of electricity induced by means of a combination
of mechanism acted upon
at pleasure by a key.
1871. No. 1326. Muschamp.
An improved explosive substance, manufactured by
a novel treatment of lignine
or woody fibre. The first operation is the
disintegration of the wood by
means of a chipping machine. The sap and mineral
salts must then be
extracted ; to accomplish this object the wood is
boiled for about six hours
in a suitable boiler by boiling with a solution
of caustic soda or other alkaline
liquid. The fibre is next thoroughly washed with
pure water. It is then
removed to a beater, and when reduced to the
proper shortness it is put into
a strainer. It is then removed into a heated room
and dried. The fibres are
then steeped in nitric and sulphuric acids, and
allowed to remain in the
acids for about 24 hours; it is then washed.
1871. No. 2045. James.
In manufacturing fuses, a machine similar to the
ordinary circular braiding
machine is used. To this braiding machine is
applied a self-acting feed
apparatus for supplying the gunpowder to the
interior of the braid, which
forms the cover of the fuse.
1871. No. 2335. Kleritj.
A cartridge for blasting purposes, made of much
cheaper materials than those
VOL. XXI.—1872.—Appendix No. II. q
..18 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
ordinarily employed, and so constructed that the
same effect is produced as
in other cartridges, while about one-fourth only
of the powder usually
employed is required for this cartridge.
1871. No. 2642. Sprengel.
The preparation of explosive compounds. This
invention relates partly to the
preparation and use of what the inventor calls
safety explosive compounds,
and is based on the well-known principle of
keeping separate the oxidising
from the combustible agent, until such time as
the effect of their chemical
combination is required.
1871. No. 2715. Watteeu.
For blasting marble or granite quarries and other
hard substances, the following
ingredients are mixed together, 12*5 parts by
weight of sawdust, 67*5 parts by
weight of nitrate of potash, and 20 parts by
weight of powdered sulphur. For
blasting limestone and chalk quarries and coal or
other substances of a
comparatively soft nature, the following are
mixed together, 11 parts by
weight of sawdust, 51*50 parts of nitrate of
potash, 16 parts of nitrate of soda,
15 parts of coal or lignite powder, and 20 parts
of sublimed sulphur.
EIGHTH DIVISION.
MISCELLANEOUS.
1871. No. 283. Crispin.
Machinery for washing and dressing the debris
from lead mines. Consists of an
arrangement of a perforated or wire cylinder and
a close cylinder, which are
caused to rotate, the debris being passed through
the same successively and
washed by means of water during the rotation, the
slime resulting from the
operation being allowed to flow from the end of
the close cylinder into a
suitable launder. The perforated or wire cylinder
is fed by means of an
arrangement consisting of an endless chain or
belt, which is placed in a trough
and passed over grooved pulleys at the respective
ends of the trough.
1871. No. 302. Chambers and Elton.
Preparing artificial fuel by mixing disintegrated
coal dust, refuse anthracite, or
bituminous coal, coke breese with chalk lime
combined with creosote,
naphthaline, or other dead oils.
1871. No. 310. Tate.
Raising and lowering the gates at pit mouths by
applying to the end of the winding
axis a worm wheel working into a horizontal
toothed wheel, the axis of which
actuates two sets of rods, levers, and segments
connected with the pit gates,
which are alternately raised and lowered as the
skips rise and descend from
the mouth of the pit.
1871. No. 884. Brydon and Kendall.
Improvements in signal indicators, which consist
of a drum with seven or other
number of sides, upon which figures or letters
are made that show through
a hole in the case of the drum, which can be
turned backwards and forwards
to bring any required side before the hole ;
there are also pins or spindles in
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 19
the drum, which come against a spring lever
hammer, each pin or spindle in
passing giving one stroke on a bell. All are
connected by wire rope to move
together, and are brought back to show " no
signal" by a weight.
1871. No. 905. tregay.
Apparatus for stamping ores. An arrangement by
which the " grateway" or
discharge-way through which the pulverized
substances pass can be extended
around both the compass or sides and angles of
the " cover" or coffer, so that
the whole, or as much as may be desired, of the
compass or sides and angles
of the coffer can be used as grateway or
discharge-way by setting back the
stanchions of the foot piece.
1871. No. 1204. Hopkinson.
Machinery for elevating and weighing coal.
Consists of a series of buckets
attached to an endless chain working over a
tumbler propelled by steam,
delivering the coal into a shoot. A weighing
machine may be fixed in the
shoot.
1871. No. 1292. Hopkinson.
Weighing coal. This mechanism is intended to be
connected to or to stand upon the
weighbridge of the weighing machine. It consists
of a wheel arrangement with
arms or divisions radiating from the axle at
right angles, for a portion of the
distance towards the circumference and then
recurved or bent back for the
remainder, so that when one division is filled
with coal or other material, the
centre of gravity is on the delivery side, which
is then weighted, and by
lifting a catch, revolution occurs and the coal
is delivered into a ship.
1871. No. 2498. Hardy and Harrison.
Improvements in picks. For this purpose a
metallic socket of suitable form to
cover and protect the ends of the shafts or
handles is provided with a projec-
tion or tenor fitted to enter a mortise formed in
the tool for which it is
designed.
1871. No. 2527. hardy and stayner.
Improved method for shafting picks. This
invention consists in the employment
of a metallic collar or circlet, which is fixed
upon the shaft of any tool, upon
which collar is formed a cushion for the
reception of the eye of the tool, such
cushion being of any elastic or semi-elastic
material, or material more yielding
or softer than that of which the eye of the tool
is composed.
