NEIMME Transactions
Volume 25
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
TRANSACTIONS.
VOL. XXV.
1875-76.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE: A. REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE HILL
1876.
Report of Council............... v Ordinary
Members............... xviii
Finance Report .................. viii
Students.............................. xl
Account op Subscriptions...... x-xi Subscribing Collieries
......... xlv
Treasurer's Accounts .........xii-xi'i Rules
................................. xlvii
General Accoitnt.................. xiv Barometer Readings,
Appen- \
Patrons .............................. xv dix
I............................... Eu„d
> ot
Honorary and Lipe Members xvi Patents, Appendix II..........(
ydl.
Officers, 1876-77.................. xvii Index
.................................)
GENERAL MEETINGS.
1875.
pag*.
Sept. 11.—Report of Messrs. E. F. Boyd and John Daglish "On the Present
Condition of the Hutton Collection of Fossils" ... ...
... 1
"Memoir of the late Mr. Thomas Emerson "Porster," oy Mr. Gr. C. Greenwell
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 5
Oct. 13.—Meeting in Yorkshire.—Paper by Mr. A. H. Green " On the Silk-stone
and Barnsley Coal Seams" ... ... ... ...
... 13
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 20
Paper by Mr. Robert Miller " On Dislocations in the Thill, with the
Presence, Amount, and Tension of Gas in the Silkstone Seam of
Strafford Main Colliery"..................... 23
Paper by Mr. T. W. Embleton, " Notes on the Oaks Colliery Explosion on the
12th December, 1866, and on the subsequent explosions" ... 29 Nov.
6.—Paper by Professor A. Friere-Marreco, "Further Notes on recent
Examinations of Coal Gases" .................. 41
Dec. 4.—Discussion of Mr. G. A. Lebour's Papers " On the ' Little' Limestone
and its accompanying Coal in South Northumberland," and "On the ' Great' and
' Four-Fathom' Limestones and their Associated Beds in
South Northumberland"..................... 46
Paper by Mr. G. A. Lebour "On the Geological Relations of the Secondary
Iron Ores of France" ... ... ... ...
... 59
(iv)
1876.
PAtlK.
Feb. 5.—Paper by Mr. J. J. Williams "On the Mineral Resources of
Flintshire
and Denbighshire" ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 81
March 4.—Notice of Proposed Alteration of Rules 4 and 10 ...
... ... 103
Discussion of Mr. Miller's Paper "On Dislocations in the Thill, with the
Presence, Amount, and Tension of Gas in the Silkstone Seam of
Strafford Main Colliery" ..................104
Paper by Mr. Theo. Wood Bunning " On the Prevention of Spontaneous
Combustion of Coal at Sea" ... ... ... ...
... ... 107
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 115
April 1.—Alteration of Rules 4 and 10 ... ... ...
... ... ... 141
Discussion of Mr. T. W. Embleton's Paper, "Notes on the Oaks Colliery
Explosion in 1866" .....................142
Paper by Mr. E. F. Boyd, "Remarks on the Coal Measures and Oil Produce of
the United States"... ... ... ... ... ...
145
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 167
May 6.—Discussion of Mr. Theo. Wood Bunning's Paper "On the Prevention of
Spontaneous Combustion of Coal at Sea" ... ... ...
... 178
May 30,} Meeting in London.—Mr. Lindsay Wood's Presidential Address ...
189 June 1, > paper by ]\fr- John Daglish "On the Application of
Counterbalancing
and Expansion to Winding Engines"... ... ... ...
... 201
Discussed ...........................207
Paper by Mr. Emerson Bainbridge, "A Description of Fourteen
Different Modes of Lubricating Coal Tubs or Corves" ... ...
215
Paper by Mr. Gh A. Lebour "On the Larger Divisions of the Carboniferous
System in Northumberland" ... ... ... ... ...
225
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 234
Paper by Messrs. Hall and Clark "On the Mechanical Effect of 'Blown-out
Shots' on Ventilation" ... ... ... ...
... ... 239
Aug. 5.—Election of Officers for 1876-77..................249
Paper by Mr. W. O. Wood "On the Long-Wall Workings at East
Hetton Colliery"........................251
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 258
Paper by Mr. A. M. Potter " On Apparatus for Saving the Breakage of Coals
when falling from Colliery Screens into Wagons" ... ... 261
Discussed ..................... ...... 262
The Council, in presenting their Annual Report, have much pleasure in
stating that the prosperity of the Institute continues unabated, and the
number of members still increases—the total number on the register, after
deducting losses by death, resignations, &c, being 877, as compared with
850, the number given in the Eeport of last year, showing a net increase of
27, which may be considered about the average increase per year now that the
rapid elections consequent upon the admission of mechanical engineers to
membership have settled down to a normal state.
The members of the Institute have held two general meetings during the year
away from Newcastle. The first in Yorkshire, commencing on October 13th,
1875, and the second in London, commencing on May 30th, 1876. The meeting in
Yorkshire was at the invitation of the Midland Institute of Mining, Civil
and Mechanical Engineers. Papers were read at Leeds and Barnsley on the 13th
and 14th of October, and a large number of collieries and manufactories were
visited in these neighbourhoods; and on the following day the members met at
Sheffield and had an opportunity of inspecting several places of interest in
that district. At all of these towns the members were most hospitably
received, and much valuable information was obtained.
The other meeting was held in London on the 30th of May, and the 1st and 2nd
of June, in the rooms of the Institution of Civil Engineers, kindly placed
at the disposal of the members of this Institute for that purpose. This
meeting was the first held without previous invitation from the district
visited, and, thanks to the kind co-operation of the president, secretaries,
and members of the Institution of Civil Engineers and the Government
authorities at Woolwich and Enfield, proved a great
success.
Amongst the papers read before the Institute since last report are some of
considerable interest, more especially those which particularly treat of the
coal seams and geological formations of Yorkshire. Two papers, one by Mr.
Eobert Miller " On the Tension of Gas in the Silk-stone Seam in the
Strafford Main Colliery," and the other by Mr. T. W. Embleton, " Notes on
the Oaks Colliery Explosion," are well worth the careful study of all
gentlemen having the charge of underground works.
The diagrams accompanying Mr. Embleton's paper, compiled from careful
observation, are most interesting, and contain matter which doubt-
(VI)
less will some day assist in affording a more comprehensive knowledge of the
many phenomena connected with the pressure of the atmosphere and the
effusion of gas, which as yet remain a mystery.
All accurate data detailing the incidents which day by day and hour by hour
accompany the various disturbances occasioned by serious explosions are
extremely valuable, not only as affording a guide to action under similar
circumstances, but also as a means of bringing the whole of the facts
vividly before the mind of professional and scientific men, and thereby
increasing the possibility of becoming acquainted with and mastering the
many very important problems that have yet to be solved in the difficult
science of mining.
Of strictly geological papers, there have been several of interest. Mr.
Green's "On the Barnsley Coal Seams," Mr. Lebour's "On the Secondary Iron
Ores of France," and " On the Carboniferous System in Northumberland," and
Mr. E. F. Boyd's "On the Coal Measures of the United States of America,"
have added considerably to our knowledge of this important science; and two
excellent papers have been contributed on mechanical subjects connected with
mining industries—one by Mr. John Daglish " On the Application of Expansion
and Counter-balancing Apparatus to Winding Engines," and the other by Mr.
Emerson Bainbridge, " On the Lubrication of Coal Tubs."
The paper of Messrs. Henry Hall and George Clark " On the Mechanical Effect
of Blown-out Shots on Ventilation" is a most interesting communication,
opening out a subject requiring the most serious consideration of all
connected with mining, and one the study of which your Council consider it
is most peculiarly the province of the Institute to foster. Communications
of this nature may be said to lead the way in progressively increasing the
safety of mines which was the object more particularly contemplated on the
formation of this Society.
Some recent explosions having occurred under circumstances and in situations
where the possibility of such a disaster could not have been anticipated,
have led many to seek their causes in conditions other than the presence of
gas in the pit, and a theory has been advanced in some transactions
published by the Royal Society as to whether with certain combinations and
under certain phases the fire dust, which in many pits is exceedingly
abundant, is not itself explosive when diffused into the workings by
blown-out shots or other circumstances. These matters are occupying earnest
attention, and the Council are glad to report that the subject is being
taken up by members who will soon place the results of a series of
experiments before the members.
The Council have to mention with regret the death of Sir Goldsworthy
(vii)
Gurney, one of the Honorary Members of the Institute, whose name is
intimately connected with the application of a jet of steam for the purposes
of ventilation. He was elected an Honorary Member in 1853 on account of the
assistance which he had afforded the members in the experiments on
ventilation of mines which they were conducting at that time.
With sincere sorrow the Council have to record the death, at a comparatively
early period of his life, and under most distressing circumstances, of Mr.
R. Burdon Sanderson. This gentleman was one of the earliest members of the
Institute, having been elected in 1852, and at all times took the greatest
interest in its prosperity. A victim of the terrible catastrophe at Abbotts
Ripton, in January, 1876, which nearly deprived the Institute of many more
of its most respected members, he survived the first shock, but succumbed
some months afterwards from the effects of the severe mental and bodily
suffering resulting from that awful event. Mr. Sanderson was an essentially
useful man, of great and varied information, of ripe judgment, and of a
singularly unprejudiced mind. He was born in 1821 ; his parents were Richard
Burdon Sanderson, J.P. and deputy lieutenant of the county, and Elizabeth,
only daughter and heiress of Sir James Sanderson, Baronet. Born to an ample
competency, Mr. Sanderson at an early period of his life devoted himself to
public affairs, and especially identified himself with all the philanthropic
institutions of the district. Mr. Sanderson was a county and borough
magistrate, a member of the Newcastle Corporation, and an Ex-Mayor of
Newcastle, and took a prominent position in the formation of the College of
Physical Science, and in the management of the County Reformatory at
Netherton.
jfhrmtce §lcpri
The Finance Committee have to report that the income for the past year shows
an increase, as compared with the preceding year, of £83 15s. 5d., the
receipts from all sources in 1874-75 being £2,083 15s. 2d., and this year
£2,117 10s. 7d.
The expenditure has been £36 17s. Id. less than the income.
The Institute now holds 134 shares in the Institute and Coal Trade Chambers
Company, Limited, representing £2,680.
LINDSAY WOOD.
(X)
Db. THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT
£ 8. d. To 757 Old Members as per List, 1876-76 ............
1,589 14 0
To 59 New Members do................ 123 18 0
To 93 Old Students do. ............... 97
13 0
To 1 Old Student paid as Member ............... 2 2
0
To 26 New Students, as per List, 1875-76............... 27 6 0
To 2 Life Members'Subscriptions.................. 40 0 0
To 14 Subscribing Collieries..................... 71 8 0
1,952 1 0
To Arrears, as per last Balance Sheet ......... 229 19 0
Deduct— Irrecoverable Arrears not inserted in 1875-76 List
(Dead, Eesigned, &c.) .'.............. 85 1 0
Actual Arrears to collect, 1876-77 ... 144
18 0
£2096 19 0
(Xi)
WITH SUBSCRIPTIONS, 1875-76. Ob.
PAID. UNPAID.
& s. d. £ s. d.
By 668 Old Members paid ...............1,402 16 0
By 8 Do. dead (Subscriptions unpaid)......
16 16 0
By 6 Do. resigned do. ......
12 12 0
By 2 Do. gone, no address .........
4 4 0
By 72 Do. unpaid...............
151 4 0
By 1 Do. elected Honorary Member ......
2 2 0
757
By 57 New Members paid ...............119 14 0
By 2 Do. unpaid...............
4 4 0
By - Do. paid as Life Member ......
„ „ „
59
By 84 Old Students paid ............... 88 4 0
By 2 Do. resigned (Subscriptions unpaid) ...
2 2 0
By - Do. gone, no address .........
„ ,. „
By 5 Do. unpaid...............
5 5 0
By 1 Do. paid as Life Member.........
110
By 1 Do. paid as Member .........
110
93
By 1 Old Student paid as Member ......... 22 0
By 26 New Students paid ............... 27 6 0
By 2 Life Members paid ............... 40 0 0
By 14 Subscribing Collieries............... 71 8 0
1,751 10 0 200 11 0
By Members'Arrears.................. 50 8 0 88 4 0
By Students'Arrears..... ............ 2 2 0 4 4
0
1,804 0 0 292 19 0 ---------------1,804 0 0
Audited and Certified,
BENSON, ELAND, & Co.,
Public Accountants.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, August 4th, 1876.
£2,096 19 0
(xii) TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH THE NORTH OF ENGLAND
Dr.
For the Year Ending
£ s. d.
To Balance at Bankers...... ..............569 7 5
,, Balance in hands of Secretary ............... 48 0 8
„ Balance in hands of Liquidators of District Bank ... ...
12 7 3
„ Bequest of the late R. Stephenson, Esq., invested in Shares of
the Institute and Coal Trade Chambers Co. Limited ...2,000 0 0
2,629 15 4
„ Dividend of 6 per cent, on the above Shares ......... 159 12 0
„ Rent of College Class Rooms, less Borough Bate ...... 47 19
0
,, Sundries ........................ 10 6
„ Subscriptions for 1875-76 from 668 Old Members 1,402 16 0 „
Do. do. 57 New Members 119 14 0
„ Do. do. 84 Old Students 88
4 0
„ Do. do. 1 do. paid as Member 2
2 0
„ Do. do. 26 New Students 27
6 0
„ Do. do. 2 Life Members 40
0 0
„ 14 Subscribing Collieries, viz. :—
Ashington............ £2 2 0
East Holywell ......... 2 2 0
Haswell ............ 4 4 0
Hetton ............ 10 10 0
Lambton ............ 10 10 0
North Hetton ......... 6 6 0
Rainton ............ 10 10 0
Ryhope ............ 4 4 0
Seghill ............ 2 2 0
South Hetton and Murtou ... 880
Stella ............ 2 2 0
Throckley........... 2 2 0
Wearmouth......... ... 440
Whitworth............ 2 2 0
-----------71 8 0
„ Members' Arrears ............... 50 8 0
„ Students' Arrears ............... 2 2 0
--------------1,804 0 0
„ Sale of Publications per A. Reid ......... 116 12 1
Less 10 per Cent. Commission......... 11 13 0
—--------- 104 19 1
£4,747 5 11
(xiii) INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
August 1876.
Cr.
£ s. d.
By paid A. Reid, Publishing Account ... .. £648 15 6
„ Do. Covers for Parts and Stitching ... 59 10
0
., Do. Binding and Sewing Volumes ... 61 13
9
„ Do. Postage ............ 60 6 5
„ Do. Stationery and Circulars...... 114 6 5
„ Do. Library ............ 49 8 0
„ Do. Insurance and Advertising ... 12
5 6
---------------1,006 5 7
„ Other Printing and Stationery ............... 30 6
,, Secretary's Incidental Expenses and Postage......... 132 7 1
„ Sundry Accounts ..................... 27 14 10
„ Travelling Expenses, and Expenses of Yorkshire and London
Meetings......... ............... 116 15 7
„ Secretary's Salary............ ......... 300 0 0
„ Assistant's do...................... 75 0 0
„ Reporter's do...................... 12 12 0
„ Purchase of 1 Share in the Institute and Coal Trade Chambers
Co. Limited ..................... 20 0 0
„ Payments on Account of Furnishing, &c. ......... 169 14
-5
„ Rent........................... 72 9 6
„ Rates and Taxes ..." .................. 15 12 5
„ Fire Insurance ...... ............... 3 12 6
„ Coals and Gas ..................... 25 11 9
„ Subscription to the Natural History Society ......... 20 0
0
„ Prizes for Papers (Two Years) ............... 85 4 0
„ Books for Library in addition to amount paid A. Reid ...
4 13 4
2,090 13 6 ,, Bequest of the late B. Stephenson, Esq., invested in
Shares of
the Institute and Coal Trade Chambers Co. Limited ... 2,000 , 0 0
„ Balance in hands of Liquidators of District Bank ... ...
12 j 7 3
„ Balance at Bankers.....................572 6 9
„ Balance in hands of Secretary ............... 71 18 5
Audited and Certified,
BENSON, ELAND, & Co.,
Public Accountants. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, August 4th, 1876.
£4,747 5 11
(xiv)
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patrons.
His Grace the DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND.
His Grace the DUKE OP CLEVELAND.
The Most Noble the MARQUESS OF LONDONDERRY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF LONSDALE.
The Right Honourable the EARL GREY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF DURHAM.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF RAVENSWORTH.
The Right Honourable LORD WHARNCLIFFE.
The L'ight Reverend the LORD BISHOP OP DURHAM.
The Very Reverend the DEAN AND CHAPTER OF DURHAM.
WENTWORTH B. BEAUMONT. Esq., M.P.
Honorary lumbers.
Elected. Oedt. Hon.
WILLIAM ALEXANDER, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow ...
1863
* JAMES P. BAKER, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Wolverhampton ... 1853 1866
LIONEL BROUGH, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Clifton, Bristol ...
1855 JOSEPH DICKINSON, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Manchester ...
1853 THOMAS EVANS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Pen-y-Bryn, Duffield
Road, Derby ... ................. 1855
* HENRY HALL, Esq., H.M. Inspector of Mines, Rainhill, Prescott
1876
* RALPH MOORE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow ......
1866
CHARLES MORTON, Esq., The Grange, St. Paul's, Southport ...
1853
* THOMAS E. WALES, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Swansea ... 1855
1866
* FRANK N. WARDELL, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Wath-on-Dearne,
near Rotherham ..................... 1864 1868
* JAMES WILLIS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 73, Westmorland Road,
Newcastle-on-Tyne .................. 1857 1871
THOMAS WYNNE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Manor House,
Gnosall, Stafford..................... 1853
R. P. PHILIPSON, Esq., Newcastle-upon-Tyne .........
1874
WARINGTON W. SMYTH, Esq., 28, Jermyn Street, London ...
1869
The Veey Rev. Dr. LAKE, Dean of Durham .........
1872
* Prof. W. S. ALDIS, MA., College of Physical Science,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.................. 1872
* „ G. S. BRADY, M.R.C.S., etc. do. do.
... 1875
* „ A. FREIRE-MARRECO, M.A. do. do.
... 1872
* „ A. S. HERSCHEL, B.A., P.R.A.S., do. do.
... 1872
* Dr. DAVID PAGE, LL.D., do. do. ... 1872 SYI. DE
BOUREUILLE, Commandeur de la Legion d'Honneur,
Conseiller d'etat, Inspecteur General des Mines, Paris ...
1853 Dr. H. VON DECHEN, Berghauptmann, Ritter, etc., Bon an
Rhine, Prussia ..................... 1853
M. THEOPHILE GUIBAL, School of Mines, Mons, Belgium ...
1870
Ordy. Life.
0. W. BARTHOLOMEW, Esq., Broxholme, Doncaster ......
1875
E. B. COXE, Esq., Drifton, Jeddo, P.O., Luzerne Co., 1'enns., U.S. 1873
1874
ERNEST HAGUE, Esq., Endcliffe Vale, Sheffield......... 1872 1876
H. J. MORTON, Esq., Garforth House, West Garforth, near Leeds 1856
1861
W. A, POTTER, Esq., Cramlington House, Northumberland ... 1853
1874
R. CLIFFORD SMITH, Esq., Parkfield, Swinton, Manchester ... 1874
1874 * Honorary Members during term of office only.
OFFICERS, 1876-77. president*
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., Southill, Chester-le-Street.
WM. ARMSTRONG, Sen., Esq., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street.
T. J. BEWICK, Esq., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
WM. COCHRANE, Esq., St. John's Chambers, Grainger Street West, Newcastle.
JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., Tynemouth.
G. C. GREENWELL, Esq., Poynton, Stockport.
CHARLES MITCHELL, Esq., Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
(KoiinciL
T. W. BENSON, Esq., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
W. R. COLE, Esq., Broomfield, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
S. C. CRONE, Esq,, Killingworth Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
G. B. FORSTER, Esq., M.A., Backworth House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
H. D. FURNESS, Esq., Whickham, Gateshead.
WM. GREEN, Jun., Esq., Thornelly House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
THOS. HAWTHORN, Esq., 98, Rye Hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
W. H. HEDLEY, Esq., Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
HUBERT LAWS, Esq., Grainger Street West, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
JOHN MARLEY, Esq., Mining Offices, Darlington.
GEORGE MAY, Esq., Harton Colliery Offices, Tyne Docks, South Shields.
D. P. MORISON, Esq., Collingwood Street, Newca«tle-on-Tyne.
JAMES NELSON, Esq., King's House Engine Works, Sunderland.
R. S. NEWALL, Esq., Ferndene, Gateshead.
J. A. RAMSAY, Esq., Washington Colliery, Co. Durham.
J. T. RAMSAY, Esq.. Walbottle Hall, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
J. B. SIMPSON, Esq., Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
A. L. STEAVENSON, Esq., Durham.
,Sir W. G. ARMSTRONG, C.B., LL.D.. F.R.S.,^ . I
Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne. /
] E. F. BOYD, Esq., Moor House, Fence Houses. \ past Presidents.
Ex-officioi SIR GEO. ELLIOT, Bart., M.P., Houghton Hall, I ; Fence
Houses. J
\Y. LOWTHIAN BELL, Esq., M.P., Washington Hall, Co. Durham, Retiring
Vice-President.
Jlmetarrj and toastimr.
THEO. WOOD BUNNING, Esq., Neville Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
AUGUST, 1876.
______________
»
ELECTED.
1 Ackroyd, Thomas, Berkenshaw, Leeds ... ... ... Mar. 7,
1867
2 Adams, G-. F., Guildhall Chambers, Cardiff ......Dec. 6, 1873
3 Adams, W., Cardiff ............... 1854
4 Adamson, Daniel, Engineering Works, Hyde Junction,
Manchester ...............Aug. 7, 1875
5 Addy, W. F., Dronfield, near Sheffield.........May, 6, 1876
6 Ainslie, Aymer, Hall Garth, Carnforth.........Aug. 7, 1869
7 Aitkin, Henry, Falkirk, N.B.............Mar. 2,1865
8 Allison, T., Belmont Mines, Guisbro' .........Feb. 1, 1868
9 Anderson, C. W., Kirk Hammerton Hall, York ... Aug. 21, 1852
10 Anderson, William, Rainton Colliery, Fence Houses ... Aug. 21, 1852
11 Andrews, Hugh, Eastfield Hall, Bilton, Northumberland Oct. 5, 1872
12 Appleby, C. E., Whitehall Club, Parliament Street,
London, S.W................Aug. 1, 1861
13 Archbold, James, Engineer, Ryton-on-Tyne ... ... Feb. 1,
1873
14 Archer, T., Dunston Engine Works, Gateshead ... July 2, 1872
15 Arkless, John, Tantoby, Burnopfield ... ... ... Nov.
7, 1868
16 Armstrong, Sir W. G., C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Jesmond,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... ... (£K£5'<gS££) May 3, 1866
17 Armstrong, William, Senior, Pelaw House, Ohester-le-
Street ......... (Vice-President) Aug. 21, 1852
18 Armstrong, W., jun., Wingate, Co. Durham ... ... Apr. 7,
1867
19 Armstrong, W. L., Dunraven Collieries, Treherbert,
via Pontypridd ... ... ...... ... Mar. 3, 1864
20 Ashwell, H., Anchor Colliery, Longton, No. Staffordshire Mar. 6, 1862
21 Ashworth, James, Bank Top Colliery, Burslem ... Feb. 5,
1876
22 Asquith, T. W., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Northumberland Feb. 2, 1867
23 Atkinson, J. B., Ridley Mill House, Stocksfield-on-Tyne Mar. 5, 1870
24 Atkinson, W. N., Chilton Moor, Fence Houses ... June 6,
1868
25 Aubrey, R. C, Astley House, Woodlesford, near Leeds Feb. 5, 1870
26 Aynsley, Wm., West Stanley Colliery, Chester-le-Street Mar. 3, 1873
(xix)
27 Bachke, A. S., Ytterven Mines, near Drontheim, Norway Mar. 5, 1870
28 Bagley, Chas. John, Tees Bridge Iron Co., Stockton ... June 5, 1875
29 Bailes, John, Wingate Colliery, Ferryhill ......Sept. 5, 1868
30 Bailes, T., jun., 41, Lovaine Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne Oct. 1, 1858
31 Bailey, C, Heworth Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne... Nov. 9,1874
32 Bailey, G., St. John's Colliery, Wakefield ......June 5, 1869
33 Bailey, Samuel, Perry Barr, Birmingham ... ... June 2,
1859
34 Bailey, W. W., Kilburn, near Derby .........May 13, 1858
35 Bain, Donald R., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Dudley, Northd. Mar. 3,
1873
36 Bainbridge, E., Nunnery Colliery Offices, Sheffield ... Dec. 3,
1863
37 Barclay, A., ..................Dec. 6,1866
38 Barkus, Wm., Tynemouth ............Aug. 21, 1852
39 Barnes, R. J., Atherton Collieries, near Manchester ... Sept. 13,
1873
40 Barnes, T., Seaton Delaval Office, Quay, Newcastle ... Oct. 7,
1871
41 Barrat, A. J., Ruabon Coal Co., Ruabon ... ... Sept. 11,
1875
42 Bartholomew, C, Castle Hill House, Ealing, London, W. Aug. 5, 1853
43 Bassett, A., Tredegar Mineral Estate Office, Cardiff ...
1854
44 Bates, Matthew, Cyfarthfa Iron Works, Merthyr Tydvil Feb. 1, 1868
45 Bates, Matthew, Bews Hill, Blaydon-on-Tyne......Mar. 3, 1873
46 Bates, Thomas, Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland ... Mar. 3, 1873
47 Bates, W. J., Bews Hill, Blaydon-on-Tyne ......Mar. 3,1873
48 Batey, John, Newbury Collieries, Coleford, Bath .. Dec. 5,
1868
49 Beacher, E., Chapeltown, near Sheffield ... ...
1854
50 Beanlands, A., M.A., North Bailey, Durham......Mar. 7, 1867
51 Beaumont, James, M.E., Oughtbridge, near Sheffield ... Nov. 9, 1874
52 Bell, I. Lowthian, Washington, Washington Station,
N.E. Railway ......(Member of Council) July 6,1854
53 Bell, John (Messrs. Bell Brothers), Middlesbro'-on-Tees Oct. 1, 1857
54 Bell, Thomas, Crosby Court, Northallerton ... ... Sept. 3,
1870
55 Bell, T., jun. (Messrs. Bell Brothers), Middlesbro' ... Mar.
7,1867
56 Benson, J. G., Accountant, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Nov. 9,
1874
57 Benson, T. W., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) Aug. 2, 1866
58 Berkley, C, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead .....Aug. 21, 1852
59 Beswicke, Wm., Waithland House, Rochdale ... ... Sept. 11, 1875
60 Bewick, T. J., M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Haydon Bridge,
Northumberland ...... (Vice-President) April 5, 1860
61 Bidder, B. P., Duffryn Collieries, Neath, Glamorganshire May 2, 1867
62 Bidder, S. P., 24, Great George Street, Westminster,
London, S.W........... ......Dec. 4,1869
(XX)
63 Bigland, J., Bedford Lodge, Bishop Auckland ... June 4,
1857
64 Binns, C, Claycross, Derbyshire ... ... ... July
6, 1854
65 Biram, B., Peasely Cross Collieries, St. Helen's, Lancash.
1856
66 Black, James, jun., Portobello Foundry, Sunderland ... Sept. 2,1871
67 Black, W., Hedworth Villa, South Shields ......April 2, 1870
68 Blagburn, C, King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 2, 1871
69 Blandford, Thomas, Corbridge, "Northumberland ... Feb. 14, 1874
70 Bolam, H. G., Little Tngestre, Stafford.........Mar. 6, 1875
71 Bolckow, H. W. F., M.P., Middlesbro'-on-Tees ... April 5,
1855
72 Bolton, H. H., Newchurch Collieries, near Manchester Dec. 5, 1868
73 Boole, Charles, Rainford Colliery, St. Helen's, Lancash. Dec. 4, 1875
74 Boot, J. T., M.E., The Orchards, Hucknall, near
Mansfield..................April 1, 1871
75 Booth, R. L., 22, Clayton Park Square, Moor Edge,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
1864
76 Borries, Theo., Lombard St., Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne April 11, 1874
77 Bourne, Peter, 39, Rodney Street, Liverpool ...... 1854
78 Bourne, Thos. W., Girludi, via Muddapore, Bengal, India Sept. 11, 1875
79 Boyd, E. F., Moor House, Fence Houses ffi^ofcoSi) Aug. 21, 1852
80 Boyd, R. F., Moor House, Fence Houses ......Nov. 6, 1869
81 Boyd, Wm., 74, Jesmond Boad, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Feb. 2, 1867
82 Bradford, Geo., Escomb Bridge, Bishop Auckland ... Oct. 11, 1873
83 Breckon, J. R., Park Place, Sunderland ... ... Sept.
3, 1864
84 Brettell, T., Mine Agent, Dudley, Worcestershire ... Nov. 3,
1866
85 Briart, A., Ingenieur en chef des Charbonnages de
Mariemont et de Bascoup, Mons ... ... ... Sept. 2, 1871
86 Brogden, James, Sea Bank House, Porthcawl, near
Bridgend, Glamorgan shire ... ... ...
1861
87 Broughton, John, Chapel House, "Westoe, South Shields May 6, 1876
88 Brown, E., 79, Clayton Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Mar. 7,
1874
89 Brown, John, Littleworth, Hednesford, near Stafford ... Oct. 5, 1854
90 Brown, John, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland ... ... Feb. 5,
1876
91 Brown, J. N., 56, Union Passage, New St., Birmingham 1861
92 Brown, Thos. Forster, Guildhall Chambers, Cardiff ...
1861
93 Browne, B. C, Assoc. M.I.C.E., North Ashfield House,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ......... ... Oct. 1, 1870
94 Bruton, W., Whitwood, Methley Junction, and Street-
house Collieries, near Normanton ......Feb. 6,1869
95 Bryham, "William, Rosebridge, &c, Collieries, Wigan ... Aug. 1, 1861
96 Bryham, W., jun., Douglas Bank Collieries, Wigan ... Aug. 3, 1865
(xxi)
97 Burning, Theo. Wood, Neville Hall, Newcastle-on-
Tyne ... ... ••• {Secretary and Treasurer)
1864
98 Burn, James, The Avenue, Sunderland ......Aug. 2, 1866
99 Burrows, James, Douglas Bank, Wigan, Lancashire ... May 2, 1867
100 Cabry, J., North Eastern Kailway, B. and T. Section,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Sept. 4, 1869
101 Caldwell, George, Moss Hall Colliery, near Wigan ... Mar. 6, 1869
102 Carr, Wm. Cochran, South Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne Dec. 3,1857
103 Carrington, T., jun., High Hazels, Darnal, near Sheffield Aug.
1,1861
104 Catron, J., Axwell Colliery, Whickham, Gateshead ... Nov. 3, 1866
105 Chadborn, B.T.,PinxtonCollieries,Alfreton, Derbyshire ]
864
106 Chadwick, W. H., Bank Colliery, Little Hulton, near
Bolton, Lancashire ............Dec. 4, 1875
107 Chambers, A. M., Thorncliffe Iron Works, nr. Sheffield Mar. 6, 1869
108 Chambers, H., Tinsley Collieries, Sheffield ......Dec. 2, 1871
109 Chambers, W. Hoole, Silkstone Main Coll., nr. Barnsley Feb. 5, 1876
110 Chapman, M., Plashetts Colliery, Northumberland ... Aug. 1, 1868
111 Charlton, E., Evenwood Colliery, Bishop Auckland ... Sept. 5,1868
112 Charlton, F., C.E., Moot Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 2, 1871
113 Charlton, George, Washington Colliery, Co. Durham... Feb. 6, 1875
114 Checkley, Thomas, M.E., Lichfield Street, Walsall ... Aug. 7, 1869
115 Cheesman, I., Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne Feb. 1, 1873
116 Cheesman, W. T., Wire Pope Manufacturer, Hartlepool Feb. 5, 1876
117 Childe, Bowland, Wakefield, Yorkshire ......May 15, 1862
118 Clarence, Thos., Elswick Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne Dec. 4, 1875
119 Clark, C. F., Garswood Coal and Iron Co., near Wigan Aug. 2, 1866
120 Clark, G., Ravenhead Colliery, St. Helen's, Lancashire Dec. 7,
1867
121 Clark, G., jun., Monkwearmouth Engine Works, Sun- •
derland ..................Dec. 6, 1873
122 Clark, R. P., 22, Windsor Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne Nov. 7, 1868
123 Clark, W., M.E., The Grange, Teversall, nr. Mansfield April 7, 1866
124 Clark, William, Victoria Engine Works, Gateshead ... Dec. 7, 1867
125 Clarke, T., Ince Hall Collieries, Wigan ......Mar. 2,1872
126 Clifft, J. H., 26, Devonshire Street, High Broughton,
Manchester ...............May 6, 1876
127 Cochrane, B., Aldin Grange, Durham.........Dec. 6,1866
128 Cochrane, C, The Grange, Stourbridge ......June 3, 1857
129 Cochrane, H., The Longlands, Middlesbro'-on-Tees ... Mar. 4, 1871
130 Cochrane, W., St. John's Chambers, Grainger Street
West, Newcastle-upon-Tyne (Vice-President) 1859
(xxiij
131 Cockburn, G., 8, Summerhill Grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne Dec. 6,1866
132 Cockburn, W., Upleatham Mines, Upleatham, Marske Oct. 1, 1857
133 Coe, W. S., Newchapel Colliery, Tunstall ......Feb. 5, 1876
134 Coke, E. G., Tapton Grove, Chesterfield, Derbyshire... May 5, 1859
135 Cole, H. A. B., Willington Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne Mar. 3, 1873
136 Cole, Eichard, Walker Colliery, nr. Newcastle-on-Tyne April 5, 1873
137 Cole, Eobt. Heath, Grange Colliery, Hanley......Feb. 5, 1876
138 Cole, W. E., Broomfield, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne •
{Member of Council) Oct. 1, 1857
139 Collis, W. B., High House, Stourbridge, Worcestershire June 6, 1861
140 Cook, John, Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Wigan ... Nov. 9, 1874
141 Cook, J., jun., Washington Iron Works, Gateshead ... May 8, 1869
142 Cook, E. F., Pemberton Colliery, near Wigan ...
1860
143 Cooke, John, North Brancepeth Colliery, nr. Durham Nov. 1, 1860
144 Oooksey, Joseph, West Bromwich, Staffordshire ... Aug. 3, 1865
145 Cooper, P., Thornley Colliery Office, Ferryhill ... Dec.
3,1857
146 Cooper, E. E., C.E., 1, Westminster Chambers, Victoria
Street, London, S.W.............Mar. 4,1871
147 Cooper, T., Park Gate, Eotherham, Yorkshire ... April 2,
1863
148 Cope, James, Port Vale, Longport, Staffordshire ... Oct. 5,
1872
149 Corbett, V. W., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour Sept. 3, 1870
150 Corbitt, M., Wire Eope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead Dec. 4, 1875
151 Coulson, F., Shamrock House, Durham ... ... Aug. 1,
1868
152 Coulson, W., Shamrock House, Durham ......Oct. 1, 1852
153 Cowen, Jos., M.P., Blaydon Burn, Newcastle-on-Tyne Oct. 5, 1854
154 Cowey, John, Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ... Nov. 2, 1872
155 Cowlishaw, J., Thorncliffe, &c, Collieries, near Sheffield Mar.
7,1867
156 Cox, John H., 10, St. George's Square, Sunderland ... Feb. 6, 1875
157 Coxon, Henry, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Sept. 2, 1871
158 Coxon, S. B., Usworth Colliery, Washington Station,
Co. Durham ...............June 5, 1856
159 Craig, W. Y., Milton House, Alsager, Stoke-upon-Trent Nov. 3, 1866
160 Crawford, T., Littletown Colliery, near Durham ... Aug. 21,
1852
161 Crawford, T., Bishop Middleham Colliery, nr. Ferryhill Sept. 3, 1864
162 Crawford, T., jun., Littletown Colliery, near Durham Aug. 7, 1869
163 Crawshay, E., Gateshead-on-Tyne .........Dec. 4, 1869
164 Crawshay, G., Gateshead-on-Tyne ... ... ... Dec.
4, 1869
165 Creighton, C. E., 10, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne May 6, 1871
166 Crofton, J. G., Esh Colliery, Durham.........Feb. 7,1861
167 Crone, E. W., Killing-worth Hall, nr. Newcastle-on-Tyne Mar. 5,1870
168 Crone, J. P., Stanhope, Darlington .........Feb. 1, 1868
(xxiii)
169 Crone, S. C, Killingworth Colliery, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne .........(Member of Council) 1853
170 Cross, John, 78, Cross Street, Manchester ......June 5, 1869
171 Croudace, C. J., Brayton Domain, &c, Colliery Office,
Maryport..................Nov. 2, 1872
172 Croudace, John, West House, Haltwhistle .. ... June
7,1873
173 Croudace, Thomas, Lambton Lodge, New South Wales 1862
174 Croudace, T. Dacre, Clay Cross Colliery Offices, near
Chesterfield ...............Mar. 7, 1867
175 Cuthbert, W., Beaufront Castle, Northumberland ... Aug. 1,1874
176 Daburon, Mons., Ingenieur aux Mines de Nceux, pas de
Calais ..................May 1, 1875
177 Daglish, John, F.G.S., Tynemouth (Vice-President) Aug. 21, 1852
178 Daglish, W. S., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne......July 2,1872
179 Dakers, J., Old Durham Colliery, Durham ... ... April 11,
1874
180 Dakers, W., Thornley Colliery, Ferryhill ......April 7,1866
181 Dakers, W., jun., Birtley, Co. Durham ......Oct. 3, 1874
182 Dale, David, West Lodge, Darlington.........Feb. 5, 1870
183 D'Andrimont, T., Liege, Belgium .........Sept. 3, 1870
184 Daniel, W., 87, Camp Eoad, Leeds .........June 4,1870
185 Darling, Fenwick, So. Durham Colliery, Darlington ... Nov. 6, 1875
186 Darlington, John, 2, Coleman Street Buildings, Moor-
gate Street, Great Swan Alley, London ... ... April 1, 1865
187 Davey, Henry, C.E., Leeds ............Oct. 11,1873
188 Davidson, James, Newbattle Colliery, Dalkeith ...
1854
189 Davis, David, Coal Owner, Maesyffynon, Aberdare ... Nov. 9, 1874
190 Davison, A., Hastings Cottage, Dudley, Northumberland Feb. 4, 1858
191 Davison, George, Ormesby Mines, Middlesboro' ... Mar. 4, 1876
192 Day, W. H., Eversley Garth, So. Milford ......Mar. 6,1869
193 Deacon, Maurice, Bath Colliery, Somersetshire ... Sept. 11,
1875
194 Dees, E. E., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Oct. 7, 1871
195 Defty, E., Stand Lane Colls., Badcliffe, nr. Manchester Dec. 5, 1874
196 Delgobe, Emile, 52, Wharncliffe St., Newcastle-on-Tyne Mar. 6,1875
197 Dickinson, G. T., Wheelbirks, Northumberland ... July 2,1872
198 Dickinson, E., Coal Owner, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham Mar. 4, 1871
199 Dickinson, W. E., Priestfield Lodge, Lintz Green, Co.
Durham ..................Aug. 7, 1862
200 Dinning, Joseph, Langley Smelt Mills, Northd. ... April 5,
1873
201 Dixon, D. W., Brotton Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ... Nov. 2, 1872
d
(xxiv)
202 Dixon, R., "Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead June 5, 1875
203 Dobson, W., 14, Ashfield Terrace W., Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 4, 1869
204 Dodd, B., Bearpark Colliery, near Durham ......May 3,1866
205 Dodds, J., M.P., Stockton-on-Tees .........Mar. 7, 1874
206 Donaldson, P., Alipore, Calcutta .........Nov. 1, 1873
207 Douglas, C. P., Consett Iron Works, Gateshead ... Mar. 6,
1869
208 Douglas, T., Peases' West Collieries, Darlington ... Aug. 21,
1852
209 Douthwaite, T., Merthyr Yale Colliery, Merthyr Tydvil June 5, 1869
210 Dove, G., Stanwix, Carlisle ............July 2, 1872
211 Dowdeswell, H., Butterknowle Colliery, via Darlington April 5, 1873
212 Dunlop, Colin, jun., Quarter Iron Works, Hamilton ... Sept. 3. 1870
213 Dyson, George, Middlesborough ... ... ... June
2, 1866
214 Dyson, O., Skelton Park Mines, Marske-by-the-Sea ... Mar. 2, 1872
215 Easton, J., Nest House, Gateshead ......... 1853
216 Eaton, W. C, Cassop Colliery, Trimdon Grange, near
Ferryhill ..................June 6, 1874
217 Eddison, Robert W., Steam Plough Works, Leeds ... Mar. 4, 1876
218 Eland, J. S., Accountant, Newcastle-on-Tyne......Nov. 9,1874
219 Elliot, Sie G., Bart., M.P., Houghton Hall, Fence
Houses ............ffilTc'Si) Aug. 21, 1852
220 Elliott, W., Tudhoe House, Dwham......... 1854
221 Elliott, W. D., Pemberton Street, Hull ......Oct. 11,1873
222 Eltringham, W., West Shield Row, Chester-le-Street Oct. 3, 1874
223 Embleton, T. W., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds ...Sept. 6,1855
224 Embleton, T. W., jun., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds ... Sept. 2, 1865
225 Eminson, J. B., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour Mar. 2, 1872
226 Everard, I. B., M.E., 6, Millstone Lane, Leicester ... Mar. 6,
1869
227 Farmer, A., Westbrook, Darlington .........Mar. 2, 1872
228 Farrar, James, Old Foundry, Barnsley ... ... July
2, 1872
229 Favell, Thomas M., 14, Saville Street, North Shields... April 5, 1873
230 Fearn, John Wilmot, Chesterfield .........Mar. 6,1869
231 Fen wick, Barnabas, Team Colliery, Gateshead ... Aug. 2,
1866
232 Fenwick, George, Banker, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 2, 1871
233 Fenwick, Thomas, East Pontop Colliery, by Lintz Green April 5, 1873
234 Fidler, E., Piatt Lane Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire ... Sept. 1,
1866
235 Firth, S., M.A., 16, York Place, Leeds ......
1865
236 Firth, William, Burley Woods, Leeds.........Nov. 7, 1863
237 Fisher, R. C, The Wern, Ystalyfera, Swansea ... July 2,
1872
(xxv;
238 Fletcher, G., Trimdon Colliery, Trimdon Grange ... April 4, 1868
239 Fletcher, Geo., Hamsteels Colliery, near Durham ... Aug. 1, 1874
240 Fletcher, H., Ladyshore Coll., Little Lever, Bolton, Lan. Aug. 3,1865
241 Fletcher, I., M.P., Clifton Colliery, Workington ... Nov.
7,1863
242 Fletcher, Jas., Manager Co-operative Collieries, Walls-
end, near Newcastle, New South Wales ......Sept. 11, 1875
243 Fletcher, W., Croft, Windermere .........Feb. 4, 1871
244 Foggin, William, Pensher Colliery, Fence Houses ... Mar. 6, 1875
245 Forrest, J., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Pentrehobin Hall, Mold,
Flintshire..................Mar. 5, 1870
246 Forster, G. B., M.A., Backworth House, near New-
castle-upon-Tyne ... (Member of Council) Nov. 5,1852
247 Forster, J. R., Water Co.'s Office, Newcastle-on-Tyne July 2,1872
248 Forster, J. T., Washington, Gateshead ......Aug. 1, 1868
249 Forster, Richard, White House, Gateshead ......Oct. 5,1872
250 Forster, R., Trimdon Grange Colliery, Ferryhill ... Sept.
5,1868
251 Foster, George, Osmondthorpe Colliery, near Leeds ... Mar. 7, 1874
252 Fothergill, J., King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug. 7, 1862
253 France, W., Lofthouse Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ... April 6, 1867
254 Franks, George, Yictoria Garesfield, Lintz Green ... Feb. 6,
1875
255 Frazer, B., Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ......Oct. 4,1866
256 Frazer, W., 5, East Parade, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Oct. 4, 1866
257 Frazier, Prof. B. W., Lehigh University, Bethlehem,
Penns., U.S................Nov. 2,1872
258 Fryar, M., C.E...................Sept. 7,1867
259 Furness, H. D., Whickham, Gateshead-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) Dec. 2, 1871
260 Galloway, R. L., Barmoor, Ryton ........Dec. 6, 1873
261 Gardner, Walter, M.E., The Stone House, Rugeley ... Feb. 14,1874
262 Garforth, W. E., Lord's Field Coll., Ashton-under-Lyne Aug. 2, 1866
263 Gerrard, John, Westgate, Wakefield.........Mar. 5, 1870
264 Gibson, John, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland ... ... Dec. 4,
1875
265 Gill, Harry, Consulting Engineer, Newcastle-on-Tyne May 2, 1874
266 Gillett, F. C, Midland Road, Derby.........July 4, 1861
267 Gilmour, D., Gihnilnscroft Colliery, nr Auckinleck,N.B. Feb. 3,1872
268 Gilpin, Edwin, 26, Spring Gardens, Halifax, Nova Scotia April 5,1873
269 Gilroy, G., Ince Hall Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire ... Aug. 7, 1856
270 Gilroy, S. B., Assistant Gov. Inspector of Mines, Stone Sept. 5, 1868
271 Gjers, John, Southfield Yillas, Middlesbro' ......June 7,1873
(xxvi)
272 Goddard, D. H., Chester-le-Street .........July 2, 1872
273 Goddard, F. R., Accountant, Newcastle-on-Tyne ••• Nov. 9,1874
274 Gooch, G. H., Lintz Colliery,Burnopfield,Gateshead... Oct. 3,1856
275 Goodman, A., Walker Iron Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 5, 1868
276 Gordon, James N,, care of John Hockin, St. John d'el
Rey Mining Co., 8, Tokenhouse Yard, London ... Nov. 6, 1875
277 Gott, Wm. L., Redheugh Colliery, Gateshead-on-Tyne Sept. 3, 1864
278 Grace, E. N., Dhadka, Assensole, Bengal, India ... Feb. 1,
1868
279 Grant, J. H., care of C. Grant, 69, Lower Circular
Street, Calcutta ...............Sept. 4, 1869
280 Gray, Thomas, Underbill, Taibach, South Wales ... June 5,1869
281 Greaves, J. 0., M.E., St. John's, Wakefield......Aug. 7, 1862
282 Green, J. T., Abercarn Fach, near Newport, Mon. ... Dec. 3, 1870
283 Green, W., jot., Thornley House, Blaydon-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) Feb. 4, 1853
284 Greener, John, General Manager, Yale Colliery, Pictou,
Nova Scotia ...............Feb. 6, 1875
285 Greener, Thomas, Benton Lodge, Darlington......Aug. 3, 1865
286 Greenwell, G. C, F.G.S., Poynton and Worth
Collieries, Stockport ... (Vice-President) Aug. 21, 1852
287 Greenwell, G. C, jun., Poynton, near Stockport ... Mar. 6,
1869
288 Greig, D., Leeds ...............Aug. 2,1866
289 Grey, C. G., 55, Parliament Street, London......May 4,1872
290 Grieves, D., Brancepeth Coll., Willington, Co. Durham Nov. 9, 1874
291 Griffith, N. B., Wrexham ............ 1866
292 Grimshaw, E. J., Cowley Hill, St. Helen's, Lancashire Sept. 5, 1868
293 Grimshaw, W. J., Stand Lane Coll., Radcliffe, Manchstr. Nov. 1,1873
294 Ground, H. N., So. Skelton Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea July 2, 1872
295 Guinotte, Lucien, Directeur des Charbonnages de
Mariemont et de Bascoup, Mons.........Sept. 2,1871
296 Haggie, D. H., Hendon Patent Kopery, Sunderland ... Mar. 4, 1876
297 Haggie, P., Gateshead............... 1854
298 Haines, J. Richard, Adderley Green Coll., nr. Longton Nov. 9, 1874
299 Hair, T. C, Shire Moor Colliery, Earsdon, Northumld. Feb. 1, 1873
300 Hales, C, Nerquis Cottage, Nerquis, nr. Mold, Flintsh.
1865
301 Hall, F. W., 23, St. Thomas' St., Newcastle-on-Tyne... Aug. 7, 1869
302 Hall, George, South Garesfield Colliery, Lintz Green... Mar. 6,
1875
303 Hall, M., Lofthouse Station Collieries, near Wakefield.. Sept. 5,
1868
304 Hall, M. S., M.E., Westerton, near Bishop Auckland... Feb. 14, 1874
(xxvii)
305 HalhW., Spring Hill Mines, Cumberland Co., Nova Scotia Sept. 13, 1873
306 Hall, Wm., East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, Co. Durham Dec. 4, 1875
307 Hall, William F., Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses ... May 13, 1858
308 Hann, Edmund, Brotton, near Saltburn-by-the-Sea ... Sept. 5, 1868
309 Harbottle, W. H., Orrell Colliery, near Wigan ... Dec. 4,
1875
310 Hargreaves, William, Bothwell Haigh, Leeds ... Sept. 5,
1868
311 Harkness, A., 6, Cumberland Terrace, Sunderland ... Dec. 5, 1868
312 Harrison, R., Eastwood Collieries, Nottingham ..
1861
313 Harrison, T., Great Western Railway Co., Limited,
Pontypridd, Glamorganshire ... ... ••• Aug. 2, 1873
314 Harrison, T. E., C.E., Central Sta., Newcastle-on-Tyne May 6, 1853
315 Harrison, W. B., Brownhills Collieries, near Walsall... April 6, 1867
316 Haswell, G. H., 11, South Preston Terr., North Shields Mar. 2, 1872
317 Hay, J., jun., Widdrington Colliery, Ashington ... Sept. 4,
1869
318 Hawthorn, T., 98, Rye Hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) Dec. 6, 1866
319 Head, J., Newport Rolling Mills, Middlesbro' ... Oct. 2,
1869
320 Heckels, Matthew, Boldon Colliery, Durham......April 11, 1874
321 Heckels, R., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ... Nov. 5,
1852
322 Hedley, Edw., 2, Church Street, London Road, Derby Dec. 2, 1858
323 Hedley, J. J., Consett Collieries, Leadgate, Co. Durham April 6, 1872
324 Hedley, J. L., 3, Elm Yale, Fairfield, Liverpool ... Feb. 5,
1870
325 Hedley, T. F., Yaluer, Sunderland .........Mar. 4, 1871
326 Hedley, W. H., Consett Collieries, Medomsley, New-
castle-on-Tyne ......(Member of Council) 1864
327 Henderson, II., Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street ... Feb. 14,
1874
328 Henderson, John, Leazes House, Durham ......Mar. 5, 1870
329 Heppell, T., Leafield House, Birtley, Fence Houses ... Aug. 6, 1863
330 Heppell, W., Brancepeth Coll., Willington, Co. Durham Mar. 2, 1872
331 Herdman, J., Park Crescent, Bridgend, Glamorganshire Oct. 4, 1860
332 Heslop, C, Lingdale Mines, via Guisborough......Feb. 1, 1868
333 Heslop, Grainger, Whitwell Colliery, Sunderland ... Oct. 5,
1872
334 Heslop, J., Hucknall Torkard Coll., near Nottingham.. Feb. 6, 1864
335 Hetherington, D,, Coxlodge Coll., Newcastle-on-Tyne 1859
336 Hetherington, Robert, Coanwood, Haltwhistle ... Nov. 1,
1873
337 Hewitt, G. C, Coal Pit Heath Colliery, near Bristol... June 3, 1871
338 Hewlett, A., Haigh Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire ... Mar. 7,
1861
339 Hick, G. W., 14, Blenheim Terrace, Leeds ......May 4, 1872
340 Higson, Jacob, 94, Cross Street, Manchester...... 1861
341 Higson, P., Lawnswood, Swinton Park, Swinton, near
Manchester................Aug. 3, 1865
(xxviii)
342 Hill, Leslie C, Bartholomew House, Bartholomew Lane,
London, B.C. ...............Nov. 6,1875
343 Hilton, J., Standish and Shevington Colls., nr. Wigan Dec. 7, 1867
344 Hilton, T. W., Wigan Coal & Iron Co., Limited, Wigan Aug. 3, 1865
345 Hodgkin, T., Banker, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Sept. 2, 1871
346 Hodgson, K., Whitburn, Sunderland.........Feb. 7, 1856
347 Hodgson, T., Kenilworth House, Loftus-in-Cleveland Dec. 4, 1875
348 Holliday, Martin, M.E., Peases' West Collieries, Crook May 1, 1,875
349 Holmes, C, Grange Hill, near Bishop Auckland ... April 11, 1874
350 Homer, Charles J., Caverswall Castle, Stoke-on-Trent Aug. 3, 1865
351 Hood, A., 6, Bute Crescent, Cardiff.........April 18, 1861
352 Hopton, James, Monk Bretton, near Barnsley ... Dec. 5,
1874
353 Hornsby, H., Whitworth Colliery, Ferryhill......Aug. 1, 1874
354 Horsley, W., Whitehill Point, Percy Main ......Mar. 5, 1857
355 Hoskold, H. D., 14, Paddington Green, London ... April 1, 1871
356 Howard, W. F., 13, Cavendish Street, Chesterfield ... Aug. 1, 1861
357 Hoyt, J., Acadia Coal Mines, Pictou, Nova Scotia ... May 8, 1869
358 Hudson, James, Albion Mines, Pictou, Nova Scotia ...
1862
359 Hua-hes, H. E., Old Durham Colliery, Durham ... Nov. 6,
1869
360 Humble, John, West Pelton, Chester-le-Street ... Mar. 4,
1871
361 Humble, Jos., The Cottage, Barrow Hill, Chesterfield.. June 2, 1866
362 Humble, W. J., Forth Banks West Factory, Newcastle Sept. 1, 1866
363 Hunt, A. H., Quayside, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Dec. 6,
1862
364 Hunter, J., jun., Silkstone and Worsbro' Park Col-
lieries, near Barnsley ... ... ... ••• Mar. 6,
1869
365 Hunter, W., Monk Bretton Colliery, near Barnsley ... Oct. 3, 1861
366 Hunter, Wm., Charlaw Colliery Office, Quay, Newcastle Aug. 21, 1852
367 Hunter, W. S., Moor Lodge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Feb. 1, 1868
368 Hunting, Charles, Fence Houses .........Dec. 6,1866
369 Hurd, F., Grove House, Walton, near Wakefield ... Dec. 4, 1869
370 Hurst, T. G-., F.G.S., Eiding-Mill-on-Tyne ......Aug. 21, 1852
371 Hutchings, W. M., 49, Essex Street, Strand, London Sept. 5, 1868
372 Hutchinson, G-., Howden Colliery, Darlington ... July 2,
1872
373 Hybner, Josef, Mahriseh, Ostrau Moravia, Austria ... Aug. 1, 1874
374 Hyslop, J. S., Guisboro' ............April 1, 1871
375 Jackson, C.G., Wigan Coal and Iron Co. Limited, Wigan June 4,1870
376 Jackson, W., Cannock Chase Collieries, Walsall ... Feb.
14,1874
377 Jackson, W. G., Lime Street, Saltburn ......June 7, 1873
378 Jameson, John, Printing Court Chambers, Newcastle Nov. 6, 1869
379 Jarratt, J., Broomside Colliery Office, Durham ... Nov. 2,
1867
(xxix)
380 Jeffcock, T. W., 18, Bank Street, Sheffield ......Sept. 4,1869
381 Jenkins, W., M.E., Ocean S.C. Collieries, Ystrad, near
Pontypridd, South Wales............Dec. 6,1862
382 Jenkins, Wm., Consett Iron Works, Consett, Durham May 2, 1874
383 Johnasson, J., Leadenhall Street, London, E.C. ... July 2,
1872
384 Johnson, Henry, Dudley, Worcestershire ... ... Aug. 7,
1869
385 Johnson, John, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Osborne Terrace,
Jesmond Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... Aug. 21, 1852
386 Johnson, John, Preston, North Shields ......Mar. 7,1874
387 Johnson, K. S., Sherburn Hall, Durham ......Aug. 21, 1852
388 Johnson, William H., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland ... Dec. 4, 1875
389 Johnson, W. J., W.B. Lead Works, Allendale ... April 6, 1872
390 Johuston, T., Deanmoor Coll. Co., by Cockermouth ... April 6, 1872
391 Joicey, E., Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne......April 6, 1872
392 Joicey, John, Newton Hall, Stocksfield-on-Tyne ... Sept. 3,
1852
393 Joicey, J. G., Forth Banks West Factory, Newcastle... April 10, 1869
394 Joicey, W. J., Tanfield Lea Colliery, Burnopfield ... Mar. 6,
1869
395 Jones, John, F.G.S., Secretary, North of England Iron
Trade, Middlesbro'-on-Tees .........Sept. 7,1867
396 Jordan, Robert, Ebbw Vale, South Wales ......Nov. 9,1874
397 Joseph, D. Davis, Ty Draw, Pontypridd, South Wales April 6, 1872
398 Joseph, T., Ty Draw, near Pontypridd, South Wales... April 6, 1872
399 Kasalousky, Josef, 11, Kaiser Josefs Strasse, Vienna... Aug. 1, 1874
400 Kelsey, W., 41, Fawcett Street, Sunderland......Mar. 7,1874
401 Kendall, John D., Roper Street, Whitehaven .. .. Oct.
3,1874
402 Kendall, W., North Eastern Railway, Percy Main ... Sept. 1, 1866
403 Kennedy, Myles, M.E., Hill Foot, Ulverstone......June 6, 1868
404 Key, Thomas, Gate Fulford, York .........Nov. 2, 1872
405 Kimpton, J. G., 40, St. Mary Gate, Derby ......Oct. 5, 1872
406 Kinnear, W., Radcliffe Colliery, Acklington .. ... Nov. 6,
1875
407 Kirkby, J. W., Pirnie Colliery, Leven, Fife......Feb. 1, 1873
408 Kirkwood, William, Larkhall Colliery, Hamilton ... Aug. 7, 1869
409 Kirsopp, John, Team Colliery, Gateshead ... ... April 5,
1873
410 Knowles, A., High Bank, Pendlebury, Manchester ... Dec. 5, 1856
411 Knowles, A., jun., The Poplars, Hope Eccles, near
Manchester ...............Dec. 3, 1863
412 Knowles, John, Pendlebury Colliery, Manchester ... Dec. 5, 1856
413 Knowles, Kaye, Little Lever Colliery, near Bolton ... Aug. 3, 1865
414 Knowles, R. M., ...............Aug. 3, 1865
(xxx)
415 Knowles, Thomas, Ince Hall, Wigan ... ... ... Aug. 1,
1861
416 Kyrke, R. H. V., Nant-y-Ffrith, Wrexham, No. Wales Feb. 5, 1870
417 Lackland, J. J., care of M. Stainton, 24, Winchester
Street, South Shields ............Mar. 7,1874
418 Laidler, W. J., Engineering Supt., Italian Postal
Service, Palermo, Sicily............Mar. 4,1876
419 Lamb, P., Cleator Moor Colliery, near Whitehaven ... Sept. 2, 1865
420 Lamb, R. 0., Gibside, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug. 2, 1866
421 Lamb, Richard W., Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne... Nov. 2,1872
422 Lambert, M. W., 9, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne July 2, 1872
423 Lancaster, John, Bilton G-range, Rugby ... ... July 4,
1861
424 Lancaster, J., jun., South Bank, Milverton, Leamington Mar. 2,1865
425 Lancaster, Joshua, 4, Leaf Sq., Pendleton, Manchester Aug. 3, 1865
426 Lancaster, S., Heath End Coll., near Ashby-de-la-Zouch Aug. 3, 1865
427 Landale, A., Lochgelly Iron Works, Eifeshire, N.B. ... Dec. 2, 1858
428 Lange, C, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... Mar. 5,
1870
429 Laverick, J., West Rainton, Pence Houses ... ... July 2,
1872
430 Lawrence, Henry, Grange Iron Works, Durham ... Aug. 1, 1868
431 Laws, H., G-rainger Street West, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) Feb. 6,1869
432 Laws, John, Blyth, Northumberland......... 1854
433 Lawson, Rev. E., Longhirst Hall, Morpeth......Dec. 3, 1870
434 Lawson, J. P., Port Hood, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia Dec. 3, 1870
435 Laycock, Joseph, Low G-osforth, Northumberland ... Sept. 4, 1869
436 Leather, J. T., Middleton Hall, Belford, Northumberld. Aug. 6, 1870
437 Lebour, Q-. A., Weedpark House, Dipton, Lintz Green Feb. 1, 1873
438 Lee, George, Liverton Mines, Lofthouse ......June 4,1870
439 Leslie, Andrew, Hebburn, Gateshead-on-Tyne ... Sept. 7, 1867
440 Lever, Ellis, West Gorton Works, Manchester ...
1861
441 Lewis, G., Imperial Chambers, Derby.........Aug. 6, 1863
442 Lewis, Henry, Annesley Colliery, near Mansfield ... Aug. 2, 1866
443 Lewis, William Thomas, Mardy, Aberdare ...... 1864
444 Liddell, G. H., Burnhope Coll., Lanchester, Co. Durham Sept. 4, 1869
445 Liddell, J. R., Nedderton, Northumberland......Aug. 21,1852
446 Liddell, M., Prudhoe Hall, Prudhoe-on-Tyne......Oct. 1, 1852
447 Lindop, James, Bloxwich, Walsall, Staffordshire ... Aug. 1,
1861
448 Linsley, R., Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland ... July 2, 1872
449 Linsley, S. W., Whitburn Colliery, Sunderland ... Sept. 4,1869
450 Lishman, John, Claypath, Durham .........June 2,1866
(xxxi)
451 Lishman, T., jun., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses ... Nov. 5, 1870
452 Lishman, Wm., Etherley Colliery, Darlington ...
1857
453 Lishman, Wm., Bunker Hill, Fence Houses ... ... Mar. 7, 1861
454 Livesey, C, Bredbury Colliery, Bredbury, Stockport... Aug. 3, 1865
455 Livesey, T., Prestwich Park, near Manchester ... Aug. 1,
1861
456 Livesey, T., jun., Hatherlow House, Romilly, Cheshire Nov. -9, 1874
457 Llewellin, D., Glanwern Offices, Pontypool, Mon. ... Aug. 4,
1864
458 Llewelyn, L., Aberaman, Aberdare, South Wales ...May 4,1872
459 Lloyd, John F., Saltburn-by-the-Sea.........Sept. 11,1875
460 Logan, Wm., Langley Park Colliery, Durham ... Sept. 7, 1867
461 Longbotham, J., Framwellgate Colliery, near Durham May 2, 1868
462 Longridge, J., 3, Westminster Chambers, Victoria
Street, Westminster, London, S.W. ... ... Aug. 21, 1852
463 Low, W., Vron Colliery, Wrexham, Denbighshire ... Sept. 6, 1855
464 Lupton, A., F.G.S., Bagillt, North Wales ......Nov. 6, 1869
465 Mackenzie, J., 2, Sandowne Terrace, Chester......Mar. 5, 1870
466 Maddison, Henry, The Lindens, Darlington......Nov. 6, 1875
467 Maling, C. T., Ford Pottery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 5,
1872
468 Mammatt, J. E., C.E., Beechwood, Bramley, nr. Leeds 1864
469 Maeley, John, Mining Offices, Darlington......
(Member of Council) Aug. 21, 1852
470 Marley, J. W., Mining Offices, Darlington ......Aug. 1, 1868
471 Marshall, F. C, Messrs. Hawthorn and Co., Newcastle Aug. 2, 1866
472 Marshall, J., Smithfold Coll., Little Hulton, nr. Bolton
1864
473 Marston, W. B., Leeswood Yale Oil Works, Mold ... Oct. 3, 1868
474 Marten, E. B., C.E., Pedmore, near Stourbridge ... July 2, 1872
475 Martin, Joseph S., Bury New Road, Prestwich, near
Manchester ...............Mar. 3, 1873
476 Martin, R. F., Colliery Office, Whitehaven ......April 11, 1874
477 Matthews, R. F., South Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses Mar. 5, 1857
478 Maughan, J. A., 6, Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Nov. 7, 1863
479 May, George, Harton Colliery Offices, Tyne Docks,
South Shields...... (Member of Council) Mar. 6,1862
480 McCreath, J., 138, West George Street, Glasgow ... Mar. 5, 1870
481 McCulloch, David, Beech Grove, Kilmarnock, N.B. ..^ Dec. 4, 1875
482 McCulloch, H. J., Moat House,Wood Green, London, N. Oct. 1, 1863
483 McCulloch, Wm., 178, Gresham House, Old Broad
Street, London, E.C.............Nov. 9, 1874
484 McGhie, T., Cannock, Staffordshire .........Oct. 1, 1857
e
(xxxii)
485 McMurtrie, J., Radstock Colliery, Bath ......Nov. 7, 1863
486 McMurtrie, W. G., Llwynypia Colliery, near Pontypridd,
South Wales ...............Sept. 4,1869
487 Meadows, J. M., Coal Island, Co. Tyrone, Ireland ... Dec. 4, 1875
488 Meik, Thomas, C.E., 6, York Place, Edinburgh ... June 4, 1870
489 Menzies, W., King Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 13,
1873
490 Miller, Robert, Strafford Collieries, near Barnsley ... Mar. 2,
1865
491 Mills, John, Forth Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... July 2,
1872
492 Mills, M. H., Duckmanton Lodge, Chesterfield ... Feb. 4,
1871
493 Mitchell, Charles, Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Vice-President) April 11, 1874
494 Mitchell, Joseph, jun., Worsbro' Dale, near Barnsley... Feb. 14, 1874
495 Mitchinson, R., jun., Pontop Colliery, Lintz Green
Station, Co. Durham ............Feb. 4, 1865
496 Moffatt, T., Montreal Iron Ore Works, Whitehaven ... Sept. 4,1869
497 Monkhouse, Jos., Yeat House, Frizington, Whitehaven June 4, 1863
498 Moor, T., North Seaton Colliery, Morpeth ......Oct. 3, 1868
499 Moor, W., Engineer, Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses ... Oct. 3, 1874
500 Moore, T. H., Smeaton Park, Inveresk, Edinburgh ... Feb. 2, 1867
501 Morison, D. P., 21,Collingwood St., Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Mem her of Council) 1861
502 Morris, W., Waldridge Colliery, Chester-le-Street, Fence
Houses ... ............ ... 1858
503 Morton, H. T., Lambton, Fence Houses ......Aug. 21, 1852
504 Moseley, Walter, 9, Parr Street, Liverpool ......Nov. 9, 1874
505 Muckle, John, Monk Bretton, Barnsley ......Mar. 7,1861
506 Mulcaster, W., jun., M.E., Croft House, Aspatria, near
Carlisle ..................Dec. 3, 1870
507 Mulvany, W. T., Pempelfort, Dusseldorf-on-the-Rhine Dec. 3, 1857
508 Mundle, W., Redesdale Mines, Bellingham ... ... Aug. 2,
1873
509 Murray, G., Engineer, Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne... Nov. 9,1874
510 Murray, T. II., Chester-le-Street, Fence Houses ... April 18,
1861
511 Nanson, J., 4, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Dec. 4,
1869
512 Nasse, Herr Bergassessor, Louisenthal, Saarbrucken,
Prussia ..................Sept. 4, 1869
513 Naylor, J. T., 10, West Clayton St., Newcastle-on-Tyne Dec. 6, 1866
514 Nelson, J., C.E., King's House Engine Works, Sun-
derland......... (Member of Council) Oct. 4,1866
515 Nevin, John, Mirfield, Yorkshire .........May 2,1868
(xxxiii)
516 New all, R. S., Ferndene, Gateshead
{Member of Council) May 2, 1863
517 Nicholson, E., jun., Beamish Colliery, Chester-le-Street Aug. 7, 1869
518 Nicholson, J. W., Greenside Colliery, Milton, Carlisle Oct. 11, 1873
519 Nicholson, Marshall, Middleton Hall, Leeds......Nov. 7, 1863
520 Nicholson, R., Blaydon-on-Tyne .........July 2, 1872
521 Nicholson, T., Park Lane Engine Works, Gateshead ... Dec. 4, 1869
522 Noble, Captain, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Feb. 3, 1866
523 North, F. W., F.G.S., Rowley Hall Colliery, Dudley,
Staffordshire ...............Oct. 6, 1864
524 Nuttall, Thomas, Broad Street, Bury, Lancashire ... Sept. 11, 1875
525 Ogden, John M., Solicitor, Sunderland ......Mar. 5, 1857
526 Oliver, Robert, Charlaw Colliery, near Durham ... Nov. 6,
1875
527 Pacey, T., Bishop Auckland ............April 10, 1869
528 Page, William, 10, Grove Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne... Mar. 6, 1875
529 Palmer, A. S., Wardley Colliery, Gateshead......July 2, 1872
530 Palmer, C. M., M.P., Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Nov. 5, 1852
531 Palmer, John B., Jarrow-on-Tyne .........April 1, 1871
532 Panton, F. S., Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland ... Oct. 5,
1867
533 Papik, Johanne, Teplitz, Bohemia .........Feb. 5, 1870
534 Parkin, Charles E., Deer Park Mines, Newlyn East,
Grampound Road, Cornwall ... ......June 5, 1875
535 Parkin, John, Duchy Peru, Newlyn East, Grampound
Road, Cornwall ...............April 11, 1874
536 Parrington, M. W.,Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland... Dec. 1,1864
537 Parton, T., F.G.S., Ash Cottage, Birmingham Road,
West Bromwich ...............Oct. 2, 1869
538 Pattinson, J., Analytical Chemist, Newcastle-on-Tyne May 2, 1868
539 Pattison, John, Engineer, Naples .........Nov. 9,1874
540 Pattison, W., Ruabon and North Wales Colliery, Prys-
gwyn, Chirk ...............Oct. 11, 1873
541 Pattison, W., jun., Ffrwd Coll. and Ironworks, Wrexham Oct. 11,1873
542 Patton, John, Vine Lodge, Sunderland ... " ... April 6,
1872
543 Peace, M. W., Wigan, Lancashire ..... ... July 2, 1872
544 Peacock, David, Horsley, Tipton ...... ... Aug. 7,
1869
545 Pearce, F. H., Bowling Iron Works, Bradford ... Oct. 1,
1857
546 Pearson, J. E., Golborne Park, near Newton-le-Willows Feb. 3, 1872
547 Pease, J. W., M.P., Hutton Hall, Guisbro', Yorkshire Mar. 5, 1857
(xxxiv)
548 Peel, John, Wharncliffe and Silkstone Collieries,
Wortley, near Sheffield ...... ......Nov. 1, 1860
549 Peile, William, Oakfield Street, Eoath, Cardiff ... Oct. 1,
1863
550 Penman, J. H., Clarence Bdgs, 2, Booth St., Manchester Mar. 7, 1874
551 Perrot, S. W., Brighton Cottage, Monkstown, Dublin June 2, 1866
552 Philipson, H., 8, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 7,
1871
553 Pickersgill, T., Waterloo Main Colliery, near Leeds ... June 5, 1869
554 Pickup, P. W., Dunkenhalgh Colls., Accrington, Lane. Feb. 6, 1875
555 Piggford, J., Bisca House, Bisca, near Newport, Mon. Aug. 2, 1866
556 Pilkington, Wm., St. Helen's, Lancashire ......Sept. 6, 1855
557 Potter, Addison, Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Mar. 6, 1869
558 Potter, A. M., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Feb. 3,
1872
559 Potter, C. J., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 3,
1874
560 Price, J. B., Standish, near Wigan .........Aug. 7,1869
561 Briestman, Jon., Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 2, 1871
562 Bamsay, J. A., Washington Colliery, near Durham
{Member of Council) Mar. 6, 1869
563 Bamsay, J. T., Walbottle Hall, near Blaydon-on-Tyne
{Member of Council) Aug. 3, 1853
564 Bamsay, T. D., So. Durham Colliery, via Darlington Mar. 1, 1866
565 Bamsay, Wm., Tursdale Colliery, Co. Durham ... Sept. 11, 1875
566 Beed, Bobert, Felling Colliery, Gateshead ......Dec. 3, 1863
567 Beefeen, Wm., Teplitz, Bohemia ........Oct. 5,1872
568 Bees, Daniel, Glandare, Aberdare ........ 1862
569 Beid, Andrew, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........April 2, 1870
570 Beynolds, J. J., M.E., Leigh Boad, Atherton, near
Manchester ... ...... ......April 3, 1875
571 Bichards, G. C, M.E., Woodhouse, near Sheffield ... June 5, 1875
572 Bichardson, E., 2, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne... Feb. 5, 1870
573 Bichardson, H., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne Mar. 2,1865
574 Bichardson, J. W., Iron Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 3, 1870
575 Bichardson, M., West Stanley Colliery, Chester-le-Street April 3,
1875
576 Bidley, G., Trinity Chambers, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Feb. 4, 1865
577 Bidley, J. H., B. & W. Hawthorn's, Newcastle-on-Tyne April 6, 1872
578 Bidyard, John, Walkden, near Bolton-le-Moor ... Nov. 9,
1874
579 Bigby, John, Ash Villa, Alsager, Stoke-on-Trent ... Feb. 5,
1876
580 Biska, Franz, Machinen Fabrik, Prague, Bohemia ... Aug. 1, 1874
581 Bitson, U. A., 6, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 7, 1871
582 Bitson, W. A., 6, Belgrave Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne April 2, 1870
(xxxv)
583 Bobertson, W., M.E., 123, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow Mar. 5, 1870
584 Bobinson, G. C, Brereton and Hayes Collieries,
Bugeley, Staffordshire ........ .. Nov. 5,1870
585 Bobinson, H., C.E., 7, Westminster Chambers, London Sept. 3, 1870
586 Bobinson, B., Howlish Hall, near Bishop Auckland ... Feb. 1, 1868
587 Bobinson, B. H., Staveley Works, near Chesterfield ... Sept. 5, 1868
588 Bobson, D. W., Ouston, Chester-le-Street ......Nov. 9, 1874
589 Bobson, E., Middlesbro'-on-Tees .........April 2, 1870
590 Bobson, J. S., Butterknowle Colliery, via Staindrop,
Darlington... ............... 1853
591 Bobson, J. T., Cambuslang, Glasgow.........Sept. 4, 1869
592 Bobson, M., Coppa Colliery, near Mold, Flintshire ... May 4, 1872
593 Bobson, Thomas, Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses ... Oct. 4, 1860
594 Bobson, W. C, Walbottle Coll., nr. Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 4, 1869
595 Bogerson, J., Croxdale Hall, Durham ......Mar. 6, 1869
596 Boscamp, J., Bosedale Lodge, nr. Bickering, Yorkshire Feb. 2, 1867
597 Boseby, John, Haverholme House, Brigg, Lincolnshire Nov. 2, 1872
598 Boss, A., Shipcote Colliery, Gateshead ......Oct. 1, 1857
599 Boss, E. A., Kilton Mines, near Saltburn-by-the-Sea ... April 11, 1874
600 Boss, J. A. G., Consulting Engineer, 34, Collingwood
Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... .......July 2, 1872
601 Bosser, W., Mineral Surveyor, Llanelly, Carmarthensh...
1856
602 Bothwell, B. B., 27, Park Place, New York......Mar. 5, 1870
603 Boutledge, Jos., Byhope Colliery, Sunderland......Sept. 11, 1875
604 Boutledge, T., Lorway Coal Co., Limited, Sydney,
Cape Breton ...............Dec. 3, 1870
605 Boutledge, Wm., Sydney, Cape Breton ......Aug. 6, 1857
606 Bowley, J. C, Willey, Broseley, Salop ......Dec. 4, 1875
607 Butherford, J., Halifax, Nova Scotia .. ......
1866
608 Butherford, W., Marden House, Whitley, Newcastle ... Oct. 3, 1874
609 Butter, Thos., Blaydon Main Coll., Blaydon-on-Tyne May 1, 1875
610 Saint, George, Vauxhall Collieries, Buabon, No. Wales April 11, 1874
611 Scarth, W. T., Baby Castle, Darlington ......April 4, 1868
612 Scott, Andrew, Broomhill Colliery, Acklington ... Dec. 7,
1867
613 Scoular, G., Parkside, Frizington, Cumberland ... July 2,
1872
614 Seddon, J. F., Great Harwood Collieries, nr. Accrington June 1, 1867
615 Seddon, W., Dunkirk Collieries, Dukinfield ......Oct. 5,1865
616 Shallis, F. W., M. and J. Pritchard, 9, Gracechurch
Street, London ...............April 6, 1872
(xxxvi)
617 Shaw, John, Neptune Engine Works, Low "Walker,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Nov. 6, 1875
618 Shaw, W., jun., Wolsingham, via Darlington......June 3,1871
619 Shelford, W., 35a, Gt. George St., Westminster, London Feb. 5, 1876
620 Sherborne, John, Parkfield Colliery, near Bristol ... Dec. 4,
1875
621 Shiel, John, Usworth Colliery, County Durham ... May 6, 1871
622 Shield, H., Lamb's Cottage, Gilesgate Moor, Durham Mar. 6, 1862
623 Shone, Isaac, Pentrefelin House, Wrexham ... ...
1858
624 Shortrede, T., Park House, Winstanley, Wigan ... April 3, 1856
625 Shute, C. A., Westoe, South Shields.........April 11, 1874
626 Simpson, J., Heworth Colliery, nr. Gateshead-on-Tyne Dec. 6, 1866
627 Simpson, John, West Stanley Coll., Chester-le-Street... April 3,1875
628 Simpson, Jos., South Derwent Colliery, via Lintz
Green Station ...............Mar. 3, 1873
629 Simpson, J. B., Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne
{Member of Council) Oct. 4,4860
630 Simpson, R., Moor House, Ryton-on-Tyne ......Aug. 21, 1852
631 Simpson, Robt., Drummond Coll., Weshrill, Pictou, N.S. Dec. 4,1875
632 Sinclair, James, 48, Blackfriars Street, Manchester ... May 6,
1876
633 Slinn, T., Radcliffe House, Acklington ......July 2,1872
634 Small, G., Duffield Road, Derby .........June 4, 1870
635 Smallshaw, J., Westleigh Coll., Leigh, nr. Manchester Nov. 9, 1874
636 Smith, C. J., 16, Whitehall Place, Westminster,
London, S.W................July 2, 1872
637 Smith, E. J., 16, Whitehall Place, Westminster, London Oct, 7, 1858
638 Smith, G. F., Grovehurst, Tunbridge Wells......Aug. 5, 1853
639 Smith, J., Bickershaw Colliery, Wigan ......Mar. 7, 1874
640 Smith, R. A., 2, Church Street, Derby ......Nov. 9, 1874
641 Smith, T. E., M.P., Gosforth House, Dudley, Northd. Feb. 5, 1870
642 Smith, T. E., Phoenix Foundry, Newgate St., Newcastle Dec. 5, 1874
643 Sneddon, J., 183, West George Street, Glasgow ... July 2,
1872
644 Snowdon, T., jun., West Bitchburn Colliery, near Tow-
law, via Darlington ... ... ......Sept. 4, 1869
645 Snowdon, Win., 14, Park Row, Leeds ......Mar. 4, 1876
646 Sopwith, A., Cannock Chase Collieries, near Walsall... Aug. 1, 1868
647 Sopwith, T., M.A., F.R.S., etc., 103, Victoria Street,
Westminster, London, S.W..........May 6, 1853
648 Sopwith, T., jun., South Derwent Colliery, near Ann-
field Plain, Co. Durham ............Nov. 2,1867
649 Southall, F., Park Hall Coll., Cheadle, Stoke-on-Trent Feb. 5, 1876
(xxxvii)
650 Southern, R., Burleigh House, The Parade, Tredegar-
ville, Cardiff ............... Aug. 3, 1865
651 Southworth, Thos., Hindley Green Collieries, nr. Wigan May 2,1874
652 Spark, H. K., Darlington ............ 1856
653 Sparkes, C, care of J. Dunning, Southfield Villas,
Middlesbro' ............... Sept. 5, 1868
654 Spence, G., Southern States Coal, Iron, and Land Co.,
Jasper, Marion County, Tennessee, U.S. ... June 7, 1873
655 Spence, James, Clifton and Millgramfitz Collieries,
Workington ............... Nov. 9, 1874
656 Spencer, John, Westgate Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 4, 1869
657 Spencer, John P., Borough Surveyor, Tynemouth ... Dec. 5, 1874
658 Spencer, M., Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 4,1869
659 Spencer, T., Ryton, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...... Dec. 6,1866
660 Spencer, W., Cross House Chambers, Westgate Road,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ............ Aug. 21, 1852
661 Spooner, P., Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses...... Dec. 4, 1869
662 Spours, J. L., Ferry Hill Colliery, Ferry Hill Station April 11, 1874
663 Stainton, Matthew, Ironfounder, South Shields ... May 6,
1876
664 Steavenson, A. L., Durham ... {Member of Council) Dec. 6, 1855
665 Steavenson, D. F., B.A., LL.B., Barrister-at-Law, Cross
House, Westgate Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... April 1,1871
666 Steele, Chas., Bolton Colliery, Mealsgate, Cumberland June 7, 1873
667 Steele, Charles R., Ellenborough Colliery, Maryport ... Mar. 3,
1864
668 Stephenson, G. R., 24, Great George Street, Westmin-
ster, London, S.W............. Oct. 4, 1860
669 Stephenson, W. H., Elswick House, Newcastle-on-Tyne Mar. 7, 1867
670 Stevenson, Archibald, South Shields...... ... Sept. 2, 1871
671 Stevenson, Robert, Crewe Coal and Iron Co., Limited,
Newcastle-under-Lyme ... ... ••• ••• Feb. 5,
1876
672 Stobart, H. S., Witton-le-Wear, Darlington...... Feb. 2, 1854
673 Stobart, W., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ... July 2,
1872
674 Stokoe, Joseph, Houghton-le-Spring, Fence Houses ... April 11, 1874
675 Storey, Thos. E., Clough Hall Iron Works, Kidsgrove,
Staffordshire ............... Feb. 5, 1876
676 Straker, John, Stagshaw House, Corbridge-on-Tyne ... May 2, 1867
677 Straker, J. H., Willington House, Co. Durham ... Oct. 3,
1874
678 Stratton, T. H. M., Seaham Colliery, Sunderland ... Dec. 3,
1870
679 Sutherst, Thomas, Pembroke College, Cambridge ... Nov. 9, 1874
680 Swallow, John, East Boldon, Co. Durham ...... Aug. 6, 1863
(xxxviii)
681 Swallow, J., East Castle Col., Annfield Plain, Lintz Green May
2,1874
682 Swallow, R. T., Springwell, Gateshead ......
1862
683 Swan, Charles, Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne......April 11, 1874
684 Swan, H. F., Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept. 2,
1871
685 Swan, J. G., Upsall Hall, near Middlesbro' ......Sept. 2, 1871
686 Swann, C. G., Secretary General Mining Association,
Limited, 52, Old Broad Street, London......Aug. 7, 1875
687 Tate, Simon, Kimblesworth Colliery, Co. Durham ... Sept. 11, 1875
688 Taylor, George, Brotton Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ... June 5, 1875
689 Taylor, H., 8, Queen Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 5, 1856
690 Taylor, John, Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne......Aug. 21, 1852
691 Taylor, John B., The Mount, Clent, Stourbridge ... May 3, 1873
692 Taylor, T., Chipchase Castle, Northumberland ... July 2,
1872
693 Taylor-Smith, Thomas, Urpeth Hall, Chester-le-Street Aug. 2, 1866
694 Terry, E., M.E., 269, Castle Street, Dudley......Sept. 13, 1873
695 Thomas, A., Bilson House, near Newnham, Glouces.... Mar. 2, 1872
696 Thompson, Astley, Kidwelly, Carmarthenshire ...
1864
697 Thompson, James, Bishop Auckland.........June 2, 1866
698 Thompson, James A., So. Derwent Colliery, Annfield
Plain, Lintz Green ............Oct. 3, 1874
699 Thompson, John, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead ... Oct. 4, 1860
700 Thompson, John, Boughton Hall, Chester ......Sept. 2, 1865
701 Thompson, J., Norley Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire ... April 6, 1867
702 Thompson, R., jun., North BrancepethColl., nr. Durham Sept. 7,1867
703 Thompson, T. C, Milton Hall, Carlisle ......May 4, 1854
704 Thomson, Jos. F., Manvers Main Coll., Botherham ... Feb. 6, 1875
705 Thomson, G., Manager of Ironworks, Pen-y-Bryn,
Ruabon ..................Nov. 9, 1874
706 Thorpe, R. S., 17, Picton Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne... Sept. 5, 1868
707 Thubron, N., Broadoak Colliery, Longhoe, nr. Swansea Oct. 3, 1874
708 Tinn, J., C.E., Ashton Iron Rolling Mills, Bower
Ashton, Bristol ...............Sept. 7,1867
709 Tone, J. F., C.E., Pilgrim Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne Feb. 7, 1856
710 Truran, M., Dowlais, Glamorgan ... .. ... Dec.
1, 1859
711 Turner, W. B., C. and M.E., Sella Park, via Carnforth Dec. 7, 1867
712 Tylden-Wright, C, Shireoaks Coll., Worksop, Notts ...
1862
713 Tylor, Alfred E., Shepley House, Carshalton, Surrey... April 1, 1876
714 Tyzack, D., Kelung, Formosa Island, care of Commis-
sioner of Customs, Amoy, China .........Feb. 14,1874
(xxxix)
715 Ure, J. F., Engineer, Tyne Commissioners, Newcastle May 8, 1869
716 Vaughan, Thomas, Middlesbro'-on-Tees ......
1857
717 Vaughan, W. S., 10, Broad Chare, Newcastle-on-Tyne Nov. 1, 1873
718 Vondracek, Vladimir, Mahrisch, Moravia, Austria ... Aug. 1, 1874
719 Wadham,E., C. and M.E., Millwood, Dalton-in-Furness Dec. 7, 1867
720 Wake, H. H., River Wear Commissioners, Sunderland Feb. 3, 1872
721 Walker, G. W., Bui well, Notts. .........Sept. 7,1867
722 Walker, J. S., 15, Wallgate, Wigan, Lancashire ... Dec. 4,
1869
723 Walker, T. F., 58, Oxford Street, Birmingham ... April 11,
1874
724 Walker, W., Saltburn-by-the-Sea ........Mar. 5,1870
725 Wallace, Henry, Trench Hall, Gateshead ......Nov. 2, 1872
726 Wand, B. W., Cliff House, Southwold, Suffolk ... Dec. 5,
1874
727 Ward, H., Rodbaston Hall, near Penkridge, Stafford... Mar. 6, 1862
728 Wardale, John D., M.E., Redheugh Engine Works,
Gateshead..................May 1,1875
729 Wardell, S. C, Doe Hill House, Alfreton ......April 1, 1865
730 Warrington, J., Worsborough Hall, near Barnsley ... Oct. 6, 1859
731 Watkin, William J. L., Pemberton Colliery, Wigan ... Aug. 7, 1862
732 Watson, H., High Bridge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ... Mar. 7, 1868
733 Watson, M., Mortomley Hall, Chapeltown, near Sheffield Mar. 7, 1868
734 Webster, R. C, Pen-y-nant, Ruabon, North Wales ... Sept. 6, 1855
735 Weeks, J. G., Bedlington Colliery, Bedlington ... Feb. 4,
1865
736 Westmacott, P. G. B., Elswick Iron Works, Newcastle June 2, 1866
737 Whaley, John, Coanwood Colliery, Haltwhistle ... Feb. 1,
1873
738 Whaley, Thomas, Orrell Mount, Wigan ......Aug. 2,1866
739 Whateley, W. L., Stanghow Ironstone Mines, w'aGuisbro' Dec. 4, 1875
740 White, H., Cassop Colliery, Trimdon Grange...... 1866
741 White, J. F., M.E., Wakefield............July 2,1872
742 Whitehead, James, Brindle Lodge, New Preston, Lane. Dec. 4, 1875
743 Whitelaw, A., 168, West George Street, Glasgow ... Mar. 5, 1870
744 Whitelaw, John, 19, London Street, Edinburgh ... Feb. 5, 1870
745 Whitelaw, T., Shields and Dalzell Collieries, Motherwell April 6,
1872
746 Whittem, Thos. S., Wyken Colliery, near Coventry ... Dec. 5, 1874
747 Whitwell, T., Thornaby Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees Sept. 5, 1868
748 Widdas, C, No. Bitchburn Coll., Howden, Darlington Dec. 5, 1868
749 Wight, R., Killingworth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne Oct. 11, 1873
750 Wigram, R., Steam Plough Works, Leeds ......Feb. 6, 1875
751 Wild, H. F„ Stockport, Columbia Co., New York, U.S. Oct. 3, 1874
/
(xl)
752 Wild, J. G., Monkwood and Barlow Lees Collieries,
near Chesterfield...............Oct. 5,1867
753 Williams, E., Middlesbro' ............Sept. 2, 1865
754 Williams, J. J., Pantgwyn House, Holywell, Flintshire Nov. 2, 1872
755 Williamson, John, Chemical Manufacturer, So. Shields Sept. 2, 1871
756 Williamson, John, Cannock, &c, Collieries, Hednesford Nov. 2, 1872
757 Willis, E., Clarence House, Willington, near Durham Sept. 5, 1868
758 Willis, J., 73, Westmorland Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne Mar. 5, 185?
759 Wilson, J., 69, Great Clyde Street, Glasgow......July 2, 1872
760 Wilson, J. B., Wingfield Iron Works and Coll., Alfreton Nov. 5, 1852
761 Wilson, J. S., Moorfield, Coslodge, Newdastle-on-Tyne Dec. 2, 1858
762 Wilson, Robert, Flimby Colliery, Maryport......Aug. 1, 1874
763 Wilson, T. H., 21, Collingwood St., Newcastle-on-Tyne Mar. 6, 1869
764 Wilson, W. B., Cannock and Seacroft Collieries, Can-
nock, Staffordshire ............Feb. 6, 1869
765 Winship, J. B., Newcastle, Australia.........Dec. 4,1869
766 Winter, T. B., Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 7,
1871
767 Wood, C. L., Freeland, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire ...
1853
768 Wood, Lindsay, Southill, Chester-le-Street
(President) Oct. 1, 1857
769 Wood, Thomas, Sainton House, Fence Houses ... Sept. 3, 1870
770 Wood, W. H., West Hetton, Ferryhill ......
1856
771 Wood, W. 0., East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, Co. Durham Nov. 7, 1863
772 Woodgate, A., Chemical Manure Manftr., Newcastle... Feb. 3,1872
773 Woodhouse, J. T., 3, Westminster Chambers, Victoria
Street, Westminster, London, S.W.......Dec. 13, 1852
774 Woolcock, Henry, St. Bees, Cumberland ......Mar.- 3, 1873
775 Wright, G. H., 22, Low Pavement, Nottingham ... July 2, 1872
776 Wrightson, T., Stockton-on-Tees .........Sept. 13, 1873
777 Young, Philip, Deckham Hall Colliery, Gateshead ... Oct. 11,1873
^totals.
1 Atkinson, F. R., Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses ... Feb. 14, 1874
2 Ayton, E. F., Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses......Feb. 5, 1876
3 Ayton, Henry, Seaton Delaval Colliery, Dudley, Northd. Mar. 6, 1875
(xli)
4 Barnes, A. W., Grassmore Colliery, near Chesterfield ... Oct. 5, 1872
5 Barrett, Charles, Harton Colliery, South Shields ... Nov. 9,
1874
6 Bell, C. E., 31, Old Elvet, Durham ......... Dec. 3,1870
7 Berkley, R. W., Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead ... Feb. 14,
1874
8 Bewick, T. B., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland ... Mar. 7, 1874
9 Bird, W. J., Wingate Colliery, Durham ...... Nov. 6,1875
10 Bragge, G. S., Nunnery Colliery Offices, Sheffield ... July 2,
1872
11 Brough, Thomas, Seaham Colliery, Seaham Harbour ... Feb. 1, 1873
12 Brown, M. W., Prospect House, West Rainton, Fence
Houses .............. ... Oct. 7,1871
13 Bruce, John, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead......Feb. 14, 1874
14 Bulman, G. H., Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses ... April 11, 1874
15 Bulman, H. F., Killingworth Coll., Newcastle-on-Tyne May 2, 1874
16 Bunning, C. Z., Ryton-on-Tyne............Dec. 6,1873
17 Burnley, E. F., Hope Cottage, The Common, Normanton April 11,1874
18 Burrows, J. S., Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct. 11,1873
19 Byerley, R. Reed, The Grove, Sunderland ......Mar. 5, 1870
20 Caldwell, John S., The Grove, Westhoughton, near
Bolton, Lancashire ............Nov. 9, 1874
21 Candler, T. E., East Lodge, Crook, Darlington ... May 1,
1875
22 Carr, Charles B., Harton Colliery Office, South Shields May 6, 1876
23 Chambers, W. Henry, Birchwood Coll., near Alfreton... Dec. 2, 1871
24 Clark, Robert, 22, Windsor Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 11, 1875
25 Clark, R. B., Burnopfield, Lintz Green.........May 3, 1873
26 Clough, James, Seaton Delaval Colliery, Northumberld. April 5, 1873
27 Cobbold, C. H., Strafford Collieries, near Barnsley ... May 3,
1873
28 Cockburn, W. C, 8, Summerhill Grove, Newcastle... July 2, 1872
29 Cockin, G. M., Skinningrove, near Saltburn-by-the-Sea Nov. 2, 1872
30 Cox, L. Clifford, Hardingstone, Northampton......April 1, 1876
31 Crawford, T. W., Peases' West Collieries, Darlington ... Dec. 4, 1875
32 Darlington, J., Springfield, Wigan .........Nov. 9, 1874
33 Dodd, Michael, jun., Morton Grange, Fence Houses ... Dec. 4, 1875
34 Dorman, Frank, Pemberton Colliery, near Wigan ... May 1,1875
35 Eden, C. H., Sedgefield, Ferryhill .........Sept. 13, 1873
36 Edge, J. C, Ince Hall Coal and Cannel Co. Lim., Wigan Dec. 5, 1874
37 Elliot, W. S., Thnslington Colliery, nr. Ferryhill Station Sept. 13,
1873
(xlii)
38 Fletcher, J., Kelton House, Dumfries.........July 2,1872
39 Garthwaite, T. Y. B., Greenside, Blaydon-on-Tyne ... Feb. 1, 1873
40 Gerrard, James, Ince Hall Coal and Cannel Co., Wigan Mar. 3, 1873
41 Greener, T. Y., Pemberton Collieries, near Wigan ... July 2,
1872
42 Hallimond, W. T., Etherley Coll., Escomb, Bp. Auckland May 2, 1874
43 Hamilton, E., Big Wood, Saltburu-by-the-Sea......Nov. 1, 187-3
44 Harris, W. S., Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead ... Feb. 14,
1874
45 Harrison, Robert J., Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland ... May 1, 1875
46 Heckels, W. J., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ... May 2, 1868
47 Hedley, E., Bainham Lodge, The Avenue, Beckenham,
Kent .................Dec. 2, 1871
48 Hodgson, J. W., Dipton Coll., via Lintz Green Station Feb. 5, 1870
49 Holme, James, Crewe Coal and Iron Company, Limited,
Madeley Colliery, near Newcastle-under-Lyme ... Sept. 11, 1875
50 Ironside, John C, Byhope Colliery, near Sunderland ... Dec. 4, 1875
51 Jepson, H., Bower's Allerton Collieries, Astley, Woodles-
ford, near Leeds ... ... ... ... ... July
2, 1872
52 Johnson, W., Abram Colliery, Wigan.........Feb. 14, 1874
53 Jordan, J. J., South Derwent Colliery, via Lintz Green Mar. 3, 1873
54 Leach, C. C. (G. Nicholson, Esq.,) Winlaton, Blaydon-
on-Tyne ..................Mar. 7, 1874
55 Liddell, J. M., Nedderton, Northumberland .....Mar. 6, 1875
56 Lindsay, Clarence S., 5, Park Place West, Sunderland Mar. 4, 1876
57 Lisle, J., Washington Colliery, Co. Durham ... ... July 2,
1872
58 Markham, G. E., Howlish Offices, Bishop Auckland ... Dec. 4, 1875
59 Marsh, T. G., Burnt Tree House, Tipton, Staffordshire Sept. 13, 1873
60 Miller, D. S., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ... Nov. 9,
1874
61 Milling, John T., Redheugh Colliery, Gateshead ...' May 6,
1876
62 Moor, W., jun., Lanelay Coll., Llantrissant, Glam. ... July 2,
1872
63 Moore, R. W., Colliery Office, Whitehaven ......Nov. 5,1870
64 Moreing, C. A., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland ... Nov. 9, 1874
65 Moses, W., Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses ......Mar. 2, 1872
66 Mundle, Arthur, 7, Hawthorn St., Newrcastle-on-Tyne June 5, 1875
(xliii)
67 Mundle, Robert, Redesdale Mines, Bellingham......Mar. 6,1875
68 Oliver, Septimus, East Hetton Coll., Coxhoe, Co. Durham Mar. 4,1876
69 Ornsby, R. E., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Dudley Northd. Mar. 6, 1875
70 Pamely, C, Radstock Coal Works, near Bath......Sept. 5, 1868
71 Pickstone, Win., Oak Bank, Black Lane, nr. Manchester Sept. 11, 1875
72 Place, Thomas, Trafalgar Terrace, Coatham, Redcar ... April 2, 1870
73 Pocock, Francis A., Wellesley Training Ship, So. Shields Mar. 6, 1875
74 Potter, E. A., Cramlington House, Northumberland ... Feb. 6, 1875
75 Prest, J. J., Belmangate, Guisbro' .........May 1, 1875
76 Rathbone, Edgar P., Duke of Norfolk's Colliery Offices,
Sheffield ..................Mar. 7, 1874
77 Rees, Ernest P., Langley Park Colliery, Durham ... Mar. 4, 1876
78 Richardson, R. W. P., Langley Park Colliery, Durham Mar. 4, 1876
79 Robson, Harry N., 3, North Bailey, Durham......Dec. 4, 1875
80 Robson, J. M., 11, Belhaven Terrace, Glasgow ... Dec. 5,
1868
81 Robson, Thos. O., Lofthouse Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea Sept. 11, 1875
82 Sawyer, A. R., care of Miss Chapman, Woodford, Essex Dec. 6, 1873
83 Scarth, R. W., Upleatham, Marske-by-the-Sea......Dec. 4, 1875
84 Schier, H. C, Shincliffe Colliery, Coxhoe, Co. Durham Dec. 4, 1875
85 Scott, C. F., Monk Bretton, near Barnsley ......April 11, 1874
86 Scott, Wm., Tow Law, Darlington .........Mar. 4,1876
87 Seymour, T. M., Staveley, near Chesterfield ......Dec. 4, 1875
88 Short, James T., Assoc. Coll. of P. S., Bedlington Col-
liery, Bedlington ... ... ... ... ... Dec.