1871. No. 2743. Breckon and Joy.
Screening and cleaning coals by machinery driven
by steam, water, or other con-
venient power in a manner that greatly reduces
the manual labour of moving
the coals over the surface of the screen, whilst,
at the same time, it enables
the screen man to pick out pieces of stone, foul
coal, and other objection-
able substances more expeditiously and
effectually than by the screens and
appliances now in use.
INDEX TO VOL. XXI.
Accounts, viii., x., xii.
Adams, Thomas, On a new form of direct
acting spring safety valve, 285.
Address (inaugural) by E. F. Boyd (joint
meeting), 223.
Address On the inauguration of the Col-
lege of Physical Science, by the Dean
of Durham, end of vol.
Advertisement, xlv.
Air-compressing machinery at Ryhope
Colliery. Description of, by W. N.
Taylor, 73.—Table of experiments, 78.
—Discussed, 81.
Plates.
14. Section of the air-compressing
cylinder.—15. Inlet and outlet valves
for compressing cylinder.—16. Gene-
ral arrangement of the air-com-
pressing cylinders. — 17. General
arrangement of the steam engine
and air-compressor.—18. Compres-
sed-air and tail-rope system.—19.
Air engine.—20. Section of level in
under-sea coal workings at Ryhope.
—21. Section of cylinder of theunder-
ground winding engine.—22. Dia-
grams—Steam engine, air compres-
sor, and interior engine.
Air compression—Application of ma-
chinery in the collieries of Sars Long-
champs and Bouvy, by M. L. Cornet
(translated by John Daglish), 199.—
Discussed, 217.
Plate.
33. Fig. 1. Section of coal-field ; fig.
2. Horizontal plan, showing the
general position of the galleries.
Air-vessels in pumping engines and the
means of replenishing them, by R. B.
Sanderson, 115.—Discussed, 154.
Alteration of Rule 4, 82.
Analyses. Cockfield Dyke stone, 254.
—Weardale limestone, 265.—Ferry-
hill limestone, 265. — Raisby Hill
limestone, 266, 267, 269, 270.—
Magnesian limestone, 266. — Harmby
limestone, 266. — Pickering Oolitic
limestone, 266.—Weardale limestone,
266, Boldron limestone, 267, 269.—
Merrybent limestone, 267, 269. —
Forcett limestone, 269.
Annesley Colliery, working by Longwall
at, by Henry Lewis, 3.
Appendix, No. 1, Barometer and ther-
mometer readings for 1871, end of vol.
Appendix, No. 2, Patents connected with
mining operations, end of vol.
Appendix to rules, xlii.
Bainbridge, E., On the difference be-
tween the statical and dynamical
pressure of water columns in lifting
sets, 49.
Barometer and thermometer readings for
1871.—Appendix, No. 1, with diagrams.
Boring of pit shafts in Belgium dis-
cussed, 9.
Boyd, E. F., Inaugural address at joint
meeting, 223.
Carboniferous limestone of South Dur-
ham and North Yorkshire, by W.
Cockburn, 257.
Plates.
34. Geological Map of Yorkshire.—
35. Section of limestone, Stanhope
Quarry ; Section of bysalt belong-
ing to Ord and Maddison.—36. Sec-
tion of great limestone at Frosterly
Quarries.—37. Section of limestone,
Raisby Hill Low Quarry ; Section
of great limestone at Broadwood
Quarries.—38. Average section of
Forcett Limestone Quarry ; Section
of great limestone at Duckett Hill
Quarries.—39. Section of limestone,
Raisby Hill High Quarry; Section
of great limestone at Duchess Quar-
ries, Merrybent.—40. General sec-
tion of strata between Carrs Uragg
and High Force.—41. Plan of
Broadwood Limestone Quarry.
Coals, On a new and improved method
of screening and loading, by Robert
Miller, 295.
Cockburn, W., On the carboniferous
limestone of South Durham and North
Yorkshire, 257.
Coleman, I. J., On mineral oil as a lubri-
cant for machinery.
College of Physical Science, Desira-
bility of electing the professors lion,
members, 47, 82.—Inaugural Address
by the Dean, end of vol.
Cornet, M. L., On the application of
machines worked by compressed air
in the collieries of Sars-Longchamps
andBouvy, translated by John Daglish,
199.
Cornish pumping engine at Settling-
stones, paper on, by F. W. Hall, 59.
Council, report of, v.
Councillor, election of, in place of Mr.
Hosking, deceased, 83.
Counterbalancing of engines, discussed,
218.
Daglish, John, translation of paper by
M. L. Cornet, on the application of
machines worked by compressed air
in the collieries of iSars-Longchamps
and Bouvy, 199.
Dean of Durham, Address on the Inau-
guration of the College of Physical
Science, end of vol.
Difference between the statical and
dynamical pressure of water columns
in lifting sets, by E. Bainbridge, 49.
Education of the mining engineer, by
John Young, 21.—Discussed, 33, 40.—
Note by Ralph Moore, 38.
Election of a Councillor in place of Mr.
Hosking, deceased, 83.
Experiments on rivetting with drilled
and punched holes and hand and
power rivetting, 67.
Fowler, George, On the scroll drum, 85.
General statement of account, xii.
Geology, in some of its practical aspects,
by Dr. David Page, LL.D., 241.
Hall, F. W., On the Cornish pumping
engine at Settlingstones, 59.
Hicks' apparatus for screening and
loading coals, described by Robert
Miller, 295.
Honorary members, xiv.
Howard, W. F., Ten years' mineral sta-
tistics of the United Kingdom, 161.