5, 1874
89 Southern, E. O., 5, Fenwick Terrace, Jesmond, Newcastle Dec. 5,1874
90 Southern, W. J., Tanfield Lea Colliery, by Lintz Green Aug. 1, 1874
91 Stobart, F., Washington Colliery Offices, near Washing-
ton Station, County Durham ... ... ... Aug. 2, 1873
92 Stones, T. H., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Wigan ... Nov. 9,1874
93 Swinney, A. J., East Hetton Coll., Coxhoe, Co. Durham Feb. 5, 1876
94 Telford, W. H., Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland Oct. 3, 1874
95 Thompson, William, Washington Colliery, Co. Durham May 2, 1874
96 Vernon, J. O., Villa de St. George, Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept. 7, 1867
(xliv)
97 Walker, G. B., Osgathorpe, Sheffield.........Dec. 2,1871
98 Walker, Smart, Ryhope Colliery, near Sunderland ... Dee. 4, 1875
99 Walton, J. C", Heworth Coll., nr. Newcastle-on-Tyne Nov. 9, 1874
100 Williamson, J. E., Harton Colliery Offices, Tyne Docks,
South Shields ...............Nov. 9, 1874
101 Wilson, J. D., 15, West Street, G-ateshead-on-Tyne ... Sept. 11, 1875
102 Wilson, J. T,, Thornton Fields, Guisbro' ......Nov. 9, 1874
3ist af ^itl^rilmtjg djjdttymg.
1 Ashington Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 East Holywell Colliery, Earsdon, Northumberland.
3 Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.
4 Hetton Collieries, Fence Houses.
5 Lambton Collieries, Fence Houses (Earl Durham).
6 North Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
7 Eainton Collieries (Marquess of Londonderry).
8 Byhope Colliery, near Sunderland.
9 Seghill Colliery, Northumberland.
10 South Hetton and Murton Collieries.
11 Stella Colliery, Hedgefield, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
12 Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
13 Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
14 Whitworth Colliery, Ferry hill.
1.—The objects of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers are to enable its members to meet together to discuss the means
for the Ventilation of Coal and other Mines, the Winning and Working of
Collieries and Mines, the Prevention of Accidents, and the advancement of
the Sciences of Mining and Engineering generally.
2.—The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers shall
consist of three classes of Members, namely :—Ordinary Members, Life
Members, and Honorary Members, with a class of Students attached.
3.—Ordinary and Life Members shall be persons practising as Mining or
Mechanical Engineers, and other persons connected with or interested in
Mining and Engineering.
4.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
5.—Students shall be persons who are qualifying themselves for the
profession of Mining or Mechanical Engineers, and such persons may continue
Students until they attain the age of 23 years.
6.—The Annual Subscription of each Ordinary Member shall be £2 2s., payable
in advance, and the same is to be considered due and payable on the first
Saturday of August in each year, or immediately after his election.
7.—All persons who shall at one time make a donation of £20%r upwards shall
be Life Members.
8.—The Annual Subscription of each Student shall be £1 Is., payable in
advance, and the same is to be considered due and payable on the first
Saturday of August in each year, or immediately after his election.
9.—Each Subscriber of £2 2s. annually (not being a Member) shall be entitled
to a ticket to admit two persons to the rooms, library, meetings, lectures,
and public proceedings of the Society; and for every additional £2 2s.,
subscribed annually, two other persons shall be admissible up to the number
of ten persons; and each such Subscriber shall also be entitled for each £2
2s. subscription to have a copy of the Proceedings of the Institute sent to
him.
9
1.—The objects of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers are to enable its members to meet together to discuss the means
for the Ventilation of Coal and other Mines, the Winning and Working of
Collieries and Mines, the Prevention of Accidents, and the advancement of
the Sciences of Mining and Engineering generally.
2.—The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers shall
consist of three classes of Members, namely :—Ordinary Members, Life
Members, and Honorary Members, with a class of Students attached.
3.—Ordinary and Life Members shall be persons practising as Mining or
Mechanical Engineers, and other persons connected with or interested in
Mining and Engineering.
4.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
5.—Students shall be persons who are qualifying themselves for the
profession of Mining or Mechanical Engineers, and such persons may continue
Students until they attain the age of 23 years.
6.—The Annual Subscription of each Ordinary Member shall be £2 2s., payable
in advance, and the same is to be considered due and payable on the first
Saturday of August in each year, or immediately after his election.
7.—All persons who shall at one time make a donation of £20^or upwards shall
be Life Members.
8.—The Annual Subscription of each Student shall be £1 Is., payable in.
advance, and the same is to be considered due and payable on the first
Saturday of August in each year, or immediately after his election.
9.—Each Subscriber of £2 2s. annually (not being a Member) shall be entitled
to a ticket to admit two persons to the rooms, library, meetings, lectures,
and public proceedings of the Society; and for every additional £2 2s.,
subscribed annually, two other persons shall be admissible up to the number
of ten persons; and each such Subscriber shall also be entitled for each £2
2s. subscription to have a copy of the Proceedings of the Institute sent to
him.
9
(xlviii)
10.—Persons desirous of being admitted into the Institute as Ordinary
Members, Life Members, or Students, shall be proposed by three Members;
Honorary Members shall be proposed by at least five Members, and shall in
addition be recommended by the Council, who shall also have the power of
defining the time during which, and the circumstances under which, they
shall be Honorary Members. The nomination shall be in writing and signed by
the proposers (see Form A), and shall be submitted to the first general or
special meeting after the date thereof. The name of the person proposed
shall be exhibited in the Society's room until the next general or special
meeting, when the election shall be proceeded with by ballot, unless it be
then decided to elect by show of hands. A majority of votes shall determine
every election. Notice of election shall be sent to each Member or Student
within one week after his election, on Form B, enclosing at the same time
Form C, which shall be returned by the Member or Student, signed, and
accompanied with the amount of his annual subscription, within two months
from the date of such election, which otherwise shall become void.
11.—The Officers of the Institute shall consist of a President, six
Vice-Presidents, and eighteen Councillors, who, with the Treasurer and
Secretary (if Members of the Institute), shall constitute a Council for the
direction and management of the affairs of the Institute. The President,
Vice-Presidents, and Councillors shall be elected at the Annual Meeting
(except in case of vacancies), and shall be eligible for re-election, with
the exception of any President or Vice-President who may have held office
for the three immediately preceding years, and such six Councillors who may
have attended the fewest Council Meetings during the past year; but such
Members shall be eligible for re-election after being one year out of
office.
12.—All members shall be at liberty to nominate, in writing, and send to the
Secretary, not less than fourteen days prior to the Annual or Special
Meeting, a list of Ordinary and Life Members who are considered suitable to
fill the various offices, such list being signed by the nominators. A list
of the persons so nominated and of the retiring Officers, indicating those
who are ineligible for re-election (see Form 0), shall constitute a
balloting list, and shall be posted at least seven days previous to the
Annual or Special Meeting, to all Members of the Institute, who may erase
any name or names from this list, and substitute the name or names of any
other person or persons eligible for each respective office ; but the number
of persons on the list, after such erasure or substitution, must not exceed
the number to be elected to the respective offices as above enumerated. The
balloting papers must be returned through the post, addressed
(xlix)
to the Secretary, or be handed to him, or to the Chairman of the Meeting, so
as to be received before the hour fixed for the election of Officers. The
Chairman shall then appoint four Scrutineers, who shall receive the
balloting papers, and shall sign and hand to the Chairman of the Meeting a
list of the elected Officers, after destroying the papers. Those papers
which do not accord with these directions shall be rejected by the
Scrutineers. The votes for any Members who may not be elected
Vice-Presidents shall count for them as Members of the Council.
In case of the decease or resignation of any Officer or Officers, notice
thereof shall be given at the next General or Special Meeting, and a new
Officer or Officers elected at the succeeding General or Special Meeting, in
accordance with the mode above indicated.
13.—At meetings of the Council, five shall be a quorum, and the minutes of
the Council's proceedings shall be at all times open to the inspection of
the Members of the Institute. The President shall be ex-officio Chairman of
every Committee.
14.—All Past-Presidents shall be ex-officio Members of the Council so long
as they continue Members of the Institute, and Vice-Presidents who become
ineligible from having held office for three consecutive years shall be
ex-officio Members of the Council for the following year.
15.—A General Meeting of the Institute shall be held on the first Saturday
of every month (except January and July) at two o'clock ; and the General
Meeting in the month of August shall be the Annual Meeting, at which a
report of the proceedings, and an abstract of the accounts of the previous
year, shall be presented by the Council. A Special Meeting of the Institute
shall be called whenever the Council may think fit, and also on a
requisition to the Council, signed by ten or more Members.
16.—Every question, not otherwise provided for, which shall come before any
Meeting of the Institute, shall be decided by the votes of the majority of
the Ordinary or Life Members then present.
17.—The Funds of the Society shall be deposited in the hands of the
Treasurer, and shall be disbursed or invested by him according to the
direction of the Council.
18.—All papers shall be sent for the approval of the Council at least twelve
days before a General Meeting, and after approval shall be read before the
Institute. The Council shall also direct whether any Paper read before the
Institute shall be printed in the Transactions, and notice shall be given to
the writer within one month after it has been read, whether it is to be
printed or not.
J 9.—The Copyright of all Papers communicated to, and accepted for printing
by the Council, shall become vested in the Institute, and such
(1)
communication shall not be published for sale or otherwise, without the
written permission of the Council.
20.—All proofs of discussion, forwarded to Members for correction must be
returned to the Secretary within seven days from the date of their receipt,
otherwise they will be considered correct and be printed off.
21.—The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the facts and opinions
advanced in the Papers which may be read, nor in the discussions which may
take place at the meetings of the Institute.
22.—Twelve copies of each Paper printed by the Institute shall be presented
to the author for private use.
23.—Members elected at any meeting between the Annual Meetings shall be
entitled to all papers issued in that year, as soon as they have signed and
returned Form C, and paid their subscriptions.
24.—The Transactions of the Institute shall not be forwarded to Members
whose subscriptions are more than one year in arrear.
25.—Any person whose subscription is two years in arrear, that is to say,
whose arrears and current subscriptions shall not have been paid on or
before the 1st of August, shall be reported to the Council, who shall direct
application to be made for it according to Form D, and in the event of it
continuing one month in arrear after such application, the Council shall
have the power, after suitable remonstrance by letter in the form so
provided (Form E), of erasing the name of the defaulter from the register of
the Institute.
26.—No duplicate copies of any portion of the Transactions shall be issued
to any of the Members unless by written order from the Council.
27.—Invitations shall be forwarded by the Secretary to any gentleman whose
presence at the discussions the Council may think advisable, and strangers
so invited shall be permitted to take part in the proceedings. Any Member of
the Institute shall also have power to introduce two. strangers (see Form F)
to any of the General Meetings of the Institute, but they shall not take
part in the proceedings except by permission of the Meeting.
28.—No alteration shall be made in any of the Laws, Rules, or Regulations of
the Institute, except at the Annual General Meeting, or at a Special Meeting
for that purpose, and the particulars of every such alteration shall be
announced at a previous General Meeting, and inserted in its minutes, and
shall be exhibited in the room of the Institute fourteen days previous to
such Annual or Special Meeting, and such Meeting shall have power to adopt
any modification of such proposed alteration of, or addition to, the Rules.
APPENDIX.
[FORM A.]
Name in full—Mr.
Designation or Occupation
Address
being desirous of admission into the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, we, the undersigned, propose and
recommend that he shall become a thereof.
i ) Signatures
Proposed by ]-----------------------------------------> of three
(___________________________ ) Members.
Dated 18
[FORM B.]
Sib,—I beg to inform you that on the day of
you were elected a of the North of England
Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, but in conformity with its Rules your
election cannot be confirmed until the enclosed form be returned to me with
your signature, and until your first annual subscription be paid, the amount
of which is £
If the first subscription is not received within two months from the present
date, the election will become void under Rule 10.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FORM C]
I, the undersigned, being elected a of the
North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, do hereby agree
that I will be governed by the Regulations of the said Institute as they are
now formed, or as they may hereafter be altered; that I will advance the
objects of the Institute as far as shall be in my power, and will not aid in
any unauthorised publication of the proceedings, and will attend the
meetings thereof as often as I conveniently can; provided that whenever I
shall signify in writing to the Secretary that I am desirous of withdrawing
my name therefrom, I shall (after the payment of any arrears which may be
due by me at that period) be free from this obligation.
Witness my hand this day of
18
(lii)
[FORM D.]
18
Sib,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to draw your attention to Eule 25, and to
remind you that the sum of £ of "your annual subscriptions
to the funds of the Institute remains unpaid, and that you are in
consequence in arrear of subscription. I am also directed to request that
you will cause the same to be paid without further delay, otherwise the
Council will be under the necessity of exercising their discretion as to
using the power vested in them by the Rule above referred to.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
[FORM E.]
18
Sib,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to inform you, that in consequence of
non-payment of your arrears of subscription, and in pursuance of Rule 25,
the Council have declared, by special vote, on the
day
^ 18 , that you have
forfeited your claim to
belong to the Institute, and your name will be in consequence expunged from
the Register, unless payment is made previous to
But notwithstanding such forfeiture, I am directed to call upon you for
payment of your arrears, amounting to £
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
[FORM P.]
Admit
of
to the Meeting on Saturday, the
(Signature of Member or Student)
The Chair to be taken at Two o'Clock. I undertake to abide by the
Regulations of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, and not to aid in any unauthorised publication of the
Proceedings.
(Signature of Visitor) Not transferable.
(liii)
[FORM a.]
BALLOTING LIST.
Ballot to take place at the Meeting of 18 at Two o'Clock.
President—One Name to be returned, f ----------- Retiring President.
* J-----------I New Nominations.
Vice-Presidents—Six Names to be returned.
§
The Votes for .any Members who may not be elected as Vice-
£
Presidents will count for them as other Members of the Council.
£
)
rt
----------
|
> Retiring Vice-Presidents.
<u
_________I
g g
-------------J
^
* l-----------> New Nominations.
« m
-------------
B rf *
p .Bo
Council—Eighteen Names to be returned. fc h S ^
r________->
M g d £
----------
« „ g g -^
------------
g h" 9 g a
<1 |z 02 P d
------------
H a a o 3
1 .________
rd Cm £ h
o
-----------
.-g > H fl
. W hh m m ---------------
Tjj O «2 H 03
t } r Retiring Councillors.
0 S
----------
£ §
____________
a; H
J.-------------------
+> g
T
5 Q
-------------------
1-3 OQ
f = I I
T _____j
-°
;<» -----------------------I
1 _________> New Nominations.
"5? -------)
____ i
Rule XII.—Relative to the Election of the Officers of the Institute.
g!
f These Gentlemen are ineligible for re-election.
* These Gentlemen are not on the Council for the present year.
Names substituted for any of the above are to be written in the blank spaces
opposite those they are intended to supersede.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
or
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
ANNUAL MEETING, SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 11, 1875, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
Mr. LINDSAY "WOOD, President, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and the minutes of the
Council meetings of August 7, August 21, and September 11, and they were
confirmed. Also the following report by Messrs. E. F. Boyd and John Daglish
upon the present condition of the Hutton Collection of Fossils, the property
of the Institute :—
TO THE COUNCIL.
Gentlemen,—Your Sub-Committee have to report that they have examined the
Hutton Collection of Fossils belonging to your Institute, placed in the
Museum of the Natural History Society in pursuance of the agreement of July,
1861.
The specimens are all labelled and numbered so as to identify them as the
property of your Institute ; they are in good condition, and are contained
in special cases, towards the original expense of which your Institute
contributed £40 ; they are properly grouped under the heads of Familia and
Genera, but to give specific names to each specimen would require
considerable labour from a skilled curator. The resources of the Natural
History Society will not permit of any expenditure being incurred
VOL. XXY.-1876.
A
2 PROCEEDINGS.
in classifying these specimens and forming a catalogue ; but, as this would
add greatly to their value, especially to students in Mine Engineering, your
Sub-Committee would recommend that this expense be defrayed by your
Institute. Adjoining your Hutton Collection of Coal Fossils in the Museum is
also the collection belonging to the Natural History Society, which is in a
very similar condition. These collections have recently been carefully
studied by a gentleman from the British Museum, who is engaged in editing a
work on this subject. "When this is published their identification and
naming will be much easier.
The funds of the Natural History Society are extremely small, the annual
subscriptions only reaching £133 per year ; this, together with a similar
amount received as entrance fees from visitors to the Museum, and annual
donations of £60 from the Literary and Philosophical Society and from your
Institute, being all their income, and of this £80 is absorbed as interest
on borrowed money.
Possibly when this is made known to the members of your Institute it may
induce many of them to become members of the Natural History Society, which
may almost be considered as the parent of your Institute, and which was for
many years the only representative of scientific research in the North of
England, and which has by the patient labours of comparatively a few
scientific men, formed a collection, in many respects unequalled in the
provinces.
The Geological department of the Museum is particularly rich, for the
greater part of which it has been indebted to the liberality of private
individuals by gifts of special collections. Amongst these, in addition to
your Hutton Collection of Coal Fossils, may be mentioned the collection of
minerals presented by the late Emperor of Eussia through the late Earl of
Durham; also the Hutton Collection of Minerals, which, whilst under
negotiation for sale elsewhere, was saved to this district through the
liberality of your President, Sir William Armstrong. An interesting
collection of minerals has very recently been presented by Mr. Cookson, the
re-arranging and classifying of which is nearly completed.
Being under the same roof as your Institute, ready facility is afforded to
your members, no charge being made either to them or to the students of the
College of Physical Science, and they not only have access in the ordinary
way but are allowed special facilities for examining the specimens in the
cases, as well as access to the large collections in the various drawers.
During the last year upwards of 1,000 specimens have been lent to the
Professors of the College for the illustrations of their lectures. The
collections in the Museum are held by trustees for the use of the
PROCEEDINGS. 3
district under a trust deed defining the powers and position of the
Executive Committee, which is elected annually.
The conclusion which your Sub-Committee would feel inclined to draw, guided
by their recent meetings with the Committee of the Natural History Society,
is that your property is in safe and excellent keeping ; and that as regards
the use of the Museum by your members, and also by the students of the
College of Physical Science, the Executive of the Natural History Society
are cordially desirous to render every facility within their power to make
it useful in these respects, but that having regard to its being vested in
trustees, its management cannot be controlled by any one except by their own
committee and curators. By the agreement of July 1861, two of your members
elected by your Council are placed on the Committee of the Natural History
Society.
/a- j\ E- F- Boyd,
. (SlSned) John Daglish.
The Chairman said that the Council had not had time to discuss the report,
and its consideration had been adjourned until the next meeting. He
therefore thought that the discussion by the general body of the members
should be postponed until after they had heard the views of the Council. It
would be necessary to confirm the minutes of the Council, which recommended
that this Institute should accept the invitation sent by the Midland
Institute to hold a joint meeting on the 13th, 14th, and 15th of October in
the Yorkshire district.
The minutes of the Council meetings were then put to the meeting and
confirmed.
The following gentlemen were elected :—
Members— Mr. Joseph Routledge, Viewer, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland. Mr. John
F. Lloyd, M.E., Saltburn-by-the-Sea. Mr. Thomas Nuttall, M.E., Broad Street,
Bury, Lancashire. Mr. A. J. Baebat, Ruabon Coal Co., Ruabon. Mr. Thomas W.
Bouene, 18, Hereford Square, London, S.W. Mr. William Ramsay, Tursdale
Colliery, Co. Durham. Mr. James Fletchee, Manager, Co-operative Collieries,
Wallsend, near
Newcastle, New South Wales. Mr. Maueice Deacon, M.B., Bath Colliery,
Somersetshire. Mr. William Beswicke, M.E.,Waithland House, Rochdale. Mr.
Simon Tate, Kimblesworth Colliery, Co. Durham.
4 PROCEEDINGS.
Students—
Mr. William Pickstone, Oak Bank, Black Lane, near Manchester.
Mr. James Holme, Crewe Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Madeley Collieries,
near Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire. Mr. Thomas 0. Robson, Lofthouse
Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea. Mr. Robert Clark, 22, Windsor Terrace,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr. J. D. Wilson, 15, West Street, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
t The following were nominated for election at the next meeting :—
Honorary Member—
Mr. G-. S. Brady, Professor of Natural History, College of Physical Science,
Newcastle.
Members—
Mr. Henry Maddison, Coal Owner, Darlington.
Mr. Leslie C. Hill, C. and M.E., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
Mr. John Shaw, Neptune Engine Works, Low Walker.
Mr. Robert Oliver, Manager, Charlaw Colliery, near Durham.
Mr. Fenwick Darling, South Durham Colliery, Darlington.
Mr. James New all Gordon, F.R.G.S., Manager of St. John's d'el Rey Mining
Co. Limited, Brazil. Mr. Wm. Kinnear. Radcliffe Colliery, Acklington.
Student— Mr. W. J. Bird, Wingate, Co. Durham.
The Chairman said, the Council also recommended that the next meeting of the
Institute, which ought to be held on the first Saturday in September, be not
held on that day, but that the meeting in the Midland District be considered
as the next general meeting. The Council thought it would not be advisable
to hold two general meetings in so short a period.
The Secretary read the following " Memoir of the Life of the late Mr. Thomas
Emerson Forster," written by Mr. G-. C. Greenwell:—
MEMOIR OF THE LATE MR. T. E. FORSTER. 5
MEMOIR OF THE LATE MR. T. E. FOESTER.
By G. C. GREENWELL, F.G.S., M.I.C.E.
Mr. Thomas Emerson Forster was born at Garrigill Gate, in Northumberland, in
1802. He was nearly related to Westgarth Forster, the author of the
well-known treatise on a " Section of the Strata from Newcastle-upon-Tyne to
Cumberland."
The father of Mr. Forster, having obtained the appointment of steward to the
owners of Hebburn Colliery, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, removed to Hebburn,
and his eldest son, the subject of this memoir, having received a fair
education, commenced his professional life as apprentice to Mr. Wade, one of
the owners of Hebburn Colliery, in 1817. The head viewer was Mr. John
Buddie, the most able and accomplished viewer of his day. During Mr.
Forster's apprenticeship the resident viewer at Hebburn Colliery was Mr.
Matthias Dunn.
On the completion of Mr. Forster's apprenticeship, and with the interest of
Major Johnson, who, as long as he lived, continued to be his steady friend,
he obtained in 1823 the situation of resident viewer at "Walker Colliery,
near Newcastle.
For the enlightenment of the young viewers of the present day, it may be
stated that the salary was £80 per annum.
The ventilation of collieries at that time was of a very different character
from what it is now ; 6,000 or 8,000 cubic feet of air per minute were
considered by Mr. Buddie to be a standard air current, and it is no wonder
that at the fiery colliery of Walker it was of frequent occurrence that the
return air was so charged with fire-damp that, as the writer has been told
by Mr. Forster, it flashed over the furnace.
This, at the present day, seems almost incredible ; but experienced men know
that such things used to be.
The situation of resident viewer at Hetton Colliery became vacant, and Mr.
Forster, then at the age of twenty-two, applied for and obtained the
appointment.
6 MEMOIR OF THE LATE ME. T. E. EORSTER.
There was nothing here for him but hard work. The day's work of a resident
viewer in those times (and until much more recently) commenced at four
o'clock in the morning, occasionally varied by a " call" at one or two, and
had no fixed time for its end 5 and when owners do not pull together, agents
are seldom very comfortable, and Mr. Forster was an agent. But the
foundation of lasting friendships was laid ; and those with Mr. Arthur
Mowbray, Mr. George Baker, the Hon. Mrs. Cochrane, and others (members of
the Hetton Company), which continued through life, bear witness to the
confidence and the esteem which Mr. Forster's steadiness, ability, and high
professional character had already obtained for him.
He left Hetton in 1828, and afterwards went to live at Houghton-le-Spring,
when he married Miss Dodd, the eldest daughter of the Rev. John Dodd, of
Chester-le-Street.
To the gentle influence of this excellent lady a large portion of Mr.
Forster's success in after life was undoubtedly due : she died in 1873.
Up to that time Mr. Forster had filled two situations, in each of which he
was assistant or resident viewer; he now rapidly took higher ground, and
became a viewer in chief. He was appointed check viewer by Mr. Baker, of
Elemore Hall, and also by other possessors of mineral estates; he became the
consulting viewer at the Felling and other collieries, and in the year 1831
he was charged with the establishment of Haswell Colliery, an undertaking
attended with much difficulty, owing to the great thickness and soft nature
of the sand underlying the magnesian limestone and the large quantity of
water met with in sinking through it. In the original site these
difficulties became so formidable that it was desirable to select another
place for the pits ; at this the winning was successfully accomplished, and
the Hutton Seam was struck in March, 1835 ; on July 2nd the first cargo of
coals was shipped at Seaham Harbour.
Mr. Forster now removed to the house built for him at Haswell, where he
lived till the year 1846, when he removed to Newcastle, where he resided for
the rest of his life.
About this time Mr. Forster was engaged with the construction of the Durham
and Sunderland Eailway, the first Act of Parliament for which was obtained
in 1834. It is about sixteen miles in length. It commences at Sunderland
Moor, and at Murton it diverges into two branches—one to Haswell, where it
joins the Hartlepool Eailway ; and one to Shincliffe, about a mile from
Durham. It was laid out as a rope line and worked by stationary engines, but
has since, on its acquirement by the North-Eastern Eailway Company, been
converted into a locomotive engine line. It cost £14,281 per mile.
MEMOIR OF THE LATE MR. T. E. FORSTER. 7
Mr. Forster's practice now rapidly extended ; he, in addition to various
check viewerships, to being the engineer of the Durham and Sunderland
Eailway, and to being the chief viewer of Haswell and Felling Collieries,
was entrusted with the establishment of the Belmont, Shincliffe, Corn-forth,
Shotton (for the Haswell Coal Company), Byers Green, and Scremerston
Collieries, the latter being partly owned by his firm friend, Major Johnson.
He also became consulting viewer to Lord Lonsdale, Lord Boyne, and many
other proprietors, and had at one time or another the chief viewer-ship and
management of the Black Boy, Percy Main, Seaton Delaval, South Hetton and
Murton, Whitehaven, Coanwood, Blenkinsop, Nether-ton, and Nunnery Collieries
in England, as well as of colliery property in Ireland.
In 1836 Mr. Forster was elected a member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers ; and in 1852 he was one of a meeting of colliery owners, viewers,
and others interested in the Coal Trade, held in the Coal Trade Office,
Newcastle, on the 3rd of July, for the purpose of forming a society, to meet
at fixed periods, and discuss the means for the ventilation of coal mines,
for the prevention of accidents, and for general purposes connected with the
winning and working of collieries.
He was one of the first elected members of the society which was then named
" The North of England Institute of Mining Engineers," his election taking
place on the 5th November, 1852. He was a Vice-President from 1861 to 1865,
and President from 1866 to 1868, and Vol. XY. of the Transactions of the
Institute contains his excellent inaugural address.
Mr. Forster was a man of untiring energy, of great tact, and sound judgment;
and there were few matters connected with the Coal Trade in which he was
not, more or less, consulted. He was a very early riser, and up to the year
1845, when he had a serious illness, he was rarely in bed after four o'clock
in the morning, and oftentimes arrived at one of his distant collieries at
that early hour, after a drive of fifteen or twenty miles.
But it was pre-eminently when down the pit, that Mr. Forster was at home :
his hearty manner with those who worked for him, almost every one of whom he
knew by name : his clear insight into character, and his immediate detection
of sham or subterfuge: his fondness of hearing or telling a good story: his
thorough knowledge of his profession : his untiring activity in going round
the colliery workings : his honesty of purpose, and his abstemious and
regular life, marked him out as one in whom his people could place
confidence, while his firm and
8 MEMOIR OF THE LATE MR. T. E. FORSTER.
decided manner equally insured their attention and obedience to his orders.
At the commencement of Mr. Forster's professional life the quantity of air
employed in the ventilation of collieries was so small, in comparison with
that now ordinarily used, that it is a matter of no small surprise that
accidents from explosion were at that time comparatively so infrequent. Mr.
Buddie, in " The first report of a society for preventing , accidents in
coal mines (1814)," said, " The standard air-course or current of
atmospheric air which I employ in the ventilation of the collieries under my
care, abounding in inflammable gas, moves through an aperture from thirty to
forty feet in area, with a velocity of three feet per second, which equals
from 5,400 to 7,200 cubic feet, or from 525 to 700 hogsheads per minute."
The whole of this " report" is very remarkable and deserves careful study :
either Mr. Buddie was wrong, or the whole of the present system of
ventilating collieries is at fault.
By the adoption of large air-courses, most carefully kept in order, and of
powerful furnaces, Mr. Forster was one of the pioneers of that greatly
increased ventilation which, between the years 1830 and 1840, became the
rule in all well-conducted collieries ; he was also one of the first to
adopt the cage system of drawing coals, the use of wire ropes for winding,
and the lighting of mines with gas from the surface.
Mr. Forster was never in favour of Government interference with the
management of collieries. In a letter to the writer of this memoir, dated
March 17th, 1847, he said—" This accident in Yorkshire will be the means of
getting Government Inspectors employed, and that will lead to a great deal
of unpleasantness."
The following extracts from Mr. Forster's evidence before a select committee
of the House of Commons in 1853, give his opinions with sufficient clearness
:—
" The present inspection does very little good ; if there is to be an
inspection at all, there ought to be more inspectors, and they should go
down the pits oftener than at present." (4,695, 4,722, 4,749, 4,762) "
Objects to the appointment of sub-inspectors, as they and the overmen would
be constantly quarrelling." (4,723)
" The superintendence of mines by the sub-viewers, overmen, and others is
sufficient, and it is unnecessary to have any further superintendence."
In 1866 Mr. Forster was examined before a select committee on mines, when he
stated (9,909) " that the number of persons employed at the
MEMOIR OF THE LATE MR. T. E. FORSTER. 9
collieries under his care was from 7,000 to 8,000 ;" a very respectable army
always under fire.
In that year (1866) a Koyal Commission was appointed to enquire into the
several matters relative to coal in the United Kingdom ; the report was
presented to her Majesty July 27th, 1871.
The Commissioner appointed for Northumberland and Cumberland was Mr.
Forster.
The general summary of the quantity of coal remaining to be worked at the
date of Mr. Forster's report was given by him as—
Tons.
Cumberland coal-field... ............ 405,203,792
Northumberland coal-field ............ 3,148,096,839
Northumberland mountain limestone district ... 665,180,007
4,218,480,638
All lying within a depth of 1,800 feet from the surface.
This quantity included 403,200,000 tons of coal lying under the sea, between
the mouth of the Tyne and Cresswell, a distance of 20 miles. The calculation
of this quantity was based upon a limit of two miles seaward (a very
moderate estimate), and a thickness of 14 feet of available coal.
The hand of sickness fell heavily on Mr. Forster in 1873 ; and his valuable
life terminated at his residence in Ellison Place, Newcastle, on the 7th
March of the present year.
He is survived by his only son, Mr. George Baker Forster, who was brought up
to and practices that profession of which his father was so great an
ornament; he was named after the late Mr. Baker, of Elemore Hall, who stood
his sponsor, and who, till the time of his death, was the staunch friend of
the man whom he first knew as the young viewer of Hetton Colliery in 1823.
Mr. Forster also had two daughters, who died at an early age.
One who knew Mr. Forster well has tersely said:—"The character of the late
Thos. E. Forster may be summed as follows—-indefatigable industry, great
shrewdness and sagacity, and large hearted generosity."
The following extract from a leading article in the " Daily Telegraph" of
the 14th of August last, may appropriately close this memoir :—" All
experience convinces us that for hard severe work, for enduring cold, hunger
and fatigue, for going without sleep, for preserving a cheerful temper in
adverse circumstances, and for all those qualities which, in a couple of
words, are comprehensively summed up as 'pluck and last,' the
VOL XXV.-1876.
.„
10 MEMOIR OF THE LATE MR. T. E. FORSTER.
best type of man is one of middle height or even less, with a deep chest,
square shoulders, thick neck, and if anything a slight tendency to fat." Add
to the above a swarthy complexion and a sharp dark eye, and such a man was
Mr. Thomas Emerson Forster.
The Chairman thought the great number of those who had known Mr. Forster
could endorse what Mr. G-reenwell had said about him. He was sure that no
one could have had any business transactions with Mr. Forster but would at
once see his great ability.
Mr. T. W. Benson said, he might mention that with regard to Mr. Forster's
habit of early rising, he had often heard his father say that when he (Mr.
F.) was acting as check viewer to the Commissioners of Greenwich Hospital,
on his periodical visits to the west country, it was his practice to leave
Haswell at three o'clock in the morning, ride to Eedheugh, where the train
at that time left for Carlisle, breakfast at Haydon Bridge, go down the pit
at Brokenheugh, afterwards drive to Stublick, go down the pit there; take
the train at Haydon Bridge, and afterwards ride home to Haswell, arriving at
one or two o'clock in the morning. This he believed Mr. Forster regularly
did when he came to visit the collieries.
The Chairman thought they should pass a vote of thanks to Mr. Greenwell for
the paper he had sent.
The proposition was carried unanimously.
The Secretary said, that early next week circulars would be sent out giving
a sketch of what it was proposed to do at the meeting at Barnsley; and the
members would be asked to signify whether or not they would attend, and if
they could not attend the whole of the days, which of the days they would be
able to attend. Of course it would be very important to know who would and
who would* not attend, in order that the gentlemen in Yorkshire might be
able to make the necessary arrangements for their reception. He had been at
Barnsley, and had had a conversation with the secretary ; and he thought the
members might be perfectly sure of a warm reception, as all the proprietors
of mines and works there had signified their willingness to open them for
the inspection of the members.
The meeting then terminated.
PROCEEDINGS. 11
PROCEEDINGS.
SPECIAL GENERAL MEETING IN YORKSHIRE, AT THE INVITATION OF THE MIDLAND
INSTITUTE OF MINING, CIVIL, AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, WEDNESDAY, THE 13th
OCTOBER, 1875, IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL HALL, LEEDS.
T. W. EMBLETON, Esq., President of the Midland Institute, in the Chair.
The President, in opening the meeting, cordially welcomed the members of the
northern institute, and hoped that the efforts that had been made to
entertain them both intellectually and materially would meet with their
approbation. The north-eastern portion of Yorkshire was a mining district
well worth the attention of professional men, and the mechanical appliances
for extracting the mineral were now so developed as to render a visit to its
collieries well worth the attention of all those connected with the
construction of machinery. Irrespective of the mining resources of the
division, its manufactures of steel, iron, and machinery were second to
none. As both colliery owners and manufacturers had with the utmost
cordiality thrown their works open to their guests, he trusted they would be
gratified by the inspection of them. With regard to the papers that were to
be read, they were all of a very high standard, but as the days were short,
and they had so much to see, he would propose that they should consider them
as read, with the exception of that by Mr. Bussel, on the " Geology of North
Yorkshire," which would be read to-day, and the one by Mr. Green, which
would be read at the Corn Exchange, at Barnsley, to-morrow.
After visiting the various works thrown open for their inspection, the
visitors dined, by invitation, at the Queen's Hotel, Leeds.
12 PROCEEDINGS.
On the morning of the 14th, a special train conveyed the members and their
friends to Barnsley, where Mr. Green's paper on " The General features of
the Yorkshire Coal-field" was read. After a day spent in viewing the various
collieries in the district, the visitors were entertained at a banquet at
the King's Head, after which a special train conveyed them to Sheffield.
There were no papers read at Sheffield on the 15th, but the various
collieries and manufactories were inspected, and the visit terminated by a '
dinner given at the Cutlers' Hall.
To expedite the publication of the proceedings, it has been considered
advisable to publish them in the order in which they can be got ready for
the press.
THE SILKSTONE AND BARNSLEY COAL SEAMS. 13
ON THE VARIATIONS IN THICKNESS AND CHARACTER OF THE SILKSTONE AND BARNSLEY
COAL SEAMS IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE YORKSHIRE COAL FIELD, AND THE
PROBABLE MANNER IN WHICH THESE AND SIMILAR CHANGES HAVE BEEN PRODUCED.
By A. H. GREEN, M.A., P.G.S.
Professor of Geology in the Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds ; of the
Geological Survey of England and Wales.
Over the southern part of the Yorkshire Coal-field, as far north as the
village of Cawthorne, the Silkstone coal maintains, in spite of local
variations, a fairly constant character. It consists of two beds of coal,
each averaging some 2 feet 6 inches in thickness, separated by a band of
dirt. Over a very great part of the area where the coal is known, the dirt
parting is very thin; here and there, however, it swells out to a very
considerable thickness, and in one place it even reaches a thickness of ten
yards. In the neighbourhood of Cawthorne a very important change comes over
the seam, additional dirt partings come in and it breaks up into several
beds of coal. Following it to the north-west the beds of coal decrease in
thickness, whilst the -dirt partings swell out, and there can be little
doubt that if it were possible to trace the seam still further in this
direction, it would be found that the coal thins away altogether, and the
seam is replaced entirely by stone and shale. On this point, however, it is
impossible to speak with'certainty, for after passing Cawthorne the seam
becomes so much deteriorated that' no attempts have been made to work it,
and to the north-west of that village there is a belt of country some two or
three miles broad which is totally unexplored. After passing this
problematical ground, however, a tract is again reached yielding workable
seams, and among these there is one known as the Blocking coal, which holds
a position in the measures exactly corresponding to that of the Silkstone
coal, and which, for this reason, the author considers to be the equivalent
of that seam. The Blocking coal, however, differs totally
14 THE SILRSTONE AND BABNSLEY COAL SEAMS.
from the Silkstone in character, for it is a single bed of coal averaging
1 foot 6 inches in thickness, reaching but rarely an extreme thickness of
2 feet.
After the above general sketch, the author gave the following details of the
variations of the Silkstone coal:—
About nine miles south of Eotherham the seam consists of two beds of
moderate thickness, with a thin dirt parting. The section being (A, Plate
I., Fig. 1) :—
Ft. In.
Coal...........................1 2i
Dirt...........................0 8
Coal...........................1 9
About six miles north-west of Eotherham, where the seam may be said to be
about at its best, it consists of the following subdivisions :— See B, Plate
I.. Fig 1.
Ft. In.
Branch Coal..................... ... 1 2
Coal........................... 1 4
Dirt ........................... 0 7
Coal........................... 3 7
About three miles to the west of Eotherham the parting of dirt has increased
to a thickness of from 1 foot 3 inches to 4 feet, the top and bottom coals
having a little less than their ordinary thickness. C, Plate I., Fig. 1.
Going on towards Chapel Town, the dirt parting continues to swell till it
reaches a thickness of ten yards. A little further on another singular
change comes over the seam, the lower bed of coal decreases in thickness and
passes into a mass of black shale with thin shreds of coal, the top bed
still going on. D, Plate I., Fig. 1. The exact area over which the bottom
seam is wanting has not been ascertained, but its disappearance is certainly
only local, for a little further to the north the seam recovers pretty much
its usual character. From this point up to the village of Dodworth, Higham,
and Silkstone, the seam has been very largely worked, and found to be very
uniform in general character; the two coals average 2 feet 6 inches to 2
feet 7 inches, and the dirt parting then never exceeds 9 inches. E to F,
Fig. 1.
Between Silkstone and Cawthorne, however, the important change described in
the introductory sketch sets in ; the main dirt increases in thickness, and
other partings come in amongst the coal, splitting it up into a number of
subdivisions.
THE SILKSTONE AND BAENSLEY COAL SEAMS. ]5
The following two sections, in the neighbourhood of Cawthorne, will
illustrate this change:—
(1) (2)
F, Fig. 1 G, Fig. 1.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
Top coal ...... Coal ... 1 4 ......... 110
„ ...... Dirt ... 1 9 ......... 2 0
„ ...... Coal ... 0 8 ......... 0 9
Main Dirt...... Parting 22 8 ......... 23 2
(Coal ...... 1 5
Bottom coal ... Coal ... 1 9 i Dirt ...... 0
4
(coal ...... 0 5
In both of these the thickness of the coals is below the average, and the
old dirt parting has vastly increased in thickness ; but besides these
changes, the top bed has become divided by a new band of dirt, and in the
second section a similar change has affected the bottom bed, so that the
seam has become broken up into four beds. There seems reason to believe that
the gradual breaking up may continue to increase towards the north-west,
till the seam, if it does not altogether cease to exist as a coal, becomes
so continually divided and subdivided by the coming in of new dirt bands,
that for all practical purposes it may be looked upon as non-existent.
Whether, however, it actually comes to this or not, the seam has already,
where the above sections are taken, become unworkable, and it is here that
the belt of unproved ground, which has been already mentioned, is entered
upon.
It remains only to add, that, when the productive district is again reached,
the place occupied on the south by the Silkstone coal is taken by the
Blocking bed, a seam ranging from 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feet in thickness.*
The Barnsley coal has now to be described. Its marked distinguishing
character is the occurrence in it of a band of " hard" or " steam" coal.
This lies in the middle of the seam, the upper and lower portions being of
the so-called "bituminous" character. In the neighbourhood of Sheffield this
coal ranges from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches in thickness; going north it
thickens, till at Eotherham it reaches 7 or 8 feet. About Barnsley it is at
its best, ranging from 9 feet to 10 feet, and sometimes even exceeding the
latter figure. At Darton, near the station of that name, on the Lancashire
and Yorkshire Eailway, the coal is still of good quality, hut a dirt
parting, which first makes its appearance some way south of Barnsley, has
somewhat increased in thickness. A
* There is some difference of opinion about the identity of the Silkstone
and Blocking coals. The reasons for thinking them equivalents will he given
at length in the Memoir of the Geological Survey of the Yorkshire
Coal-field.
16 TFIE SILKSTONE AND BARNSLEY COAL SEAMS.
little further on, as Haigh Station is approached, the coal has fallen off
very considerably, and still further to the north, at Crigglestone, it has
split up into so many small seams by dirt partings as to be utterly
worthless; and, further north, the writer has found it by personal
explor-ings to be still further deteriorated. Then, as in the case of the
Silkstone seam, comes a belt of unexplored ground; and, after passing this,
we find the coal, which occupies the same place as the Barnsley bed, putting
on one form towards the north-east, and another towards the north-west; In
the first direction, i, e., going towards "Wakefield, the coal called Warren
House probably corresponds with the Barnsley; it is for the most part a
mixture of thin bands of coal and dirt, never of much value, and frequently
absolutely worthless. Going towards the north-west, the coal, which seems to
be the equivalent of the Barnsley bed, is called the Gfawthorpe, a seam from
2 feet to 3 feet in thickness, and of fair average quality. Neither the
Warren House nor the Grawthorpe contain any " hard" coal.
The writer will now proceed to give a few details of the changes which have
been broadly sketched out in the preceding paragraph. Near Sheffield, the
three subdivisions of this coal range as follows (Plate I., Fig. 2):—the top
softs, from 1 foot to 1 foot 8 inches ; the hard coal, from 1 foot 6 inches
to 2 feet; and the bottom softs, from 2 inches up to 1 foot. Northward, from
Botherham and on to Elsecar, the coal considerably increases in thickness,
the top ranging from 1 foot 6 inches to 3 feet; the hards, from 3 feet to 4
feet 6 inches; and the bottom, from 1 foot 4 inches to 2 feet. Although
these three subdivisions can be clearly separated one from another, there is
nothing that can fairly be called a parting between them. Between Elsecar
and Barnsley, however, a parting comes in between the tops and the hards,
called the clay seam band, consisting of clay and a very inferior sort of
coal. At Barnsley, the section might be taken as follows:—the top seam, from
2 feet 2 inches to 4 feet; then the " clay seam," ranging from 3 inches to 1
foot 8 inches; then comes the hard or steam coal, from 1 foot 9 inches to 3
feet 6 inches; and then the bottom coal, 1 foot 11 inches to 2 feet 8
inches.
The seam maintains this character up to Darton, where the clay band has very
materially increased in thickness, the other divisions retaining their
normal characteristics as to quality and thickness. At Haigh, this coal has
been worked, but only to a limited extent. There can be no doubt that the
coal at Haigh is the equivalent in a general way of the Barnsley bed, but
the writer has never been able to satisfy himself as to the identity of the
subdivisions of the bed at Haigh with those of the
THE SILKSTONE AND BARNSLEY COAL SEAMS. 17 '
Barnsley seam. Of one thing, however, he is quite sure, namely, that at
Haigh there is no "hard" coal: it has completely gone out, and thus a very
important change has taken place within two or three miles. The next section
is obtained in the railway cutting at Criggleston Station, and here changes
still more remarkable have come over the bed. It shows the following
numerous subdivisions :—
Ft. In.
Coal ........................ 1 7
Shale and spavin, with thin layers of coal ......... 5 3
Coal ........................ 1 5
Spavin, black shale, and thin layers of coal......... 1 4
Coal and black shale .................. 1 1J
Coal ........................ 1 4
Spavin ........................ 1 6
Coal and black shale .................. 1 4J
Some little way further to the north-west, the bed has further come down to
the following insignificant representative :—
Ft. In.
Coal ............ ............ 0 9J
Spavin ........................ 0 2J
Coal ........................ 0 OJ
Spavin ........................ 1 6
Coal ........................ 1 11*
Spavin ........................ 0 8
Coal ........................ 0 1
These sections show that changes, exactly similar to those which affect the
Silkstone coal, come over the Barnsley bed as it is traced to the
north-west. This leads to the belief that, if it could be followed further
in that direction, it would be found to be entirely replaced by stone and
shale; and the section last given seemed to show that in the case of the
Barnsley bed, it has been possible to push explorations nearer to the
probable extinction of the seam than in that of the Silkstone coal.
At this point, the rapid deterioration of the seam has forbidden any
attempts to work it; and a tract of unexplored ground is entered upon,
beyond which, as has been already mentioned, the Barnsley coal is
represented on one side by the "Warren House, and on the other by the
Grawthorpe, which differ strikingly both from the Barnsley bed itself and
from one another.
On the horizon of the Barnsley coal there are changes still more striking
than those met with in the case of the Silkstone seam. "When -the
equivalent coals in different parts of the field are compared with one
another, the representative beds are found to be three in number, and no two
of these are in the least degree alike.