Inauguration of the College of Physical
Science, Address by the Dean of
Durham, end of vol.
Incorporation of the Institute suggested
72.—Discussed, 289.
Joint meeting with the Scottish and
South Lancashire Engineers, 221 —
Inaugural Address, 223.
Kinneil Iron Works, arrangement of
machinery for pumping water in dip
workings, by Ralph Moore, 159.
Lewis, Henry, On working coal by long-
wall at Annesley Colliery, 3.
Life Member, xiv.
Lifting sets, On the difference between
the statical and dynamical pressure of
water columns in, by E. Bainbridge
49.
Literary and Philosophical Society,
thanks to, for use of rooms, 82.
Loading, and screening coals, new
method of, by Robert Miller, 295.
Longwall method of working coal at
Annesley Colliery, by H. Lewis, 3.—
Pillars to divide districts, 5.—Timber,
6.—Length of stalls, 7.—Discussed,
104.
Plates.
1, 2. Plans of working by Longwall.
—3. Section of the top hard seam
at Annesley.—25. Section of the
goaf and main road.—26. Side view
of gate road.
Members : Patrons, xiii.—Honorary,
xiv.—Life, xiv.—Officers, xv__Ordi-
nary, xvi.—Students, xxxiv.—Sub-
scribing collieries, xxxvii.
Miller, Robert, On a new and improved
method of loading and screening
coals, 295.
Mineral oil as a lubricant for machinery,
by I. J. Coleman, 291.—Table of expe-
riments, 293.
Mineral statistics of the United King-
dom, 1861 to 1870, by W. F. Howard,
161.
Moore, Ralph, Note on Mr Young's paper
on the education of the mining engi-
neer, 38.—Arrangement of machinery
for pumping water in dip workings at
the Kinneil Iron Works, 159.
Officers, xv.
Page, Dr. David, On Geology in some of
its practical aspects, 241.
Patrons, xiii.
Professors of the College of Physical
Science, desirability of electing them
hon. members, 47, 82,
Pumping, Paper on the difference be-
tween the statical and dynamical
pressure of water columns in lifting
sets, by E. Bainbridge, 49.—Discussed,
91.
Plates.
4. Bucket door piece, &c. — 5 to 9.
Diagrams showing varying pressure
of water in one stroke.—10. Indi-
cator diagram and diagrams show-
ing position of gauge in forcing
and lifting sets.
Pumping engine at Settlingstones, paper
on, by F. W. Hall, 59.—Discussed, 64,
91.
Plates.
11, 12. Indicator diagrams.
Pumping engines, air vessels in, and the
means of replenishing them, by R. B
Sanderson, 115.—Discussed, 154.
Plates.
27, 28. Illustrating the paper.—29.
Arrangement at the Gateshead
pumping stations.
Pumping water, by W. Waller (2nd
paper), 123.—Discussed, 154.
Plates.
30. Diagram showing oscillations of
pressure in the mains.—31. Dia-
grams.
Pumping water in dip workings at the
Kinneil Iron Works ; arrangement of
machinery described by Ralph Moore,
159.
Plates.
32. Plan, &c, of Dook pumping
arrangements.
Reports : Council, v.—Oh rivetting ex-
periments, 67.
Reprinting of volumes out of print dis-
cussed, 288.
Rivetting : Report upon experiments
with drilled and punched holes and
hand and power rivetting, 67.
Plate.
13. Diagram illustrating the report.
Roberts, Thomas, On the teeth of wheels,
271.
Rule 4 altered, 82.
Rules, xxxviii.
Ryhope Colliery, description of air-com-
pressing machinery at, by W. N. Tay-
lor, 73.
Safety-valve (spring), new form of
direct acting, by Thomas Adams, 285,
Plate.
46. Section of valve.
Sanderson, R. B., On air-vessels in pump-
ing engines and the means of replen-
ishing them, 115.
Screening and loading coals, a new and
improved method, by Robert Miller,
295.
Plates.
47. View of Hick's apparatus.—48.
w^ection of bars, view of lower end
of screen frame.
Scroll drum, paper on, by Geo. Fowler,
85.
Plates.
23, 24. Diagrams.
Smyth, W.W., paper on boring pit-shafts
in Belgium discussed, 9.
Students, xxxiv.
Subscribing collieries, xxxvii.
Subscriptions, Treasurer in account, viii.
Taylor, W. N., description of air-com-
pressing machinery at Ryhope Colliery,
73.
Teeth of wheels, an improved method of
approximating to the true epicycloidal
forms by circular arcs, by Thomas
Roberts, 271.
Plates.
42, 43, 44, 45. Illustrating the paper.
Ten years' mineral statistics of theUnited
Kingdom, 1861 to 1870, by W. F.
Howard, 161.
Treasurer in account with subscriptions,
viii.
Treasurer in account with Institute, x.
Waller,W., On pumping (2nd paper), 123.
Wheels, teeth of, by Thomas Roberts, 271.
Young, John, On the education of the
mining engineer, 21.