VOL. XXV.-1875.
q
18 THE SILKSTONE AND BABNSLEY COAL SEAMS.
It now remains to offer some explanation of the probable manner in which
changes like these just described are produced. The occurrence of partings
in a bed of coal, and the variations in thickness of these partings, are
easily accounted for.
Coal, it is well known, is the result of an accumulation of dead vegetable
matter which grew on swampy fiats at the spot where it is now found. When
accumulation had gone on for some time, the ground was lowered and submerged
beneath water. Into this water, sand and* mud were carried by running
streams, were piled up into banks, or spread out in layers, and covered up
the sheet of dead vegetable material. Then upheaval followed, a land
surface was again formed, and on it the growth of a fresh seam of coal took
place. If the submergence was of long duration, the two successive coal
beds are separated by a considerable thickness of shale and sandstone; but
where the depression lasted for only a short time two beds of coal are
formed, separated by a thin layer of sedimentary matter. The thickening
of a parting requires that the sinking which followed on the growth of the
lower coal bed should have gone on faster at some spots than others. By
such an adjustment, the lower seam would become bent down into the shape A
B, Fig. 3; if the sediment accumulated up to the level C D, and a fresh
growth of coal, E F, took place over the level top of the deposit, there
would be a double seam of coal with a parting rapidly swelling out towards
the right.
The replacement of coal by sandstone is also often produced by what are
known as " rock faults." In such cases a stream of water has flowed over the
layer of dead plants before it became covered up, and eaten out in it a
trough or channel, and this hollow has, during the subsequent submergence,
been filled in with sand or mud.
But neither of these explanations will apply to the cases before us, for two
facts have to be accounted for. First, the gradual breaking up of a seam of
clean coal into numerous subdivisions by dirt bands, and the gradual
diminution in thickness, and eventual disappearance altogether of the coal
out of the seam; and, secondly, when a spot is reached where coal again sets
in, the appearance of a bed differing totally in thickness and character
from the seam started with.
The latter fact may be accounted for if it is supposed that the swamps in
which the growth of the two distinct forms of the same bed went on were not
continuous, but parted from one another by some barrier, and that the
physical conditions of the two swamps were so different that the vegetable
growth of the one differed from that of the other both in nature and amount.
For instance, the Silkstone and Blocking coals may both
THE SILKSTONE AND BARNSLEY COAL SEAMS. 19
have been growing about the same time over two swamps. Where the Silkstone
seam accumulated, the growth was plentiful and rapid, and during the
formation of the seam submergence occurred once and gave rise to a dirt
parting. On the Blocking-coal-swamp plants did not flourish so luxuriantly,
and no submergence occurred, and so a coal bed, thinner than the Silkstone
and with no dirt parting, was the result.
The breaking up of the seam as it approaches the margin of the swamp may
have been caused in a way that will be understood by a reference to Fig. 4.
The barrier separating the two swamps may have consisted of a ridge of land,
ABC, somewhat raised above the low ground on either side. On this barrier,
for some reason or other, plants did not flourish so luxuriantly as over the
adjoining swamps. While, therefore, vegetable growth went on freely at a
point D, some way out on the fiat, it would decrease as we approached the
ridge, and a layer of coal would be found thinning away towards A. Again,
rain and other denuding agents would sweep the loose soil produced by the
atmospheric disintegration of the exposed surface of the ridge, down its
slopes on to the flat, but when the running water reached the level surface,
it would soon come to rest and drop its burden of sand or mud. In this way
the margin of the ridge would become fringed with accumulations of sediment,
but these would not reach out far on to the flat, but would be wedge-shaped
banks, such as E F A. In the meantime, the growth of plants out on the flat
would add another layer of coal material above A D; and away from the ridge
this would be clear and pure, but on approaching the barrier would become
mixed with sediment, and gradually thin away as shown at H. On the top of Gr
H, another band of sediment would accumulate in the neighbourhood of the
ridge, and another layer of clean coal material out on the flat. By a
continuation of such a process as this, there would result a seam of coal,
thick and free from partings on the left, but splitting up into numerous
subdivisions, and falling off in quality and thickness as the point A was
approached: in short, exactly such a seam as the Silkstone and Barnsley
coals have been found by actual explorations to be.
In particular instances, special modifications of the process may be
required to explain the individual circumstances of each case, but some such
general method seems quite competent to produce the modifications in the
character of coal seams, of which examples have been given in the preceding
paper.
20 SILKSTONE AND BARNSLEY COAL SEAMS—DISCUSSION.
The President said, they had heard the paper, and he hoped some gentleman
would make remarks upon it. There were several disputed points in Professor
Green's description of these two seams, and he thought the great advantage
of all these papers being read was the discussion that followed.
Mr. Chambers (Normanton) said, he had risen to make a remark or two in
reference to the paper so ably delivered by Professor Green, and to thank
him for having brought that subject before them. One fact which he thought
had escaped the notice of Professor Green was, that the separation between
the two seams which occurred in the Thorncliffe Collieries was at a fault
seven yards in thickness, which throws the coal seven yards up to the south,
the direction of the fault being about south 69 west. On the north side of
this fault the coal was found in its full thickness ; on the south side
there was a thickness of strata between the two seams of fourteen yards. The
lower seams had been bored to and had been proved and found to be
sufficiently remunerative to work at present. He .believed that at the
Grange Colliery, which was a few miles to the south of this fault, the
bottom seams had been worked, but had been found of rather an inferior
quality. A separation there was distinct and sudden. On the north edge of
the separation in the Silkstone Main Colliery, at Cathorne, the separation
took place, as Professor Green had described it, very gradually, the dirt
thickening between the two seams. The top seam had been proved to a distance
of about 400 yards from the Silkstone Main Colliery, and its thickness on
the north side was about two feet. The bottom one was so thin that it was
not suitable to work; on the south side of the basin at Thorncliffe
Collieries, where the top seam had been valued, it (at the commencement) was
found to be 2 feet 8 inches in thickness, but it had thinned until it was in
at the face of the level rather less than two feet.
Mr. Jacob Higson said, there were several matters of detail in connection
with the paper which Professor Green had read with which many of them might
differ, but at the same time it gave utterance to a broad and general
principle which was of far greater and more material importance than any
error of detail. He had listened to the paper with very great interest, but
the subject was too important and long to be dealt with fully in the time
they had at their disposal. He therefore begged to propose a vote of thanks
for the interesting and able paper which Professor Green had read.
Mr. Waedle said, he had very great pleasure in seconding the motion.
SILKSTONE AND BARNSLEY COAL SEAMS—DISCUSSION. 21
The President said, he quite agreed with what Mr. Higson said. It was too
broad a question to be discussed that day. There were various circumstances
which no doubt had escaped the Professor's notice, and no doubt when the
paper was printed these things would be more fully gone into. There was one
question that he wished to bring to the notice of the Professor—that was,
that in the coal seams of Yorkshire wherever they had a black shale to the
roof, there they found the remains of fish, scales, teeth, and bones.
The motion was carried by acclamation.
Professor Green said, he was very much obliged to them for the kind way in
which they had received his paper. With regard to one point put forward by
the last speaker, that the change in the thickness of the parting at Chapel
Town takes place suddenly in crossing a fault, he (Professor Green) had
heard that very often indeed, and it was a thing which completely puzzled
him, for this reason—that the partings were produced first, and the faults
long afterwards—long, long, afterwards. If the deposition of the partings
and the production of faults had gone on simultaneously, then he could
understand why one action should be closely connected with the other; but as
we knew perfectly well that the deposition of the enormous mass of strata,
which must have occupied a very long time, went on before the faulting
began, it was extremely puzzling to understand why a fault should coincide
with the change of character of a coal seam or the change in the thickening
of a parting. So far as his knowledge went, it seemed to him at present a
pure accident, and nothing but an accident; but if any one could explain it
better at any time, it would take a great weight off his mind, because his
inability to account for it had often weighed on his mind, and he was very
much astonished at present by his want of power to account for it.
THE SILKSTONE SEAM OF STEAFFOED MAIN COLLIERY. 23
ON DISLOCATIONS IN THE THILL, WITH THE PRESENCE, AMOUNT, AND TENSION OF GAS
IN THE SILKSTONE SEAM OE STRAFFORD MAIN COLLIERY.
By EOBEET MILLEE.
In Volume XVII., page 43, of the Proceedings of the Institute, Mr. Philip
Cooper, in a valuable paper, describes an outburst of gas that came from a
crack in the thill of the Silkstone seam at this colliery, on Tuesday
morning, the 1st of October, 1867 (shown by the line Y, Plate II.), and on
the 31st of August, 1870, a similar outburst of somewhat less consequence
occurred some eight chains in advance of the former one, but in the same
district of the mine (W X, Plate II.) As both these outbreaks were the cause
of considerable danger to the miners, the writer thought it advisable to put
down a bore hole (B H) to a depth of 74-|- feet in a place where it seemed
probable that another outburst of gas was imminent.
This last outburst and the sinking of the bore hole were described in
"Volume II., page 155, of the "Transactions of the Midland Institute of
Mining, Civil, and Mechanical Engineers," in a paper by the present writer.
That portion which describes the second outburst in 1870 is, with the kind
permission of the Midland Institute, added here in order to connect the
present communication with the previous paper of Mr. Cooper.
On the 31st August, 1870, at about 8'30 p.m., the floor burst again at W X,
close to the face of benks, then advanced from the part noted in 1867 to
that shown on Plan at __i8™^_
It was less violent, though enough to foul a strong current of air (10,000
to 12,000 feet per minute on the face) to where it joined with 8,000 feet
per minute more, for at least four hours after first coming off.
The faces had been worked that day till two p.m., and nothing unusual noted
; and a back-deputy had been across the face from the return
24 THE SILKSTONE SEAM OF STRAFFORD MAIN COLLIERY.
bord at P, to the gate marked No. 1, where he went down a little after six
p.m., and found nothing to note or report; this is noteworthy, as he was
within thirty yards of one point where the crack was found giving off gas
strongly, and which it has continued to do regularly up to this time.
One man, with two boys, trammers, were at work filling coals at S, and they
describe the occurrence as happening in a similar way to the outburst of
18G7, that is, they heard a sudden breaking, as if all the face was coming
in, then felt a rush of air and dust, and gas on their lamps. They had two
lamps burning, and one of the men states that they got them from the place
where they were working, after feeling the disturbance, and got on to the
cross gate at V, before they saw gas on the lamps, and then they got out by
the cross gate into a fresh current at X, and to the shaft with their lamps
burning, but without other clothes than those they
worked in.
Two deputies went back directly, and found gas as soon as they got through
the doors at X ; they then went round by No. 3 ginny gate, and found gas as
soon as they got to the bottom of No. 1 gate.
This was little altered when the writer arrived an hour afterwards, at 10*15
p.m. ; No. 1 showed a little gas, No. 2 was so full that it could not be
entered, but after waiting a short time they got up to No. 3 gate within a
few yards of the face, where ah was so foul that they could not proceed
further ; towards No. 4 gate, a noise like steam blowing off was heard ;
they then came back and round by that gate to the face, where, with a
current of 8,000 feet per minute, lamps were got so far as the corner of
benk at K, and there they found the floor slightly lifted and gas coming
with very great pressure out of the crack, shown at _^ro^_
This crack extended under the solid coal towards and across No. 4 gate, and
emitted a constant small vent of gas since the face has been advanced ; this
is probably the reason that it gave off strongest at that point, causing a
noise like the escape of steam at first, and giving off so much gas that
with 8,000 feet of air per minute on to it no one could then get past, even
on the return side, without firing the lamps. Twelve hours afterwards it was
examined, and for three feet length next the solid coal the escape was so
strong that it lifted scraps of paper and registered 50 feet per minute on a
six-inch Biram's anemometer.
All this, however, soon abated, so that in three days all was clear, except
at that particular point of issue, and at another point where there is a
hollow floor and a crack at some distance in the same line, which gives off
a small quantity of gas continually to this time.
It has been stated how in 1867 the floor was lifted up and iron
THE SILKSTONE SEAM OF STRAFFORD MAIN COLLIERY. 25
props and pack-chocks twisted and broken. In the last occurrence the lifting
of the floor was hardly perceptible except within a fewinches of the crack,
the roof was not broken nor altered in any perceptible way, and though the
line of outburst is traced for at least sixty yards, not a prop nor chock
was in any way broken or disturbed except within six feet of where the gas
was strongest; at this point one iron prop was broken and one was standing
up loosed at the head.
The bore hole which is now put down to 74^ feet at B H, Plate III., Fig. 1,
proves :—
22 feet of very hard stone bind and grey stone ; in some parts so hard as to
bore only a foot in six hours. 13 feet of mild bind with ironstone bands ;
down to this 35 feet no gas was
given off. 16 feet of dark bind with a very little gas coming off
irregularly. 3 feet very dark bind with increased discharge of gas, and at
this depth, 51
feet, went through a few inches of shale and coal, with water in the
bore hole. 20j feet very dark bind with coal pipes and with thin bands of
stone ; this
gives no increase of gas, but gives about the same discharge from 51
feet of depth to where the bore hole is stopped at 741 feet down from
the coal.
The hole is 2f inches diameter, and a gas pipe of 1^ inches was put down
some seven feet; rammed solid between the pipe and sides of the hole for 11
inches depth from the top; a steam-pressure gauge (Plate III., Fig. 2)—one
of the best for accurate working—was put on, and in 35 minutes the gauge
went up to 30 lbs. per square inch and then, after a few seconds of rending
and disturbance, the floor broke and the gas spent at a crack some two yards
from the hole, the gauge going back to 19 lbs.
One* or two facts are proved here,—that the floor at not less than 11 inches
depth was rent, and that it required not less than 30 lbs. per square inch
force to do it.
Comparing this thickness of 11 inches with 35 feet thickness of hard stone
which overlays the softer measures charged with gas, suggests an almost
unlimited force under that strata so long as there is no continuous vent;
however, to test this further, a safety-valve and pipes were prepared
besides the steam gauge, and meantime, a tested gas meter was procured, and
the discharge of gas was proved to be 930 feet in 88 hours, or, 10^ feet per
hour. To get a higher pressure, a seven feet length of gas pipe was taken,
and after placing an iron ring round the bottom end it was put down the
hole, and about 6^ feet were stemmed in solid between
VOL. XXV.-1875.
jj
26 THE SILKSTONE SEAM OF STRAFFORD MAIN COLLIERY.
the pipe and the hole with cement. The safety-valve, to blow off at 100
lbs., and steam gauge were then put on.
The instruments for measurement and pressure have been obtained from the
best sources, and have been carefully tested ; the gauge has been accurately
tested with a column of water 365 feet in height in the shaft, and also at
Messrs. Fowler's Engine Works, in Leeds.
In November, 1870, the discharge of gas was 930 feet in 88 hours, equal to
10^ feet per hour, and at that time the gauge rose steadily for 50 hours
till it got to 95 lbs. per inch, and, after having it up to 101 lbs., the
valve was eased, so that the discharge was free.
At that period, the area of coal worked, that is, the goaf in that panel,
was 3a. Or. 26p., and the bore hole some twenty yards from the working face.
From the end of 1870, till June, 1873, the hole continued giving off gas
with increasing quantity, which, in the opinion of the writer, has prevented
another sudden outburst there ; measured on the 11th June to 23rd June,
1873, it was found to steadily give off 50 feet per hour, or a total of
14,120 feet in 283 hours. At this date the working face had advanced so that
the area of goaf had become 8a. 1r. Op. From October, in this year, to
March, 1874, the bore hole was sealed a part of the time, and showed
pressures ranging from 80 lbs. to 117 lbs. per square inch. At the beginning
of July, 1874, a daily register was kept, and the hole continuously kept
sealed ; the particulars of such register, after being carefully checked and
corrected, are shown in Plates IV. and V., up to June 30th, 1875. The
quantity of gas given off has lessened since June, 1873, and, at the end of
September, 1875, is rather over 20 feet per hour, or 2,550 feet in 123^-
hours ; and at this date the faces have advanced till the area of goaf is
9a. 3r. 22p.
To the writer, the diagram annexed seems instructive ; it shows pressures
varying from 135 lbs. per square inch down to 80 lbs. ; and the highest
pressure seems to be always suddenly followed by the lowest pressure.
From this it is evident that, when at the highest, the gas has been blown
off or has got vent in some way, and then gone down to the lowest pressure.
It is possible that in these cases the floor in some part may have slightly
rent and discharged a little gas ; but nothing of the kind has ever been
seen, though two sides of the goaf, that is the working faces and the side
which is open to the return air course, have always been watched and
examined.
THE SILKSTONE SEAM OF STRAFFORD MAIN COLLIERY. 27
It is more probable that when the gas has got to the greatest pressure the
floor has been sprung or lifted over a certain space, making room for the
gas to expand to a less density and force for the time, till the continuous
discharge of more gas in time brings it up to its former power and pressure
as registered on the gauge. Though the pressure is great, there is no
knowing how much greater it may become, for the extreme possible tension of
gas as it is evolved from strata in the coal measures is not known as yet* ;
thus much, however, these experiments prove with certainty—that in districts
in the Silkstone seam with a floor such as is here described, and which
floor gives off no gas in the ordinary course of working, there is a force
underneath which is equal to 135 lbs. per square inch above the weight of
the atmosphere ; and that without some tapping or release of this dangerous
power either by slips in the hard floor, or by bore holes or other means,
the mine is, as it were, on the top of a heavily pressed boiler, and as the
coal is worked the resisting power of the strata is reduced till an outburst
takes place.
The gas is still blowing off, and with both gas meter and pressure gauge
attached, so that the discharge and pressure can be seen at any time.
* For further information respecting the pressure of concealed gases, see
paper by T. J. Taylor, Vol. I. page 275 of Transactions of the Institute,
also Vol. II. page 15, Vol. III. page 33, and Vol. V. page 17.
NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION. 29
NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION, ON THE 12th DECEMBER, 1866, AND ON THE
SUBSEQUENT EXPLOSIONS.
By T. W. EMBLETON.
It is purposed on the present occasion to narrate a succinct account of the
explosions at this colliery, and the proceedings afterwards adopted in
accordance with the resolutions passed by the mining engineers at the
meetings which were held at various times till the pits were opened.
These notes are partly taken from information and from observations made at
the time, and are accompanied by a diagram of the height of the barometer,
the internal and external pressure on the valve of the gas pipe inserted in
the scaffold, the temperature of the air at the surface, and the temperature
of the gas issuing from the mine. Observations were made hourly of the
barometer and of the pressure of the gas, whether plus or minus. The
temperatures were taken only during part of the time. The record extends
from 14th January to 5th November, 1867. This diagram is shown in Plates
VI. to XXXV.
Plate XXXVI. shows the construction of the scaffold lowered into No. 2
shaft.
Plate XXXVII. shows the general arrangement of the workings.
It is important that a perfect record of all explosions and of the phenomena
attending them should be kept, in order that all may be prepared to adopt
the most prudent mode of dealing with these lamentable catastrophes.
The first explosion took place at 1*15 on Wednesday, the 12th of December,
1866, and was indicated to the neighbourhood by a loud report and by a dense
volume of black smoke and dust issuing from the shafts.
The winding engine was slightly injured, and the cage in No. 2 shaft was
blown away and one of the couplings snapped. At No. 1 shaft the cage was
broken and disconnected from the rope. Smoke from the downcast shafts
continued for about five minutes and then suddenly ceased, and fresh air
began to descend the shafts. When this was observed the
30 NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION.
rope from No. 2 was taken off the drum, and the rope of No. 1 shaft was
wound to the top and examined and found to be injured. The broken cage was
taken off and replaced by a new one, and at about two p.m. Mr. Dymond,
accompanied by Mr. D. Tewart, the underviewer, and Mr. C. Siddons, one of
the deputies, descended and found many men lying at the bottom of the pit,
all much burnt. They were drawn to bank as soon as possible, and every
exertion was made to recover the remainder of the men. Searches were
vigorously prosecuted during the whole 'of* Wednesday afternoon and night by
Mr. Dymond, Mr. Potter, Mr. Brown, Mr. Parkin Jeffcock, Mr. Smith, Mr.
Platts, Mr. Maddison, Mr. Minto, and other viewers and deputies, aided by
seventy or eighty volunteers. They succeeded by five p.m. in recovering
thirty men and lads, and before morning the number was increased to eighty,
of whom only nineteen were found alive.
Mr. Parkin Jeffcock reached the colliery shortly after ten o'clock on the
evening of Wednesday, and after having examined the colliery plan in the
office, he sent for Mr. Minto. From him and Mr. Dymond he learnt all they
were able to detail respecting the accident and the measures which had been
adopted to recover the bodies and reinstate the mine.
Mr. Jeffcock, with Mr. Minto and Mr. Smith (Lundhill), went down the shaft
and met Mr. Brown, Mr. Potter, Mr. Cooper, Mr. Platts, and others, who were
about to ascend, and after a consultation as to the state of the mine, these
gentlemen came to the surface. Mr. Jeffcock had now been in the mine for
several hours, and Mr. Dymond, Mr. Potter, Mr. Brown, Mr. Smith
(Monkwearmouth), and Mr. Minto, were about to descend to relieve Mr.
Jeffcock and others, but Mr. Jeffcock sent up word to have the temperature
of the air in the upcast shaft ascertained. This was being done, and one of
the party was in the act of lowering a thermometer when the force of another
explosion from this shaft drove them one over the other to some distance.
This explosion took place about nine o'clock a.m. on Thursday, the 13th of
December. The cage at No. 1 pit was blown into the head gear, where it
remained broken.
Mr. Jeffcock, Mr. Smith (Lundhill), Mr. Tewart, and twenty-five other men
(volunteers), were down the pit at the time of this explosion.
No change was noticed at the shafts till about 7'40 p.m., when a dense smoke
was seen to issue from No. 2 shaft, succeeded by a violent blast of wind;
then smoke, accompanied by flames, and afterwards by showers of sparks, as
from burning wood. This discharge continued for hours. The furnace shaft and
No. 1 pit became downcasts after this explosion.
On Friday morning, the 14th, about 4*30, those who were placed at
NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION. 31
the pits to give notice of any change, heard the signal-bell ring. They
shouted down the shaft, but got no reply. A bottle of brandy and water was
then lowered to those supposed to be at the bottom of the shaft No. 1, and
the bottle was found to have been detached from the rope, and hopes were
entertained that some of those below would be got out alive.
The gin rope was taken off the upcast shaft and wound on the drum of the saw
mill engine, and the steam was got up and a pulley placed temporarily over
No. 1 shaft. By this time the viewers who had remained at Barnsley were
summoned, and had arrived at the colliery. It was then agreed that as all
was in readiness, an attempt should be made to rescue those who had given
the signal. Messrs. Mammat and T. W. Embleton, junior, volunteered to make
the hazardous attempt to bring up those who were below. They found some
difficulty in reaching the bottom of the shaft and securing their lights,
owing to the large feeders of water falling down the shaft in consequence of
the dams being choked up with the dirt thrown up by the explosions. They
succeeded in finding one man alive, Samuel Brown, whom they brought safely
to the surface; no one else could be heard or seen, and the sanguine hopes
before entertained were sadly put an end to.
They observed a large mass of burning material near the top of the incline,
probably the timber work there, and the corves of coals in the siding,
evidently the cause of the showers of sparks before noticed. These had been
ignited probably by the second explosion.
On the same day a further consultation was held, and as there was not the
slightest probability that any one remained alive in the pit, it was
resolved that two of the shafts should be pulled up, viz., the furnace shaft
and No. 2 shaft, to such a height as to exclude the air, and that the pumps
at the Engine Pit, which had been standing since Thursday, should be put in
motion, so as to prevent the water flowing into the mine and filling up the
workings, which are generally to the dip of the shafts. The Engine Pit is
sunk as far as the Melton field coal. A sub-committee was appointed,
consisting of Mr. John Brown, Mr. W. A. Potter, Mr. James Beaumont, and the
writer, to carry these operations into effect.
12 30 p.m.—Smoke was issuing more strongly from No. 2 shaft. 8 0 p.m.—More
steam, with smoke from No. 2. 10 50 p.m.—Temperature of air in No. 2 pit, 32
feet from surface, 70 degrees. Saturday, December 15.
1 20 a.m.—In No. 2, at 32 feet, the thermometer stood at 74 degrees,
2 0 a.m.—Same shaft, 55 yards from surface, 76 degrees.
4 45 a.m.—Explosion at all the pits—first up No. 1 and then up No. 2, and
lastly at the furnace shaft.
32 NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION.
5 10 a.m.—Similar explosions to the above. 9 5 a.m.—Violent explosions at
all the pits.
5 30 p.m.—Another explosion at all the pits, being the seventh, with dense
smoke.
6 20 p.m.—Slight explosion at Nos. 1 and 2.
6 25 p.m.—The ninth explosion, with discharge of smoke.
Sunday, December 16.
4 35 p.m.—The tenth explosion at all three pits, with smoke.
5 0 p.m.—Explosion at No. 1 pit only.
5 15 p.m.—The twelfth explosion, with dense smoke at Nos. 1 and 2 pits.
Monday, December 17.
2 50 p.m.—Another explosion at Nos. 1 and 2—not heard at furnace shaft.
3 15 p.m.—Another slight explosion at the same pits. Commenced filling
up
the furnace shaft this morning.
Tuesday, December 18. 2 20 a.m.—A more violent explosion than its
predecessors. The noise was terrific. Dense volumes of vapour and
clouds of smoke and dust were emitted at Nos. 1 and 2, but no indication at
the furnace shaft.
2 40 a.m.—The sixteenth explosion ; no loud report, but a rustling noise up
No. 1. A great quantity of smoke discharged, which discharge lasted for
twenty minutes.
3 20 a.m.—Another explosion similar to the last. This makes the
seventeenth. 3 0 p.m.—Commenced filling No. 1 pit. This reversed the
ventilation—smoke
coming up No. 2 pit. 6 45 p.m.—The bottom of the furnace shaft was found to
be sealed above the furnace drift.
Wednesday, December 19. 9 0 a.m.—The furnace shaft by measurement was
found to have been filled up to a height of 66 feet from the bottom. 10 30
a.m.—A volume of dense black smoke issued from No. 2 pit, evidently the
product of a severe fire below.
Thursday, December 20. 9 30 a.m.—Finding that No. 1 pit was now filled up
ninety-two yards, ceased putting in any more spoil.
Friday, December 21.
8 45 a.m.—Measured depth of furnace shaft and found it filled up to the
height of 117 yards from the bottom. The trunk on being drawn up this shaft
was found to be filled with water, showing that the shaft was sealed.
1 45 p.m.—Commenced putting clay into No. 1 shaft.
3 30 p.m.—Twenty-six tons of clay filled into No. 1. The height of
filling
found to be ninety-six yards from bottom. The trunk came up filled with
water.
4 0 p.m.—Commenced to fill clay into furnace shaft to further ensure the
sealing.
NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION. 33
Sunday, December 23. 9 0 a.m.—Measured the furnace shaft and found tine
filling had sunk three yards since 5"0 p.m. on Saturday.
This gives 91 yards of spoil, 80 yards of water.
171 yards. The water is now running off through the Melton field drift to
the pumping engine.
Monday, December 24.
At a meeting held this day at Barnsley it was resolved by the general
committee, after considering the reports of the local committee, that No. 1
shaft should be filled up to the Melton field seam a little below No. 6
drift.
That a scaffold be suspended in No. 2 shaft, below the Melton field coal,
with a pipe passing through it, such pipe to be carried to the surface to
allow the gas to escape.
Monday, January 7, 1867. At noon the hanging scaffold was lowered by the
winding engine, with a ten inch malleable iron pipe passing through it a
distance of twenty-five yards. The lengths of pipe being put on as the
scaffold descended on the shaft guides. Before doing this the cage was put
on and lowered below the place at which the scaffold was to be suspended,
and the guides were found perfect. At 5'0 p.m. the scaffold and pipes had
been lowered sixty-one yards—work was discontinued till daylight next
morning.
Wednesday, January 9. 1 15 p.m.—The scaffold reached its destination below
the Melton field coal. The engine rope was struck off and brought to the
surface. The scaffold was adjusted to its ropes and found properly
suspended. Kids were thrown down to cover it, and by covering twenty-four
tons of clay were put upon the kids.
Friday, January 11.
This morning about 9'0 a.m. there was a slip of the clay on the scaffold,
accompanied by a great rush of air into the mine. More kids were thrown in
and a large quantity of whins. It was found by plumbing that the side of the
scaffold next the pipe stays had given way. More clay was thrown down.
Saturday, January 12. The scaffold was made tight.
Sunday, January 13. It was now ascertained that there were twenty-four feet
of clay on the scaffold, with water standing seven feet six inches deep upon
it.
VOL. XXV.-1875.
jg
34 NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION.
Monday, January 14. 3 0 p.m.—Finished filling up No. 1 pit. Depth of
spoil 163 yards, with eleven feet of water above the spoil. Water
running off from No. 1, across the scaffold in No. 2, to the engine pit.
NOTES ON THE DIAGRAM.
The blue line represents the pressure on the water gauge whether inwards or
outwards. The thick horizontal line marked 0 equilibrium. The red line the
range of the barometer readings, the equilibrium line 0 being 29'0 inches of
the barometer scale.
The lower red line shows the height of the thermometer at the surface in the
shade, and the black the temperature of the gas issuing from the mine. At
the extremity of the diagram the green line shows the pressure of the gas in
the air pipe in No. 2 pit, used for conveying compressed air when the
colliery was at work.
The first indication of the upward pressure under the valve placed on the
top of the gas pipe was observed on the 14th January, 1867, at
eleven p.m.
The hourly readings of the barometer and pressure gauge began on the 30th
January and were continued till the 5th November in the
same year.
At ten a.m. on Monday, the 4th February, the gauge standing at 5*7 inches
and the barometer 29'1 inches with the valve open, 1,300 cubic feet of gas
per minute was given off from the gas pipe.
At eleven p.m. on Tuesday, the 5th February, pressure 5*2 inches, barometer
28'7 inches.
It was deemed prudent not to increase the pressure but to allow the gas to
escape when the water gauge stood at from three to four inches.
The greatest external pressure was on Tuesday, the 25th June, at ten p.m.,
viz., 1*9 inches, barometer 29*9 inches.
At seven a.m. on Thursday, 20th June, observations were taken of the surface
temperature and of the gas coming up the pipe :—
Temperature Date. of Air.
Temperature of Gas.
Degrees. Degrees.
Thursday, 20th June, 7 a.m. 59 51
Wednesday, 10th July, 2 p.m. 79 65
Thursday, 25th „ 5 a.m. 54 48 in two hours
after 54 degrees.
Saturday, 10th Aug., 2 p.m. 72 67
Monday, 19th „ 2 a.m. 66 54
NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION. 35
From the 8th September to the 5th November the temperature of the gas varied
at intervals from 58 degrees to 60 degrees, no doubt indicating that the
interior heat of the mine was abating.
The observations from which the green line was drawn commenced on the 7th
September. It is singular that, with few exceptions, the pressure indicated
by the gas in the air pipe was always less than that of the gas pipe,
probably owing to some obstructions below.
The several periods showing the duration of the internal and external
pressure are tabulated, also the height of barometer at the beginning and
end of each change.
Internal External Barometer.
Date** or
or -------------------------¦
Upcast. Downcast. Beg}n. Termi-
_________________________________________________ Hours. Hours.
ning. nation.
10 0 a.m., Jan. 14, 1867, to 12 0 noon, Jan. 19 122 0
......
12 Onoon, „ 19, „ 6 0 a.m., „ 20 0 18
......
6 0 a.m., „ 20, „ 10 0 a.m., „ 22 52 0 ......
10 0 a.m., „ 22, „ 1130 a.m., „ 22 0 1-30
......
11 30 a.m., „ 22, „ 11 30 a.m., „ 25 72 0 ......
11 30 a.m., „ 25, „ 5 25 p.m., „ 25 0 5-55 ......
5 25 p.m., „ 25, „ 6 0 a.m., „ 26 12'8fi 0 ......
6 0 a.m., „ 26, „ 9 30 a.m., „ 26 0 3-30 ......
9 30 a.m., „ 26, „ 9 30 a.m., „ 27 24 0 ......
9 30 p.m., „ 27, „ 5 0 p.m., „ 27 0 7-30 ......
5 0 p.m., „ 27, „ 7 30 a.m., „ 30 62-30 0 ......
7 30 a.m., „ 30, „ 11 0 a.m., „ 30 0 3"30 29-17 29-17 11 0 a.m.,
„ 30, „ 3 0 a.m., „ 31 16 0 2917 29-30
3 0 a.m., „ 31, „ 10 0 p.m., „ 31 0 19 29-30 29-50
10 0 p.m.. „ 31, „ 7 0 a.m., Feb. 2 33 0 29-50 29-50 7 0 a.m.,
Feb. 2, „ 4 0 a.m., „ 3 0 21 29-50
4 0 a.m., „ 3, „ 11 0 p.m., „ 6 91 0 ... 28-53
11 0 p.m., „ 6, „ 10 0 p.m., „ 7 0
23 28-53 29-07 10 0 p.m., „ 7, „
2 0 a.m., ,, 9 28 0 29-07 29-00
2 0 a.m., „ 9, „ 1 0 a.m., „ 10 0
23 29-00
1 0 a.m., „ 10, „ 10 0 a.m., „ 11 33
0 ... 29'37
10 0 a.m., „ 11, „ 10 0 p.m., „ 11 0
12 29-37 29-57
10 0 p.m., „ 11, „ 11 0 a.m., „ 12 13
0 29-57 29-57
11 0 a.m., „ 12, „ 12 30 a.m., „ 13 0
25-30 29-57 29-67
12 30 a.m., „ 13, „ 12 0 noon, „ 17 95-30
0 29-67 29-40 12 Onoon, „ 17, „ 4 0
p.m., „ 18 0 28 29-40 29-83
4 0 p.m., „ 18, „ 6 0 p.m., „ 28 242
0 29-83 29-77
6 0 p.m., „ 28, „ 12 0 noon, Mar. 10 18
29-77 29-97 12 0 noon, Mar. 1, „ 8 0 a.m., „
2 20 0 29-97 30-08
Carried forward ...... 915"95 208-05
36 NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIEKY EXPLOSION.
Internal External Barometer.
or or--------------------
Dates. Upcast.
Downcast. Begin- Termi-
Hours. Hours. ning, nation.
Brought forward...... 915-95 208-05
8 0 a.m„ Mar. 2, 1867, 12 30 a.m., Mar. 2 0 4-30 30'08 30-12
19 80 ml, „ 2, „ 2 0 p.m., „ 11 217-30
0 30-12 29-10
2 0 p.m.. „ 11, „ 9 0 p.m., ,, 11 0
7 29-10 2913
9 0 p.m., „ 11, „ 12 Onoon, „ 12 IS 0 29-13
29-23 12 Onoon, „ 12, „ 2 0 p.m., „ 18 0
26 29-2*3 29-39
2 0 p.m., „ 13, „ 7 0 p.m., ,, 15 53 0 29-39 29-20
7 0 p.m., „ 15, „ 10 0 p.m., „ 15 0 3 29-20 29-20 10 0 p.m., „ 15, „ 10 0
a.m., ,, 16 12 0 29-20 29-35 10 0 a.m., „ 16, „ 4 0 p.m., „ 16 0
6 29-35 29-40
4 0 p.m., „ 16, „ 3 0 p.m., „ 20 | 95 0 29-40 29-00
3 0 p.m., „ 20, „ 10 0 a.m., ,, 21 0 19 29-00 29-23 10 0 a.m., „ 21, „
5 0 p.m., „ 21 7 0 29-23 29-30
5 0 p.m., „ 21, „ 8 0 p.m., ,, 21 0 3 29-30 29-28
8 0 p.m., „ 21, „ 10 0 p.m., „ 31 242 0 29-28 29-80
10 0 p.m., „ 31, „ 2 0 a.m., Apr. 1 4 hrs. equilibrium 29>80 3002 2 0 a.m.,
Apr. 1, „ 5 0 p.m., „ 11 255 0 30-02 29"24 5 0 p.m., „ 11, „ 5 30p.m„ „
12 0 24-30 29"24 29-48
5 30 p.m., „ 12, „ 7 0 p.m., May 13 745-30 0 29-48 29-20
7 0 p.m., May 13, „ 1 0 a.m., „ 14 0
6 29-20 29-20 1 0 a.m., „ 14, „ 8 0 p.m.,
June 24 1003 0 29-20 29-54
8 0 pan., June 24, „ 6 0 a.m., „ 27 0
58 29-54 29-04
6 0 a.m., „ 27, „ 1 0 p.m., July 19 535
0 30-04 29-00
1 0 p.m., July 19, „ 11 0 a.m., „ 20 0 22 29'00 29-20
11 0 a.m., „ 20, „ 7 30 a.m., Aug. 18 692-30 0 29-20 29-50
7 30 a.m„ Aug. 18, „ 2 0 a.m., „ 19 0 18-30 2950 29-54
2 0 a.m., „ 19, „ 1 0 p.m., Sept. 7 467 0 29-54 29-17 1 0 p.m., Sept. 7, „
6 0 a.m., „ 8 0 17 29-17 29-38 6 0 a.m., „ 8, „ 11 0 p.m., „ 30 545
0 29-38 29-49
11 0 p.m., „ 30, „ 11 0 a.m., Oct. I 0 12 29-49 29-90
11 0 a.m., Oct. 1, „ 10 0 a.m., Nov. 5 839 _0___29-90 29-80
Total ............6638-85 | 433-95
Hours.
Total upcast ............6638-85
Equilibrium ............ 4-0
Downcast ............ 433-95
Total hours ...... 7076-80
It would appear from the above table that the change of pressure sometimes
slightly preceded the rise and fall of the barometer.
NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIEEY EXPLOSION. 37
The greatest period of internal pressure occurred when the barometer stood
at from 29-20 to 29*54, and during the last period from the 1st October to
the 5th November, 1867, the barometer varying from 29*9 to 29*8, the
internal pressure continued for 839 hours—this being up to the time when the
pits were opened. Again, the external pressure continued for the longest
period (58 hours), the barometer reading from 29'54 to 29-04.
It appears, therefore, that the change of pressure did not depend upon the
actual height of the barometer but upon the rise or fall of the barometer at
whatever height that instrument might be at the time. For instance, the
barometer standing at 29-40, and gradually rising to 29-83, the external
pressure continued for 28 hours; but where declining from 29*83 to 29'77,
there was an internal pressure for 242 hours ; and on the mercury rising,
the external pressure again commenced. There are, however, instances the
reverse of this, as may be seen from the table, an internal pressure with a
rising barometer, and an external pressure with a falling barometer.
From what cause this contradictory result was caused it is difficult to say,
but one thing, however, is certain, that the hourly observations were taken
and recorded with the greatest care, and at the end of each hour entered in
the book kept for that purpose.
It is not intended on the present occasion to lay down any theory, but
merely to put before the members the observations that were made.
One thing the writer wishes to point out as the result obtained from the
record kept, that at times there was an external pressure on the gas valve,
and this, he thinks, solves a question disputed by some, that in certain
high states of the barometer, air has been found to pass into a fissure of
the mine from which a blower of gas would issue when the barometer was low.
Here, if the gas pipe be supposed to represent the fissure, it was found
that gas would at times come freely up the pipe, and at other times air
would enter almost as freely.
Probably some disturbance might arise in the accordance of the pressure with
the state of the barometer from the fact that the valve was always kept
closed when there was an external pressure upon it, and opened when the
internal pressure exceeded a certain amount of water gauge, and the gas
allowed to escape in order to reduce the pressure.
The following is a description of the scaffold and the mode of its
suspension below the Melton field coal:—
A is the gas pipe, on the top of which was placed a valve which was always
kept closed except when the water gauge showed an internal pressure of three
or four inches.
38 NOTES ON THE OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION.
B—Pipe for conveying compressed air into the mine for coal-cutting machine.
C—Wood cone on top of scaffold to cause kids to fall to sides of shaft.
D—Detaching hook.
E—Base of scaffold.
The base of the scaffold consisted of four pieces of oak, each one foot
square ; above this was placed two tiers of timber, eight inches square, the
upper tier being laid at right angles to the lower.
On the side F were placed six iron bars on a round bar, to enable the
scaffold to pass the air-pipe B and the bearers H for the support of it and
the two pipes Gr, and which bars after passing the bearers rest against the
side of the shaft; they were made so that they could not rise higher than
the angle as shown at F.
The scaffold was lowered by the engine, and was supported by four chains,
the bolts at the end of which passed entirely through the scaffold. It was
eventually secured by four wire ropes (4£ x f) passing also to the bottom,
and prevented from slipping by powerful clamps, the lower part of the ropes
being doubled, and a hard piece of oak being placed in the bend of the
ropes.
The gas pipe, 10 inches diameter, of malleable iron, was lowered
simultaneously with the scaffold, and the several lengths put on as the
scaffold descended.
All the ropes were wound on crabs for the purpose of lowering the pipe and
the suspension ropes of the scaffold. All were secured when the scaffold and
gas pipe were brought into position below the Melton field coal.
As none of the other papers set down for the Yorkshire Meeting are at
present sufficiently forward for publication, it has been thought desirable
to continue the Proceedings and publish the delayed papers as they become
ready.
PROCEEDINGS. 39
PKOCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 6, 1875, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., President, in the Chaie.
After the examination of the voting papers, Mr. Gr. C. Greenwell was
declared to have been elected Vice-President, and Mr. T. Gr. Hurst to have
been elected a Councillor.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last general meeting and of the
Council meetings.
The following gentlemen were then elected :—
HONOEAEY MEMBEE—
Mr. G. S. Beady, Professor of Biology, College of Physical Science,
Newcastle.
Members— Mr. Henby Maddison, Coal Owner, Darlington. „ Leslie C. Hill, C. &
M.E., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland. „ John Shaw, Neptune Engine Works, Low
Walker. „ Robert Oliver, Manager, Charlaw Colliery, near Durham.' „
Fenwick Daeling, South Durham Colliery, Darlington. „ James Newall Goedon,
F.R.G.S., Manager of St. John's D'el Rey
Mining Co. Limited, Brazil. „ Wm. Kinneae, Radcliffe Colliery, Acklington.
Student— Mr. W. J. Bied, Wingate, Co. Durham.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting :—
Life Membee— Mr. C. W. Baetholomew, Broxholme, Doncaster.
Membees— Mr. David McCulloch, Kilmarnock, N.B. „ Robeet Simpson, Drummond
Colliery, Weshrill, Pictou, N.S. „ J. C. Rowley, Willey, Broseley, Salop.
„ Thomas Hodgson, White Cliff Mines, Lofthouse, Saltburn.
40 PROCEEDINGS.
Mr. John Sherborne, Parkfield Colliery, near Bristol.
„ W. Hepple Harbottlb, Orrell Colliery, near Wigan.
„ James Whitehead, Brindle Lodge, New Preston, Lancashire.
„ W. Lloyd Whately, Tyne Main Colliery, Gateshead,
j, Charles Boole, Bainford Colliery, near St. Helens, Lancashire.
,. Thomas Clarence, Elswick Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
„ Michael Corbitt, Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead.
„ Wm. Hall, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, Co. Durham.
„ W. H. Chadwick, Bank Coll., Little Hulton, near Bolton, Lancashire.
„ J. M. Meadows, Stewartstown, Co. Tyrone, Ireland.
„ Thomas C. Southern, 64, Cambridge Street, Newcastle.
„ John Gibson, Engineer, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland.
„ William Johnson, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland.
Students— Mr. Henry N. Robson, Holywell, near Durham. „ T. Martyn Seymour,
Staveley, near Chesterfield. „ T. W. Crawford, Pease's West Collieries,
Darlington. „ R. W. Scarth, Upleatham, Marske-by-the-Sea. ,, Michael
Dodd, Jun., Morton Grange, Fence Houses. „ Smart Walker, Haswell Colliery,
Fence Houses. ,, G. S. Markham, Howlish Offices, Bishop Auckland. ,,
Herman Schier, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, Co. Durham. „ John C.
Ironside, Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.
The following papers by Mr. G. A. Lebour, F.S.A., stood for discussion :—"
On the Little Limestone and its accompanying Coal in South Northumberland,"
and " On the Great and Four Fathom Limestones and their associated beds in
South Northumberland."
The President thought it would be advisable to postpone the discussion, as
he knew several gentlemen who wished to take part in it were unable to
attend that day. This was a very small meeting, and the papers were
interesting ; and it was very likely the discussion, commenced when the
papers were read, would be continued when other members were able to attend.
Mr. Cochrane agreed with the President that the importance of the subject
made it requisite to postpone the discussion until other gentlemen who took
an interest in it were present, and there were many gentlemen not connected
with the district who would like to ask questions about the subject. He
moved the postponement of the discussion.
Mr. G. Baker Forster seconded the resolution, which was agreed to.
The members then adjourned to the laboratory of the College of Physical
Science, when Professor Marreco read " Some Notes on recent Examinations of
Coal Gases."
ON RECENT EXAMINATIONS OF COAL-GASES. 41
FURTHER NOTES ON RECENT EXAMINATIONS OF COAL-GASES.
By A. FREIRE-MARRECO.
The writer, in 1872, communicated to a meeting of the Institute an abstract
of some then recent experiments on this subject by Von Meyer.
It was pointed out both by the writer and Mr. Herschel, that the method
which was employed seemed open to objection, and the employment of the
mercurial air-pump was suggested.
Using this latter method, the subject has been recently further examined by
Mr. Thomas, and a short account of his results may not be uninteresting.
(For full details see Journal Chemical Society, ser. 2, xiii. 793.)
EFFECT OF VACUUM IN COLD.
1.—"When a small slip of coal is enclosed in a glass tube, which is
exhausted in the cold, no great quantity of the occluded gases is evolved.
EFFECT OF VACUUM IN HEAT.
2.—When the tube is heated to 100° C, occluded gases are evolved in varying
quantities.
VOLUMES FROM ONE VOLUME COAL (APPROXIM ATELY).*
Max. Min. Mean.
"Bituminous" and "semi-bituminous" -956 ... -312 ... (of
6) -669
"Steam"...............4-880 ... 1-916 ... (of 7) 2879
"Anthracite" ............7-807 ... 7-221 ... (of 2) 7-514
COMPOSITION OF GASES.
Carbonic Acid. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Marsb Gas.
From— Per Cent. Per Cent.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
"Bituminous" and r Max. ... 36-40 ... 6"0 ... 80-1
... 72-5
"Semi-bituminous" (Min. ... 5-40 ... -6 ...
14-5 ... None.
(Max. ... 18-90 ... 1-0 ... 14-6 ... 87-3
"Steam"......\ ,,.
(Min. ... 5-00 ... -3 ... 3-4 ...
67*4
uk .. .. „ (Max.... 14-70 ... None. ...
4-2 ... 93-1
"Anthracite ... < v„.
(Mm. ... 2-60 ... None. ... 1-1 ... 84T
* These figures are calculated on an assumed mean G. of P3 for coal.
VOL. XXV.-1875,
._,
F
42 ON RECENT EXAMINATIONS OP COAL-GASES.
EFFECT OF RE-HEATING- AFTER AN INTERVAL.
3.—Two of the samples of bituminous coal were allowed to be exposed to air
and then reheated.
VOLUMES OF GAS.
First Heating. Second Heating.
No. 3—Interval 11 weeks............ -716 ... -431
No. 12—Interval 10 weeks............ -516 ... -405
In both cases the gas from second heating contained much less C Il4, and
more of the other gases.
EFFECT OF "WEATHERING." 4.—One sample of steam coal which gave when fresh
4-880 volumes of gas, was broken small and "weathered" for 14 weeks, it then
gave 1*459 volumes in which there was much less 0 H4, and about ten times
the proportion of 1ST.
EFFECT OF VARYING TEMPERATURE.
5.—One sample of anthracite, heated to different temperatures, gave as
follows :—
Volumes. C H4 %.
At 100° C................... 7-807 ... 84
Do. after 19 hours in vacuo......... "735
At 200° C................... 12-910 ... 91
Do. after 41 hours in vacuo......... -248
At 300° C................... 2-684 ... 94
Total...... ... 24-384
[Mr. Thomas states that other experiments, the details of which are lost,
showed that steam coals also evolved a considerable further quantity of
gases on being heated to 200°.]
RATE AT WHICH THE DIFFERENT GASES ARE LIBERATED.
0.—Another portion was heated to 100° 0 for three hours, the gases evolved
during the first and third hour contained, respectively, 81*3 and 82*4 per
cent. C H4.
CAPACITY OF EXHAUSTED COAL FOR GAS.