INAUGURATION
of the
NEWCASTLE COLLEGE OE PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
Speech by the Very Rev. the DEAN OF DURHAM.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, my Lords, Ladies, and
Gentlemen,—
The occasion on which we meet to-day, and on
which we are grateful
for the attendance of many whose presence is an
indication of the
interest felt by a large part of the North of
England in our under-
taking, is one both of satisfaction and hope to
Newcastle and the
neighbourhood. It is a matter of satisfaction and
gratitude that we
should be able to announce to you that in little
more than six months
after the scheme for a college of scientific
teaching—with a special
view to the educational wants of the North of
England—was proposed,
we are enabled by the zeal of those who have
taken a wise view of
the interests of all classes in this matter, to
begin an. effective course
of instruction; and it is a further gratification
that our plan has
been understood and responded to by those for
whom it was designed,
so that we are not in the rather awkward position
which has sometimes
been the lot of similar institutions at their
commencement, of having
professors but no pupils, but are able to give
our professors plenty
of work, and with that work the opportunity
(which is all they require)
of showing what our institution can do. In saying
this, we willingly
admit that our institution is still only in the
very earliest state of its
existence—not, perhaps, that mere protoplasm of
which we have heard
so much of late, for it has at least got four
legs to run upon—but still
very far from having its full body of scientific,
and still more of literary
teaching. We believe, indeed, that the education
which we are enabled
to offer to our pupils is a sound one, but we are
far from putting it
forward as complete, and we trust that in a very
few years we may be
able to render it more worthy both of this great
town and of the
Northern University, of which we hope it may form
so important a part.
It is in accordance, then, with this idea that we
have made a good start
—but very little more—that I shall endeavour, my
lords, ladies and
gentlemen, to place before you to-day something
of an estimate of the place
which physical science ought to hold in a good
education for the upper
and middle classes, particularly in a part of
England whose wants are
somewhat peculiar. I shall have to speak
mainly, of course, of physical
science; but you will see at once that it is
impossible to do this without
some reference to other great branches of
education. I shall try to show
both what purely scientific study can do for us,
and what it cannot;
that, for a body of men employed in the work of
developing the resources
of the country, this knowledge is a matter of
simple necessity, and that
it is scarcely less so to those who wish to
develope the resources of their
own minds, and to estimate, even if we cannot
wholly understand, the
true place which man holds in that universe of
which he is in some sense
the master, in others but a feeble atom; but in
which he is at least
always, in Bacon's words, " Man the servant and
interpreter of nature."
I shall try to show that this want—felt far less
deeply in past times—
cannot be put aside or denied in this inquiring
and material age, in which
men are no longer able to take a part in its
struggle and to grapple with
its deeper problems, unless they add to their
other acquirements, how-
ever varied they may be, some knowledge of that
vast and often
perplexing material world, of which great men of
past generations were
content to be wholly ignorant. And still, while
saying this, I mean to
press upon you that physical science ought never
to stand alone as an
instrument of education, and that those who are
its most ardent votaries
need the most to be reminded, that there are
other great lines of study
by which it must be supplemented, if the physical
inquirer desires to
gain that completeness of thought and knowledge
without which a man
will be brilliant but never wise, and the neglect
of which has led to the
greatest failures of science, and (we may add) of
moral and political
knowledge. The wisdom of the old Greeks
expressed this quaintly
when it said that "aman should be a perfect
square and no mistake/'
and a German poet, who was a great master of
life, has expressed the
same thought in language which may thus be
translated :—
Ever aim at completeness, and if thou canst not
attain it,
Be as a ministering limb, joined to a body
complete.
You will see then, I think, at once, that though
I am going to-day to
uphold strongly the study of physical science as
an instrument of
(*0
education, I am not disposed in doing so to run
down what is called the
old system of education, though I certainly
believe that in past days,
and even at present, it is carried out in a
rather one-sided and ridiculous
fashion. The English education for the upper and
middle classes,
and this was till thirty years ago the only
education existing in the
country—for you may remember what sounds now an
astonishing fact, that
Mr. Burke, about eighty years ago, estimated the
whole number of readers
in England at only 80,000—may be generally
described as conducted
almost entirely by teaching language and by
teaching mathematics, or
rather about nine-tenths of the boys in our
higher schools profess to learn
a certain amount of Latin and Greek, and the
remaining tenth are (in
the opinion of the rest of their schoolfellows)
eccentric creatures who
have an unnatural liking for mathematics—-a study
which it is, or was,
contrived to make so repulsive to the nature of
boys that I could give
you a list, if I chose, of some of the most
eminent statesmen, and the best
scholars, too, in the country, who were all
"plucked" for their "little go/'
because they could never pass the " Ass's
Bridge." Now, far be it from
me to disparage language as a great instrument of
education. If I
wanted to define a good education, I should say
that it consisted in two
things: first, in drawing out and disciplining
the powers of the mind so
as to make it do our bidding in our coming life;
and, at the same time,
in imparting, along with this power, a
considerable amount of valuable
information. Now, on the first of these
points—the discipline of the
min(l—a great deal may be said for the study of
language. Language
rightly used is a kind of mental logic. It trains
the young mind
unconsciously in accuracy of thought and in power
of expression; and,
as we get older, its higher studies introduce us
to those great works of
the Greeks and Romans, which, for beauty both of
thought and words,
have never been equalled. I will even venture, in
passing, to say a
word for those despised Latin verses at which
everyone now-a-days has
a shot, which are supposed by many to be the
reductio ad absurdum of
the system, but real skill in which indicates, I