7.—A piece of the same specimen, after exhaustion of gas, was cooled in
vacuo, and introduced into the measured gases which had been evolved. The
re-absorption amounted only to about 7 per cent, of the gas.
ON RECENT EXAMINATIONS OF COAL-GASES. 43
MINE-GASES.
Mr. Thomas has also examined a series of these, obtained partly from
blowers, and partly by boring into the coal.
These are chiefly remarkable for their large percentage of marsh gas (after
correcting, in two cases, for intruding air).
Several of the analyses showed traces of higher hydro-carbons, and one which
burnt with a distinctly luminous flame, gave -90 per cent, of hydride of
ethyl (02 H6). Olefiant gas was sought for in all cases but never found.
These experiments were, it should be observed, all made upon Welsh coals.
Mr. Cochrane said, it seemed to be rather an anomaly in these experiments
that the bituminous pits, which were generally the most fiery, produced the
coals containing the least amount of gas. He would like to have some
explanation why anthracite, should produce gas and bituminous coal be almost
free from it.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Professor Marreco for his
interesting address.
Mr. Cochrane seconded the vote of thanks, which was agreed to.
The meeting then concluded.
PROCEEDINGS. 45
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 4, 1 75, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
G. C. GREENWELL, Esq., Vice-President, in the Ciiaik.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected :—
Life Member— Mr. C. W. Bartholomew, Broxholme, Doncaster.
Members— Mr. David McCulloch, Kilmarnock, N.B.
Mr. Robert Simpson, Drummond Colliery, Weshrill, Pictou, N.S. Mr. J. C.
Rowley, Willey, Broseley, Salop. Mr. Thomas Hodgson, White Cliff Mines,
Lofthouse, Saltburn. Mr. John Sherborne, Parkfield Colliery, near Bristol.
Mr. W. Hepple Harbottle, Orrell Colliery, near Wigan. Mr. James Whitehead,
Brindle Lodge, New Preston, Lancashire. Mr. W. Lloyd Whately, Tyne Main
Colliery, Gateshead. Mr. Charles Boole, Rainford Colliery, near St. Helens,
Lancashire. Mr. Thomas Clarence, Elswick Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr.
Michael Corbitt, Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead. Mr. William
Johnson, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland. Mr. John Gibson, Engineer, Ryhope
Colliery, Sunderland. Mr. Wm. Hall, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, County
Durham. Mr. W. H. Chadwick, Bank Colliery, Little Hulton, near Bolton,
Lancashire. Mr. J. M. Meadows, Stewartstown, County Tyrone, Ireland. Mr.
Thos. C. Southern, 64; Cambridge Street, Newcastle.
46 DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC.
Students— Mr. Henry N. Robson, Holywell, near Durham. Mr. T. Martyn Seymour,
Staveley, near Chesterfield. Mr. T. W. Crawford, Pease's West Collieries,
Darlington. Mr. R. W. SCARTH, Upleatham, Marske-by-the-Sea. Mr. Michael
Dodds, Jun., Morton Grange, Fence Houses. Mr. Smart Walker, Haswell
Colliery, Fence Houses. Mr. G. E. Markham, Howlish Offices, Bishop Auckland.
Mr. Herman Schier, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, County Durham. t Mr.
John C. Ironside, Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting :—
Members— Mr. John Stone, Hayton, near Liverpool. Mr. John Brown, Ryhope
Colliery, Sunderland. Mr. Thomas E. Storey, Clough Hall Collieries,
Stoke-upon-Trent. Mr. James Ashworth, Bank Top Colliery, Burslem. Mr. John
Rigby, Audley Collieries, Newcastle-under-Lyme. Mr. Robert Heath Cole,
Grange Colliery, Hanley.
Mr. Frederick Southall, Park Hall Colliery, Cheadle, Stoke-upon-Trent. Mr.
W. S. Coe, Newchapel Colliery, Tunstall.
Mr. Robert Stevenson, Crewe Coal and Iron Co., Limited,
Newcastle-under-Lyme. Mr. W. Hoole Chambers, Silk stone Main Colliery, near
Barnsley. Mr. W. Shelford, C.E., 35a, Great George Street, Westminster,
London. Mr. W. T. Cheesman, Wire Rope Manufacturer, Hartlepool.
Students— Mr. Alfred John Swinney, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, County
Durham. Mr. E. F. Ayton, Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
The Chairman said, the discussion on Mr. Gr. A. Lebour's paper " On the
Little Limestone and its accompanying coal in South Northumberland," and "
On the Great and Four-Fathom Limestones and their associated beds in South
Northumberland," would now be taken.
Mr. Lebour said, before the discussion commenced he would draw the attention
of the meeting to a diagram, Fig. 1, which he thought
would illustrate one or two points in which he knew Mr. Bewick, a
DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC. 47
gentleman who was well acquainted with the entire district, took some
interest ; and it was also a subject which was of importance to all
geologists and mining men. This diagram illustrated the position of the
Great Whin Sill or great basaltic sheet which runs through the district, and
which was by some supposed to keep its relative position, or horizon, in the
Carboniferous Limestone beds throughout its course ; whereas it was now
believed by many persons who had paid great attention to the subject, that
this great sheet of basalt is just as intrusive as any of the smaller
basaltic dykes which run through the district, and only differs from them by
its immense size and by its comparatively horizontal position ; and that
although in its southern part it runs quite parallel to the beds above and
below it, yet in its extension from Alston Moor, or rather from the South
Tyne, to the sea, it changes horizon constantly, and in this particular
section, which is at Ward's Hill, near Eothbury, on one of the sides of the
valley of the Forest Burn, this is seen conspicuously. There the Great Whin
Sill is first placed immediately below one of the high limestones of the
series—the "Great Limestone" (concerning which he had had the honour of
reading a paper before the Institute)—then runs through that limestone, and
is next seen a little further north on the top of that same limestone—below
which is a bed of coal of uncertain constancy, and which is not known
wherever the " Great Limestone" is known, but which has been sunk through
frequently, as, for instance, at Great Whittington to the west of Matfen,
and is also well known in the Brinkburn district. This bed of coal, in
touching the base of the Great Whin Sill is burnt and coked just as coal so
frequently is on reaching ordinary dykes, but that is a matter of very small
importance, for the intrusive nature of the Whin Sill can only be proved in
this way by the burnt coal being charred above the basalt; for if charred
only below, it might accord with both theories explaining the origin of the
Whin Sill. But this section was interesting as showing first of all the
Great Whin Sill at such a high horizon as that of the " Little" and " Great
Limestone," whereas it had been supposed only to exist below the Tynebottom
Limestone, which is a very much lower position ; and, secondly, because it
showed in an actual section the great sheet of basalt jumping from a lower
horizon to a higher one through a well-marked and well-known bed. At the
last meeting, when this discussion was postponed, he drew attention to the
fossil which he held in his hand, and which was one of the finest specimens
of Saccammina Garteri which had ever been discovered, and he must repeat now
what he said then, that this was the only truly characteristic fossil which
had yet been found in the Carboniferous Limestone of
48 DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC.
Northumberland. Wherever the " Four-Fathom Limestone" had hitherto been
found in Northumberland, there this fossil had also been found, and nowhere
else in this county. In the " Great Limestone " bed, or the next limestone
below it, it had not yet been found here, although in Durham it was supposed
to have been seen, but in a very wretched condition, and so badly preserved
as to raise a doubt of its identity. This was a very favourable specimen
naturally weathered out of the limestone, and came from the Elf Hills, where
it was found by Sir Walter Trevelyan, * who was the first investigator who
drew attention to this very interesting fossil which had been described
since by our townsman, Mr. Brady, F.R.S., who had named it Saccammina
Garteri.
Mr. Bewick stated that in April last, on the reading of Mr. Lebdur's second
paper, he undertook to contribute to the Proceedings of the Institute some
particulars bearing on the same subject, but owing to professional
engagements he had not had an opportunity of fulfilling his promise; and the
time having now arrived for the discussion of these papers, he would ask the
members to accept the few following remarks in lieu of the paper he had
contemplated contributing. A continuous longitudinal section of the strata,
laid down to scale, over the area portrayed in Plate XV., Vol. XXIV., would
be very interesting as showing the gradual changes occurring in the " Little
Limestone" coal and other strata. An entire series of the ordnance
geological maps of the district under consideration would also have added to
the means of our enlightenment. The absence of these does not, however, rest
with the writer of the papers, yet it is to be regretted that there should
be delay in the publication of these valuable maps. Although agreeing with
Mr. Lebour in the geological portion of his first paper, he differed with
him as to the commercial value of the carboniferous limestone coals. It must
be at a very distant period, if ever, that they can be brought into use in
lieu of the fuel obtained from the coal measures proper. They are inferior
in thickness and quality, and, existing as they do at more inaccessible
places, cannot be wrought and marketed with the same facilities. For local
sale, they will always be in demand; and, to such depths as they can be
obtained with commercial success, will probably be exhausted long before the
other seams are in the like position. The number and thickness of the seams,
the area which they cover, and the quality of the coal, are matters pretty
well known in the different localities, and there seems to be scarcely
ground for supposing that there is now much to learn about them from further
explorations. Referring to an observation of Mr. Lebour's, in the second of
his papers, without attempting to derogate the merits or value
DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC. 49
of Mr. Lebour's communications, he (Mr. Bewick) questioned the propriety of
dividing the subject. A comprehensive paper, descriptive of the whole
mountain limestone strata, from the old red sandstone to the millstone grit,
over as great an area as practicable—the larger the better —and including
particulars of the mining works therein, and the products obtained, would be
a most valuable addition to the Transactions of this Institute, and more
useful to the practical engineer as well as the capitalist and the student
than detached memoirs. The " Four-Fathoms" limestone, although maintaining
its constancy over a vast area, is perhaps more variable in its thickness
than any other of the limestones. In Westgarth Forster's excellent section
of the strata, it is put down as 24 feet, which probably applies more
particularly to the Alston Moor district, where its name no doubt
originated. Assuming that Mr. Lebour is correct as to its position near
Haydon Bridge, including a ferruginous bed of about 11 feet on the top, it
is 45 feet thick; at Allenheads it is 18 feet; and at Swaledale, in
Yorkshire, 16 feet to 20 feet, being in the latter district known as the
"Underset Limestone," and there overlaid by a "chirt" bed of about equal
thickness, and in which the veins are nearly as productive of mineral (lead
ore) as in the limestone. This " chirt" contains about 58 per cent, of
silica, and 38 per cent, carbonate of lime, the remainder being alumina,
magnesia, and iron. Mr. Lebour has, in his second paper, referred to
sections of the district under consideration, prepared by him (Mr. Bewick)
in 1869 (Vol. 18), before certain explorations carried out under his
directions were made. These have in some respects thrown light on the strata
now being discussed, and, as they are extended, may probably call for
corrections and alterations in the sections alluded to. As proof of Mr.
Lebour's remarks on the frequent changes that occur in details, and the
difficulty there is in recognising one or a few beds of rock without having
what may be called a key, he would submit a section (Plate XXXVIIL), of an
actual sinking about one and a half miles N.W. of Haydon Bridge, and four
miles W.S.W. from the Prudham stone quarry, the site of the sketch section,
shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXXII., Vol. 24, of the Society's Transactions, in
both of which the " Four-Fathoms " limestone occurs. The incidental
reference made in the last paper to the whin sill, led to extended remarks
in the discussion which ensued. Upon this he observed that the area of the
evidence in favour of its being of an intrusive character is extremely
limited, whilst over the comparatively vast territory, extending for miles
along its most prominent outcrop between Settlingstones and Carrowbrough on
the east, and Greenhead on the west, and again where it bassets over a great
area
VOL, XXV—1875.
q.
50 DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC.
in the upper part of Teesdale, and to a less extent in many places in South
Tynedale and Weardale, as well as at the several points where it has been
penetrated by extensive mining works, namely, at Stonecroft and
Settling-stones, in Tynedale, Rodderup Fell, in Alston Moor, and Burtree
Pasture and Slitt, in Weardale, no such evidences that he knew of existed as
would justify the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Lebour and Mr. Howse. The
circumstances occurring at Elf Hills were unknown to him, except in so far
as they appeared in the Transactions of the Institute, and * are much too
minute to justify the assertion that the whin sill is " a purely intrusive
and non-contemporaneous sheet of basaltic trap," and how " its intrusive
power" is favoured by an immense thickness of overlying rock is not clear to
him. May not the sheets of basalt found in the joints and bedding of the "
Four-Fathoms " limestone at that place be a part of a real whin dyke, which
at this point is near to, or even lying against, the whin sill ? The whin
sill is unquestionably known to be in a stratified form over a vast area
extending in one unbroken stretch from the head of the Tees on the south or
south-west to the northern part of Northumberland, a distance of about
eighty miles; and, as in Weardaie, proved to be several miles in breadth,
and still continuing eastwards, or to the dip in the same stratigraphical
position, without in any way disturbing the beds over or underlying it. This
is clearly not the character of a dyke which severs and almost always more
or less breaks up the strata at and for some distance from its contact
therewith. On the contrary, the whin sill is severed and dislocated by
faults and veins exactly as the other strata are above and below it, and in
the majority of instances where between its walls, mineral veins have been
wrought in the counties of Northumberland, Durham, and Cumberland, they have
been eminently productive of lead ore and other minerals. In explanation of
some remarks made in the last discussion on these papers, he would observe
that it is not to be supposed that mineral veins -exist wherever the
mountain limestone prevails, we have in the North of England hundreds of
square miles of this formation, a large proportion of which is not traversed
by veins or faults, and in a still larger proportion minerals of commercial
value are entirely absent. Mineral veins generally occur in nests or groups,
yet many of them do not contain lead and other ores; and even in the true
mining districts there are plots of ground of large area without veins,
instance the case of the great Nent Force Adit, almost in the very heart of
Alston Moor, which was driven some hundreds of fathoms without intersecting
a vein. He had no doubt the drawing gave a correct representation of the
rocks as they lie at Wards Hill, but
DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC. 51
yet he still could not help thinking that his suggestion that the peculiar
formation might be the result of an actual trap dyke, and not of a portion
of the whin sill. He would distinguish the two, inasmuch as he believed they
might be perfectly different, yet at the same time, perhaps, arising from
similar causes, if not from the same sources. But there were " whin dykes"
and a " whin sill," which might or might not be identical in their
composition. He had never come across analyses of these rocks, which might,
he thought, if obtained, prove one mode of solving the question well worthy
of consideration. He would also draw attention to the fact that he had seen
whin sill in thousands of instances, in many of them at great depths; but
had never observed it as represented in the drawing; and he would caution
the members from arriving at a conclusion upon such small data as had been
put before them by Mr. Lebour.
Mr. E. F. Boyd said, it would seem that the question upon which Mr. Bewick
had most insisted was the importance of Mr. Lebour satisfying them that the
limestone which he had shown them was above the whin sill, and the limestone
which he showed was below it, formed actually the same bed; for if it was
so, he thought Mr. Bewick's remarks would rather fall to the ground. The
question of the intrusive nature of the whin sill was, he thought, very
strongly defined in Plate XXXIIL, Vol. XXIV., showing the section of the
quarry of Sir Walter Trevelyan's, where the brown-coloured basalt was shown
as intruding itself in the different fissures of the mountain limestone.
There was no other mode, so far as he (Mr. Boyd) could judge, of accounting
for its appearance except by admitting its intrusive character. However, Mr.
Bewick's remarks as to the partial and local nature of the phenomena
described by Mr. Lebour were entitled to great consideration, and they must
recollect that Mr. Bewick had a great knowledge of the district, obtained
from many years of experience. The subject was very fairly discussed on the
reading of the paper in the first instance; but he would like to ask Mr.
Lebour if he thought the change in the direction of the outcrop of the
strata from east and west to north, which he had particularly remarked upon,
and which was stated to take place at one particular point on the north side
of the Tyne, was the action of the upheaval of the Cheviot plutonic rocks ?
He himself had a strong impression that those strata were deposited before
the protrusion of the plutonic range of the Cheviots, and that the action of
the latter being protruded had displaced or laid over to a side the
overlying strata, which was at that time the bed of the sea; and he would
also like to have Mr. Lebour's opinion as to the cause
52 DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC.
of those peculiar curves which are seen throughout the whole of the strata
of Northumberland, and which seem to vary according to the force with which
the matter was protruded through them.
Mr. Bewick begged to remark, with reference to Mr. Boyd's observations, that
he did not deny that the whin sill was originally in a liquid or semi-liquid
state, but he questioned its being of an intrusive character. He thought
there could be no better exemplification of the fact of its being fluid than
what occurs, and was represented in a sketch illustrating his" paper,
already published in the Transactions of the Institute (Vol. XVIIL, p. 169),
where at Burtree Pasture mine the whin sill is in regular order in the
strata forty fathoms thick, whereas within a mile or a mile and a quarter it
is only eight fathoms thick, that is where the Burtreeford dyke passes
across the valley of the Wear; and his impression at the time he read his
paper was, and is still, that the Burtreeford dyke is not a dyke at all, but
an anticlinal, and the whin on the western or upper side of that dyke is, as
mentioned, only eight fathoms thick. Eastwards, it gradually thickens, till
within a mile and a mile and a quarter it is forty fathoms, and still
further eastwards is reduced to from twenty to thirty fathoms.
Mr. Lebour said, if he might take in order the remarks which Mr. Bewick and
Mr. Boyd had been kind enough to make on his paper, he would first come to
the question of the commercial value of the coals in the west of the
country—the value, that was to say, of the Carboniferous Limestone coals. He
thought that if they referred to the beginning of his paper on the subject,
they would see that he simply said that that value would increase as time
went on. They were of inferior value and very thin, and although their
quality, he thought, was a great deal better in many instances than it is
usually supposed to be, yet, except in exceptional cases, it would not pay
to work them at present on a large scale, but in the far off future he had
no doubt whatever that they would be worked, when the better coals of the
regular Coal Measures had got worked out. The second point raised by Mr.
Bewick, he thought was this—that separate papers on separate series of beds
were not so useful as a general treatise treating of all the beds of the
whole of a district from top to bottom, and in that he perfectly agreed with
Mr. Bewick, and if any one could be got with the amount of detailed
knowledge required, together with the time and money necessary to produce
and publish such a work—it would be, when finished, as Mr. Bewick very truly
said, of the very greatest use, not only to the geologist, but to the mining
and the purely scientific, as well as to the commercial man ; but he thought
a work of that sort would take first of all a long series of years spent in
carefully surveying
DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC. 53
the entire district; and then, perhaps, an equal number of years spent in
sifting the facts discovered during that survey ; and, altogether, it would
be a gigantic work, which people now-a-days who had to earn their own living
could scarcely be expected to do. The third point was as to the changeable
nature of the " Four-Fathom Limestone." This was nowhere shown better than
in the section which Mr. Bewick had kindly brought there that day (Plate
XXXYIIL), which clearly proved what a very thick bed this " Four-Fathom
Limestone " sometimes is, and also throws light on the constant changes of
thickness which these limestones undergo. He had been interested to hear
that Mr. Bewick had followed that " Four-Fathom Limestone " as far as
Swaledale, and if the constancy of the bed could be proved clearly over the
whole distance, it would go far to make this bed still more useful to the
geologist as a test horizon than it had hitherto been, although it had
always been one of the very best horizons known. Next they came to the vexed
question of the Great Whin Sill. To begin with, Mr. Bewick said that the
extent over which the variation in the horizon of the Whin Sill had been
observed was extremely limited, but when he (Mr. Lebour) retorted that it
ran in a varying condition from Bambro' on the sea coast to the South Tyne,
he thought it could scarcely be termed of very limited extent. From the
South Tyne to Bambro' very many sections similar to that at Ward's Hill
(shown in the wood-cut) could be found. He had upstairs, in that very
building, about twenty diagrams showing sections of analogous character to
that, and if he had known that the point would be mooted at that meeting he
would have brought them down. Only to mention a few of them, beginning at
Bambro', it was shown as long ago as in 1823 by Sir Walter Trevelyan, in a
paper published by the Wernerian Society, that the Great Whin Sill which
forms the coast of Bambro' encloses masses of limestone, sandstone, and
shale within it; that it rushes through the overlying rocks of that
description ; and that altogether the whole strata of that coast lie in an
extraordinary state of confusion entirely owing to the Whin Sill running
through them. Again, to go further south, to the east of Alnwick, several
sections very similar to that at Ward's Hill occur, in which the basalt had
pierced into the higher beds of the district even above the "Great
Limestone." Further south, in the Eothbury district, came the Ward's Hill
section, then the Elf Hills Quarry; still further south came the Great Whin
Sill branching into two, and forming a great range of hills at Bavington,
and another at Throck-rington, and Sweethope, these formed two long
escarpments, the Whin Sill lying as a great crag, facing west, and covered
by a thin limestone,
54 DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC.
which Mr. Bewick would no doubt call the Tyne-bottom limestone—and if his
theory was right, it would be so. He had seen this limestone lying upon the
Whin Sill like a pavement, with little hills of basalt coming up in bosses
through it, and forming little islands of whin surrounded by limestone; and
supposing that other sections were all unknown, this alone would prove that
the whin had come through—in a very horizontal position certainly, but like
any other dyke—in a viscous or molten condition after the bed of limestone
above it was hardened. This limestone above the whin was quite altered, so
as in fact to make it into a regular saccharoidal limestone like the
limestone which lies close to the whin at Cauldron Snout, in Teesdale. These
little islands of whin are scattered over the country about a place called
the Three Farms, and although to the south-west of Little Bavington the two
branches of the Whin Sill unite again, and continue as a single sheet, yet
the same bosses are found, as at Gunnerton, and all along the line across
the North Tyne. Further to the south-west of that district a very remarkable
section occurs at a place called Cock Law Quarry, not very far from
Teppermoor, and at Teppermoor, where the Whin Sill runs along the Roman
Wall, several beds of limestone run as it were against it, and abut on to
it, so that they cannot be followed any longer—a thing which could not
possibly have happened had the Whin Sill been intruded before their
deposition, when these limestones would lie upon the Whin Sill parallel to
it, and in the same degree of horizontality. These cases, he hoped, covered
an extent of ground sufficient to make it scarcely possible to say that the
extent over which the evidence runs is small; but Mr. Bewick was perfectly
correct, and he quite agreed with him, when he said that from the South Tyne
to as far south as the Great Whin Sill was known, no change of level was
observed. There the Whin Sill was truly a bed, and if it were not a rock of
igneous origin it would be classed with any other of the sedimentary beds so
far as its horizon was concerned. Mr. Bewick very truly remarked that the
Whin Sill was frequently thrown by faults, and had veins running through it
like the other rocks of the district; but faults and veins occurred very
long after the consolidation of the rocks. The presence of metallic ores in
the veins was of itself simply a matter of interest, and had no bearing
whatever on the question, since the filling up of the veins must have
occurred immensely later than the production of the faults and veins, which
themselves were more recent than the consolidation and induration of the
rocks which they broke through. Then Mr. Bewick's argument with regard to
the Elf Hills section was a perfectly good one, if Mr.
DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC. 55
Bewick had reason to believe that that basalt was not the Great Whin Sill.
The mere fact that whin throws out veins from itself into the limestone
above it, was a matter of very small moment; but if this was the Whin Sill,
this proved its intrusive character. But, at the same time, if he went as
far as Mr. Bewick and said that it was not the Whin Sill, then Mr. Bewick's
other assertion that the whin sill lies unbroken through Northumberland
falls to the ground, as this is the only representative of it in this
particular line. To Mr. Bewick's question, if there had been any analysis of
the whin sill and the dykes, he would answer there have been some very
careful microscopical analyses made by Mr. Allport, of Manchester, who was
very skilful in the analysis of rocks, and it was very interesting to find
that the dykes of Northumberland—and he had specimens of several given to
him—gave analyses so closely allied to, and so closely resembling that of
the Great Whin Sill of which he had also had specimens, that no practical
difference could be seen. There was one dyke in Northumberland, the
Acklington dyke, which had always been peculiar in being vesicular or full
of cavities, which were themselves full of small crystals, which gave on
analysis different results from the other dykes; and he believed the
Tynemouth dyke also had a different composition, but these two were the only
exceptions he knew to the general rule. Mr. Boyd asked him whether he
thought the course which the beds take in Northumberland was in any way due
to the rising of the Cheviots. He could only say that on the flanks of the
Cheviots where the lowest Carboniferous rocks rest upon the porphyritic
mass, as at Biddlestone and at Roddam, the lower beds of sandstone
(Carboniferous sandstone) contain fragments of porphyry, therefore showing
that the trap must have existed in a consolidated state in that district
before the deposition of these beds. However, in many places there were
ample proofs of the subsequent upheaval of the Cheviots, and he had no doubt
that the great mass of the Cheviots went on rising from time to time, not
suddenly, as they knew that volcanic centres once formed remain volcanic
centres for long periods, and continued in a fitful manner throughout the
whole of the Carboniferous period, and very likely very much later—he should
think probably to the end of the Permian period. He said that for certain
reasons which he would not trouble them with at present, because they had
nothing to do with the subject-matter in hand; and he quite thought, with
Mr. Boyd, that the main curve in the strike of the rocks in Northumberland
is due to the rise of the Cheviots—not to the first rising, but to some of
those subsequent uprisings, which by a series of faults, as it were, pushed
the trap mass higher up through the surrounding
56 DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC.
beds from time to time. It had been stated that at "Ward's Hill there was no
evidence whatever to show that the limestones on each side the whin were the
same, but it was particularly easy to prove by means of a certain overlying
shale bed that this was so, a bed full of small spirifers, which forms the
capping of the limestone on both sides of the whin, so that there could be
no doubt whatever about its identity. The same remark applies to the coal
below it, which runs in the same position on both sides also.
Mr. Hedley said he might just remark on one or two points of detail in the
paper; and first, in reference to the "Little Limestone Coal." The remarks
which had been made about the coal had been chiefly as to its quality, and
not much as to its section or thickness. There were certainly several
sections given in the diagrams there, which showed it to be, as he himself
had noticed it to be, extremely variable in its thickness. But that point
was not elsewhere remarked upon in the paper, and these sections were,
generally speaking, at considerable distances one from the other. He had had
the opportunity of observing this seam within a certain area in the
neighbourhood of Haltwhistle, and could bear testimony to its extremely
variable character, both in its thickness and the' quality of its layers,
but particularly as to its thickness. Within a distance of not more than 100
yards he had noticed it to vary in height from 5 feet 3 inches in all, down
to 2 feet 10 inches; and again, after reaching and preserving for some
distance the height of 3 feet 3 inches, all of fair quality, he had found it
to be reduced somewhat suddenly to not more than 1 foot 9 inches of good
coal. It appeared to be very strikingly characteristic of this seam that it
was so much more subject to variation in thickness than the beds of the
regular coal measures. There was also one other remark as to the thickness
of the limestone. It was shown there on the diagrams, and also stated in the
paper, that the greatest observed thickness in this district was 18 feet.
But this was not its extreme thickness, for in the neighbourhood of
Haltwhistle he had found it to reach as much as 30^ feet; being there, it
would appear, very much thicker than it is ordinarily. As to the manner of
the formation of the Whin Sill, he was inclined to agree with Mr. Lebour as
to its being of intrusive origin; and in a former discussion on a paper by
Mr. Bewick, he had indicated where, at two places near Sharpley and
Shepherd's Gap, the same appearances could be observed of the Whin passing
from lower into higher beds, as in the example illustrated by Mr. Lebour.
Mr. Boyd said, with regard to the difficulty of writing a paper that should
describe the whole of the Northumberland strata, and seeing the great
interest the members of the Institute showed when any discussion
DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC. 57
on the subject was announced, that he would suggest, as Mr. Lebour had a
large amount of information with regard to the southern district, and he
(Mr. B.) was quite ready and willing that all the information which he
himself had accumulated and detailed to the Institute with regard to the
northern portion should be placed at Mr. Lebour's service, together with a
certain amount of information which he possessed with regard to the
intermediate spaces, that if he could be oft any assistance to Mr. Lebour in
compiling a general paper which might be read and become of interest to that
Institute, his services would be entirely at the disposal of Mr. Lebour.
The Chairman was sure the Institute was very much obliged to Mr. Boyd for
his very kind offer.
Mr. Bewick said he could only add to what Mr. Boyd had said, that if Mr.
Lebour, or any one else, undertook the duty of compiling what he had
suggested, that was a complete account of this subject throughout its whole
extent, he would be glad to contribute in a way similar to what Mr. Boyd had
offered to do. He knew very little—next to nothing—of the northern part; but
with the central and southern parts he was well acquainted, and had plans
and sections of sinkings, which he would be glad to place at the disposal of
any one prepared to take up the subject, with a view to preparing a complete
memoir.
The Chairman said they were much obliged to Mr. Bewick.
Mr. Lebour thanked both Mr. Bewick and Mr. Boyd for their very kind offer to
assist in this very gigantic work ; but he must say that at present he did
not at all feel courageous enough to go into it. The proposal seemed an
ironical one when you considered the amount of work which would be necessary
to bring out such a paper, and when you also considered the difference of
opinion which is found to obtain even in the discussion of one very small
set of beds of the district. It would be, perhaps, very likely that such a
great work would not meet with such general approval as it would deserve ;
and in fact a work of that kind ought' to be postponed until the district
had been worked so thoroughly in detail that generalizations could be made
with greater ease than could be done at present. Still he was extremely
obliged to Mr. Boyd and Mr. Bewick, and if they would give him their help
for the more modest kind of work which he had been doing with regard to
Northumberland geology, and which he hoped to be able to go on doing from
time to time, he would then have to thank them exceedingly for their
kindness.
VOL XXV.-1875.
jj
58 DISCUSSION ON THE LITTLE LIMESTONE, ETC.
The Chairman said, they had had a very interesting discussion of Mr.
Lebour's paper, and he had no doubt this had given them all something to
think about. They had also excellent contributions from Mr. Boyd and Mr.
Bewick on this subject on previous occasions, which they could read, and
from their contents endeavour to form their own conclusions.
i
The following paper by Mr. G. A. Lebour was then taken as read, and the
meeting terminated.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 59
ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE.
By G. A. LEBOUR, F.G.S. London and Belgium, F.R.G.S., &c.
EXPLANATION OF MAP.
The portion of France which is dealt with in this paper is represented in
the accompanying map by that part of it which is coloured red (see Plate
XXXIX.). This shows the extent of the country formed by the outcrop of the
entire Jurassic series and of the Cretaceous series as far up as the Lower
Greensand inclusive. The area covered by the Chalk and Upper Greensand and
Gault has been omitted as needless for the present purpose, as has also
(with less excuse, perhaps) the complicated mass of outcrops of Secondary
rocks which occurs in the south-east corner of France. Keeping the latter
omission in mind, it will be only necessary to add with regard to this map,
that the dark-coloured portions denote the presence of rocks older than the
Jurassic series, whilst the uncoloured consist of beds newer than and
overlying the Lower Cretaceous series.
ROUGH DIVISION OF BEDS. For the sake of convenience, the larger divisions
recognised in the course of this paper will be as follows (in descending
order):—
1.—Upper Neocomian J
2.—Middle Neocomian > Lower Cretaceous.
3.—Lower Neocomian )
4.—Upper Oolite......)
5.—Middle Oolite...... > Oolite.
6.—Lower Oolite......)•
7.-UpperLias......... )Liag<
8.—Lower Lias......... J
9.—Upper Trias ...... )
10.—Middle Trias...... > Trias.
11.—Lower Trias ......J
The term "Neocomian" has been so variously used that it is hoped that no
apology will be needed for having in the present case taken it in its
60 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE
very widest sense; making it, in fact, include all the Cretaceous beds below
the Gault. This application of the term, although by no means universal, is
yet countenanced by high authorities, and is infinitely better suited as a
frame for the west-continental Lower Cretaceous subdivisions than any other.
The table at the end of this paper (see p. 97) will give all the necessary
information respecting the stages into which the above broad divisions have
been broken up, both for France and England, and in drawing it up the writer
has availed himself largely of Professor Eenevier's admirable work, although
in one or two instances he has felt bound to depart from his arrangement.*
The normal mode of occurrence of the larger divisions with d'Orbigny's
names, which are much used abroad, is illustrated in the section across the
north-west of France, Fig. 1, Plate XL.
CHIEF IRON ORE HORIZONS. Of sixty-four departments which have yielded iron
in workable quantities (including those recently acquired by Germany), about
thirty, or nearly half, derive their ore from Secondary deposits, the
Jurassic series furnishing by far the greatest amount, the Cretaceous coming
next, and the Triassic being much behind both. Ores of no very great value,
but very largely distributed, are found at several not very well-defined
horizons of the Upper Neocomian, corresponding with the iron found in the
Lower Greensand of Britain. The Middle Neocomian beds are but little known
as such in France, and they cover but a limited extent of country, yet at
least one or two distinct ferriferous horizons belong to it. The Lower
Neocomian, the equivalent of the English Wealden, is, like it, marked by
iron deposits in various parts of France. The Upper Oolite yields no iron,
practically speaking. On the other hand, the Middle Oolite contains several
well-known stages in which iron ores are constantly found over large areas.
The Lower Oolite, and especially its junction with the Upper Lias, is
likewise rich in iron, the Upper Lias proper being comparatively poor. In
some districts, owing to special causes which will be adverted to at length
further on, the Lower Lias contains considerable ore deposits. The Upper and
Middle Trias are only accidentally associated with iron in workable
quantities, but the Lower Trias, or Bunter (gres bigarre), is locally
iron-bearing in a remarkable manner. In order that the relative extent
occupied by the various groups of formations may be seen at a glance, it may
be noted that the Cretaceous beds (upper and
* See Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, torn, xiii.,
p. 218, et sec. Lausanne, 1874.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 61
lower) cover 0*12, the Jurassic and Liassic beds together, 0*20, and the
Triassic 0'05, of the entire area of France as it was before the war with
Germany.*
KINDS OF ORE.
There is the very greatest looseness of terminology in the description of
ironstones ; and in order to prevent misapprehension, a certain system of
nomenclature will be adhered to throughout this paper, the system being that
adopted by ZirkeLf which appears to the writer well suited to the ready
lithological classification of the varieties of rock ores which are
frequently met with.
With micaceous iron schist, itabirite, red hematite (Rotheisenstein), and
iron glance, which are Zirkel's four first species of iron ore, and with
magnetite (Magneteisenstein), the last, this paper has nothing to do, as
these ores are—in France, at all events—usually only found in connection
with altered rocks, or with rocks older than any of the Mesozoic age. Under
the heads of Limonite (Brauneisenstein), oolitic brown ore| (Eisenoolith),
pea or pisolitic ore (Bohnerz), and clay ironstone or Sphcerosiderite
(Eisenspath), however, all the varieties to be found in French Secondary
beds, can be easily grouped:—
1.—Limonite is essentially a hydrated oxide of iron, and forms compact,
earthy, porous, scaly, or fibrous masses of brown iron ore, yellowish to
black with a brown streak.
2 and 3.—Oolitic Brown Ore and Pea Ore are often included as mere varieties
of Limonite, from which the former differs simply by its oolitic structure
(usually minute), and the latter by a coarser concretionary structure.
4.—Sphcerosiderite includes nodular clay ironstones and black bands similar
to those of the Coal Measures, and is a carbonate of protoxide of iron.
DOUBTFUL AGE OF SOME IRONSTONE DEPOSITS.
Among the ore deposits to be enumerated there are several the exact age of
which is doubtful, and they belong to two classes—first, those ores which,
although forming without doubt a component part of the Secondary
* The new German departments are geologically so intimately connected with
the rest of France, especially as regards the Mesozoic rocks, that it would
be idle to separate them in a paper of this kind, which deals with physical
features only.
f See Zirkel's " Lehrbuch der Petrographie," Bd. i., p. 335 et reg., Bonn,
1866.
J In using the term "oolitic iron," care must be taken to attach to it only
a structural and descriptive meaning, the oolitic ores being found in
Cretaceous and other beds as well as in rocks of Oolitic age. The confusion
caused by the double use of the term oolitic is another proof, should any be
wanted, of the extreme unsuitability of lithological names for formations.
62 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE
rock series, yet are, through lack of stratigraphical or palgeontological
evidence, not referred to any particular horizon in that series. In cases of
this kind a reference to one of the larger divisions will nearly always be
possible. Secondly, when ores are found merely filling up fissures, cracks,
or hollows in secondary rocks, thus giving evidence of later deposition.
Many of these ores are possibly, and some are certainly, later Secondary,
and some confusion does occasionally arise as to their real age. All
important cases of this kind will be called attention to.
,
CRETACEOUS ORES. To the Upper Neocomian belong many of the Cretaceous iron
ores of France, though not, as has been stated above, in very well-defined
horizons.* They occur as finely granular Limonite, disseminated more or less
thickly in the sands which form the beds. From their very nature great
constancy could scarcely be expected from such deposits. In some places they
are worth working, as in the Ardennes at Grandpre, Marcq, Cham-pigneulles,
in the Meuse at Cierges, and Bautheville, where the percentage of iron
varies from 38 to 44. A long band of ironsands, running from Vierzon into
Burgundy, belongs to this division, and includes (according to M. Caillaux)f
the somewhat unimportant deposits worked in the Departments of the Cher,
Mevre, and Allier. Notwithstanding the very numerous localities at which
these Lower Greensand or Upper Neocomian ironsands are known, yet their
variability renders them in most cases unsuited for working on a large
scale.
At the very top of the middle JSTeocomian at Wassy, where the beds have been
well known and studied for many years, in the Haute-Marne, there is a
well-marked band about 3 feet thick of oolitic brown ore. So long ago as
1761, Grignon described this deposit, and drew attention to the fact that
the fossil shells with which it abounds now as then, were all of fresh-water
species.f Unio Comueliana is its most characteristic shell.
* M. Ch. Barrois, in a recent paper (Bull. Soe. Geol. de France, 3 ser.,
torn, iii., p. 257,) gives some reasons for believing that a series of
ferruginous sands belonging to the " Aachenian" division in the Ardennes are
really of the age of the Gault. The writer agrees for the present with de
Lapparent in considering them as Wealden.
f Caillaux, Alf., " Tableau General des Mines Metalliques, etc., de la
France," Paris, 1875. To this work the writer is indebted for many new
localities of recent workings, and for most of the analyses given in the
appendix.
% See Cornuel, Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France, 3 Serie, torn,
ii., p. 371.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 63
Immediately above the ironstone is a certain red bed of marine or
sub-pelagic origin, and below it, separated from it by a set of
unfossiliferous sands and clays, is another marine bed full of ostreas. The
fresh-water shelly ironstone corresponds, as nearly as may be, to a
fluvio-marine formation known in England as the Punfield beds. In the same
Department, and at about the same horizon, granular limonite is worked in
beds of from 2 to 3 feet thick at the Mont Girard, near St. Dizier, where it
is much more siliceous than at "Wassy, 33 to 45 being the percentage of iron
; and also at Eurville, where the ore is not only granular, but is also
mixed with aetites, or geodic masses of ore yielding about 40 per cent, of
iron. A deposit in every way similar to the last is worked at
Morancourt-Nomecourt.
Oolitic brown iron ore, occupying about the same horizon as the upper Wassy
bed, is worked at Vendeuvre, Champ-sur-Barse, Villy-en-Trode, in the Aube,
and at Cheminon, in the Marne.
The ostrea bed referred to above as occurring a little below the Wassy
oolitic ore, forms the top of the lower Neocomian, at the base of which
another, and the lowest, important Cretaceous ore deposit is found. At Wassy
this takes the form of ferruginous sands and sandstone, overlying a bed of
geodic iron which is only separated from the upper Jurassic rocks by a
blackish argillaceous marl. In the Doubs at Metabief, and in the Jura at
Boucherans, on the same horizon, is found a rather celebrated deposit of
limonite. This Metabief horizon (as it is sometimes called) has been held to
be the marine equivalent of the British Wealden, which is likewise
conspicuous for its ironsands ;* and this is rendered more probable when we
remember that the lowest bed of the Cretaceous series in the Pas-de-Calais
(Bas-Boulonnais), in which ironsands are frequently worked in the outliers
which cap the hills of the district, has been shown to be the continuation
on the south side of the Channel of the Wealden beds of Kent and Sussex, f
In Fig. 2, Plate XL., which is copied from one of Mr. Topley's sections, the
mode of occurrence of the much-thinned Wealden in the Bas-Boulonnais is well
shown. French geologists for the most part ignore the evidence of the lower
Neocomian age of these ironsands, and continue to class them as belonging to
the Lower Greensand or Upper Neocomian series. These ores are thus
described by
* Jules Marcou, Bibliotheque Universelle, Archives, torn, iv., 1859, pp. 42,
113. See also " The Geologist," 1859, p. 1.
f "W. Topley, F.G.S., Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, yo\.
xxiv., p. 472, 1868.
64 ON THE GEOLOGICAL KELATIONS OF THE
M. Delanoiie*:—They are "sometimes superficial, and therefore hydrated ores,
peroxidized and concretionary, with mottled clays and sands, . . and
sometimes carbonates and sulphide of iron in the midst of bituminous clays."
The ore worked at Hevilliers, Yillers-le-Sec, and Biencourt, in the Meuse,
appears to belong to the Lower Neocomian.
In some parts of the Haute-Saone a puzzling deposit occurs, consisting of a
black powdery iron ore disseminated through a marly bed, resting* upon the
denuded surface of marls of Neocomian age. This black ore has sometimes been
described as Secondary; but it is probably of Tertiary, or of even more
recent age.
Another pseudo-Neoeomian ore deposit, of equally late date, is found filling
up cavities eroded out of a Neocomian limestone cropping out from the "
Fontaine de Yaucluse" (Yaucluse) to beyond Simiane (in the Basses Alpes).
JURASSIC ORES.
As has been already noticed, the upper Oolite is not an iron-bearing
division; and it is not until we come to the Oxfordian beds of the Middle
Oolite that any important ore deposits occur. One bed, however, is found in
the Ardennes at the base of the Coral Bag, about 30 feet thick, and
consisting of ferruginous marl of very variable structure. This remarkable
bed lies immediately upon the blue Oxfordian limestone of the country,
between which and the Coral Bag it forms a kind of passage bed. The upper 6
to 9 feet of this ferruginous rock are alone worked, and abound in fossils,
showing both the Coral Bag and Oxford clay facies. The lower portion of the
bed is too argillaceous to be worked. For many years the upper part has been
worked at Tailly, Nouart, Belval, St. Bierre-mont, Oches, Yerrieres, La
Berliere, &c. In some places the iron is replaced by cherty concretions. At
Yiel-Saint-Bemy, where workings had exposed the set of beds to a
considerable extent, more than two hundred species of fossils were collected
from the upper bed.
The horizon just described may be termed the upper ironstone of the middle
Oolite, the lower and much more important deposit occurring at the base of
the Oxfordian beds, and being distinguished by great constancy over large
districts. Bunning from Luxemburg in a southern direction in the north-east
of France for more than a hundred miles, this same horizon reappears as
iron-bearing in many other districts, though, of course, less continuously.
To this geological phase belong some of
* Vide Topley, Delanoiie, Bull. Soc. Geol., France, ser. 2, torn, ix., 1852,
p. 403.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 65
the largest iron workings around Metz and Nancy—those of Baillicourt,
Barbaise, Terron, in the Ardennes, of Marault, Latrecey, Chateau-Yilain, in
the Haute-Marne, in beds of from 2 to 6 feet in thickness, the ore being
generally speaking a more or less granular, often compact and earthy brown
oolitic ironstone. To about the same horizon belongs a fine-grained ore
worked in the lower Oxfordian clays at Sennevy-le-Bas, in the Yonne, where
it forms a bed about 2 feet thick. Again, an ore so finely grained as to be
properly described as a powder, occupies the same position in the Haute
Saone at Fercey-le-Grand, being intercalated between Lower Oxfordian marls.
This series of ores, which is worked more or less all along the base of the
Oxfordian escarpments in France, is frequently passed over and ignored when
not in workable quantities. It is, however, rarely absent. At Brecy-le-Sec
and Le Joux, for instance, ferruginous beds appear at the base of the
Oxfordian, but are too poor to be worked. At Jully, on the other hand, in
the marly beds of this age, three varieties of fine oolitic ore are worked,
known respectively as the "mine rouge," the "mine grise," and the "mine
noire." Of these, the last only is truly in place, and is the poorest and
most calcareous ; the second shows signs of reassortment, and is
occasionally overlain by gravel. In quality, it lies midway between the
first and the last. The "mine rouge," or red ore, which shows most signs of
reassortment, is the least calcareous, most argillaceous, and most valuable.
It is a question whether the two first varieties are entitled to be ranked
as Jurassic ores; but there can be no doubt whatever, from their
stratigraphical relations, that they are both derived from the last or "mine
noire," and that their various litho-logical structure is due to denudation
and weathering. On being exposed to the air, aU three varieties become of
one colour. The section near Yeuzac, given in Fig. 3, Flate XL., shows a
similar case of reassorted ore of undoubted Secondary derivation.
The writer is inclined to believe that the same horizon is ferriferous in
the Mevre, but has little information regarding that district. In the Ain,
it is again well marked by a bed about 5 feet thick, composed of granular
and earthy limonite, and worked at Yillebois. In the Gard, the well-known
ore of Fierre-morte is embedded among the Oxfordian marls, forming with them
a mass nearly 1,000 feet thick; whilst at the very base of these marls we
get in the Ardeche the equally well-known ore-deposits of La Youlte and La
Tope. At La Youlte (see Fig. 6, Flate XL.) a number of beds of ore occur
having an aggregate thickness of from 30 to 40 feet, the associated
limestones, shales, and marls being about 60 feet thick together. Three
kinds of ore are found here—a sphoerosiderite,
VOL. XXV.—1875.
j
66 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OP THE
forming a brownish clay iron-ore, passing into true black-band at times; a
foliated limonite; and a reddish oolitic ore. The granular limonite found at
various places in the Var appears to belong to this horizon.
Although a considerable thickness of Oxfordian beds invariably cap these
Infra-Oxfordian iron deposits, yet they by no means rest universally upon
similar beds. Thus, at La Voulte, the ore bed forms the base of the Middle
Oolite and rests directly upon the top marls of the Lower Oolite; and here,
as in other places where this is the case, the ore bed itself is* looked
upon as representing the Kelloway rock (or Callovian of foreign
geologists)—e.g., at Latrecey, Percey-le-G-rand, Chateau Vilain, &c. At
Chaumont, the ore bed rests upon beds of Cornbrash age (the "dalle nacree"
of the Jura), and at Villers-devant-Mouzon and La Besace it rests upon marls
capping the Cornbrash. There remains only to be mentioned with reference to
Middle Oolitic rocks, a deposit of limonite which is worked at Excideuil, in
the Dordogne, and which is supposed to occupy an Infra-Oxfordian position.
It is, however, rendered somewhat obscure stratigraphically by the
contiguous presence of Tertiary ores of greater industrial importance. From
a theoretical point of view, however, as will be seen in the sequel, the
Secondary deposit is interesting, whatever be its exact age.
These examples bring us to the Lower Oolites; and here, although not perhaps
quite so valuable as in the middle division, iron deposits are again
frequent, and to a great extent continuous.
A glance at Fig. 4, Plate XL., will show the arrangement which obtains over
a large area of northern France with regard to the Lower Oolite. In the part
of Normandy whence this section is taken, the cliffs are occasionally capped
by Oxfordian beds, and at other places their base is formed of Liassic beds
which may be seen at low water. The entire Lower Oolite series is therefore
brought in view in the clearest manner; and one of the best-defined members
of that series is the so-called Ferruginous Oolite, a bed lying below the
Fuller's earth and Caen limestone, and forming the upper and sometimes the
only member of the Inferior Oolite.* This bed, an oolitic limestone
characterized by Ammonites Humphreysianus, is well developed at Bayeux,
Moutiers, Niort, Mont d'Or, &c., where it justifies its epithet of
"ferruginous" by containing a number of bands of fine oolitic brown ore,
containing fossils just in the same way as the limestones and marls with
which they are interbedded. At Les Moutiers, where
* The Inferior Oolite must not be confounded with £the Lower Oolite, of
which it is merely the bottom division.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 67
this bed has been much quarried, the ironstone bands are known by the
workmen as "sands," owing to their finely grained nature. The thickness of
the " Ferruginous Oolite," as a whole, is very variable; at the cliff near
Port-en-Bessin, of which a section is given, being not more than a foot.