think, no small command
of expression. I remember that, when at one of
those Commissions
which sat lately on public schools, it was
proposed to give up
writing Latin verses, a friend of mine exclaimed,
with vehemence,
" Abandon Latin verses! why, you will be
destroying one of the
great solaces of life;" and although this may
provoke a smile,
yet if you understand his remark to apply to the
soothing power
of ancient poetry generally—which a boy of talent
in this direction
appreciates all the more by the habit of
composing in verse—to the
(xii)
deep love for Homer and Virgil, for iEschylus and
Sophocles, which
the old system of education, taken at its best,
imparts, I do not
think he was so very far wrong*. We must add to
this a real love for
history, which the study of the great ancient
historians and political
philosophers—by far our best models in this
respect—imparts; and I
must venture to think that that very acute man,
Mr. Cobden, made a
great slip when he declared that there was more
to be learnt from one
copy of the "Times" than from what he called ^all
the works of
Thucydides" (though, by-the-bye, Thucydides wrote
only one work),
and I could quote against him one who is no
depredator of modern
study, Mr. John Stuart Mill, who said that he
forgave the University of
Oxford many of its shortcomings because it had
kept alive the study of
the three greatest works ever written—the Ethics,
Ehetoric, and Politics
of Aristotle. In fact, gentlemen, if I may sum
up, in one sentence, my
brief pleading for a study of ancient literature
rightly sought, the greatest
English minds, and the best character of English
thought, have been
formed since the Eeformation by two things—the
Bible and the study
of the Classics; and those who believe that this
character, and all the
history which has been its result, have been
inferior to none in Europe,
will never be disposed to give up the great works
of the old world as
one most powerful instrument of education. At the
same time, I cannot
deny that these studies have been, and still are,
carried on in an
absurdly exclusive fashion. In the first place,
even as regards the
cleverest boys, our present system almost
entirely ignores a knowledge
of their own literature and history. I know the
plausible answer which
will be given : that, in proportion as a boy is
clever in Latin and Greek,
you will find that he works up his knowledge of
English for himself;
but this is by no means universally true. I
should like to ask the boys
who know their Thucydides best at school, how
many of them after-
wards have mastered Clarendon or Gibbon? and I
have sometimes been
present at lectures, given to young men at
training schools, on Shak-
speare and Chaucer, which it would have been of
the highest advantage,
for all their lives, to clever boys at a public
school to hear, but I never
heard of anything of the kind being given. Then,
again, the plan of
teaching nothing but languages is a great
sacrifice of the many to the
few. The mass of boys and of young men care
simply nothing for
Latin and Greek. They go through them as a sort
of treadmill; and
just as a treadmill certainly makes a man aware
that he has legs, and
must use them whether he likes it or not, so his
Latin drill makes him
know that he has got something like a mind which
he can use afterwards
(xiii)
if he chooses ; but it is hardly too much to say
that to nine out of ten
boys their Latin and Greek has no earthly use but
this, and that, as
soon as they have escaped from it, they never
open a Greek or a Latin
book again. Now, I am not so Utopian as to think
that we shall make
all boys fond of study if we simply change the
subjects which we teach.
I am afraid it will still be found that " Dunce
the second reigns like
Dunce the first'' in the laboratory as well as
the schoolroom. Nor
must we forget that as a nation we have a very
strong sense of the
importance of that occupation which our
neighbours have borrowed one
word to express when they call it "Le Sport;" and
of the truth of the
old proverb that " all work and no play makes
Jack a dull boy." But I
believe, in the first place, that there is
certainly something of a natural
aptitude in these matters, and that a very much
larger scope should be
allowed, or rather invented, in education, for
applying a boy's talents to
that work for which nature meant them. There
never was a greater
scapegrace at school than the famous Lord Clive,
who was known there
for nothing but robbing his neighbours'
hen-roosts, and climbing the
church steeple to carry off the weather-cock, and
yet this boy had talents
for command and administration, which, after all
manner of failure and
two attempts at suicide, made him the founder of
our great Indian
empire. So it may be with many a lad here or
elsewhere. A
calculation was made by Mr. Eorster lately—and I
believe quite a
sound one—that not more than three boys in a
hundred are boys of
exceptional ability. Grant it; but how many boys
of talent would that
give us every year, if we could judiciously apply
the capacities of the
20,000 boys always requiring education in
Newcastle to their right
objects. The fact is, that in all our schools,
public or other, we need
far more division of work, or what our neighbours
in France and Ger-
many call a "Bifurcation" in this matter. We may
give our boys
pretty much the same general education up to
thirteen or fourteen, but then
let them " bifurcate." Some keep to their
languages, and others go off
to a school of natural science, according to the
boys' strong propensity
or the insight of an able master shall direct;
and then, just let me make
this further remark, which I should apply to all
boys whatever—whether
dull or clever—in our present great schools—I
mean as to our want of
arrangement of time in the whole course of our
education. Is it not,
indeed ludicrous and self-condemnatory that all
boys should have their
time so badly distributed during the teaching
years of their life that they
should actually pass from six years old to
eighteen or nineteen in mas-
tering, some well, some wretchedly ill, two
languages, together with
(xiv)
a smattering: of French, which they may pick up
from their sister's
governesses •? In this matter I entirely agree
with Professor Huxley.
Something—I don't mean anything very deep—of
those wonders of
nature which a child sees around him, and which
the childish mind is
naturally very curious to know about, ought to be
taught to every child,
boy or girl, early. "The Germans," says the
Professor, "have a good
name for this—Erd-Kunde, or earth
knowledge,"—that is, a general
knowledge of what is on the earth, in it, and
about it. If any one who
has any experience of the ways of young children
will call to mind their
questions, he will find that they soon come under
this head of earth
knowledge. The child asks, what is the moon,
and why does it shine ?
what is the water, and where does it run ? what
is the wind 1 or how do
you get the water up in this pump ? And if not
snubbed and stunted
by being told not to ask foolish questions, there
is no limit to the intel-
lectual craving of a young child, nor any bounds
to the slow but solid
accretion of knowledge and development of the
thinking faculty in this
way, but all would at least get to know something
about it. I don't say
that all boys will take to this equally; but I
certainly think it ludicrous
that any of us should (and I am afraid we most of
us do, in fact) grow
up in entire ignorance of our bodies, and of
everything we see or handle
—that a man of the highest education, if he was
to become by accident
a settler in a new country, should know nothing
of the construction of
a pump or a fire-engine; or if he was making a
voyage to Australia,
and be ignorant of the simplest rules of
navigation, should not know
how he is to shape his course, or what is the use
of the compass or the
meaning of the equator. In attempting to state
to you to-day what
appear to me to be the advantages of such a
scientific education as we
propose to offer, I have wished in the first
place to give a short sketch of
the system under which most of us here have been
taught, and of its
strong and weak side, partly because I should be
equally ungrateful and
untrue to myself, if I did not speak warmly of
the charms of that refined
classical teaching, which is the parent of so
much that is excellent, and
partly because it will always remain very
imperfect unless we supple-
ment it by a real knowledge of things—i.e., of
nature, and of all the
wonders which a study of nature discloses. I
now turn to those studies
of physical science of which we to-day inaugurate
the beginning; and I
ask you to consider how these may be used to
supplement the great
defects I have spoken of, and how, even without a
knowledge of litera-
ture, they may give us a real valuable training.
Let me begin by a
word or two of apology. I am unwilling in a
mixed assembly like this
(xv)
to enter at any great detail'on subjects which
must be to many neces-
sarily dry—especially as it is only two or three
days since I read the
following account of a lecture like the present
in a leading newspaper:—
"A Lecture on Chemistry," it says, "is a very
dull affair without explo-
sions, electric shocks, liquefactions,
crystallizations, depositions, and vola-
tilizations." I shall, therefore, eschew, as much
as possible, both hard
names and a long discussion; but I suppose I may
venture to say this
much at starting—that when we hear of this " dull
affair," the study of
physical science, we have all a sort of notion
that what is meant is
-astronomy, chemistry, mechanics, anatomy and
physiology, geology and
palaeontology. Now, what is it which makes the
study of all these sub-
jects an entirely different thing from these
other great literary studies of
which I have just been speaking ? It is, in one
word—first, that the
things themselves are different; and next, that
the method in which we
study them is different. In studying language, we
are studying words
and thoughts, and in studying history we are
studying records; but in
studying the great facts of nature we are
studying actual things—things
which for the most part we must understand by
seeing them, by hand-
ling them, and by touching them—things which are
at first matters
of experiment, and, when finally discovered,
matters of certainty.
Here, then, is that original difference between
the objects of literary
and scientific study which leads to such an
entirely different method
in pursuing the studies themselves. And,
accordingly, I should say
generally, that the advantage to the mind of an
education in physical
science is (1) that it trains us to habits of
close observation, of
inquiry, of induction, and of verification; (2)
that in doing this it
brings us into close contact with the actual
facts of nature; (3) that
it has a direct bearing on our business in life,
to an extent which is
hardly the case with any other study. Let me try
to expand these
statements. The first of these facts I will try
to impress upon you by a
short account of the principles on which all
scientific discovery has been
founded. I suppose we have most of us read or
heard that our great
countryman, Lord Bacon, was the founder of modern
philosophy and of
positive science, and that he founded it by
exploding the notions of the
ancients, and particularly the logic of
Aristotle, and establishing what is
called the inductive philosophy, which means
pretty much inquiry by
means of constant experiment, in its place. Now,
it is not necessary to
inquire here how much the ancients did or did not
know about physical
science. Being great lovers of abstract truth,
there is no doubt that
they cared comparatively little for the utility,
the practical side of
(xvi)
scientific truths; nor had they as yet the means
of testing them fully by
experiment. Still we must not undervalue them.
Archimedes, at all
events, managed to set the Roman ships on fire by
his burning glasses,
not to speak of his theory of the lever, which, I
believe, was the foun-
dation of statics till the time of Newton; and,
though no doubt many of
these theories are absurd, yet you must remember
that our own age is
not yet quite so enlightened as to despise the
wisdom of the great men
of old. I think I could match the folly of the
ancients even from some
of their ablest detractors. Take the following
for instance from a really
great man, Roger Bacon, who wished all the works
of Aristotle were
burned, but who himself propounds the following
scientific account of
dragons :—" One of the best modes," he says, "
for prolonging life is by
the flesh of a dragon. It should be prepared as
the Ethiopians prepare
it. Where there are good flying dragons they have
an art of drawing
them out of their dens, and have bridles and
saddles in readiness, and
they ride on them, and make them bound about in a
violent manner, that
the toughness of their flesh may be reduced as
boars are hunted, and
bulls are baited, before they are killed for
eating." However, leaving
alone for the present the defence of the
ancients, let us see what were
those great principles of induction which Lord
Bacon discovered, and
which justly entitle him to be called the man "
whose prophetic genius
enabled him to delineate a science which had not
yet begun to exist."
The principle of induction, regarded simply as a
method of inquiry, is
merely that of believing in no statement whatever
unless it has been
previously tested by certain rules of observation
and experience, and
Bacon's great merit is that he first, and in a
way which may really be
called prophetic, laid down these rules, and thus
systematized the method
of discovery. It is simply in this method, and in
nothing else, that
Bacon's merit consists. But it is an immense
merit; for it is neither
more nor less than a discovery of the laws of
thought as applicable to all
scientific subjects. It was doing for science
almost exactly what Aristotle
had done for reasoning, laying down the rules
according to which every
process must be conducted. This is not the time
to show you how
Aristotle did this in the syllogism; but, in
Bacon's case, the merit of
his system of induction was, not simply that he
said, "You must proceed
by experiment"—others had done that before—but
that he taught men
how to do so; and in his "prerogative instances,"
as he quaintly calls
them, he gives us a list of nearly every kind of
experiment which can be
applied in the investigation of scientific truth.