The Great Oolite series or upper portion of the Lower Oolite is not
iron-bearing as a rule to a workable extent, but the horizon just described,
and indeed the whole of theTnferior Oolite is strikingly ferriferous in most
parts of France, not only in the northern basin, but also in the south. Thus
in the Aveyron at Marcillac the ferruginous Oolite occurs with workable
oolitic ore, very much in the same position as that in Normandy, which at La
Q-alterie attains a thickness of more than 12 feet. The mean percentage
yield of this ore is about 45. The limestone immediately overlying the ore
(also part of the Inferior Oolite) is famous for its numerous caves in which
the well-known Roquefort cheese is ripened.
It is, however, at its base that the Inferior Oolite is richest in iron, the
junction of the Lias and Oolites being in most cases marked by ore deposits.
In some cases the passage between the two formations is formed by the ore
itself; thus at Privas the well-known bed of ore worked there belongs to the
Inferior Oolite as to its Upper part and to the Upper Lias as to its lower
portion. In the Doubs a bed of fine pea ore about 12 feet thick forms the
base of the Lower Oolites, and is worked at Deluz and Souvance ; the same
bed extends into the Jura, where it is worked in two portions at Malange,
the upper being formed of brown and the lower of red ore. A bed about 5 feet
thick represents the last at Yillebois and elsewhere in the Ain, and another
6 to 10 feet thick at Cadayrac in the Aveyron.
In some of the instances just mentioned there is, as may be supposed,
frequently some difficulty in proving whether the ores are really Liassic or
Oolitic. The above, however, may fairly claim (with a slight reservation as
to the Villebois ore) to be looked upon as belonging to the Inferior Oolite.
The writer will now proceed to others which seem to belong rather to the
Upper Lias than to the Oolite, although the same difficulty besets one in
this case as in the last.
LIASSIC ORES.
As already observed, the lower part of the Privas ore deposit is Liassic,
and this being a case in which there is no doubt now as to the right
horizon, thanks to the investigations of Ledoux, Grimer, and Dumas, may
properly take precedence of the others. Below the Entrochal limestone
(Inferior Oolite) in the Aveyron is a deposit of ore which some have placed
among the lowest Jurassic ores, but which, being universally held to be
68 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE
the equivalent of the Verpilliere deposits which are properly "
supra-liassic" (Upper Lias), seem to the writer to belong to the Liassic, or
to speak more guardedly, to the junction ores. These ores are worked at
Veuzac, where the contiguity of metamorphic rocks adds to the
stratigraphical uncertainty as regards these beds, at St. Igest, Montbazens,
etc. Some largely-worked ores belonging to this zone are found in the G-ard
at Saint Julien ; at La Verpilliere in the Isere, etc.
Getting now into undoubted Upper Lias a most noteworthy horizon is *
reached, which is known as iron-bearing in a greater or less degree all
round the great central plateau of France as far as Mondalazac in the
Aveyron.* In the Meurthe and Moselle this zone is specially developed. To it
belong the ores of Hayange, Moyeuvre, Ottange, the Mance Valley, Vezon, and
Jussey, where they are commonly associated with greenish micaceous marls.
The absence of intervening beds sometimes cause this set of deposits to
occur below higher horizons than would be the case were the series
everywhere complete. Thus the white limestones of the Bath Oolite division
of the Lower Oolite is occasionally found immediately overlying the ore
beds.
The average percentage yield of the ordinary ores of this group, which are
of the common brown oolitic type, is about 35. At Hayange, however, this ore
passes insensibly, in places, into a curious blue siliceous and slightly
magnetic ore, which is known by foreign mineralogists as Berthierite,]
closely allied to Ghamoisite, of which indeed it is scarcely more than a
variety.
In the Upper Lias marls in the neighbourhood of Nancy sphoerosideritic ore
occurs in the shape of septaria in every respect like those of our London
clay. These nodular masses are known locally as " Indus" ('from " Indus van
ffelmontii"), and are frequently highly ferruginous. :j: In the same
district is sometimes present, but oftener absent, a bed of pea ore, worked
formerly at Chavigny, which is, however, unfortunately associated with
* See Burat, " Traite des mineraux utiles," torn, i., p. 246. Paris, 1870.
f Mineralogical nomenclature is at least in as confused a state as
stratigrapical. Thus, whilst the Berthierite in question is a silicate of
iron, there is another Berthierite, which is a sulphide of antimony and
iron. The name was first given to the silicate, and belongs to it by right
of priority ; Poggendorf subsequently gave the name to the sulphide, but M.
Berthier substituted for it the name Haidingerite, which should stand. By
English authors Berthierite is changed usually into Berthierine.
X See Bracoimat, "Annales de Chimie et de Physique," torn, xviii., p. 222.
Paris, 1821.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 69
a bluish-green silicate of iron very similar to, though apparently not quite
identical with, the Berthierite of Hayange.
This great Upper Lias belt of ore naturally varies extremely in thickness,
sometimes consisting of one bed of ore, often of several, from a minimum of
5 feet to a maximum of more than 100 feet thick, including intercalated
marls. These marls, and those lying above them, although forming a distinct
part of the Upper Lias, are often called the " Supra-Liassic Marls," by
continental writers, and the sandy rocks underlying them are similarly known
as the " Supra-Liassic Grits," although they are likewise of Upper Lias age.
Just in the same manner the Lower Lias, or more generally its lowest part,
is frequently called the " Infra-Lias," or " Infra-Liassic series." It is to
these beds that we must next turn to find another great iron ore horizon ;
one, however, less universally distributed and constant than the last, and
one in which other circumstances have induced different conditions of
deposition.
The chief of these circumstances is the fact that in very many cases in
France the Lower Lias rests unconformably upon rocks of much greater age,
both sedimentary and eruptive. The importance of this point in reference to
the accumulations of ore will be noted further on. At present it is
sufficient to call attention to the fact.
Thus, near Alais, an ore deposit (oolitic brown ore) occurs at the base of
the Lias in irregular masses, worked at Sainte-Sophie, where the underlying
rock is of Coal-Measure age. Along the borders of the Morvan paleozoic area
there runs from the C6te-d'-Or into the Saone-et-Loire an horizon marked by
valuable deposits of iron ore which are only separated from the old rocks
by, at most, a few feet of beds. This band is characterized by the presence
of Ammonites Bucldandi, and is therefore of Lower Lias age, being, however,
geologically slightly higher in the series than the Infra-Lias proper of
Burgundy. At Thostes, where the ironstone of this zone has long been worked,
the ore is separated from underlying granite only by a thin bed of arJcose.*
The ore here consists partly of red ore and partly of the ordinary brown
variety, and in it are disseminated spangles of specular iron ore, or
hematite. The common ore is oolitic, cemented in a ferruginous clay. At
Beauregard (likewise in the C6te-d'-Or) the same ore takes the form of a bed
8 feet thick separated from the
* Arhose is a very convenient term applied by foreign geologists to such
deposits (chiefly grits, more or less conglomeratic, and sandstones) as are
by their proximity or composition distinctly traceable to the wear and
disintegration of old eruptive and metamorphic rocks, granites, gneisses,
&c.
70 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE
granite by a thin bed of the very peculiar Liassic marble full of shells,
which is known as " Lumachello." Two feet of grit overlie the ore, and above
comes the great Lower Lias limestone, known abroad chiefly by the name of
its commonest fossil, the G-ryphwa arcuata. At Montigny, Forlans, Euffey,
Bierre, Gfenouilly, Chanon, Curzy, Chalancey, Pereuil, Thury, Villerot,
Juilleray, Mazenay, Montlay, etc., this horizon is worked generally in
conditions similar to those which obtain at Thostes, but the ore sometimes
being found in the shell-marbles themselves. ,
To this horizon have sometimes been referred certain ores worked in the
Grard at Trepeloup, Vallat-Pellet, Mas-Dieu, and elsewhere, which are found
not in regular beds like the Thostes deposits, but filling up irregular
pockets and fissures in altered dolomitic limestones belonging to the
Infra-Lias. This is a somewhat more difficult point to settle than that
raised by similar deposits in fissures and cavities in many of the
Neo-comian and Jurassic limestones, owing to the possibility in this case of
the infiltration having come from below, and not from above. Anyhow, these
deposits must necessarily be of later date than the caverns which they fill,
and therefore, although they may still be, and probably are, of Secondary
age, yet they are not Lower Lias ores, properly so-called.
Forming part of the Infra-Liassic group is a grit or sandstone so charged
with iron as to be worked as ore at several places of the Aveyron, as at
Lunel, Espalion, Eodez, etc.
All the ores of what may be called the Lumachello and Arkose type (from
their associated rocks) are strongly characterized by the amount of red
oxide with which the clayey matrix which contains them is charged.
TEIASSIC ORBS.
Although much interest attaches to some of the few iron ore deposits in the
Trias, yet it is not proposed to treat of them here as fully as has been
done with regard to the other great Secondary divisions. It has, however,
been thought necessary to mention them for the sake of completing, at all
events, the outline of the present sketch.
The more important of the ore deposits of the Trias are conglomeratic in
character, and are found where the base of the Lower Trias (Bunter of the
Germans ; Grls-bigarris of the French) lies upon old eruptive rocks. In
these cases the lower beds are formed of fragments of the underlying
granites, etc., which are cemented together by a ferruginous paste,
sometimes sufficiently charged with iron to be worked. Other more regular
deposits, however, occur in the " Gres-bigarres," away from the influence of
unconformity, as for example at Merzelet, in the Ardeche ; but these are
very seldom of any importance.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 71
ORES OF DOUBTFUL AGE.
Among the many ore deposits of more recent age which are found associated
with Secondary rocks may be mentioned, in addition to those already noticed
incidentally, the following :—The pea ore worked in the Jurassic limestone
of Bruniquel, near Montauban (see Fig. 5, Plate XL.), which is found filling
up not only the joints of the rock but also the wedge-shaped cavities formed
along the lines of bedding. The figure in which this arrangement of the ore
pockets is well shown has been selected as showing likewise a good example
of the canon-like ravines formed by many of the rivers of Southern France,
when running through thick calcareous beds. The pea ore here is
indistinguishable from true alluvial ore in the immediate neighbourhood.
Similar deposits, doubtless equally recent, are worked in fissures in the
Lower Oolitic limestones in the Tarn-et-Gfaronne. Eather older
fissure-filling ores are known in the Neocomian limestones of many districts
(see ante). In the Vienne, ore is worked in the Oolites, but is believed to
be of much more recent age.* In the Upper Oolite, in fissured rocks of
Portlandian age, ore of a geodic character is worked at several places in
the Haute-Marne (Chatonrupt, Noncourt, Thonnance, etc.), but this likewise
appears to be of much more recent origin. This may also be the case with
some of the ore worked in the Upper Oxfordian at Sennevy-le-Haut. A red
earth worked in former days amongst the Oolites in the Forest of Jailly,
near Montbard, is possibly of Tertiary age, and so are the ores of
Grandcourt (S. of Virton), and of the Saint-Pancre Mine, which are also
associated with Jurassic rocks. The re-assorted Oxfordian ore of Jully,
already described, may perhaps be classed among these doubtful ones.
Most of the ore deposits just enumerated have been actually taken as truly
Secondary, at some time or another. Ores in similar conditions, but which
have never led to confusion, it would be out of place to enumerate.
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. Some few words must be said before closing the
paper relative to the origin of the ore deposits which have been described ;
and in order to prevent undue repetition some facts connected with these
deposits, and which bear chiefly as the mode of their formation, have been
kept for this section.
The deposits occur in the following forms:—
1.—As impregnations so extensive as to turn ordinary beds of limestone or
marl into beds of ore.
* Alf. Caillaux, op. jam. cit., p. 531.
72 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE
2.—As more or less concretionary masses disseminated through beds
of rocks without altering them. 3.—As infillings of pre-existing cavities in
the rocks (such as the
interiors of shells, etc.) 4.—As broken or continuous separate beds formed
essentially of
the ore alone.
Keeping accidental forms (such as Berthierite for instance) out of
consideration, the above four headings will include all the various deposits
which we have passed in review. To the first belong most of the great
Jurassic beds of ore, where the ore is the entire mass of the bed including
fossils. To the second belong the more strongly granular ores and the pea
ores. The third includes much of the ore of the great Lower Lias horizon,
but usually associated with ores belonging to the first or second divisions.
Whilst to the last may be referred the clay ironstones, both in the
septarian and black-band form.
All these deposits have this in common, that they are less continuous than
the beds which they invade. Although a certain horizon may be ferriferous
over its entire extent, yet the individual deposits of ore will be
separate—they all will be lenticular. At some central point they will attain
their maximum of thickness and richness, gradually thinning away towards the
edges.
It has been held with good reason that the greater part of these lenticular
areas saturated with iron are the result of spring-ejected matter spread
over portions of the sea bottom during the depositions of the beds which
they enrich. In some cases direct proof that this was so seems to be
forthcoming. Thus at Excideuil the ore is found to occupy two distinct
basins, separated by a ridge of limestone, which acts just as an isthmus
would act at the present time in separating the submarine thermal deposits
of springs on both its sides.
The pea ores are almost indistinguishable from the bog iron now forming in
many localities, and as in many cases we find them associated with land and
fresh-water forms, as at Wassy for instance, we need have no great
hesitation in assigning to them a similar origin.
The infillings of pre-existing cavities with iron ore (sometimes hematite)
is most marked in connexion with those ore deposits which have oeen formed
nearest to old eruptive or metamorphic rocks. Thus at Thostes, where the ore
is close to the granite, many shells are found in the ore bed, some of which
are filled with hematite and greyish-green jasperoid quartz, the ore itself
containing, as has been already said, spangles of specular iron. At
Beauregard in the similarly placed bed, specimens of Unios and
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 73
Limas abound, and are filled with crystals of hematite, the same thing being
seen at Montigny. Now, if it be admitted that mineral springs are the
probable agents to which the chief deposits of ore occupying ordinary
fossil-bearing beds are due, does it not seem as if, in positions like these
of Thostes and Beauregard, the iron-feeding rocks whence the springs brought
their charge were at hand ? Especially is this striking if we consider that
with the proximity of these ancient rocks we have associated the presence of
hematite, an ore which is strictly characteristic of the paloeozoic
formations, and which can only be considered as of occasional —almost
accidental—occurrence in Secondary rocks. These granites and old rocks on
which the Lumachello shell-marbles rest are cut through and through by
metalliferous veins of an age far superior to that of the deposition of the
superincumbent beds, and M. Evrard has even been able to find the particular
vein, from which the iron-spring which formed the Thostes deposit issued at
the bottom of the Liassic sea.* Another case in point is mentioned by M.
Caillaux with regard to the ore deposit of Saint Julien (see ante), which
lies immediately over the head of a pyritous vein. These ores, therefore,
may be looked upon as the products of preexisting sulphides.
The septarian and black-band forms are in every way similar to the clay
ironstones of the coal-measures, and have probably been originally deposited
as carbonate.
TABLE OF FORMATIONS. Lowee Cretaceous.
(1.—Clay with Plicatula placunea. Hte. Marne and Yonne. Upper J 2.—Red
bed with Heter aster oblong us and Orbitolites lenticulata. -•
( Wassy.
I J ( 3.—Oolitic iron ore with Unio Comueliana. (§) Wassy.
| -\ Middle j 4._rjnfossiliferous sands and clays. Wassy.
I ( 5.—Clay with Ostrea Leymeriei. Wassy.
Lower J 6.—Spatangus limestone with Am. radiatus. Wassy. j 7.—Iron sands
and black marl. (§) Wassy.
Jurassic.
Purbeck—
1,—Fresh-water Limestone and mottled clays of the Charentes. 2.—"Plaquette"
Limestone of the Charentes, and vacuolar Oolite of the Hte. Marne. Portland—
3.—Upper Portlandian with Trigonia giboosa. 4.—Lower Portlandian with Am.
gigas.
* See A. Burat, op. jam. cit., Vol. ii., p. 245,
VOL. XXV,-1875.
j
74 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE
Kimmeridge—
5.—Fish limestone of Bugey, etc. 6.—Kimmeridgian marl of H&vre, etc.
Coralline Oolite—
7.—Astarte Limestone. 8.—Upper Coralline Oolite. 9.—Compact Coralline
Oolite. 10.—Lower Coralline Oolite.
11.—Grouty limestone with Hemicidaris oremilaris and Coral Rag with Old.
florigemma.
Calcareous Grit—
12.—Upper Oxfordian with Am. plicatitis and Ostrea dilatata.
Oxford Clay—
13.—Clay of Dives with Am. athleta and Am. Lamberti.
Kelloway—
14.—Kellovian with Am. macrocephalus and (§) Infra-Oxfordian ironstone,
LaVoulte (Ardeche).
Combrash—
15.—Cornbrash.
Great Oolite—
16.—Great Oolite.
Stonesfield Slate and Fuller's Earth—
17.—Fuller's Earth and Caen limestone. Infra- Oolite—
18.—Ferruginous Oolite with Am. Humphreysianus, of Bayeux, Moutiers,
Niort and M d'Or. (§)
19.—Entrochal limestone of Burgundy.
Sundry Beds—
20.—Meuliere of Normandy with Am. Murchisonia.
LlASSIC. Tipper Lias—
1.—Ironstone deposits of La Verpilliere (Isere) (§) [Supra-liassic marls and
Upper Lias].
Middle Lias—
2.—Middle Lias with Am. Margaritatus of Burgundy.
Lower Lias—
3.—" Sinemurian," Upper, or Am. oxynotus zone.
4.—Limestone with Am. Davidsoni.
5.—Am. Bucklandi zone
6.—Infra-lias of Burgundy and of the south of France. (§) Mazenay deposits
?
Hhcetic—
7.—Rhoetic.
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE. 75
Triassic. Keuper—
1.—Keuper marls and Dolomites with salt and gypsum.
Wanting—
2.—Muschelkalk.
Bunter—
3.—" Gres bigarre." with plants and freshwater shells (Vosges),
N.B.—(§) indicates the presence of iron ores.
ANALYSES OF SOME] SECONDARY FRENCH ORES.
(Chiefly taken from M. Alf. Caillaux's work " Les Mines Metalliques de la
France." )
Ore of Calmoutiers.
Water and oxygen .................. 5*80
Perox. of iron ............ ......... 68-20
Ox. of manganese .................. F50
Carbonate of lime .................. 4-03
Clay ........................ 12-00
• Phosphoric acid..................... '40
Ore op Jussey.
Water and oxygen .................. 5O0
Perox. of Iron ..................... 68*80
Ox. of manganese ... ... ... ... ...
... 0*80
Soluble alumina..................... 2-40
Clay ........................ 19-30
Phosphoric acid..................... 0-30
Ore op Lunel.
Perox. of iron ..................... 55 to 60
Silica ,....................... 35 to 40
Alumina........................ 2-00
Water and loss............ ......... 2'00
Ore op Mazejstay.
Silica ........................ 11-32
Alumina ... ..................... 4-26
Perox. of iron ..................... 41-98
Ox. of manganese .................. 0-34
Water and loss..................... 21*55
Lime ........................ 19'75
Magnesia........................ 0-80
Ore op Montliot.
Silica...... .................. 8-80
Alumina........................ 8-90
Perox. of iron ..................... 54-85
Water and loss..................... 19'95
Lime ........................ 7-50
76 ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE
Ore of Malange.
Red Ore—Silicate of Alumina ............ 18*00
Soluble Alumina............... 4-40
Perox. of iron ............... 50-10
Lime..................... 11-00
Water, etc................... 16-50
Brown Ore—Silicate of Alumina ............ 22-10
Soluble Alumina............... 0"30
Perox. of iron ............... 47-70
Lime..................... 13-50
Water, etc................... 16-40
Ore op Pierre-Morte.
Ox. of iron ..................... 45-35
Silica ........................ 18-15
Alumina........ ............... 8-10
Lime ........................ 11-60
Sulphur........................ 0-02
Loss ........................ 17-20
Ore op Sennevy-le-Bas.
• Perox. of iron ..................... 66-25
Silica ........................ 10-50
Alumina ... ..................... 2-75
Volatile matter..................... 20-50
Ore op Saint-Dizier {after Landrin).
Perox. of iron ..................... 69*00
Alumina........................ 7'00
Water ........ ............... 16-00
Silica ........................ 3-00
"Gangue" ..................... 4-00
Ore op Saint-Julien.
Ox. of iron ..................... 52'00
Silica ............... ... ...... 33 25
Alumina........................ T50
Lime .................. ... " ... 0-95
Sulphur........................ 1-42
Loss ........................ 10-50
Ore op Thostes.
Silica ,....................... 13-25
Alumina........................ 10-95
Perox. of iron ..................... 67'50
Ox. of manganese .................. 1'39
Carbonate of lime .................. 2-28
Water and loss..................... 3*89
SECONDARY IRON ORES OF PRANCE. 77
Ore op Wassy.
Clay ........................ 10-50
Perox. of iron ..................... 64-50 i
Alumina........................ 5-50
Water ........................ 18-50
Magnesia........................ trace
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XL.
Fig. 1.—Section showing arrangement of Secondary rocks in JV. W. France.
Peet.
a.—Trias...... ............ — ~]
b.—Trias.................. —
c.—Sinemurian............... 1000
d.—Lias.................. 500 j
e.—Toarcian ............... 500 .o
/.—Bajocian ............... 200 'g
a.—Bath Oolite............... 200 S
h— Kelloway ............... 500 I >,
i.-Oxfordian ... ............ 500 |f>
£.—Coralline ............... 1000 <g
I.—Kimmeridgian ............ 500 Q
in.—Portlandian............... 200
n.—Neocomian............... 8000
o.—Aptian ............... 700
Fig. 2.—Section Half mile E. of Besvres (about 4 miles). After W. Topley.
a.—Chalk and Upper Greensand.
b.—Gault.
o.—Lower Greensand.
d.—Wealden.
e.—Oolites.
Fig. 3.—Section between Villefranche and Vetizac. After Elie de Beaumont.
a.— Granite. b.—Dolomite. e.—Compact limestone. d.—Compact limestone.
e.—Compact limestone. /.—Marly limestone with Belemnites. g,—Blue marls.
h.—Marly limestone. i.—Micaceous clay. "k.—Ferruginous Oolite.
I.—Ferruginous Oolite, reassorted.
78 SECONDARY IRON ORES OF FRANCE.
Fig. 4.—Port-en-Bessin Cliff (Normandy).
a.—Coral limestone (Caen limestone).
b.—'Marls and limestone.
c—White Oolite.
d.—Iron Oolite.
e.—Inferior Oolite.
/.—Inferior Oolite with tubercular flints, &c.
Fig. 5.—Section across the Catisse of Aveyron at Vaours.
a.—Trias.
, ( Lias grit, Arkose. o. J
I Dolomites and limestone of the Lias.
c.—Inferior Oolite.
d.—Iron ore in cavities of the Inferior Oolite limestone.
Fig. 6.—Section along the road to the La Voulte Mine. After Mie de
Beaumont.
a.—Gneiss and talcose schist. o.—Conglomerate, c.—Bncrinital bed—Lias.
d.—Black compact limestone.
e.—Black shaly marls with clay ironstone nodules and Am. Bakerice. f.—Black
band. y.—Marls with Am. Bakeries, h.—Black band.
i.—Beds of red oxide of iron ore. k.—Compact grey limestone. 1.—Maris with
Am. Bakerice. m,—Marls with Am. Bakerice.
PROCEEDINGS.
79
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 5, 1876, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., President, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected :—
Members—
Mr. John Stone, Hayton, near Liverpool.
Mr. John Brown, Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland.
Mr. Thomas E. Storey, Clough Hall Collieries, Stoke-upon-Trent.
Mr. James Ashworth, Owner, Bank Top Colliery, Burslem.
Mr. John Rigby, Agent, Audley Collieries, Newcastle-under-Lyme.
Mr. Robert Heath Cole, Resident Viewer, Grange Colliery, Hanley.
Mr. Frederick Southall, Resident Viewer, Park Hall Colliery, Cheadle,
Stoke-upon-Trent. Mr. W. S. Coe, Resident Viewer, Newchapel Colliery,
Tunstall. Mr. Robert Stevenson, Resident Viewer, Crewe Coal and Iron Co.,
Limited,
Newcastle-under-Lyme. Mr. W. Hoole Chambers, Silkstone Main Colliery, near
Barnsley. Mr. W. T. Cheesman, Wire Rope Manufacturer, Hartlepool. Mr. W.
Shelford, C.E. (Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers), 35A.
Great George Street, Westminster, London.
Students—
Mr. Alfred John Swinney, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, County Durham. Mr. E.
F, Ayton, Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
VOL. XXV.-1876.
T
80 PROCEEDINGS.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Members—
Mr. Robert W- Eddison, Steam Plough Works, Leeds.
Mr. D. H. Haggle, Hendon Patent Ropery, Sunderland.
Mr. William Snowdon, 14, Park Row, Leeds.
Mr. W. J. Laidler, Engineering Superintendent, Postal Service, Palermo.
Mr. George Davison, Ormesby Mines, Middlesbro,'
Students—
Mr. Septimus Oliver, Redheugh Colliery, Gateshead.
Mr. William Scott, Redheugh Colliery, Gateshead.
Mr. R. W. P. RICHARDSON, Langley Park Colliery, Durham.
Mr. Ernest P. Rees, Langley Park Colliery, Durham.
Mr. Clarence S. Lindsay, 5, Park Place West, Sunderland.
The Secretary read the following paper by Mr. J. J. Williams, C.E., M.E., "
On the Mineral Resources of Flintshire and Denbighshire :"—
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 81
THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
By J. J. WILLIAMS, C.E., M.E.
The deposits of the different series or groups to be met with generally in
these two counties are the superficial deposits of the tertiary epoch, the
triassic series of the secondary epoch, and the permian, carboniferous, old
red sandstone or Devonian and silurian series of the palgeozoic epoch. The
mineral deposits of the two counties have but little to do with the first
two epochs mentioned, being more especially confined to the palseozoic; and
of that group the carboniferous series will occupy the most prominent
position. It is unnecessary to introduce the methods adopted by geologists
to enable them to arrive at the period of formation of the several groups
above named; nor is it necessary to consider the structure of the various
basaltic, trachytic, metamorphic or other rocks. Still the writer may be
allowed to state, without being accused of introducing extraneous matter,
that the different stratifications which have to be dealt with are
throughout, naturally and geologically, conducive to their high mineral
properties. A classification of the several minerals which are found and
sought after in these districts, with a few of their specialities, arranged
alphabetically, will perhaps not be out of place or uninteresting.
Baryta (Carbonate of)—Distinguished from barytes by its solubility in acids;
colour, yellowish white; infusible; soluble in hydrochloric acid. Found in
very small quantities in the limestone formation, and near Rhesycse in
Halkin Mountain. Of no value owing to its scarcity.
Blende, or Black Jack.—Colour, sandy brown and brownish black; difficult of
fusion; soluble if powdered in concentrated nitric acid. Found in the lead
veins of the limestone and chert formations in large quantities at
Talargoch, Talacre, and Trelogan, in Flintshire; and Minera, in
Denbighshire. Used in the manufacture of zinc. Not very valuable.
Calamine.—Resembles iron refuse or scrap iron; colour, brownish black;
difficult of fusion. Found in small quantities in the limestone
82 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
formation near Holywell, invariably in conjunction with lead ore. Used in
the manufacture of zinc, and is of little value.
Copper Pyrites.—Colour, a brassy yellow; differs from iron pyrites, as it
can be cut with a knife; soluble partially in nitrohydrochloric acid. Found
in small quantities in the limestone formation at Moel Hiraddug and the deep
level at Halkin, Flintshire, and at Nant-y-ffirth, Denbighshire. Of no value
commercially owing to its scarcity.
Copper Green (Carbonate of). — Colour, green; partially infusible;
soluble in nitric acid. Found in small quantities at Hiravay and Marrian,
in Curwin, Flintshire. Workable only in connection with other minerals.
Coal.—Bituminous; colour, lustrous black. Extensively found in the
argillaceous measures overlying the limestone formation.
Clay.—Colour, brown, white, blue, yellow; infusible; soluble in water. Found
nearly over the whole of the coal measures, and extensively used for bricks,
tiles, earthenware, &c.
Clay (Silicate).—White gritty substance, sometimes having the firmness of
limestone; partially soluble in water; infusible. Found at Caerwys and
Halkin Mountain in a clayey state; and at Gwernafield, near Mold, in the
rock. Used for the lining of furnaces and the manufacture of glass, &c.
Clay (Argillaceous).—Colour, whitish grey. Found generally underlying the
several seams of coal. Used chiefly for fire brick.
Chert.—Colour, bluish grey; partly soluble when ground; infusible. Found
generally as a belt intervening between the limestone and the coal
formation, and occupying in many instances the position of the millstone
grit. Only workable in Flintshire, at Pentreffynnon, near Holywell, and
Henblas near Halkin. Used for the manufacture of porcelain, &c.
Cement Stone.—Close-grained stone, of a bluish grey colour, intersected by
white thin streaks of carbonate of lime; partly soluble when ground;
infusible. Found overlying the chert measures near the foot of the coal
formation. Is only worked at Holywell. Used for the purpose of making Roman
cement; hence its name.
Felspar (Common).—Colour, white. None of any general value; used for
ornamental walks, roads, &c, but only carted for those purposes when cut in
exploring for other minerals.
Freestone.—Colour, brown, sandy, and grey. Found in great quantities
overlying the coal measures generally. Is valuable as a building material,
and for grindstones, whetstones, &c.
Hematite (Red Ore).—Colour, red, reddish brown; partly fusible; soluble in
warm hydrochloric acid. Found in Caerwys, Ysceifiog, Nannerch, and
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 83
Bodfari, in Flintshire; and at Abergele, Llanfwrog, and Llangynhafal, in
Denbighshire. Is largely used in smelting for the iron it contains.
Hydraulic Limestone (Aberdaw).—Colour, bright blue, with white sparry
streaks. Found in beds, generally between the limestone and coal formation.
Used in the manufacture of Portland cement; worked only in Flintshire, at
Gorsedd, Pantasaph, and Halkin Mountain.
Ironstone.—Colour, when broken, reddish blue ; fusible and partially soluble
; found extensively in the argillaceous measures in beds and nuts or balls ;
worked at Ffrwd, Brymbo, Vron, and Ruabon, in Denbighshire; neglected
altogether in the Flintshire district; used for the manufacture of iron.
Iron Pyrites.—Colour, a brassy yellow ; soluble partly in nitric acid;
fusible. Found in the coal seams of Flintshire and Denbighshire. Little
attention paid to it; valuable if procured in quantities.
Lead, sulphide of (galena).—Colour, lead grey; fusible; partly soluble in
nitric acid. Found in the carboniferous ranges of limestone in the chert and
clay slate formation.
Lead (Carbonate of).—Colour, greyish white; fusible; decomposed by
hydrochloric acid. Found in small quantities in conjunction with galena, and
generally separated in the washing.
Limestone (Carboniferous). — Whitish grey, and white colour; not fusible;
soluble in water when burnt. Forms a great portion of the mountain ranges in
the two counties, and separates the clay slate and coal formations.
Extensively used in various ways, as material for building, cements,
agriculture, &c.
Lime.—(Carbonate of).—Colour, yellowish white, or cream colour; infusible;
soluble in hydrochloric acid. Found only at Caerwys, in Flintshire. Used
for cement instead of lime.
Limestone (Granular).—Has the same properties as the carboniferous. Its
characteristics are hardness, and being extensively intermixed with fossil
remains. Is found on the Halkin Mountain, and is used as statuary marble.
It receives a good polish, and looks well when worked.
Manyanese.—Snuff-colour; fusible ; soluble in hydrochloric acids. Found in
small quantities in conjunction with the hematite; is never separated, owing
to its scarcity. Used in the manufacture of iron.
Quartz (Common).—Colour, greenish and pinkish white ; infusible ; insoluble
in all acids excepting hydrochloric. Found in the veins of the limestone and
clay slate formations, but not in such quantities that any practical use can
be made of it.
Silver.—Colour and lustre well known ; soluble in nitric acid. Found
84 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
only in combination with galena, at an average percentage of 8 oz. to the
ton of ore, and is separated in the process of smelting.
Slate.—Colour, blue, red, green. This formation takes up nearly the half of
Flintshire and Denbighshire, but it is only worked in one or two places, in
the latter county near to Llangollen. The use of the article is well known,
and requires no description.
Sulphur.—Soluble partially in sulphuric acid. Found in the coal-formation,
clay, slate, and limestone, but not in quantities sufficient to prove
remunerative. Used for making sulphuric acid, &c.
This completes the list of /minerals generally met with in mining
operations; and although many of them are of little or no commercial value,
still at times they become valuable when looked upon as the means of
directing to other and more extensive deposits. Thus a small string of
blende has led to the discovery of enormous quantities of lead ore j and
sulphur indications have often led to the same results. Felspar and quartz
have also their uses in the same direction.
After noticing the whole of the minerals that have been hitherto met with,
the writer will make a selection of those which actually constitute the
resources of the two counties, so that some information may be elicited as
to their probable extent and duration, and the supplies that yet remain
undeveloped ,• and, in order to render the subject more clear, will give a
slight sketch of the principle geological features of the country. Beginning
at Dyserth, near Talargoch, in Flintshire, the carboniferous limestone range
,• the supporter of the coal measures, raises its head to the skies,
spreading its arms onwards above Prestatyn, Gronant, and Mostyn, and
extending on the right of Whitford and Holywell, its sides undulating to the
west of Flint and Northop. Taking a sharp turn to the westward, it can be
traced passing Ehos Esmor and east of Hendre,- again a sharp turn gives it a
southerly direction, passing above Mold, Nerquis, Treiddyn, and Llandegla,
until it reaches the confines of Denbighshire, where, abruptly dislocated,
it assumes for a short distance the character of two distinct ranges, one
running in the direction of Ffrith in a narrow strip, while the other takes
a sharp turn southerly, passing above Brymbo on to Minera, above Fron Deg
and Cefn-y-Fedw, again disappearing through the intervention of the clay
slate formation at Llangollen. The average width of the above limestone
range shewing above the surface from the point started from to Llandegla,
would be about two miles and a quarter, and its length about twenty-four
miles. Following the westerly side of the hills, of which the limestone
range referred to is a portion, there is the clay slate formation on either
side, intermixed with the bala beds and
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 85
other arenaceous deposits, until the Vale of Clwyd, within a mile or two of
Llanfair Chapel, is reached, where a fork of limestone deposit is again
found which commences another limestone range east and west of the Clwyd.
Above the narrow strip of limestone on the easterly side of the Vale of
Clwyd, and the westerly side of the hills before mentioned, the clay slate
formation continues (which forms the basis of the Moel Famman mountains)
onwards above Llanbedr, Llangynhafal, Bodfari, ending at Diserth. This
extensive range has an area nearly as great as the limestone in the
direction traversed, and has more rugged beauty externally to captivate the
eye; but, as will be seen, it has not the internal merits of the limestone
range to recommend it to capitalists as a remunerative source of investment.
Crossing the threshold, as it were, of the beautiful Clwyd Vale at Llanfair
Chapel, another and different formation—the new red sandstone—leads to the
western side, where again appears the limestone formation of Denbighshire,
backed by an almost interminable deposit of clay slate and the older
formations. The belt of limestone has an average width of about
three-quarters of a mile, and extends in a northerly direction by Llanfwrog,
Llanrhaidr, Denbigh above Wigfair, along past St. George on to Abergele, and
terminating, after taking a westerly turn, at Llanddulas. In these measures
the lead ore, blende, iron ore (hematite), limestone, silica, slate,
carbonate of lime, and hydraulic limestone, are to be found.
Following in the same direction as pointed out in defining the limestone
ranges, and lying to the east of them, are the coal measures; but contiguous
to them, and forming a division between the coal formation and the limestone
formation, at an average width of nearly one and a-half miles along the
whole of the districts, are found the millstone grit, chert, and lias
measures. These measures, after being traced ranging at the foot of the
limestone as far as the hills above Treiddyn, take a sharp turn in an
easterly direction towards Hope, and become a natural division of the
coal-fields of Flintshire and Denbighshire. It is unnecessary to draw an
outline of the outcrop of the Flintshire or Denbighshire coal-field, as the
foregoing remarks amply demonstrate its position along its whole course. The
Flintshire field extends from Ehyl to Treiddyn in a southerly direction,
turning eastward from thence towards Hope and Llai; then northward under
Hawarden and Sandycroft, returning north-westerly under the half of the
estuary of the Dee back again to Ehyl. The Denbighshire field extends from
Glas-coed, near Brymbo, to Llannys on the borders of Shropshire, being there
about two miles wide in an easterly direction,- then returning northerly
below Ehosmadoc, to the right of Wynnstay, onwards past
86 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
Sontley, and in nearly a straight line to Wrexham and Gresford, finishing by
a sharp turn near Hope. In these measures are coal, ironstone, clays,
freestone, chert, &c. Keferring to the iron ore deposits at
the extreme end of the limestone range near Diserth, they are never met with
in the upper limestone stratifications but are invariably connected with the
lower, and generally found abutting on the clay slate. The largest tract
containing hematite in Flintshire is the Marian-y-Cwm, which is distributed
over a surface of about 1,000 acres, and is now being rapidly developed; but
the quantity of good ore contained there, averaging 55 or 60 per cent., is
very small. The ore is generally found in chambers—or, as the miners say,
"pockets"—which take an east and west or north and south direction, the same
as lead veins, but are interrupted by hard bars of rock intervening between
each chamber. The difficulty in the exploration and development of these
mines is mostly irregular owing to the position of the pockets. "When a
chamber has been worked, a careful observation of the sides, top, and bottom
should be taken, and it will be found at one point or another that a leader
exists, either as a thin layer between the stratified rock, or as a string
across the measures, pointing the way into the adjoining chamber, be it
above or below. The ore found is chiefly of a hard, rocky appearance, and
is quarried from the chambers sometimes to the extent of from 15 to 30 yards
square, by 12 or 15 yards high. It is first undermined, then blown in
fragments to the floor of the chamber, and from thence sent to the surface.
Such is believed to be the easiest mode of extraction. Another deposit in
Flintshire is Caerwys, extending over an area of about 500 acres. Several
attempts have been made to develope it, but have hitherto failed; still,
there is every reason to believe it contains valuable ore, its geological
formation being equally favourable to its existence as any other portion of
the county. There are three other deposits found: one at Ysceifiog,
another at Nannerch, and the third at Bodfari. These are all being
developed ; and, though not extensive, produce fair quantity and quality of
ore.
The Denbighshire hematite deposits are not extensive, the largest being on
the west side of the Clwyd Vale at Abergele, Kimnel, Llanrhaiadr; and on the
east side at Llangynhafal. The first-named extends over a broken area from
Abergele to Kimnel of about 500 or 600 acres, and the other two not
averaging together more than 300 or 400 acres. The Abergele portion is the
only one at work, and producing fair samples of ore. The quantity now raised
in Flintshire from all its iron ore mines amounts to about 1,000 tons
monthly, and is consumed chiefly by the Mostyn Iron Company, the Brymbo Iron
Company, and the Lilleshall
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 87
Iron Company, Shropshire. The output of Denbighshire does not at present
amount to more than 400 tons per month, and is generally sold to the above
parties. Large portions of unexplored land remain in the two counties, and
it may be assumed that further efforts will be brought to bear upon them,
and that other sources of supply will ere long be discovered.
The deposits of silica now demand consideration. They appear isolated,
and are found as surface clays, and lying between what may be termed the
older limestone and the newer limestone formations. Ffrith-y-Garregwen,
near Caerwys; Halkin, near Holywell; and Gwernafield, near Mold (where it is
of a hard, rocky nature), are the places where it is found at present.
The extent at the first-mentioned place would be something approaching 20
acres, with a thickness of from 10 to 15 feet. Its quality is
unexceptional, but the cost of transit makes it rather unprofitable.
Halkin has been nearly worked out. The rocky silicate near Mold extends,
over about 30 acres, and in some instances is from 20 to 30 feet thick. It
is sold for the purpose of glass manufacture ; but its hardness and the
unfavourable means of transit do not make it a very profitable investment.
Similar deposits should be found in Denbighshire, on the flats above
Euabon, the Steddfod hills above Minera, and also at Llanfwrog and Abergele.
A peculiar deposit, that of carbonate of lime next comes under
consideration. Its character is a pure carbonate, having undergone at
some period of the earth's formation a chemical process of decomposition. It
is quite a phenomenon, occurring only at Caerwys, in Flintshire. To the
writer's knowledge it is the only one in the United Kingdom. It underlies
a surface of from 40 to 50 acres, and no doubt goes to a great depth.
Geologically, it reclines on the slope of the older limestone measures with
its base supported by the clay slate. It has been tried instead of lime
for cement making, and there is no reason to doubt that ere long its use
will become general. The easy transit and the light labour of getting are
all in its favour.
Chert is another deposit which has its peculiarities. Although extending
from north to south through the two counties, Flintshire alone produces it
as a mercantile produce. The county derives its name from this formation,
which, is a proof that the flintstone was well known hundreds of years ago.
The portions of chert that are workable cover but a limited extent, say of
from 30 to 40 acres altogether—10 or 15 acres at Pentre, near Whitford, and
the remainder at Henblas, on the Halkin Mountains. Their quality is good,
but owing to their position as regards railway communication little trade is
done in them.
VOL. XXV.-1876.
,j-
88 MINERALS OP FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
Hydraulic limestone, or as commonly called "Aberdaw," is indigenous to the
limestone formation, and is generally found to exist on the borders of the
coal measures. Sometimes when found, its quality does not warrant its
extraction, and such appears to be the case in the whole of Denbighshire ;
but in Flintshire its extent and quality afford ample encouragement, and its
various uses make it a source of profitable investment. It is at present
worked at Gorsedd, Grange Quarry, and Halkin Quarry, where quantities exist
that will not be exhausted for many years to come. New roads may be opened,
docks may be built, shafts may be sunk, still there is little fear of these
supplies failing; and when better means of communication have been completed
these deposits may be exported to facilitate works in other portions of the
globe.
The deposits just considered are chiefly the minor ones of the limestone
formation; the following are the necessary concomitants of the coal
formation. The lead deposits and its connections, blende, etc., as well as
the coal-fields, will be dealt with lastly, as being the most important and
most extensive of the natural resources under consideration.
The lowest deposit of value intervening between the chert measures and the
coal-bearing measures is the cement stone. This valuable article has not
been sought after anywhere but in Flintshire, although there is little doubt
of its existence in Denbighshire, along the dingles from Caergwrle to
Ffrith, and from Minera onward below Coedpoeth, towards Ruabon. It occurs in
beds of from two to four feet thick (the shale surrounding it can be easily
worked), but is of inferior quality to the hydraulic lime for the purpose of
making cement. Forty or fifty acres of it have been discovered at Holywell,
and it is worked favourably to some extent.
Argillaceous ironstone in these parts belongs exclusively to the coal
formation. Flintshire abounds in deposits of them, but in no part of the
county are they worked separately. All that are got are secured in
conjunction with the seams of coal, and then only when a fall takes place in
the goafs are they easy of access. In Denbighshire several beds of ironstone
are worked independently of any coal that may exist above or below. The
Ffrood Iron Company and the Brymbo Iron Company, as well as the Brynmally
Colliery Company, all near Wrexham, and the Ruabon Collieries, in many
instances extract them ; and, as they overlie nearly the whole of the
coal-fields, their value is incalculable.
Fire-clay has lately taken its proper place as one of the mineral resources
of these counties, and that which was once discarded as useless is now
sought after, manufactured, and sold. It is found with nearly all the coal
seams, and can be got at a very moderate cost without
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 89
interfering with the output of coal. It being impossible to work the
fire-clay when the coal has been totally exhausted, this clay should be
heaped at every colliery, so that when the coal becomes exhausted, as in
many instances it is, the capital may be turned to the manufacture of bricks
and other useful articles of commerce.
Common or surface clays hold an important place in the resources of the two
counties. The chief deposits are in connection with the coal formation,
although every other formation can lay claim to them to a great extent, so
that it would be needless to enter minutely into the extent of country they
cover.
Freestone is another useful article, commercially. It belongs entirely to
the coal formation, and can be seen scattered here and there over extensive
tracts of country. As to quantity it is virtually inexhaustible, and its
uses are so generally known, that no further description is necessary.
Flintshire although intersected by the slate formation, does not to the
writer's knowledge possess any workable veins ; nor does Denbighshire boast
of more than one or two that have turned out successful. Scores of square
miles remain unexplored; and although they may contain deposits of value, it
is obvious they must remain unexplored for a long period. Some good samples
of slate and flags were turned out at Llangollen Vale, but their extent
cannot at present be estimated.
Leaving the minor deposits entirely, the writer reverts with the limestone
ranges, and their veins of lead and blende, to the coal measures, with their
deposits of stratified cannel and coal. It would be useless to attempt to
estimate the limestone formations, or to assume a period when exhaustion
would ensue : the same remark would also apply to the valuable deposits they
contain.
The carboniferous limestone and the chert measures belonging to the two
counties are the main repositories of their lead and blende; and these
repositories must be looked to chiefly for the future supply. Lead is
sometimes found in their clay slate formations, but there is little hope
that its productiveness will ever conduce largely towards the extension of
the resources of the district. It is found most extensively in lodes or
veins ; flats at times producing large quantities, as also the gravelly or
surface deposits. All the lodes have either an east and west, or north and
south direction, and seldom or ever vary from their true courses. East or
west veins or lodes are invariably the best defined and most productive,
north and south ones merely acting as feeders or branches to them. The
productions of each can easily be distinguished by any one accustomed to
visit them, the ore of the east and west being brighter and more silverized
92 MINERALS OP FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
FLINTSHIRE METALLIFEROUS MINES.
Names or Mines. GBposiAhon°AL 7^
Remarks,
position. Month.
Tons. t, T,i i { L *160 "Working chiefly
on east and west
Talargoch ......Prestatyn, near Rhyl j p/200 lodes- Good
ProsPects-
TnlcmTp
B 40 East and west lodes mostly pro-
-LcUd,Lit: ...... "
ducing blende. Good prospects.
Golden Grove ... Llanasa „ Nil.
Driving for Talargoch Veins.
Doubtful prospects.
TYpWan .. ..
B. 20 Sinking new shaft. The blende is
neiukdu ...... » i)
«" got by robbing the old east and
west veins. Prospects good.
Celyn Level......Near Holywell ) ( Opening out
old workings Driving
•> *
I -r r I day level through sett. Good
( -Li. O < east and wes(; i0(jes and good
Celyn Bog...... „ „ ) (
prospects.
Sinking new shaft, trying to inter->> »i ••• •¦•
" " sect
Celyn level lodes. Ma-
chinery required. Excellent prospects.
a««+T, l\/TQ1.n,rn
L 2 Cannot expect to cut large deposits.
bOUth Meillyn ... ,, „ ...
u. w North and south vein. Shallow
mine,
TT^n^^otr T Qt,-o1
Nil Day level portion of mine. Second
Holloway Level ... „ „ •••
JNU. Talargoch when developed.
TTo™l nm™
Nil Too far removed from bearing
Hazel Grove...... » „ ... au.
measures to be productive.
North and south and east and west lodes.
\Tai41, TTonWoo
L 2 Fair prospects. North and south
JNorth Henblas ... „ „ ... u.
z lodes. Day level. Poorly de-
veloped.
¦\jr;i„™
Nil Old mine. Has produced thou-
1H.UWI ...... i) t) •••
¦""• sands of tons of ore in shallow
depths. Adjoining lands should be developed in conjunction with It. Powerful
machinery required.
PenyrHenblas ... „ „ ••• L. 3
No^spaen0dtesouth lodes- Medium
PrinPP Pitriflc Halkin ... L 25
Working on flat. Shallow deposit, Prince PatriGK ... ndlKUi
...... u. .co productive for its extent,
Plop™ T otrol
L 10 Extensive. Day level at a good
JJeep Lievel...... ,, .5, - Uiu
depth; if continued will even-
tually unwater miles of the Halkin mountain district. Fair prospects.
wpt,r Panrvp-of ...... Nil.
Rather far removed from the most
Wesi; ranrvgoi ... „ ...... ¦«"•
productive measures.
East Hendre ... „ ...... L, 5 J
f Very promising mines. East and
w__, "NTonv Mnlrl
T, U west and north and south veins.
West „ ... JNeai Mold....... L,. rf>
Now worked at shallow depths.
I Good prospects.
North „ ... „ ...... L. 20]
TTQt.jra
JJn-1 Heavily watered. "When the en-
rienare ... ... „ •••
••• ""• gines are at work they take the
Rhosemoor supply. Now at a stand. A good mine.