It is perfectly true that
men were at work on Bacon's own principles
already, that Copernicus
(xvii)
had a century before exploded the belief that the
earth was the centre of
the universe, and that Kepler and Galileo, in
Bacon's own day, were
demonstrating the motions of the sun and the
planets, and in Kepler's
own quaint language, " were sending into the
field a reserve of new
physical forces for the rout and dispersion of
the veterans." It is even
possible that Bacon knew nothing of these great
discoveries himself. But
this does not touch his merit; by that wonderful
combination of sagacity
with imagination which has made him the very
Shakspeare of philosophy,
and which has even in our day given some vogue to
a theory that he
was himself the author of many of Shakspeare's
plays—he foresaw and
laid down for ever the laws of all scientific
inquiry. At the same time
it is not to be disputed that the merit of
Bacon's great work has often
been denied. Our foreign friends have been
particularly jealous of it,
and a lively writer, the Count Joseph de Maistre,
has argued, not without
some plausibility, that Aristotle had himself
distinctly laid down the
principle of induction for the discovery of
scientific truth. The most
curious instance of this attack has, however,
been Lord Macaulay's, and
as it will have the advantage of illustrating
what I have said about
Bacon's real merit, I will give it you,
especially as, in the words of a
well-known joke—" It will do Bacon no harm, and
may amuse you."
Lord Macaulay, beginning with the slashing onset
with which he usually
attacks the favourite beliefs of mankind, and of
philosophers in particular,
tells us that " the inductive method has been
practised ever since the
beginning of the world by every human being. It
is practised," he says,
" by the most ignorant clown, by the most
thoughtless school-boy, by the
very child at the breast. It leads the clown to
conclude that if he sows
barley he shall not reap wheat. The very infant,
we imagine, is led by
induction to expect milk from his mother or
nurse, and none from its
father." He then proceeds as follows :—" Bacon's
Analysis of Induction
is but an analysis of what we are all doing from
morning to night, and
continue to do even in our dreams. A plain man
finds his stomach out
of order. He never heard Lord Bacon's name; but
he proceeds in strict
concordance with the rules in the 1 Novum
Organon,' and satisfies him-
self that minced pies have done the mischief. 11
ate minced pies/ he
says,' on Monday, and was kept awake by
indigestion at night.' This is the
comparantia instantiarum ad intellectum
convenientium. 'I did not eat
any on Tuesday, and I was quite well.' This is
the comparantia instanti-
arum quce natura data privantur, i.e., of
negative instances. 1 But on
Christmas-day I almost dined on them, and was
dangerously ill.' This
is the comparantia instantiarum secundum magus et
minus. * It cannot
c
(xviii)
have been the brandy which I took with them, for
I have drunk brandy
for years without being- the worse for it.' This
is the dejectio naturarum.
Our invalid then proceeds to what Bacon calls the
vintage, and con-
cludes that 'mince-pies do not agree with him.'"
Now, I need not enter
upon a very serious refutation of this lively
passage, but will merely say
that to attack Bacon for reducing into system the
rules on which men
are constantly reasoning instinctively without
knowing it, is merely like
attacking Columbus for showing how men could all
make an egg stand
upright, or discover America, if they only knew
the way. Macaulay's
argument is very much the same as that which Dr.
Watt brought
against Aristotle's logic, " that God had not
been so unkind to man as
merely to make him a two-legged animal, and left
it to Aristotle to make
him rational f and it may be safely left to
Hallam's grave remark, that
"those who object to the importance of Bacon's
precepts in philosophy,
that mankind have practised, many of them
immemorially, rather con-
firm their utility than take off from their
originality; for every logical
method is built on the common faculties of
mankind, which have been
exercised since th& Creation." Bacon's bequest to
philosophy was, in
fact, then simply this :—" Study the rules
"—these prerogative instances
which I have spoken of—which "I give you for the
discovery of natural
truth, and you will find that these will guide
you to a certainty," &c.
And to a certainty they hive guided. The habit of
testing everything by
the variety of experiments which Bacon described,
has been the origin
of that scientific certainty which has led to all
the great practical disco-
veries of modern philosophy. Here then, in this
great principle, seems
to me to lie in germ the real strength of
physical science—that it is a
method of mental training by careful and constant
experiment, and that
it gives us results which are absolutely certain;
and here it is that in
some respects it surpasses any other method. In
some respects, not in
all; for I cannot think that the study of the
material world, sublime as
it is, is so noble or so interesting to man as
the study of his own mind,
or of his wonderful history and destiny. I cannot
think that even
Newton—even though
"When Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night,
God said, Let Newton be, and all was light,"
has been so great a benefactor to mankind as
Shakspeare. This, how-
ever, is a mere matter of opinion; and I admit
that the magnificent
certainties of the great law of gravitation, with
its endless applications
to the sun, the moon, the planets, the earth, the
sea; or again, that
the laws of electricity, as they were gradually
discovered by Dufay and
(XX)
themselves fossil after fossil that they can know
anything of the structure
of the earth; only by experiments with the
platinum wire and with the
prism by which you can understand any of these
wonderful discoveries
about the rays of the sun which were first taught
us by Sir J. Herschel;
only by experiments of your own in electricity
that you will be able to
admire the wonderful genius of Faraday. 3. One
other point only,
which, perhaps, I ought not to have reserved for
the end : It is the prac-
tical value of these studies, and their bearing
on some of the most
important professions in the country—it is, how
far will they assist you
in " getting on." Now, I assure you I am far from
undervaluing
this very telling, and eminently modern and
perfectly English,
view of the question. "Getting on" is said to be
the Englishman's
idea of Paradise, and it is not a bad idea of it
either, if we only under-
stand "getting on" to mean in goodness, and not
merely in money. I
am quite aware—and I do not at all blame it—that
we might preach for
ever to you to take a scientific view of your
profession, and not a single
man would study a single second (and I am not
sure that he would be
wrong) if he thought that by doing so he would be
left behind in the
race of life. I am not indeed sure, I may say in
passing, that this
eagerness for immediate results does not
sometimes overshoot its mark;
and I suspect that often the man who has spent
two or three " unpro-
ductive" years in gaining a really profound
acquaintance with his
profession, whether as a lawyer, an engineer, or
a clergyman, in the end
turns out the more successful man. For example,
to put it in the most
practical shape—and one which some of you may one
day remember,
especially if you neglect it—a man who has made a
large fortune goes,
we will say when he is about fifty, into
Parliament. Now, do you
suppose it makes no difference to such a man
whether he goes with the
reputation of being a really scientific man, who
can throw light upon
those scientific questions which now so
constantly engage public atten-
tion, or with the character of a man who has got
on simply by natural
energy aided by the rule of thumb ? I am speaking
with no disrespect
of the latter class, whose energy I honour, and
who would be the first to
admit what I am urging. But I will venture to say
that a man who
(if he will permit me to allude to him) were to
go into Parliament like
our president, with the reputation of a really
scientific discoverer, would
be listened to on every question in which he was
interested, while the
man who went by the fortunate accident of a few
lucky hits would by no
means find himself so much in his element. But we
need not take a
case so far off. I speak to practical men, and
will be judged by them;
(xxi)
and I ask them whether an engineer can go very
far without a good
knowledge of mechanics—and whether he is not, at
all events, better for
an acquaintance with mathematics, which is the
groundwork of all high
mechanics. Whether he has not to make his
experiments daily on the
strength and properties of metals, or on the
application of geometry to
construction ? Or, again, whether a sound
knowledge of hydraulics
will not help him—whether a scientific knowledge
of the fluidity and
gravity of liquid bodies will not enable him to
use their pressure as a
motive power on the bottoms and sides of
vessels—or in the case of con-
fined fluids and liquids in pit shafts ? or what
can a man do in these days
without chemistry ? without having studied the
action of the two great
agents—light and heat—the principles of
decomposing or of composing,
and the atomic proportions of almost every
substance in the universe ?
If you will just remember that whether a man is
working in the mineral,
the vegetable, or the animal kingdom, he must
refer to chemistry at
every turn, that it is through its assistance
that in minerals he must
detect the characteristic of each specimen, and
must purify, and separate,
and prepare them for the use of man; that in
vegetables, again, and
agricultural produce, it is only by chemistry
that he can determine their
most nutritious, qualities, and the soils best
suited for their growth, I
believe that you will see in these—and they are
but a very few of the
thousand instances of the application of
scientific knowledge to labour
and enterprise—that there is no kind of science
which will not be of
daily value in the work of mining and
engineering. But, sir, why do
I dwell upon a point so obvious ? It is not that
you have any doubt
upon the question. It is quite true that, in the
North of England,
especially, the native energy and talent of our
great miners and engi-
neers, aided by unequalled natural advantages,
have placed us almost at
the head of the enterprise of the world. But you
are too sagacious,
gentlemen, not to be aware that in days of keen
struggle we shall not
hold our own unless we can enlist the most tried
and educated workmen
on our side. You are too well aware that in many
branches of labour,
of everything especially which has to do with
art, of the composition of
colours for instance, we are surpassed by
foreigners already, and I will
add, to take a more limited, though still a just
view of the question,
you, whose children are about to embark on those
great professions,
know that their best chance, and far their
noblest course, will be by
attaining a thorough scientific mastery of the
work they will have to do
in life. Sir, I fear that I may have detained the
meeting too long
already. I know I have had to "discourse on a
subject with most
(xxii)
parts of which I am very imperfectly acquainted,
and in the presence
of men who, if they were not kindly disposed to
me, would feel
how superficially I have discharged a work which
was not my own
seeking, and which I undertook only in obedience
to the kind wishes of
others. I must say, however, that on more than
one account I under-
took it with zeal, almost with enthusiasm. I have
seen, or fancied I
have seen, ever since I have been in the North of
England, that there is
room here for a higher education,—yes, I may say,
a University educa-
tion of a different sort, but certainly not less
manly or real than what is
now given at our older Universities. I trust
to-day may be the begin-
ning of an attempt to establish something of this
kind at Newcastle.
You have heard what my notions of a good
education are, and that they
are far from being limited to the teaching of
Physical Science. I hope
that Literature will soon take its place in your
classes, and there is
nothing' which would more rejoice me than to see
the early foundation
of a Professorship of English History and of
Political Economy. Let
me say it rests mainly with the people of the
good town of Newcastle to
determine whether there shall be established here
a more complete form of
education than we can offer to-day for your young
men, and I certainly
will not exclude young ladies also. If you will
make some little exertion
and sacrifice to obtain for two or three years,
from 16 or 17 to 19 or 20,
such an education as I hope we can offer you, I
am sure that such a
branch of university teaching established here
would at once be a
benefit to the town, and to the large, active,
and intelligent district of
which this is the centre.