P>.™ Toinnr
Nil At a stand. Good Mine. Heavily
Rhos Lsmor...... „ ...... 2*U.
watered. See Addenda.
ti™ „ naTUav
Nil Driving day level at a depth of
.Llyn-y-panciy ... „ ...... ¦"".
about 150 yards. Pair prospects
of discovering a new vein. Will be a successful mine.
Pont -cr Mw-irr,
L 5 Heavily watered. East and west
Fant-y-Mwyn ... „ ...... -u. o veing
Not sufficient capital to
explore. Good mine. Vein since discovered.
* L represents lead, B blende.
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 93
FLINTSHIRE METALLIFEROUS MINES.—(Continued.)
Names oe Mines. GES™™CiL Per
Remarks.
Position. Month.
Tons.
Fron Fawnog ... Near Mold...... Nil. Sinking new
shaft to intersect flat.
°
Heavily watered. Pair pros-
pects. Insufficient capital to develope.
GWerf;J1"Jm7,nydd' I „ ...... Nil.
At a stand. Capital exhausted.
or Moid Mines j
A good set. Heavily watered.
East Maes-y-Safan... „ ...... Nil.
Sinking new shaft to flat. Strongly
watered. Good prospects.
PantDu-andWaenlas ., ...... Nil. At a stand.
Too high up from the
bearing measures. Poor prospects.
Maes-y-Safan ... ¦, ... ...
Nil. Old mine supposed to be exhausted,
worked to a great extent, and has been very productive.
Glan Alyn...... „ ...... Nil. . Day
level. Water pumped by
wheels. Good property. "Want of capital is the cause of its standing.
The above complete the list of Flintshire Mines referred to.
DENBIGHSHIRE.
The rule applied to the Flintshire Mines will again be carried out; all
minor -------- excluded.
Names of Mines. GEp^Pto£°AL ^er^
Remarks. position. Month.
Tons. ClesrirMawror Great) r, , 1 T _
Rock Mine J Gwydelwern ••• L- 3 Day
level. Clay slate formation.
Llandulas ......Llandulas ......L. Nil. Limestone formation.
Day level.
Poor prospects.
Rhiwbebyll......Llangynhafal ... L. Nil. Day level. Clay
slate formation.
-, , ,,. ,, ,xr ,
f L, 500 Extensive set. E. and W., and N.
Great Miner a ... Near Wrexham ... i ~' and s,
lodes. Heavily watered.
( is. ovu Excellent prospects. Measure
Minera Union Mine^
identical with Tala^ch.
" °Un arJ" V. Near Minera, Wrex-1 L 2Q North and
South veins chiefly, and
TTi . ' ham ... J '
flats. Shallow mines. Pros-
,, I^asi ,,
pects medium.
North „ J
East Westminster ... Llanarmon ... ... Nil. Too
far removed from the bearing.
Measures not very encouraging.
Wynnstay Mine ... Ruabon ... ... Nil.
Shallow trials. Prospects medium.
Denbighshire is far behind Flintshire in the number and prospects of its
mines. Both have room for improvement, and there is every reason to hope
that when capital is properly directed, the extensive
94 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
ranges of mineralized properties enumerated will command their share, and
become once more established and recognised sources of remunerative
investments.
The present prices of lead should be sufficient inducement to investors to
launch out capital for developing the lead mines.
COAL FORMATIONS.
The outline of the Flintshire and Denbighshire coal-fields, as well as the
direction in which they run, have been denoted. Before commencing to follow
them in detail, one or two remarks might not be inappropriate, respecting
the untried though well-known tract of country, the Vale of Clwyd; for it is
worthy of special study, and is some day calculated to become an extensive
addition to the sources of supply. Personal inspection has satisfactorily
proved in several instances the existence of coal; and as the new red
sandstone is to a great extent the upper measure, it may reasonably be
assumed that its concomitants the coal measures naturally underlie it. Bore
holes through the red sandstone measures have been put down near Bhyl, and
in every instance have they proved the existence of coal. Should the
assumption be correct, and there is no reason to doubt it, Denbighshire has
a second coal-field equal in extent to the one now developed, with the one
exception, that the seams of the Vale of Clwyd are not so accessible, owing
to their depth. In computing such a large extent of property as the proved
coal-fields, it is necessary, so as to arrive at a correct solution of its
available contents, to take into consideration every obstacle in the way of
its extraction that may directly or indirectly conduce towards reducing the
amount to be produced.
Different data are used by many in their computations of coal-fields, but
the writer deems it essential-, in order that the information respecting
them should be uniform, to have a rule established from which no one can
deviate, and as the quantities contained in one foot thick per acre of coal
could so easily be ascertained in various places, no difficulty should be
put in the way of securing to science a reliable system of operation, that
would be beneficial to every one connected with the production of coal, or
interested in the inquiry as to our mineral resources.
The coal-field of Flintshire extends over an area of 60 square miles, and it
may be affirmed that it contains two distinct ranges, one termed the Mold
District range, and the other the Biver Dee range. Being acquainted with
both, the writer confidently expresses his opinion respecting them, that
they are identical one with the other. The only difference
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 95
being, that different names are given to the seams, and that greater
thicknesses are found in the Dee range than in the one known as the Mold.
The average thickness of proved coal in the Mold range is about 42 feet,
while the Biver Dee range gives 78 feet, making over the whole Flintshire
district an average of 60 feet. The 60 feet must be reduced by one-fourth,
so as to represent the workable thickness of proved coal, leaving 45 feet
upon which to base the calculation. Having found the basis of operation,
attention has to be drawn to the following deductions, as necessary to the
purpose of effecting a proper solution of the actual quantity which may be
relied on. About one-third of the coal-field underlies the estuary of the
Dee, and can only be partly worked in consequence ; there are also outcrops,
barren ground, faults, loss in extraction, pillars, &c, all of which will
amount to about two-fifths of the workable thickness (45 feet), leaving only
27 feet available coal. Again, a considerable allowance must be made for the
quantity exhausted up to the present time, which is found after a tedious
process to be about one-sixth, reducing the coal-field to the minimum
thickness of 22 feet 6 inches workable produce. The reductions may probably
to some appear enormous, but the writer is prepared to vouch for their
correctness, and adduce facts that will satisfy any reasonable enquiry that
they are perfectly reliable. Having further recourse to figures, it is
found, by multiplying the thickness of the seams with the quantity per foot
thick, 1,200 tons, (not forgetting that every deduction excepting
evaporation has been made) that 1,036,800,000 tons have to be extracted from
the 60 square miles, calculated to last at the rate of 4,000 tons per day
output, or a little over the present output, for a period of about 830
years.
The Denbighshire coal-field is not so extensive as the Flintshire, as it
covers only an area of about 35 square miles. It has been more largely
developed, and far greater quantities have been extracted from it. The same
deductions will not apply to the two fields, as the same difficulties have
not to be contended with. There is not so much lost in outcrops owing to the
flatness of the seams; faults are not so numerous, being further apart and
better defined ; no danger exists of such a character as the Kiver Dee
overlying a third of the coal-field ; hence it is not necessary to follow
the same course of procedure. The workable seams of Denbighshire average a
thickness of 48 feet, out of which is to be deducted faults, pillars, loss
in working outcrops, and quantities already exhausted, altogether amounting
to 20 feet, the remaining 28 feet being available and representing the
future resources of Denbighshire. The tonnage contained in the above at the
rate of 1,200 tons to the foot thick will be 752,640,000, rind the time that
quantity will take to exhaust about 482 years,
VOL. XXV.—187G.
„
94 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
ranges of mineralized properties enumerated will command their share, and
become once more established and recognised sources of remunerative
investments.
The present prices of lead should be sufficient inducement to-investors to
launch out capital for developing the lead mines.
COAL FORMATIONS.
The outline of the Flintshire and Denbighshire coal-fields, as well as the
direction in which they run, have been denoted. Before commencing to follow
them in detail, one or two remarks might not be inappropriate, respecting
the untried though well-known tract of country, the Yale of Clwyd; for it is
worthy of special study, and is some day calculated to become an extensive
addition to the sources of supply. Personal inspection has satisfactorily
proved in several instances the existence of coal; and as the new red
sandstone is to a great extent the upper measure, it may reasonably be
assumed that its concomitants the coal measures naturally underlie it. Bore
holes through the red sandstone measures have been put down near Ehyl, and
in every instance have they proved the existence of coal. Should the
assumption be correct, and there is no reason to doubt it, Denbighshire has
a second coal-field equal in extent to the one now developed, with the one
exception, that the seams of the Vale of Clwyd are not so accessible, owing
to their depth. In computing such a large extent of property as the proved
coal-fields, it is necessary, so as to arrive at a correct solution of its
available contents, to take into consideration every obstacle in the way of
its extraction that may directly or indirectly conduce towards reducing the
amount to be produced.
Different data are used by many in their computations of coal-fields, but
the writer deems it essentia^ in order that the information respecting them
should be uniform, to have a rule established from which no one can deviate,
and as the quantities contained in one foot thick per acre of coal could so
easily be ascertained in various places, no difficulty should be put in the
way of securing to science a reliable system of operation, that would be
beneficial to every one connected with the production of coal, or interested
in the inquiry as to our mineral resources.
The coal-field of Flintshire extends over an area of CO square miles, and it
may be affirmed that it contains two distinct ranges, one termed the Mold
District range, and the other the River Dee range. Being acquainted with
both, the writer confidently expresses his opinion respecting them, that
they are identical one with the other. The only difference
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 95
being, that different names are given to the seams, and that greater
thicknesses are found in the Dee range than in the one known as the Mold.
The average thickness of proved coal in the Mold range is about 42 feet,
while the River Dee range gives 78 feet, making over the whole Flintshire
district an average of 60 feet. The 60 feet must be reduced by one-fourth,
so as to represent the workable thickness of proved coal, leaving 45 feet
upon which to base the calculation. Having found the basis of operation,
attention has to be drawn to the following deductions, as necessary to the
purpose of effecting a proper solution of the actual quantity which may be
relied on. About one-third of the coal-field underlies the estuary of the
Dee, and can only be partly worked in consequence ; there are also outcrops,
barren ground, faults, loss in extraction, pillars, &c, all of which will
amount to about two-fifths of the workable thickness (45 feet), leaving only
27 feet available coal. Again, a considerable allowance must be made for the
quantity exhausted up to the present time, which is found after a tedious
process to be about one-sixth, reducing the coal-field to the minimum
thickness of 22 feet 6 inches workable produce. The reductions may probably
to some appear enormous, but the writer is prepared to vouch for their
correctness, and adduce facts that will satisfy any reasonable enquiry that
they are perfectly reliable. Having further recourse to figures, it is
found, by multiplying the thickness of the seams with the quantity per foot
thick, 1,200 tons, (not forgetting that every deduction excepting
evaporation has been made) that 1,036,800,000 tons have to be extracted from
the 60 square miles, calculated to last at the rate of 4,000 tons per day
output, or a little over the present output, for a period of about 830
years.
The Denbighshire coal-field is not so extensive as the Flintshire, as it
covers only an area of about 35 square miles. It has been more largely
developed, and far greater quantities have been extracted from it. The same
deductions will not apply to the two fields, as the same difficulties have
not to be contended with. There is not so much lost in outcrops owing to the
flatness of the seams; faults are not so numerous, being further apart and
better defined ; no danger exists of such a character as the River Dee
overlying a third of the coal-field ; hence it is not necessary to follow
the same course of procedure. The workable seams of Denbighshire average a
thickness of 48 feet, out of which is to be deducted faults, pillars, loss
in working outcrops, and quantities already exhausted, altogether amounting
to 20 feet, the remaining 28 feet being available and representing the
future resources of Denbighshire. The tonnage contained in the above at the
rate of 1,200 tons to the foot thick will be 752,640,000, rmd the time that
quantity will take to exhaust about 482 years,
VOL. XXV.—1870.
N
96 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
estimating the output at 5,000 tons a day, or 1,560,000 tons a year. The
remarkable increase in the consumption of coal during the past twenty years
is worthy of note. The produce of the two counties for 1854 amounted to only
1,130,000 tons, while 1872 shows a return of 2,820,000 tons, or nearly 2^
times the quantity. Such an increase, should it continue in the same
proportion every twenty years, would materially lessen the extent of time
the coal-fields are computed to last. The writer cannot think such will be
the case, because so many new collieries have lately been opened out all
over the kingdom, which will contribute their quota to meet the increased
demand, thus reducing the draw upon the resources. Having given in detail
the nature of the resources of Flintshire and Denbighshire, with their
position geologically and geographically, before proceeding further to the
suggestions for their development, it may be as well to give the names of
the Flintshire and Denbighshire collieries.
FLINTSHIRE COLLIERIES.
Argoea.........ivioia.
Aston Hall ... Ewloe „ Bedford Colliery ... „
Betisfield ......Bagillt.
Broncoed ......Mold.
Bromfield ...... „
Buckley, South ... Buckley.
Buckley ...... „
Coed Talon ......Mold.
Coppa......... „
Coleshill ......Bagillt Holywell
Eleanor ......Queen's Ferry.
Englefield ......Holywell.
Ewloe Hall ......Buckley.
Flint Marsh......Flint.
Galchog ......Northop.
DENBIGHSHIB
Afoneitha ......Ruabon.
Bersham ......Wrexham.
Black Park ......Chirk.
Broughton Hall ... Wrexham.
Brymbo ...... „
BrynKinallt......Chirk.
BrynMally......Wrexham.
Bryn-yr-Owen ... Ruabon.
Christionydd...... „
Grosvenor ......Wrexham.
Gardden ......Ruabon.
Ffrood ......Wrexham.
Ifton Rhyn (Part in D.) Ruabon.
Hamner ......Mostyn.
Leeswood Green
Leeswood Main ... Mold.
Little Mountain ... Buckley.
Mold Town ......Mold.
Mostyn Quay......Mostyn.
Nerquis ......Mold,
Padeswood ...... ,,
Nant Mawr ... ... ,,
Queen's Ferry ... Queen's Ferry
Queen's Ferry ... Hawarden.
Spon Green ... ... Buckley.
Tryddyn ......Mold.
Tryddyn Farm ... „
Wern.........Bagillt.
Wylfa.........Mold.
IE COLLIERIES.
Hafod ......Ruabon.
Llwynenion...... „
Penybryn ...... „
Plaskynaston...... „
Plasisa ...... „
Ruabon Colliery ... „
Rhos Ddu ......Wrexham.
Talwrn ...... „
Treffnant ......Ruabon.
Vron.........Wrexham.
Westminster...... „
Wynnstay ......Ruabon.
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 97
The first great thing towards securing the proper development of a lead mine
or colliery, is to induce the landlord of such mine or colliery to concede
easy terms of royalty, with sufficient time (before any charges are made
upon the explorer) to open out the property scientifically, so as to
discover its value. It may be considered foolish to associate such an idea
with the development of these resources ; but the writer is prepared to
prove that, before justice is done to these coal-fields or lead
repositories, the assistance of landowners in these matters must be
obtained. He is also prepared to show that the advantages accruing from the
proposed concessions will eventually revert to the conceder. To his
knowledge this is a new mode of dealing with the question, and one which
should receive every consideration, and which it is hoped may eventually be
acted on in the grants of all mineral owners. Obstacles are invariably put
in the way of legitimate mining, through the grasping propensities of the
majority of lessors. Their demands for high dead rents are often among the
causes that cripple speculation at its birth, and frighten the explorer from
the scene of action. The proposition, intended to make away with every idea
of injustice that may be advanced by lessee or lessor, and that will open a
new field for investors, and restore confidence in their landlords, is the
following :—When a grant is executed in favour of a company, for the purpose
of coal extraction, an engineer of experience should be selected to inquire
into all the difficulties that may probably be met with in sinking, driving
out, or other operations necessary for the proper development of such grant.
After his inspection he would be enabled to give an idea of the time
required to complete all works ; such time having been decided upon, the
lease should be dated upon its expiration, and the rents and royalties,
instead of running on during the period of probation, as at present, should
begin to accrue from the date of lease only.
The above principle, if carried out, would be the means of securing a better
system of working, a larger output of coal, and a more remunerative
investment. Now, the lessees have to contend with heavy dead rents, or, as
some call them, sleeping rents, which, added to the cost of engines, shafts,
&c, become a burden that few care to undertake; and, if undertaken, the
coal, as soon as proved, is attacked in such a way that the future of the
colliery is in many instances ruined, owing to the necessity of having to
make a rush for something, somehow, to meet the demands of the mineral
owner. By the method suggested the workings would be opened out on every
hand, and the coal would be wrought in such a way as to allow it to be
brought out in a
98 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
scientific manner. Timber would be saved, dead work on roads would be
avoided, and the lessor and lessee would reap the benefit in increased
royalties and dividends. When the value of the colliery has been ascertained
by drivings, it is apparent to all that more justice can be shown in their
fixing a dead rent than can be shown under present circumstances; and if the
capabilities of the mine are proved equal to a large output, a heavy dead
rent would not be deemed a burden, but would very naturally act as a
stimulus to greater exertions, which would in every sense influence
favourably in the direction of developing properly the valuable coal-fields.
The lowering of royalties or lords' dues is one great step towards attaining
the above object. Very often those authorities, when making terms of
letting, either with a collier or lead adventurer, exact the utmost penny,
thinking thereby that they benefit the estate which they represent, and that
they have succeeded admirably in catching another victim, while a little
cool consideration, assisted by close observation for a short time, would
prove that the agent and the estate are the victims, and not the one paying
high tribute for his acquired privileges. With high royalties, the seams
easy of access and cheap to contract are generally those to which most
attention is paid; the others being neglected, so that, if subsidence takes
place, they become unworkable. It has been noticed with pain, where lords'
dues were exorbitant, that thousands of tons of coal were left in pillars
and abandoned, especially when paying a tonnage rate, with the remark " very
little profit can be got out of them—and that little will be nearly all
lords'—so what benefit will it be to work it ?"' Eoyalties, whether tonnage
or footage, should be put on reasonably, and there need be little fear of
the result; the interest of the one becomes the interest of the other, and
the advantages derived from a combination of interests cannot be otherwise
than satisfactory.
With regard to the abstraction of the metalliferous deposits, as previously
stated, most of the shallow deposits in Flintshire and Denbighshire have
been exhausted. Such being the case, the most important step towards
extending and furthering their development must emanate, as with the
collieries, from the land and mineral owners. Before costly operations aie
undertaken and capital subscribed, mining speculators should see that they
are not burdened with too heavy royalties, which often cause the abandonment
of mines that otherwise might be worked profitably. Greater consideration
should be shown by owners of minerals to metalliferous mining investors than
even to those embarking in collieries, because the first at best is but a
speculation, while the other, with judicious management, may be termed a
certainty. In concluding
MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE. 99
this paper, the writer would wish to specify some of the more important and
noteworthy phenomena that occur in the district. In a part of the Flintshire
coal-field, near Mold, in land worked by the Cced Talon Colliery Company, a
strange occurrence is to be seen that is worthy of special note. The land
held by the above company claims precedence over all the coal-field, as
being richest in its cannel coal, which, however, is washed out over a large
area by one of the most peculiar freaks nature ever played upon the coal
formation. Eunning nearly through the centre of the property there is a
barren piece of land, extending in width from 300 to 600 yards, in a
north-easterly direction; traversing about a mile in length, it takes nearly
an easterly course towards Hawarden, and possibly from thence down to the
Eiver Dee. This barren ground is generally termed a wash, and there remains
but little /doubt that it once was the bed of a river, and when the coal was
being formed, entirely washed away the deposit. The seams below and above
are intact; no interruption of any kind has taken place, and the strata
invariably accompanying the cannel seam also remain uninterrupted, excepting
that there remain sure signs of the action of water upon its surface. A
drift was made across the wash, along the course where the cannel should be,
with bore holes at intervals to the upper and lower seams, so that the
position might be ascertained regularly. Along the course of the driving,
boulders of cannel were come in contact with, which had been rolled in the
bed of the stream or wash; some of them were a perfect conglomerate of
gravel, clay, and cannel. The sides of the
/stream are also plainly discernable, the coal deposit having been washed
into a wedge shape. Specimens of boulders are to be seen at the colliery,
and the manager will kindly show them to anyone interested in such matters.
Another peculiarity, not far from the same place, and near Padeswood, is
unaccountable. A bore hole was put down by a gentleman for the purpose of
proving coal; a fine seam was intersected, and a shaft put down. It was the
"hollin coal," of a thickness of about six feet, and of good quality. The
roads were driven out north and south, but before going fifteen yards from
the shaft a fault was touched on both sides. A drift was then commenced
towards the rise, and one to the dip, with the same result. This fault was
then tried in every direction, but no more hollin coal was proved; the
isolated piece, unfortunately for the owner, being all that was procured
towards his expenses of shaft, sinking, &c.
Ehos Esmor was, some years ago, a remunerative mine, but a depth of 145
yards having been attained, all the engine power has
100 MINERALS OF FLINTSHIRE AND DENBIGHSHIRE.
been inadequate to keep the mine clear from water, and it has consequently
been brought to a stand for some time. When it flourished, mines were sunk
east and west of it, for the purpose of cutting the vein of lead which
produced such large quantities of ore, but all speculations turned out
failures. No vein could be found to exist, and it appeared that it had been
cut off entirely. Afterwards, the following conclusion was arrived at: that
the vein existed only in the limestone formation, and that the chert
measures overlying it were not pierced by'the vein; for on the west is the
Hendre mine, which, when it reached the bearing, limestone formation tapped
the water of Ehos Esmor, and was drowned out. When the engines were kept
working at the two places, the water could be forked, and Rhos Esmor could
work though Hendre could not; proving that in some way there was a
communication with the two works through the limestone formation; and that
communication must, in the writer's opinion, be the vein.
A section of the formation, will perhaps explain the peculiarity.
Mr. E. F. Boyd said that when the paper came on for discussion, there would
be a few questions upon which he would be glad to have information.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to the author of the paper, which
was carried unanimously.
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 101
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
The President said that a letter had been received from the Franklin
Institute, Philadelphia, stating that on the occasion of the International
Exhibition in America, that Institute would be pleased to welcome the
representatives of kindred societies, and to this end had placed the free
use of its Library and Eeading Eoom at the disposition of the members of
this Institute. He said the Exhibition was to be held at Pennsylvania, in
May.
THE OIL MINES IN PENNSYLVANIA.
Mr. T. W. Bunning said he trusted that Mr. Boyd would kindly favour them
with some notes with respect to the oil mines, and other matters which he
saw on his late visit to the United States. Of information respecting the
other side of the ocean they had very little in their Transactions, so that
anything they could glean would be exceedingly interesting to the Members ;
and coming from a gentleman with such powers of observation as Mr. Boyd,
would be doubly valuable.
Mr. Boyd said he hoped to be able to lay before them some few particulars
which he was enabled to gather; but he would have to premise them with the
observation that the short time he had to do it in, and the very few days he
spent in the district, would make the information he had to give them more
an abstract of the observations of other people with whom he came in
contact, than his own direct investigations. At the same time he should have
great pleasure in laying before them a few remarks with regard to the oil
city, and very probably a general geological map, if it was not too small in
scale. He would not undertake to make from it a larger map of the United
States of America—the country was too extensive in its area ; but he would
give them some idea of the immense quantities of coal which there were
deposited in North America.
The meeting then terminated.
)
PROCEEDINGS.
103
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, MARCH 4th, 1876, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., President, in the Chaik.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
Mr. Bewick gave notice that he would move, at the next meeting, that Rules 4
and 10 should be altered to stand as follows:—
4.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
10.—Persons desirous of being admitted into the Institute as Ordinary
Members, Life Members, or Students, shall be proposed by three Members.
Honorary Members shall be proposed by at least five Members ; and shall ,in
addition be recommended by the Council, who shall also have the power of
defining the time during which, and the circumstances under which, they
shall be Honorary Members. The nomination shall be in writing and signed by
the proposers (see Form A), and shall be submitted to the first general or
special meeting after the date thereof. The name of the person proposed
shall be exhibited in the Society's room until the next general or special
meeting, when the election shall be proceeded with by ballot, unless it be
then decided to elect by show of hands. A majority of votes shall determine
every election. Notice of election shall be sent to each Member or Student
within one week after his election, on Form B, enclosing at the same time
Form C, which shall be returned by the Member or Student, signed, and
accompanied with the amouut of his annual subscription, within two months
from the date of such election, which otherwise shall become void.
104 DISCUSSION ON THE SILKSTONE SEAM.
The following gentlemen were then elected :—
Honoraby Member— Mr. Henry Hall. H.M. Inspector of Mines.
Ordinary Membebs—
Mr. Kobebt W. Eddison, Steam Plough Works, Leeds. Mr. D. H. Haggle, Hendon
Patent Kopery, Sunderland. ,
Mr. William Snowdon, 14, Park Row, Leeds. Mr. Geoege Davison, Manager,
Ormesby Mines, Middlesbro'. Mr. Wm. J. Laldleb, Engineering Superintendent,
Italian Postal Service, Palermo, Sicily.
Students— Mr. Septimus Oliveb, Eedheugh Colliery, Gateshead. Mr. William
Scott, Eedheugh Colliery, Gateshead. Mr. E. W. P. Eichabdson, Langley Park
Colliery, Durham. Mr. Ebnest P. Eees, Langley Park Colliery, Durham. Mr.
Clarence S. Lindsay, 5, Park Place West, Sunderland,
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting :—
Member— Mr. Alfred Edward Tyloe, 42, Leazes Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Student— Mr. L. Clifford Cox, Hardingstone, Northampton.
Mr. Miller's paper " On Dislocations in the Thill, with the presence,
amount, and tension of gas in the Silkstone Seam of Strafford Main
Colliery," was then discussed.
The Secretary said, that not being a mining engineer, he was possibly the
last person in the world who ought to ask Mr. Miller a question ; but he had
taken very great interest in the paper, and would like to ask Mr. Miller
what was the present state of the pressure indicated by the gauge, and
whether the same tension seemed still to continue ? He had had an
opportunity of discussing at different times, with mining engineers, as to
whether this pressure came absolutely from below and relied, as it were,
upon circumstances acting from below for its tension, or whether its forces
had been induced by circumstances acting from above in other places.
Mr. Miller said, that at present he could not tell whether the pressure was
the same as before, he thought it was; he did not care to keep the pressure
gauge on again unless some persons came to see it, but the
DISCUSSION ON THE SILKSTONE SEAM. 105
pipe was discharging the gas all the same. He had a high-pressure gauge
ready to put on at a few minutes notice, and he would be very glad ' if some
members of the Institute would go and inspect it. He had no doubt it would
show in a little time the same pressure. In reply to the second question,
his opinion, from all he had seen was, that it was simply the pressure of
the gas in its confined state.
Mr. Simpson asked how far below the first seam of coal was ?
Mr. Miller said, there was no seam of coal: the bore-hole did not reach any
seam of coal.
Mr. Forster asked how far they had bored ?
Mr. Miller replied, 176£ feet.
Mr. Forster asked if they knew the seam below that ?
Mr. Miller said, no, not immediately. They have in some parts of the
district a few inches of coal below ; and they went through some clay pipes,
and the gas first began to give off at about 40 feet down, when they got
into some softer measures and shale, and then they began to be mixed with
some little coal. He did not think it was necessary to have a seam of coal
to give off gas.
Mr. Forster—Certainly not, because in Cleveland gas is found without coal.
Mr. Crone said, they had gas in the carboniferous measures, only it very
often happened that where there was a very thin seam of coal it gave off a
great amount of gas, more than would be expected from the extent of the
seam.
Mr. Miller said, they were certainly not down to any seam of coal. In some
of the sections there was a seam of coal 5 or 6 inches thick ; but there
certainly was not with them.
Mr. Forster said, the stratum where the gas was, was described as dark blue
metal, and he supposed the gas might come from there.
Mr. Miller said, a gentleman told him a few days since that they had had gas
in the silurian measures ; he thought he said in Wales.
Mr. Forster said, in the Cleveland ironstone district gas very often came
off from the jet rock, which was a sort of shale, very likely the
representative of this.
Mr. Miller said, that if any gentleman desired to see the pressure he had
better come soon, for in a little time the pipe would not be to be seen,
because the water that was about it was fast eating it away.
The President asked how long it had been discharging.
Mr. Miller did not know the exact time, but certainly more than two years.
106 DISCUSSION ON THE SILKSTONE SEAM.
Mr. Simpson—You have had no further outbreaks of gas since that time ?
Mr. Miller—No.
Mr. Simpson asked if the gas had been analyzed ? It might be a mixture of
carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen, or pure carbonic acid. He
supposed it would be very easy to take a sample.
Mr. Miller—All that is known of it is that it fires at the lamp, and it is
quick in lighting.
Mr. Steavenson—Does the variation of the barometer affect its discharge ?
Mr. Miller—No.
Mr. Steavenson asked if the temperature of the gas was very cold as it left
the pipe, as might be expected from the very rapid diminution of pressure
which took place ?
Mr. Miller—No.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Miller for his kindness in
coming so far to attend the meeting. The motion was carried unanimously.
Mr. T. W. BuNNiNa then read a paper on " The prevention of Spontaneous
Combustion of Coal at Sea."
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 107
ON THE PREVENTION OF SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION OF COAL AT SEA.
By T. W. BUNNING.
The large number of coal-laden ships whose cargoes have heated, the number
that have been known to have been destroyed by fire, and the large number
that have never been heard of after leaving port, have aroused the attention
not only of those more immediately concerned, but of the Government, who
last year appointed a Royal Commission to investigate ,the subject.
As might naturally be supposed, various means have been taken to prevent the
repetition of such disasters, causing as they do much loss of valuable life
and property; but hitherto the remedies (at least all that have been tried)
have proved more or less unreliable, and the captain and crew of coal-laden
ships are still left with the possibility of having to encounter fire at any
moment without the means of being able successfully to cope with that
destructive element when it shows itself.
The causes of this are manifold—
First.—There is a chemical action which produces the heat, which may be set
up by the minute particles of pyrites in the coal becoming damp, either from
the bilge water, from being put on board in rainy weather, from leaks in the
ship, from the moisture in the atmosphere at sea, or from unexplained
causes.
This chemical action is intensified by the increased temperature of the air
should the ship have to enter the tropics.
Second.—This chemical action can be set up and extended to very alarming
dimensions before the ship's crew are aware of their danger.
Third.—When the existence of heating is known, it is difficult to find out
its precise locality ; and if this can be ascertained with some degree of
precision, it is always very difficult, and often impossible, to get at it
either to throw overboard the dangerous mass or to let air in to cool it.
Lastly.—As water (unless used in such quantities as to endanger the safety
of the ship) absolutely feeds instead of diminishing the danger,
108 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
there has hitherto been no practical method available for enabling the crew
to parry the disaster, and the captain is compelled to watch day by day the
slow, though sure, approach of a catastrophe he has absolutely no means of
averting.
Various means have at different times been suggested to prevent this
chemical action from taking place at all, and others proposed to stop the
action when it has commenced.
The ordinary mode of endeavouring to prevent the action from setting up is
ventilation, and probably the most effectual method of stopping it when once
set up is the use of carbonic acid gas. The most usual mode of ventilation
is shewn in Plate XLII., Fig. 1. Perforated square boxes or air courses are
put down in the hold before the cargo is shipped, and upright conduits
leading from them are run up through the hatch above the deck. A windsail
can at will be attached to these uprights, and air is made to descend and
carry off such gas and heat as may be formed before danger is incurred. But
unfortunately ships thus fitted have been known to fire. In fact, when
carefully considered, this method of ensuring the safety of coal ships seems
to have serious disadvantages. It is by no means sure that air will descend
and ventilate the coal; the holes may become blocked with small coal; they
may be improperly placed; the tube may not go near that portion of the cargo
that is inclined to heat j and if, when active combustion has set in for
some time, and additional means be taken to urge air down, the effect may be
the reverse of that desired, and the fire, hitherto confined to a small spot
insufficiently fed with oxygen, may be fanned into life and the ship
destroyed.
The use of carbonic acid gas to put out combustion when it has taken place
has never, to the writer's knowledge, been practically applied.
It has been proposed by Mr. Grlover, the eminent chemist of this town, and a
very ingenious apparatus has been invented by that gentleman, which would
enable the captain, a short time after heating had been discovered, to fill
the hold with this gas.
The coal bunkers of some of the largest men-of-war frequently hold from 600
to 800 tons of coal, much of which remains for a considerable time in very
heated situations; and the danger here would be very great were it not that
the bunkers are fitted with tubes in a number of places, through which the
engineer inserts a thermometer at stated intervals each day, and enters the
ascertained temperature in his log. If the coal in any place is found
heating, the trimmers cut down to the spot, remove the superincumbent coal
to another part of the bunker, and thoroughly
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 109
ventilate the heated portion, which soon subsides to the ordinary
temperature of the place. The engineer is enabled to do this, because he
knows the exact time in which the coal begins to heat, the exact portion of
coal that is heating, and has space at his disposal in which to put the coal
he takes out to enable him to get at the heated portion of the fuel. Added
to this, he can send in his trimmers and work in bad weather; for if he has
been only a day at sea he has burnt enough coal to give him space to enable
him to shift that portion of the fuel that prevents his reaching the danger.
When the writer's attention was called to the matter last year, it occurred
to him that if the captain had the same means of knowing the temperature of
his cargo at a sufficient number of points, he would at all events have the
earliest possible information of the commencement of any dangerous chemical
action, and have the longest possible time given him to take steps to
diminish its importance, and would be in the same position as regards safety
as the engineer in Her Majesty's service; and he suggested that a very great
improvement might be made in stowing coal on board ship for foreign
stations, were tubes to be inserted down from the deck through the coals in
various parts of the ship, as at A, Plate XLII., Figs. 3 and 4, and the mate
ordered to register the temperature in the log-book every day at some two or
three different depths in these tubes, 1, 2, 3, Fig. 3. The captain would
then, at all events, know the precise commencement of the action, and be
able to calculate the time it would take before it became dangerous. The
first increments of heat would be very small, and it would probably be weeks
before any serious damage would be done to the ship, and the captain would
have time, if needed, to run into some port short of his destination and
discharge, or even, in ordinary weather, throw over a portion of the coal,
dig down to and ventilate, or get rid of the heated portion. These views the
writer laid before the Eoyal Commission by letter, dated June 3rd, 1875.
The difficulty, however, yf suggesting any practical mode of cutting down to
the point of danger without throwing overboard a very large proportion of
the coal cargo, and the utter impossibility of cutting down at all in bad
weather, seemed to prevent the tubes from being of any more use than simply
warning the crew, and made it improbable that owners would go to the expense
of providing them for so small an advantage; and the subject dropped until
the writer became acquainted, through the introduction of Mr. Hugh Taylor,
with Captain Henry C. Scott, who, having been master of a ship for upwards
of twenty years, had had great
110 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
experience in conveying coal cargoes to India and other distant places in
warm climates, and who had actually saved his ship and crew on three
separate occasions, under very trying circumstances, by the use of very
simple means, available under any condition of weather; and these means, the
writer opines will, directed by the knowledge the heat ascertained by means
of the tubes, will give, effectually prevent the loss of ships from
spontaneous combustion. Captain Scott's experience has led him to the
conclusion that the first heating of the coal takes place either under or in
the immediate neighbourhood of the hatchways, and this applies more
particularly to the main hatchway. This experience is fully corroborated by
the reports of ships' masters who have had the misfortune of being burnt out
at sea. Captain Scott thinks the circumstance capable of being accounted for
partly from the fact that this point is, as it were, the centre of the
largest contiguous mass of coal in the ship, and it is known that the larger
the mass of coal placed together the more combustion is excited; and partly
because the small coal and dust have a tendency to heap up under the hatches
when the ship is loaded, for the minute subdivision of the coal exposes the
pyrites, stops ventilation, and submits more surface to the moisture of the
atmosphere.
The accumulation of coal under the hatches is purely a mechanical process.
When the coal is first lowered into the ship, either from a spout or waggon,
it forms a sort of cone under the hatch, and each succeeding portion coming
on the top of this cone preserves its form and increases
its bulk.
Now, the large pieces acquire more vis viva during their fall than the dust.
They tumble first into that portion of the cone already formed and roll
outwards away from the hatch. They thus come first under the action of the
trimmers, and by them are placed fore and aft at a distance from the hatch ;
the dust falling more gradually remains at the top and sides of the cone ;
and as it is a shorter time in the ship than the large, it has a greater
chance of being undisturbed by the trimmer before the next load is teemed
in, and thus a solid mass of small coal gets jambed into the ship under each
hatch, which extends more or less fore and aft and athwart ship, according
to accidental circumstances.
The proposed method of reaching the fire when its existence is ascertained,
the writer thinks will be best described by the following narrative of
Captain Scott, which relates the circumstances attending its first adoption.
He says :—
In 1852,1 sailed with a cargo of coal from Sunderland to Madras without
ventilators. After passing the Cape we were alarmed at seeing
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. Ill
smoke issuing from the main hatchway. This caused a panic among my crew,
and a clamour was made to get the boats ready, and they insisted on
preparing to abandon the ship, which I had some difficulty to overrule. Now,
after looking at the thing in all its bearings, I determined to try and save
ship and life otherwise. I had on board some long iron rods, a few of
which I had roughly pointed and driven down into the cargo in different
directions, allowing them to remain a short time, drawing them out and
feeling them all their length by the hand, marking the hottest places with
chalk. By repeating this we found the hottest place was directly under
the hatchway, and in the centre it was so hot that we could not touch the
bar, the heated part of the coal forming a nucleus of about twelve feet
diameter, while the iron rods driven down diagonally showed that in other
parts of the hold all was comparatively cool. After some trouble in
getting my crew to do as I wished, we roughly squared four studdingsail
booms, and knocking down all bulkheads and part of bulwarks for boards, we
formed a square trunk about sixteen feet in length (A Fig 5), forming the
frustrum of a pyramid, being about 4 feet 6 inches square at one end and
three feet at the other, thus having a taper of eighteen inches. We then
dug down as far as we could, and placed the large end of the trunk in the
hole, with a man inside who dug the coal out from under it, passing the coal
up in buckets while we forced the trunk down as the coal was removed.
After getting it down about six feet, we found it so hot that men could only
remain a short time in the smoke and heat, and had to be relieved
frequently. They had to work with their feet in buckets to save them from
burning. We now found that as fast as the coal was' removed at the bottom
the trunk crept down without forcing, owing to its conical shape and the
rolling of the vessel. In seven hours we had it right down to the
keelson, then splitting out each alternate board we grubbed out most part of
the surrounding hot coal, throwing it overboard all smoking. I now got a
large windsail rigged over it, tying the foot of the sail round the top of
the trunk, driving a strong current of air down to the bottom and radiating
through the sides where the boards were removed, and waited for the result.
The next day, about twenty hours afterwards, I went down to the bottom of
our pit and had the inexpressible pleasure of finding the cargo only milk
warm, and by continuing the use of the sail whenever the weather permitted,
all smoke and heat disappeared. We thus succeeded in preventing it from
bursting into flames, which would certainly have occurred in a short time.
On two subsequent occasions I have repeated the operation, when the probe
rods warned us of heat increasing to a dangerous point, taking
VOL XXV.-1876.
p
112 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
care not to allow it to get so hot that a man could not remain in the trunk,
but sunk our shaft as above described and subdued the heat in time.
I have great confidence that by the above method, in cases of gradually
increasing heat, which, as before stated, will invariably be found first (if
well watched by probe rods) in the compact pyramid of small coal under the
hatchways, any master of ordinary energy, and made .acquainted with it, has
it in his power to avert a fearful calamity.
When coal in a ship's hold becomes heated to a certain point, it is
perfectly useless to pour water on the top as it only causes it to coke and
form a crust which the water will not penetrate, but which finds its way
down the sides of the ship without having any effect on the heated part, and
this is exemplified by the experience of the master of the " River Boyne."
Had he known the method above described he could have put down the heating
with little trouble, although great credit is due him for his energy and
management in saving his ship under trying circumstances.
The ship " River Boyne," alluded to by Captain Scott, left Liverpool on the
16th July, for Valparaiso, with a cargo of coal. She was fitted with
ventilators, and the captain states that, previous to the 7th October, when
they met with their first heavy weather, he had found no rise of temperature
indicated by the thermometer inserted into the ventilators. On the 7th they
were obliged to fasten down hatches, and on the 12th, five days later, smoke
issued from the fore hatch, which smoke seemed to be generated under the
fore part of the main hatch.
The thermometer registered 49, 46, and 48 degrees respectively in the
ventilators of the aft, main, and fore hatches.
" Temperature on deck 42 degrees. No smoke rising anywhere but about the
fore part of the main hatch. Roused the hands out, and set one gang passing
and throwing water all over the coals forward of the main hatch, and another
gang digging out of the main hatch to endeavour to get at the fire. Worked
away so until 1*30 p.m., the smoke now getting so dense and strong that we
could not work any longer in the hatchways ; also the gale, which was
blowing from the W.S.W. at the time, was increasing, with a very heavy sea.
Compelled to batten down all again. Seeing that we could do nothing now to
fight the fire, I resolved to run for a smooth water anchorage, so squared
away for False Cape Horn, which I rounded to the northward next day at noon
(13th), and at 1*30 p.m. came to anchor in a snug little bay, completely
landlocked, about two miles to the uorth-west of Point Lost. Anchored in
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 113
six fathoms, stiff sandy bottom, the smoke by this time coining out strong
from under the caps of the fore and main masts. After getting the ship
safely anchored, I had all the boats put into the water, and hung astern, in
case the ship should blow up or burst out into flames, and immediately set
everyone to draw water, and, with the head pump, keep the decks full; the
scupper holes all plugged and water-tight, and the carpenter cutting holes
in the decks in order to sluice the coals. All kept at work till 6 a.m.
(15th). Finding the smoke had left the after hatch, set a gang to lighten
the ship out of the after hatch in order to more effectually flood the fore
part of the deck ; had then six feet water in the hold ; coals in after
hatch quite cool. 4 p.m.—Had to batten the hatch down again, and continue
sluicing down through the decks until 8 a.m. (16th). Had eight feet ten
inches water in the well, ship two feet by the head, and down in the water
with hawse pipes awash, fore scuppers under. The fire apparently increasing,
and everyone getting worn with fatigue and exposure, the weather the time
continuing wet, very boisterous, with snow or hail, deemed it now advisable
for the salvation of the ship to lay her aground and scuttle her. This, of
course, put the fire out at once." The captain then pumped her out and
proceeded on his voyage with a loss of about sixty tons of coal.
Captain Scott remarks that, with regard to ventilation tubes, the object
most desirable to obtain is a circulation or current of air through them,
for, although the ordinary wooden tubes allow the heated air and gas to
escape, they do so simply because these gases become rarified by the gradual
increase of heat in the great bulk of coal, but the tubes themselves have no
effect in checking the increase of temperature so as to keep it under
control. Plate XLIL, Fig. 2, shows the system which he adopted during his
latter voyages, with a view of increasing the ventilating power of the
tubes. The tubes B B are in duplicate, one being placed on each side of the
hatchway, and are connected together at the bottom by transverse tubes
across the ship ; and through these, by the use of the ordinary hooped
windsails, the desired effect has always been obtained, viz., a continuous
current of air—except only during calms.
By persevering in experiments it has been found that, from some unexplained
cause, when air is forced down the ventilators by windsails attached to the
windward tubes, it meets with a certain amount of resistance, and there is
no corresponding exit from the other tubes. Now, contrary to all
expectation, by attaching them to leeward tubes, a current of air
immediately passes through the transverse tubes at the bottom, allowing a
free passage across, and it ascends from the upright
112 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
care not to allow it to get so hot that a man could not remain in the trunk,
but sunk our shaft as above described and subdued the heat in time.
I have great confidence that by the above method, in cases of gradually
increasing heat, which, as before stated, will invariably be found first (if
well watched by probe rods) in the compact pyramid of small coal under the
hatchways, any master of ordinary energy, and made acquainted with it, has
it in his power to avert a fearful calamity.
When coal in a ship's hold becomes heated to a certain point, it is
perfectly useless to pour water on the top as it only causes it to coke and
form a crust which the water will not penetrate, but which finds its way
down the sides of the ship without having any effect on the heated part, and
this is exemplified by the experience of the master of the " River Boyne."
Had he known the method above described he could have put down the heating
with little trouble, although great credit is due him for his energy and
management in saving his ship under trying circumstances.
The ship " River Boyne," alluded to by Captain Scott, left Liverpool on the
16th July, for Valparaiso, with a cargo of coal. She was fitted with
ventilators, and the captain states that, previous to the 7th October, when
they met with their first heavy weather, he had found no rise of temperature
indicated by the thermometer inserted into the ventilators. On the 7th they
were obliged to fasten down hatches, and on the 12th, five days later, smoke
issued from the fore hatch, which smoke seemed to be generated under the
fore part of the main hatch.
The thermometer registered 49, 46, and 48 degrees respectively in the
ventilators of the aft, main, and fore hatches.
" Temperature on deck 42 degrees. No smoke rising anywhere but about the
fore part of the main hatch. Boused the hands out, and set one gang passing
and throwing water all over the coals forward of the main hatch, and another
gang digging out of the main hatch to endeavour to get at the fire. Worked
away so until l'SO p.m., the smoke now getting so dense and strong that we
could not work any longer in the hatchways ; also the gale, which was
blowing from the W.S.W. at the time, was increasing, with a very heavy sea.
Compelled to batten down all again. Seeing that we could do nothing now to
fight the fire, I resolved to run for a smooth water anchorage, so squared
away for False Cape Horn, which I rounded to the northward next day at noon
(13th), and at 1*30 p.m. came to anchor in a snug little bay, completely
landlocked, about two miles to the north-west of Point Lost. Anchored in
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 113
six fathoms, stiff sandy bottom, the smoke by this time coining out strong
from under the caps of the fore and main masts. After getting the ship
safely anchored, I had all the boats put into the water, and hung astern, in
case the ship should blow up or burst out into flames, and immediately set
everyone to draw water, and, with the head pump, keep the decks Ml; the
scupper holes all plugged and water-tight, and the carpenter cutting holes
in the decks in order to sluice the coals. All kept at work till 6 a.m.
(15th). Finding the smoke had left the after hatch, set a gang to lighten
the ship out of the after hatch in order to more effectually flood the fore
part of the deck ; had then six feet water in the hold ; coals in after
hatch quite cool. 4 p.m.—Had to batten the hatch down again, and continue
sluicing down through the decks until 8 a.m. (16th). Had eight feet ten
inches water in the well, ship two feet by the head, and down in the water
with hawse pipes awash, fore scuppers under. The fire apparently increasing,
and everyone getting worn with fatigue and exposure, the weather the time
continuing wet, very boisterous, with snow or hail, deemed it now advisable
for the salvation of the ship to lay her aground and scuttle her. This, of
course, put the fire out at once." The captain then pumped her out and
proceeded on his voyage with a loss of about sixty tons of coal.
Captain Scott remarks that, with regard to ventilation tubes, the object
most desirable to obtain is a circulation or current of air through them,
for, although the ordinary wooden tubes allow the heated air and gas to
escape, they do so simply because these gases become rarified by the gradual
increase of heat in the great bulk of coal, but the tubes themselves have no
effect in checking the increase of temperature so as to keep it under
control. Plate XLIL, Fig. 2, shows the system which he adopted during his
latter voyages, with a view of increasing the ventilating power of the
tubes. The tubes B B are in duplicate, one being placed on each side of the
hatchway, and are connected together at the bottom by transverse tubes
across the ship ; and through these, by the use of the ordinary hooped
windsails, the desired effect has always been obtained, viz., a continuous
current of air—except only during calms.
By persevering in experiments it has been found that, from some unexplained
cause, when air is forced down the ventilators by windsails attached to the
windward tubes, it meets with a certain amount of resistance, and there is
no corresponding exit from the other tubes. Now, contrary to all
expectation, by attaching them to leeward tubes, a current of air
immediately passes through the transverse tubes at the bottom, allowing a
free passage across, and it ascends from the upright
114 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
tubes on the windward side, the warm air coming up in gushes corresponding
with the pitching or rolling of the vessel.
Again, if the ship is running right before the wind, and the air is driven
down the tubes in the fore hatchway, the current of air will be ' found to
be freely ascending those in the after hatchway, although a hundred feet
distant, and exactly in the opposite direction to the course of the exterior
wind, which seems to have a tendency always to seek to windward.
Having found this peculiar principle he always recommended employers to use
ventilating tubes as shown in Fig. 2, and by keeping wind-sails attached to
the lee tubes only, was always highly satisfied with the effect produced.
For although ventilators are often found to fail as preventives of
spontaneous combustion, by this appliance cases of heating-are frequently
reduced ; the temperature being frequently brought down from ten to fifteen
degrees in as many hours during a stiff breeze ; thus showing the great
value of securing a current of air as a check to an increase of heat, the
first effect of which is to cause the larger coal to crumble into fragments,
accelerate the emission of gas, and increase the danger of explosion.
Referring to Fig. 2, the diagonal tubes there shown answer much better than
the usual perpendicular ones, as they divide the space more effectually. It
is useless to attempt ventilating the compact pyramid of small coal which
accumulates under the hatchways in the process of pouring the cargo down in
loading, and this being undisturbed by the trimmers is always the first
place where heating takes place. This most dangerous part requires constant
watching and frequent trials by probe rods, as it is often found to be quite
hot in the centre, while within a radius of a few feet it is comparatively
cool, and the thermometers down the tubes indicate no danger, as numerous
instances have proved.
There is little doubt that many ships have been burnt at sea from want of
attention to, or knowledge of, this treacherous central nucleus under the
hatchways, all danger from which can be so easily and effectually prevented
by the method described.
Having in three instances saved ships by making use of it, Captain Scott
desires that the method may be made known to those interested in the
question, and that it may be the means of averting some of those fearful
calamities which occur in mid-ocean so frequently in coal-laden ships.
Now, ventilators, although useful in keeping down heat by allowing a free
circulation of air amongst the cargo, yet are not always effectual in
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 115
preventing fire. For instance, in the " River Boyne" the fire broke out five
days after the thermometer placed in the ventilating tubes had given no
indication of heat, and the ship would have been lost, ventilator and all,
if the captain had not resorted to the severe method of scuttling her.
The writer, in conclusion, would urge, that with tubes placed in the ship in
the same way as they are placed in the bunker of Her Majesty's ships to
indicate the position of the heating, and the use of the truncated pyramid
to enable the crew to dig down to the place affected, there need be no
danger of fire at sea on board of coal-laden ships.
These truncated pyramids can be made in short lengths and fitted together,
being so made to enable them to be used in those parts of the ship not
covered by the hatchways.
Ventilating tubes, he considers as expensive and unreliable; but if used
they should be in duplicates as the captain suggests. They also interfere
with the stowage, and are useless as a means of indicating danger, which it
is contended should be the first consideration in discussing the means for
the prevention of spontaneous combustion at sea.
Mr. T. W. Bunning- said that since writing that paper, he had received a
communication from Mr. R. Gr. Coke, of Chesterfield, suggesting that
ventilation might be very much increased in the hold of a ship, by placing
pumps in the fore part, which pumps would be set in motion by the pitching
of the ship at sea. That gentleman also proposes that the stowage of the
coal shall be so arranged, that the small and large shall be in alternate
layers, so that the air might percolate through the large and ventilate the
small, and that one tube should be inserted at the side of the bulk-head, to
enable the mate to ascertain and note the temperature each day.
The sorting of the cargo into large and small, he, Mr. Bunning, did not
think practicable, for it is a well ascertained fact that there never was a
cargo of large and small shipped in the same hold; it is always large coal
alone, and no inventor will ever get a shipper to admit he has small on
board, much less to separate it and show the quantity. He, Mr. Bunning,
feared that the expense of putting pumps in, with the idea that they would
do a very valuable service, would be a mistake ; but still these were
suggestions which showed that almost every person who th ought upon the
subject came to the same conclusion, namely, that ventilation really was
what was wanted to stop the combustion of coal in cargoes. He certainly
thought that what had been stated in the paper, would show that ventilation
was
116 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
not all that was required, because ventilation could not go through every
portion of the cargo; but it required active watching on the part of the
captain, and the use of either the thermometers in the tube, or of those
probing rods which were so ingeniously applied by Captain Scott.
Messrs. Moses and Mitchell have also patented a very ingenious machine for
drawing the air through coal and other cargoes, by means of two cylinders
placed, one on each side, and connected together at their bottoms by a pipe
across the ship, which contains as much water as would fill one of the
cylinders. When the ship rolls, a portion of this water runs into one or
other of the cylinders, according to the side towards which the ship dips,
and displaces the air, which air is replaced from the hold when the water
has left and run into the other cylinder, which acts in the same manner;
proper valves being placed at the exit and entrance pipes of the cylinder.
This contrivance has the advantage of having been tried and found to act
perfectly.
The writer would here also remark that Messrs. Paton and Harris, of Glasgow,
have invented a sort of pump for filling the hold of a ship with dry
carbonic gas. This pump can be used with water for the purposes of the ship
under ordinary circumstances.
Captain Steinson said, he would like to ask Mr. Scott how he would apply his
method, suppose the fire were to take place, not under the hatchway, but in
some other part of the ship ?
Captain Scott said, he had never known an instance df the fire commencing
between the hatches ; but if it was occurring there, the tube could be put
down in pieces with the greatest ease. He got a tube down in a gale of wind
off the Cape, when the hatches were battened down, by digging out sufficient
coal, and passing it out from the fore hatch, till there was room enough
between the deck and the coal to get in the lowest portion of the tube,
about 4 feet high, and turn it over. Now, had that been between the hatches,
they could have done it just the same. The only difficulty was getting the
first length down, but when once in and turned over, they went down, one
after the other, with the pressure of the coals on the top, as the ship
rolled. It sometimes went down half an inch at a time, and the more the ship
rolled about, the more tendency it had to go down, so that there would be no
more difficulty in getting between the hatches.
Captain Steinson said, then there was the getting the coal away at first
under the deck.
Captain Scott said, the coal was never close up to the deck ; no ship
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 117
going an over sea voyage round either Cape, loaded up to the deck. There was
always room, and a little more room could be made.
Captain Steinson said, his ships were filled as full as they could be got.
They could not be filled too full. A waggon of coal could not be got into
some of these ships after they were loaded.
Captain Scott said, he had counted his charters that day, and had had
eighteen; and he had never seen a ship full.
Captain Steinson said, he had a ship which would be loaded next week,
carrying 2,000 tons, and she would be as full as an egg.
Captain Scott—She must be largely bulk-headed.
Captain Steinson—She is platformed at the end.
Captain Scott—That accounts for it.
Captain Steinson—With regard to ventilation, he had not had much experience
in carrying coal, but a great deal in loading ships; and his experience went
to prove that all the ships which had been burnt had been ventilated. He
mentioned a very striking instance. He loaded four ships at the same time
with the same coal; and, by order of the owners at Liverpool, three of the
ships were ventilated. Another, an American ship, with a shrewd captain, was
not ventilated at all through the coal. The three which were ventilated were
burnt; and the American ship, which was not ventilated, got safe into port.
He had loaded 1,500 ships, and five or six of them had been burnt, and all
these had been ventilated. He did not know of a ship not ventilated which
was burnt. He had no doubt that the pyrites at the bottom of the ship, if it
got damp, and pressure came upon it, and the air got to it from the
ventilation, would take fire.
Mr. Forstee asked, if the ventilators were of wood or iron ?
Captain Steinson—Wood.
Mr. E. F. Boyd asked, if the use of wood, instead of metal, as ventilators,
in this case, was not a likely means to produce the action of fire. Did he
never find wood in becoming so heated tend to increase the temperature of
the mass of coal ?
Captain Scott said, that wood seemed to act as a conducer to heat, but not
to such an extent as to make a flame. Iron, he thought, would heat just as
much, but there was no substance to ignite in it. Wood heated; but it was a
damp heat, and the evaporation from the bilge water also damped the wood and
increased the heat. He spoke more in relation to wooden ships than iron
ones. There was always bilge water, and when a ship was in tropical waters,
there was always greater evaporation, which found its way up through the
coals, in spite of everything, and condensed on
116 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
not all that was required, because ventilation could not go through every
portion of the cargo; but it required active watching on the part of the
captain, and the use of either the thermometers in the tube, or of those
probing rods which were so ingeniously applied by Captain Scott.
Messrs. Moses and Mitchell have also patented a very ingenious machine for
drawing the air through coal and other cargoes, by means of two cylinders
placed, one on each side, and connected together at their bottoms by a pipe
across the ship, which contains as much water as would fill one of the
cylinders. When the ship rolls, a portion of this water runs into one or
other of the cylinders, according to the side towards which the ship dips,
and displaces the air, which air is replaced from the hold when the water
has left and run into the other cylinder, which acts in the same manner;
proper valves being placed at the exit and entrance pipes of the cylinder.
This contrivance has the advantage of having been tried and found to act
perfectly.
The writer would here also remark that Messrs. Paton and Harris, of Glasgow,
have invented a sort of pump for filling the hold of a ship with dry
carbonic gas. This pump can be used with water for the purposes of the ship
under ordinary circumstances.
Captain Stbinson said, he would like to ask Mr. Scott how he would apply his
method, suppose the fire were to take place, not under the hatchway, but in
some other part of the ship ?
Captain Scott said, he had never known an instance df the fire commencing
between the hatches; but if it was occurring there, the tube could be put
down in pieces with the greatest ease. He got a tube down in a gale of wind
off the Cape, when the hatches were battened down, by digging out sufficient
coal, and passing it out from the fore hatch, till there was room enough
between the deck and the coal to get in the lowest portion of the tube,
about 4 feet high, and turn it over. Now, had that been between the hatches,
they could have done it just the same. The only difficulty was getting the
first length down, but when once in and turned over, they went down, one
after the other, with the pressure of the coals on the top, as the ship
rolled. It sometimes went down half an inch at a time, and the more the ship
rolled about, the more tendency it had to go down, so that there would be no
more difficulty in getting between the hatches.
Captain Steinson said, then there was the getting the coal away at first
under the deck.
Captain Scott said, the coal was never close up to the deck ; no ship
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 117
going an over sea voyage round either Cape, loaded up to the deck. There was
always room, and a little more room could be made.
Captain Steinson said, his ships were filled as full as they could be got.
They could not be filled too full. A waggon of coal could not be got into
some of these ships after they were loaded.
Captain Scott said, he had counted his charters that day, and had had
eighteen; and he had never seen a ship full.
Captain Steinson said, he had a ship which would be loaded nest week,
carrying 2,000 tons, and she would be as full as an egg.
Captain Scott—She must be largely bulk-headed.
Captain Steinson—She is platformed at the end.
Captain Scott—That accounts for it.
Captain Steinson—With regard to ventilation, he had not had much experience
in carrying coal, but a great deal in loading ships; and his experience went
to prove that all the ships which had been burnt had been ventilated. He
mentioned a very striking instance. He loaded four ships at the same time
with the same coal; and, by order of the owners at Liverpool, three of the
ships were ventilated. Another, an American ship, with a shrewd captain, was
not ventilated at all through the coal. The three which were ventilated were
burnt; and the American ship, which was not ventilated, got safe into port.
He had loaded 1,500 ships, and five or six of them had been burnt, and all
these had been ventilated. He did not know of a ship not ventilated which
was burnt. He had no doubt that the pyrites at the bottom of the ship, if it
got damp, and pressure came upon it, and the air got to it from the
ventilation, would take fire.
Mr. Fobsteb, asked, if the ventilators were of wood or iron ?
Captain Steinson—Wood.
Mr. E. F. Boyd asked, if the use of wood, instead of metal, as ventilators,
in this case, was not a likely means to produce the action of fire. Did he
never find wood in becoming so heated tend to increase the temperature of
the mass of coal ?
Captain Scott said, that wood seemed to act as a conducer to heat, but not
to such an extent as to make a flame. Iron, he thought, would heat just as
much, but there was no substance to ignite in it. Wood heated; but it was a
damp heat, and the evaporation from the bilge water also damped the wood and
increased the heat. He spoke more in relation to wooden ships than iron
ones. There was always bilge water, and when a ship was in tropical waters,
there was always greater evaporation, which found its way up through the
coals, in spite of everything, and condensed on
118 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
the deck in large globules; No one would believe, except those who had seen
it, what a quantity of water condensed on the under side of the upper deck.
He had had many chests in the top row of a cargo of tea spoiled by
condensation, while the chests in the bottom of the ship were in good order,
Mr. Cochrane said, he saw several chemists present, and he would be very
glad if they would enlighten the members upon the chemical action which took
place in a cargo of coal to give rise to spontaneous combustion; and whether
they agreed with him that no ventilation at all was the best condition of
safety. He had heard it disputed, but was not sufficient chemist to know,
that this combustion does not result from the action of pyrites upon the
coal. Probably Professor Marreco, or some other gentleman present, would
give them their views upon this point. As to this truncated cone, referred
to in the paper, Captain Scott's experience being that fire never occurs
except under the hatchways, would it not be advisable to have one of these
cones permanently placed there, where it would be always ready for use, even
in weather which might preclude the possibility of the tube being inserted
on the voyage ?
Mr. E. F. Boyd said, would Mr. Pattinson give them his idea of the cause of
spontaneous combustion ?
Mr. Pattinson wished to point out that pyrites was not the only cause of the
heating of coal, and perhaps not the chief cause. Dr. Percy, in his work on
Fuel, mentioned that Richters had proved that in some cases those coals
which contained the least sulphur were the most liable to spontaneous
combustion. In all probability the heating arose, not only from the
oxidation of the pyrites—that, he had no doubt, was one reason— but also
from the oxidation of some of the organic compounds existing in coal,
thereby forming carbonic acid, just as is the case when a hay-stack or a
heap of oily cotton-waste heats and takes fire. He did not know that the
precise chemical action which took place could be explained by any one ;
there were no researches which would show it. He was very much pleased,
indeed, with Captain Scott's very ingenious mode of getting over the
difficulty. The same idea had occurred to himself as had occurred to Mr.
Cochrane : why not have one of these wooden tubes permanently placed and
pour the coals over it, so as, if not to prevent the small coal accumulating
in that part, at any rate to enable the crew to have it perfectly ventilated
?
Captain Scott said, that on one occasion putting the cone down, and making
it rather larger than the size given to them, it had had rather a bad
effect. It served to distribute the coals over a larger area, and made
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 119
the space occupied by the small coal considerably larger ; and he found
there was an immense mass of heated coal, when they had to use it, which
laid farther away from the tube than it would have been if they had just cut
the tube down with the shovel. There was very little difficulty in getting
it down—less difficulty than any one would think. It could be made in a few
hours, and put down in two-thirds of a day with ease; and if it was called
into action, it could even be put in with the hatches down, passing the
coals up the forehatch, which can be kept open in any weather. He put it
down under the main-hatch, which was battened down, by passing it down the
fore-hatch in pieces, and found no difficulty.
Mr. Forstee said, it might be dug down before leaving port; but, perhaps, it
would not be advisable to wait. He quite agreed with Captain Scott's paper
as to the origin of the fire arising from the small being heaped in a mass
there. He had seen many heaps of coals, both small and large, on land, and
supposed the action at sea would be pretty much the same ; and he never knew
a large coal heap, of steam coal, to fire on land or even to heat; whereas,
it was well-known that a heap of small coals, if of a certain minimum
thickness, was sure to heat. It was also " well-known that if small coals
were heaped over an accumulation of duff or rubbish which made a barrier,
and prevented the air getting in, that was the place where it would fire,
whenever he had small coals heaped, he kept in rods, to ascertain the heat
as described in the paper. He always found that, when by their use he had
ascertained that heating had commenced, he could always, if the heap had not
absolutely taken fire, get quit of the heat by cutting down to, and
ventilating the heated place.
Mr. Cochrane said, he might mention, in support of what Mr. Pattinson had
said, that in Staffordshire, the 30-feet thick coal seam was the one most
frequently subject to having the work interrupted by fire breaking out, and
that was the purest coal: and in confirmation of Mr. Forster, it was almost
always in the small coal which was left behind in the goaf that the fire
took place. But he really thought the chemical gentlemen rather at fault if
they could not give an explanation of the spontaneous combustion of coal. He
would suggest that some experiments should be made with this object by the
Institute. If ventilation be considered necessary in cargoes of coal, it
would be advisable to have a ventilator to insure a perfect stream of air,
instead of relying on natural ventilation.
Mr. Daglish said, that although not many of them had experience in the
firing of ships, yet there were many present who had had the misfortune to
have large masses of coal on fire ; and possibly if they would each bring
the knowledge they had obtained, they might be led to
VOL. XXV.—1876.
q
120 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
accumulate facts which would bear on the question of fires in ships. In
several instances which he had known of heaps on fire, the fire had always
taken place where the gears were ; and that wherever there had been any
timber framing supporting the railway over which the coals were teemed, the
fire always originated there. Mr. Forster had alluded to heaps firing when
they were placed upon small coals. He knew of one case where a heap fired
which was placed upon a quantity of old brasses. In that case it was quite
clear that the fire originated from the decomposition of the pyrites,
because there was no small amongst it. The brasses were fresh, and the heap
was not very large, which was put on the top of it; and the fire was traced
to commence in the mass of pyrites. He might also mention that it Avas usual
to put iron rods down, and these were always found to indicate very clearly
the temperature of the heaps, and if taken in time, and opened to the action
of the atmosphere, the heap was always prevented from firing. In
extraordinary cases he had known the heap put out with water after ignition
had commenced, if the water was very freely and largely applied.
Mr. Miller said, perhaps Mr. Daglish was aware that there had been a case of
spontaneous combustion in a pit in Yorkshire, which Mr. Daglish had visited,
and where the manager informed him that he traced it distinctly to the fact
that when the temperature of the mine was at ninety degrees, the props which
were put under the roof became ignited, and when taken out they were found
smouldering, with a dull red heat in the thill, into which they had sunk to
the depth of a foot or more.
Mr. Fothergill said, he had thought some little about this matter of
spontaneous combustion in ships ; and it seemed to him that the chemists
ought to give them some certain knowledge at any rate as to whether
spontaneous combustion had taken place from pyrites or not. It appeared to
him that the system of ventilation by tubes made of wood was either of no
use, or was calculated very much to accelerate the fire instead of quenching
it; because if these tubes were perforated they might get filled with small
coals, and if they kept clear, the air which was going through them would
only feed the fire with oxygen ; and he had no doubt that that had been the
case in many of the cases of spontaneous combustion.
Mr. Pattinson said, perhaps they would allow him to add that the approximate
cause of heating could be explained. When he said that he could not exactly
account for the heating of the cargo, he meant that he could not tell what
particular organic substances were being oxidized, but there was no doubt
that heating arose from the oxidation either of the
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 121
organic compounds or of the pyrites in the coal; and it was also essential
that air and moisture be present. Many substances were known to absorb air
very rapidly, and to condense it within their pores. The coal in its transit
from the mine to the ship, would probably absorb sufficient air to allow of
the chemical action which generates heat to take place. If there is not
sufficient ventilation to carry off the heat, the latter accumulates so much
that it ultimately reaches the ignition point, and sets fire to the mass of
coal. He did not know that any other explanation could be given. Moisture
was a great promoter of the action, and this was always present; there was
moisture in the coal itself, and also in the air ; moreover, water would be
received from the leakage of the ship.
Mr. Glover said, he had to preface any observations which he might make in
reference to this question by the statement, that when he gave evidence on
the subject before the Koyal Commission, he was distinctly given to
understand that any statement he gave there was not to be canvassed, made
public, or in any way talked about; that it would be considered a breach of
privilege to do so, and that until the report was made, the information was
theirs, and theirs exclusively. Notwithstanding that, there was a good deal
he could say, and still keep his promise, and especially in answer to Mr.
Cochrane's request. Now, it was well known to every one present, that the
usual method of making copperas in this district was by laying out the coal
brasses ; and that the ultimate product of such chemical action was the
production of sulphate of iron. Now these were oxydized products, and oxygen
could not combine with any substance chemically without increae of
temperature. It is an established law, that there cannot be the fixing of
any gas or liquid to the solid form without an elevation of temperature.
Now, having coal brasses in the hold of a ship, substances are there which
the manufacture of sulphate of iron proves to be those which will fix oxygen
: and that, being in a confined space, consequently elevates the
temperature. Ventilation cannot reach every portion of that space, the coal
keeps on heating, and is ultimately fired. The objection that coals
containing the smallest amount of sulphur are the most spontaneously
ignitible, while those containing the largest do not spontaneously ignite
can be met by experience. Here may be a mass of brasses of a hard and dense
substance; that mass, although containing a large quantity of sulphur, is
not in the most favourable condition for fixing oxygen because of its close
texture. There may be another piece of brasses running into filaments
microscopically small, but each joined to a particle of finely divided coal.
Now, although, the sulphur may be, in this latter case, in the smallest
122 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
proportion to the coal, yet it is in the most favourable condition for
combination and combustion. That fact ought to decide what was advanced by
so great an authority as Dr. Percy, in his book. Then again, as to the cause
as it relates to the finely divided condition of the coal. They all knew
that substances very finely divided had a tendency to fix oxygen ; and coal,
he dared say, was no exception to the rule. But there was this tact, which
he would bring to their notice. The production of coal blacking was a trade
in this district; he had gone to sundry of. the makers of coal blacking and
had got samples, and he could learn from none of them that when packed for
months was it spontaneously ignited. One fact was worth a hundred arguments;
and he gave them that one fact. The introduction of means for detecting fire
was certainly one of the most important, and as it had been introduced
there, he thought he might state that it would be embodied in the report of
the Royal Commission. The use of carbonic acid for putting out fire had been
questioned. Now it would be in the memory of some gentlemen present who were
as old as himself (and if they referred back to the Times, of May, 22, 1851,
and to the scientific journals of that 'period, they would find), that the
late Sir Goldsworthy Gurney undertook the putting out of a fire in a coal
mine at Clackmannan. There were about 26 acres of coal in the 9-foot seam,
if he recollected rightly, that had been burning more or less for thirty
years ; and he had been called in to advise as to putting it out. This he
undertook, and forced air through furnaces arranged in such a way as to get
the largest amount of carbonic acid (produced by the combustion of coal or
coke) sent into the workings, until he estimated that he had put into them
eight millions of cubic feet of gas. He carried on the process by sending
down water in the form of spray, as much as he could, with the carbonic
acid, and put out the fire; and, he believed, the pit was working now.
Therefore, so far as the use of carbonic acid was concerned, they might take
this as a proof that it would put out fire in coal; but to put it out, it
was absolutely necessary that the coal should not be in a highly
incandescent form, because they knew that if they passed carbonic acid
through brightly incandescent fire, they would simply decompose the carbonic
acid producing carbonic oxide, and thus increase the evil. He would also
refer to some important experiments by the late Professor Graham, connected
with the burning of H.M. ship "Amazon," in 1852. He said he found that coal
fired when it was in contact with a wooden surface heated to 150 degrees ;
and he also stated that steam was of little use in extinguishing fire; he
did not say it was of no use, but from his experiments he said it was of
very little use. He mentioned this, as some members of the Institute had
said that steam
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 123
was all that was required to put out fire. Supposing it did put out fire,
the element of moisture was introduced in the most favourable state to set
up subsequent spontaneous combustion. From the statistics which he had
gathered he found that in 1873, out of 1,133 ships there were two per cent.,
and out of 1,244 ships in 1874, there were four per cent, fired, showing a
remarkable increase of double the percentage occurring between the month of
July, 1873, and the month of July, 1874. His researches also showed that
there was no special time for loading which ensured freedom from danger, let
them be loaded how and when they might, in wet or dry weather, still the
ships fired ; and ships had been known to fire when loaded by a basket as
well as when loaded by a tip. Of course, basket loading would, to some
extent, make less small than tip loading ; but still ships which had been
loaded with the basket had been known to fire. He might mention that about
thirty-seven days after loading was about the earliest record he could find
of ships firing ; while the longest he had been able to find was 190 days ;
but the greatest number averaged about sixty days after loading. These
statistics might be of use, and they bore somewhat on this inquiry. He
thought that if coal could be shipped perfectly dry, or dried by passing hot
air through it when shipped so as to perfectly dry it, the spontaneous
ignition would be considerably retarded, if not entirely prevented ; but he
thought there would be many difficulties to contend with before this could
be done.
Mr. Bunning asked if Mr. Glover could give them some idea of his system of
extinguishing fire by the use of carbonic acid gas.
Mr. Glover said, the reason why he was somewhat reticent on that point was,
as he had told them, that he had pledged himself, and he thought the meeting
should not ask him to go farther than he had gone. He could mention that the
plan he had proposed was of the simplest possible character; that the total
cost for a ship carrying 2,000 tons of cargo would not amount to more than
about £30, and of that £30 probably £20 could be recovered if the apparatus
had to be sold when the voyage was over. He might mention that it involved
the application of carbonic acid.
Captain Stelnson asked if the crew could live below if the ship was filled
with carbonic acid gas.
Mr. Steavenson said, he would still ask the chemists present whether they
advised the coal to be stored in air-tight bunkers, or whether they thought
it would be desirable to have the coal ventilated. He might say that having
had large coal heaps under his care, and sometimes to watch daily, he had
always found that the most impure coal was the most
124 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
liable to ignite; in fact, when very clean coal was heaped there was not the
slightest fear of its taking fire. From this, he should argue that the
pyrites in the coal was, as a rule, the exciting agent; and he knew that in
Cleveland where they had pyrites in the ironstone and it accumulated to any
extent it was very apt to heat, and if coal was there of course it would
ignite. There was no doubt that by the decomposition of the coal, heat would
be given off, as in the case of a haystack, and a fire would take place; but
he would say, as a rule, the heating of the coal was caused by the pyrites
present; and he could say that if round coal could be well mixed with small
so as to prevent any dense accumulation of small coal, that would perhaps be
the greatest safeguard which could be adopted.
Captain STBINSON said, the best cure of all would be no small at all. Mr. J.
Stanley Metcalfe said, that he was sorry Mr. Clover did not think himself at
liberty to explain his system of extinguishing fire in coal cargoes, and, as
he had some correspondence with that gentleman before the Royal Commission
sat, he might state that Mr. Clover's plan was then very similar to the
scheme propounded in a pamphlet by Mr. David Cargill, of Dundee. In this
pamphlet three ways of extinguishing fire on board ship are given. First.
A vessel preferably formed of metal is placed near to or under the bottom
lining of hold, or in any other convenient part under the deck ; it may be
any size or shape, to suit the place. This vessel is charged about
one-third full of broken chalk, marble, bicarbonate of soda (common baking
soda), or other carbonate, and provided with a perforated lid or top to
exclude rubbish and dirt, and at the same time keep the vessel partly open.
A small pipe leads vertically from the deck to this vessel, and when not
in use is closed at top with a plug screw flush with deck; the lower end
dips under the lid, but not to the bottom of the chalk vessel. When fire
occurs, pour down this small pipe a mixture of sulphuric or muriatic acid
and water, acid salt, or dry acid dissolved in water, which, acting on the
chalk or other carbonate in the vessel below, has the effect of liberating
carbonic acid gas, which, escaping through the perforated lid—diffusing,
pressing, and finding way for itself through every crevice in the hold—
extinguishes the fire. Fire will not burn in carbonic acid gas.
Second. In cases of recurrence of fire, or the chalk or other carbonate
below exhausted or deficient, pour down the small pipe afore-mentioned a
solution of chalk or bicarbonate of soda and water, then followed by
sulphuric or muriatic acid, either of these mixing with the
carbonate in the vessel below, produces carbonic acid gas, and is
effectual in action,
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 125
same as described in the first mode—pour down the acids and carbonate
solution alternately, until the fire is extinguished. This plan is ever
ready and effectual. Sets of this apparatus should be placed in various
parts of the hold and 'tween decks, one at least in every forty feet length
of the ship, and fitted up before the cargo is put on board. The same
apparatus may be applied for liberating other fire extinguishing gases.
Third. Where there is no apparatus constructed, or where apparatus of any
kind has failed or requires assistance, and fire occurring, take a large
bucket, half cask, or cask with end taken out, or other handy vessel; sling
this by a chain or wet rope ; fill this vessel about one-third full of
broken chalk, bicarbonate of soda, or other carbonate ; lower it under the
deck by hatchway or other opening. After it is under the deck, pour into it,
by temporary pipe or otherwise, a mixture of sulphuric or muriatic acid and
water, or other acid solution. This, mixing with the chalk or other
carbonate in the cask or bucket, produces carbonic acid gas in any quantity.
The bucket or vessel can then be lowered as near as possible to the seat of
fire, and raised again when wanted to be replenished, taking care not to
raise it above deck, so that the whole gas will be kept below. This mode
will effectually extinguish fire, and is ever ready in an emergency. The
three foregoing plans are inexpensive, ever ready; and the gas, being all
generated or made below deck, requires neither conducting pipes nor forcing
to the seat of operation, therefore is in the most effectual position for
extinguishing fire on shipboard.
Mr. Clover admitted that his plan was somewhat similar to that described in
the pamphlet, but was very different in its arrangements.
Mr. Swakley Thorpe said, in confirmation of Mr. Steavenson's remarks he
would state that he had had a good deal to do with the accumulation of pure
iron pyrites, containing 50 per cent, and under of sulphur, and neither in
large, nor in the form of dust, was it liable to spontaneous combustion.
Mr. Steavenson said, it got very hot.
Mr. Thorpe thought not. In Spain, where it was usually very dry, they had
not had an instance that he was aware of, nor yet in Norway, where there was
a good deal of moisture. Neither iron pyrites, nor galena, which contains a
large quantity of sulphur, nor yet copper pyrites, nor yet blende—none of
these ores spontaneously burst forth into fire.
Mr. Steavenson—Have you had them accumulated in heaps at great depths ?
Mr. Thorpe said, there were many thousands of tons now lying in Spain and
Norway unsaleable. The chemical manufacturer liked to have
126 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
it as large as possible for convenience of burning in the kilns, and the
smalls were rejected unless they could be worked for their copper alone; but
he had never known an instance in which the heap had fired.
Mr. Steavenson said, if you could keep them cool there was nothing to
ignite.
Mr. Thorpe said, sulphur very readily ignited. A shovelful of hot cinders
thrown on a heap of sulphur would fire and burn it away.
Mr. Steavenson said, that was just what was absent.
Mr. Bewick asked if it was not a fact that a large mass of pyrites at one of
the principal mines in Spain was at present on fire ? The consequence being
that, instead of exporting many thousand tons annually, only a few tons were
being shipped.
Mr. Thorpe said it had been the result of an accident.
Mr. Bewick did not know the cause, but believed that an enormous heap
containing 48 per cent, of sulphur, at Mason's mine, was really on fire.
Mr. Thorpe believed it was owing to an accident that this caught fire, and
it was difficult to extinguish.
Mr. Glover said, that as a chemical manufacturer he had been in the habit of
storing pyrites for the last thirty years, and he never knew a case, such as
had been mentioned, of spontaneous combustion, either of Norwegian, or any
other kind. He had known sulphur pyrites from the Cleveland ironstone mines,
with no coaly matter in connection with it and obtained apart from the coal
measures, ignite spontaneously in a few days, almost as soon as coal
brasses.
Mr. Pattinson—There is organic matter in the Cleveland pyrites.
Mr. Glover was not aware of it. On the other hand, coal brasses could not be
stored in bulk a month without heating, although coal brasses contain 20 per
cent., while the other and non-spontaneously ignitible, contained 45 per
cent, of sulphur, and he had certainly kept small pyrites for many years
without firing—small pyrites, he meant, not coal brasses.
Mr. Thorpe asked if it was not correct that some years ago, at some works
near London, where they manufactured a fire extinguishing powder, the works
were burnt down, and burnt with very great rapidity ?
Mr. Bunning believed that that was perfectly correct.
Mr. Forster—You can burn a fire engine and you can burn a pump.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson said, he had not got his question about airtight
bunkers answered yet.
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 127
Captain Steinson mentioned that once when a ship was discharging, it was
found that the ventilating tube had been on fire, and was partly burned, and
the fire had been put out. The fact was, that the coal falling after the
ventilator was burnt, crushed the fire out, showing that the ventilators had
set the ship on fire, and that when the ventilators were removed, the fire
was put out.
Mr. Forster said, it seemed very evident that whatever happened, wooden
ventilators must be very bad things, because everybody had been telling them
that it was wood which produced the fire ; but did they think that iron
ventilators would have that bad effect ?
Captain Steinson thought that air would always have a bad effect if there
were pyrites.
Mr. Bunning thought that whether the ventilators were of iron or of wood, if
the heat had arrived at a certain point at which active combustion had taken
place, ventilation must do harm of necessity, because it absolutely fed the
flame and increased the combustion.
Mr. Fothergill said, that looking practically at this question, he thought
that these ventilators, the size of wThich must necessarily be very small,
could not reach the bulk of the cargo, and that the parts not reached would
still be liable to spontaneous combustion.
Mr. J. S. Mitcalfe said, he had particulars of about 150 ships which had
been burnt at sea, and he believed there were only two amongst the number
which were not ventilated. The others were either thoroughly ventilated,
partially ventilated, or had the hatchways ventilated.
Mr. Wallace said, it had been stated by one speaker that when the coal had
been thoroughly ground to a fine powder, it was not liable to spontaneous
combustion, although, doubtless, while being ground it had absorbed a large
amount of oxygen. It appeared, also, that when the coal was in the condition
known as " small," presenting a very large surface to oxidation, it was
liable to spontaneous combustion. It was also in a condition of allowing a
certain amount of air to circulate through it. He could not help thinking
that Mr. Steavenson's suggestion of putting coal in air-tight bunkers might
be effectual, because it would prevent that circulation; and if at the worst
it were to fire, after a time it would surround itself with carbonic acid,
and effectually put itself out.
Mr. Crone said, it was very difficult to reconcile the difference of opinion
as to whether cargoes of coal should be ventilated or not ventilated ; but
it occurred to him, that if cargoes of coal were not well ventilated, or
were improperly ventilated, they were better without any
VOL. XXV.-1S70.
jj
128 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
ventilation at all, and that unless there was a proper and regular system of
ventilation thoroughly maintained, so as to keep the cargo sufficiently cool
to prevent the accumulation of heat, there was a probability that the
admission of a moderate and irregular quantity of air would really cause
spontaneous combustion of the cargo. But what was to be aimed at most was to
see that the cargo was thoroughly ventilated according to a known
system—that air should be constantly in circulation, so as to prevent the
accumulation of heat. In that case it might possibly prevent combustion. But
it occurred to him that those cases of spontaneous combustion seemed rather
to arise from the imperfect system of ventilation which had been adopted.
The usual method was to have very rough trunks or railed tubes made of wood,
placed vertically through the cargo ; the introduction of wood into any
cargo which might become much heated was very objectionable, being liable to
take fire, and thus cause the very danger they were intended to guard
against. Strong sheet-iron tubes might be used with much greater safety;
these could be perforated with holes, or have long vertical slits cut in
them, or a kind of skeleton tube formed of hoops kept apart by vertical
pieces rivetted to them. These tubes would be useful in affording an outlet
for any gas given off from the coal, and thus perhaps prevent those
dangerous accumulations of gas in parts of the ship where it was liable to
come in contact with fire or lights, causing an explosion, and doing
considerable damage to life and property. A cautious ship captain generally
left the hatches off as long as possible, to allow any gas to escape, before
battening down.
Mr. Wallace said, might he also inquire whether the present system of
stowing the coal, whereby it was rendered liable to spontaneous combustion,
did not cause it to deteriorate during a long transit ? Would confining coal
from the air have any effect in lessening this deterioration? Mr. Crone
said, that in steamers it would be very easy to apply a small fan actuated
by machinery, or in sailing vessels a wind-mill, to assist in the
ventilation.
Mr. Bunning said, he would like very much to hear the opinion of Professor
Herschel on the matter. Professor Herschel was an eminent physicist, and a
man of science ; and his knowledge of the physical and scientific aspects of
the question, would, he was quite sure, be very interesting to the members.
Professor Herschel said, being called upon for what remarks had occurred to
him during the discussion, he would offer them; but he did not anticipate,
as Mr. Bunning did, that there would be anything in them to recommend them
to the meeting. The various facts which had been
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 129
brought forward regarding the source or origin of the spontaneous
combustion, pointed, he thought, very strongly to the conclusion that it was
a chemical action on mineral, rather than on organic substances, and that
one of the objects to be aimed at was rather to prevent the access of air
than to assist it. Attempts to prevent, or at least to arrest combustion by
cooling action, must, from anything that had come before them that
afternoon, he should think be carried to a very high degree to be successful
—that is to say they had heard that coal heaps must be thrown open if they
are in a state of already advanced heating, and air must be very freely
admitted to them in order effectually to subdue the temperature. But
prevention would be better than such an extreme method of cure. The facts
which appeared to have become conspicuous in the discussion that afternoon
were, that a certain quantity of oxygen would make its effect felt if it had
time and tranquillity to do it; and that to prevent that most effectually
would be the best precaution. He supposed that air-tight bunkers of iron
were the most effective means that could suggest themselves to any one who
reflected upon the subject, while the alternative of a thoroughly effective
ventilation could not easily be adopted, except at a great outlay and
expenditure of labour and of capital.
Mr. E. F. Boyd thought they ought to come to some definite conclusion upon
the very interesting discussion which had taken place; and what would be the
items of that conclusion ? He thought they could pretty well define to
themselves that the origin of the spontaneous combustion must have some
reference to the iron pyrites found in large quantities in many coals, and
in the state most liable to chemical action. He thought there could be very
little doubt about that. They next came to the question as to whether
that had to be prevented or allowed. He felt very much inclined to follow in
the wake of Mr. Crone's observations that prevention was better than cure ;
and thought that these preventive measures which had 6een made use of in the
fioRfof vessefs up to the present time had been inefficiently carried out,
and that if they were carried out with tubes of malleable iron or sheet
iron, of sufficient dimensions, and throughout those parts of the vessel
which were the most exposed, where the small coal accumulated, and provided
there was a continual current of air preserved, by whatever means they chose
to adopt, through these tubes, and brought into contact with the parts of
the vessel where the spontaneous combustion was likely to take place, heat
would be prevented : he thought that was the conclusion the discussion would
lead to.
130 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
Mr. Pattinson said, he again wished to point out that the oxidation of the
pyrites was the least of the probable sources of the increase of temperature
; and as a proof of it, and as an illustration of the contrary, he would
just notice that in hay there was no pyrites and little or no sulphur in any
form, and yet haystacks were often known to spontaneously ignite.
Mr. E. F. Boyd—Purely vegetable matter is liable to imbibe oxygen from the
atmosphere, and capable of heating spontaneously. •
Mr. Pattinson said, that it seemed to him beyond a doubt that organic matter
oxidized in coal. The very fact of coal deteriorating by exposure to the air
was a proof that there was an oxidizing and decomposing effect going on in
the coal.
Mr. Boyd said, Mr. Pattinson would admit that coal if laid out in thin
layers for a hundred years did not alter by the action of the atmosphere. He
had known pit heaps a hundred years old, pieces of which when examined as
they were taken out of the pit there showed that no important deterioration
had taken place.
Mr. Pattinson said, if coal was analysed, it would be found that a change
had taken place ; if it had not taken fire, it had been because the amount
of air circulating about it had been so great as to carry away the heat more
rapidly than it was accumulating. He thought that what they had learnt from
the discussion was that there must be either a thorough ventilation of the
cargoes or no ventilation at all. He should feel inclined to have no
ventilation at all, and to follow Captain Scott's plan of putting down one
of these trunks when heat was accumulating. It was a practical, sensible
plan, which a crew of any vessel could carry out. If this was done, he had
very little hesitation in saying they would no longer hear of calamities at
sea arising from the spontaneous ignition of coal cargoes.
Mr. Glover said, as to Mr. Pattinson's theory of the oxidation of gas
occluded in coal, he believed that such gas was the cause of explosions, but
it had nothing to do with spontaneous combustion.
Mr. Pattinson said, he meant the oxidation of solid organic matters existing
in the coal, and not of occluded gases.
Mr. Glover said, there were some volatile matters, and that they were given
off was proved by the explosion of ships soon after they were loaded. As to
the action of Captain Scott, when he heard the account of it he could not
but admire his pluck and daring, and he thought the meeting ought to give
him a hearty round of applause. He was a true British sailor, or he would
not have stood to that cargo of coal on fire, even
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 131
against the wishes of his crew. There was not one captain in a hundred who
would have done it. Now that he had done it, hundreds might do it; but he
said he deserved all the credit which they could give to such a gallant act,
and as such he bore his testimony to Captain Scott's daring.
Mr. Fothergill said, before the meeting separated, he would just remark,
with regard to these ships lost at sea, there were two elements of
destruction. The first was the decomposition of coal; whether that effect
was from the pyrites or from the decomposition of the coal itself, had not
been clearly stated; and the second was the gas, occluded from the coal,
which accumulated in the hold, and at the approach of a light, blew the ship
up. These were two very distinct causes of danger ; one apparently fatal to
ships laden on the east side of the island, and the other to those laden on
the west side.
Mr. Cook said, a sort of surface condenser might be applied to the cargo,
and air made to pass among the coal by causing it to circulate through
tubes.
The President thought, that if this was applied to a cargo of coal, there
would be very little room for the cargo. He thought they must pass a vote of
thanks to Mr. Bunning for the paper he had read, and which had produced such
an exceedingly interesting and instructive discussion. He was quite sure
that what had been said would be of great use. It had, at any rate,
ventilated the question, whether it had ventilated the cargo or not. He was
very much of the opinion of those gentlemen who thought that ventilation,
carried on to only the extent which it could be carried on in vessels full
of coal, was more injurious than no ventilation at all.
Mr. Crone said, he had great pleasure in seconding the vote of thanks to Mr.
Bunning.
The motion was then carried by acclamation.
Mr. Bunning said, he was exceedingly obliged to them for their ¦ kindness in
expressing their thanks to him for this paper. When Mr. Scott called upon
him, he was exceedingly struck with the practical way in which he described
the appliance, and the ingenious way in which, under circumstances of great
trouble, he had managed to save his ship, and it was not till then that the
idea occurred to him (Mr. Bunning) of writing a paper on the subject. Of
course, he had thought upon the matter before ; ^ and he had also thought it
was quite sufficient for a captain to know that heating would take place in
his cargo ; because if he knew that he would necessarily set his wits to
work to find out a cure of some sort or other. But it always suggested
itself to him that the plan of putting
132 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
tubes down was incomplete, unless there were means at hand to diminish the
heat when discovered. This means had been supplied by Captain Scott, and
there was now within the reach of every ship captain, both the means of
ascertaining and of keeping down the danger; and he must say that the
Institute owed a vote of thanks to Captain Scott for his exceedingly
interesting suggestions and he had very great pleasure in proposing it.
The President cordially agreed in the vote of thanks to Captain Scott; and
he thought that probably if Captain Scott had not called upon Mr. Bunning
they would not have had this discussion, which he thought would do a great
deal of good. He had great pleasure in putting the vote of thanks to Captain
Scott.
The motion was carried unanimously.
Captain Scott said, he had been, as a sailor would say, rather taken aback,
because he could have given a good deal more information if it had been
required, and would be very glad to have a further opportunity; but in
giving his explanations he was very apt to fall into the use of seafaring
terms, which were not understood by landsmen. He had no fear that the
principle would prevent any ships from taking fire if thoroughly carried
out. He would not himself be afraid of taking the command of any ship for
the most distant voyage if provided with it, and also with the tubes which
Mr. Bunning had suggested; these and the probe rods in conjunction. The
tubes would admit the thermometer, which would be a great advantage j but
they could probe with the rods in any direction, which was also an
advantage. There was not the least doubt from his observation of more than
twenty years—he might say nearly thirty years—but upwards of twenty years'
close watching, he had always found the coal heat first in the hatches, and
particularly in the main hatch ; and he had never once known of an instance
of heating between the hatches. He had been asked at Madras by some of the
naval officers, before the cone was disturbed, " How did you get it down ?"
He said it was the simplest thing in the world ; and when they heard the
description, they said the thing itself would go down when it got a certain
pressure; and they made it known to the government, and they also published
it in the papers, but he had never heard any more about it; and as far as
shipmasters and shipowners were concerned, the subject dropped, and he had
had some difficulty in finding a channel to get the knowledge of the cone
made known, particularly amongst shipmasters. He had tried for many years to
get it known, but never could get a proper channel until Mr. Bunning took up
the subject.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 133
Mr. Bunning said, he hoped the meeting would not separate without passing a
vote of thanks to Mr. G-lover and Captain Steinson and the other visitors,
who had so kindly come forward to join in the discussion of this very
important subject.
The motion was carried by acclamation, and the meeting terminated.
In order to render this discussion more complete, the writer of the paper
inserts the following extract from a pamphlet written by Mr. R. Cooper
Rundell:—
The numerous fires which have been reported during the last two years, in
vessels laden with coal, have again called attention to the subject of
spontaneous combustion in coal cargoes, and the apparent increase in 1874;,
indicates a sudden and unforeseen alteration in the Marine Risk. This is a
feature of especial interest to Underwriters, and one to which I have given
some attention, with a view to discover the probable cause, and afford means
for estimating the increased risk. For this purpose I have— 1.—Collected, as
far as possible, all the reported instances of heating and
fire which have occurred during the last two years ; 2.—Examined, where
practicable, the special circumstances of each; and 3.—Compared the number
of cases of heating which have occurred in
vessels which have sailed during a certain period in 1873, with
those which have occurred in vessels sailing during the same period
in 1874. The periods selected have been the first nine months of each year,
and the vessels those which have, during these periods, loaded 500 tons of
coal or upwards, for ports south of the equator. The reason for the first
restriction has been to allow time to ascertain the result of each sailing,
and the reason for the two others has been that a preliminary investigation
showed that the heating and fires chiefly occur in vessels with cargoes of
500 tons and upwards, and that a considerable time usually elapses before
signs of heating are discovered. It is evident that satisfactory results
could only be obtained by comparing for each period the number of casualties
with the total number of vessels sailing on similar voyages and carrying
similar cargoes, and by comparing these again with each other.
An examination of the facts thus collected show :— 1.—That in the cases
selected for comparison, no fires occurred before the
134 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
37th day after leaving port, while in one case there was no evidence of fire
before the 190th day. The greater number of fires have, however, occurred
about the 60th day. 2.—That the fires have not been confined to one kind of
coal, but have occurred in most, if not all, of the varieties which are
usually exported. In fact the inquiry supports the opinion that no kind of
coal containing hydrogen has entire immunity from spontaneous combustion.
t
3.—That fires occur in the cargoes whether the coal be ventilated or not,
whether loaded in summer or winter, by tip or by basket. Among the
instances are vessels ventilated by shafts through the coal, both
horizontally and vertically, by vertical shafts only, and by means of
platforms and side linings which allow a circulation of air under the cargo
from one end of the ship to the other. Some of the cargoes also are
especially named as having been shipped in fine weather. It is probable,
however, that there is a certain amount of moisture always present in all
coal. A comparison of the periods selected shows :— That in the first
period, out of the 1,133 selected coal-laden vessels which sailed from the
United Kingdom, there were 23 casualties from spontaneous combustion, or
about two per cent. ; while in the second period, out of 1,240 sailings,
there were 50 casualties, or about 4 per cent., thus showing an actual
increase of just 100 per cent.
Next, the sailings have been classified according to the districts from
which the coal has been shipped, and a comparison made between the selected
periods of 1873 and 1874.
For this purpose I have adopted, to a great extent, a classification of the
coal ports already in use :—
East Coast Ports for North Country and Yorkshire Coal;
South Wales Ports for South Wales Coal ;
Liverpool and Birkenhead for Lancashire and North Wales Coal
respectively ; And Scotch Ports (both East and West) for Scotch Coal. The
facts brought out by this classification and comparison are shown by the
following figures :— (1.) East Coast Ports.
Out of 268 sailings from the East Coast Ports during the first period, there
were 13 casualties, or 4-85 per cent., while during the second period, out
of 312 sailings, there were 15 casualties, or 4*81 per cent.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 135
This shows that, although in each year there is a high percentage of
casualties in coal from the East Coast Ports, the percentage has somewhat
decreased in the second period.
It is by the addition of the Yorkshire and London statistics that the East
Coast returns show a decrease in the percentage of casualties. If these be
taken from the returns of the East Coast Ports, the number of casualties for
the first period will be about 4 per cent., while for the second period it
will be about 5 per cent., thus showing an increase of 25 per cent.
The statistics for Yorkshire and London are as follows :— Yorkshire Ports
... first period, 7 sailings, 3 casualties.
Do. ... second „ 10 „ no
casualties. London ...... first „ 22 ,,
3 casualties.
Do. ... second ,, 19 „ no
casualties.
This large percentage of casualties in the first period, as contrasted with
none in the second period, deserves investigation. Two of the three, if
not the whole of the casualties in the Yorkshire District, occurred in
cargoes of the same kind of coal. (2.) South Wales Ports.
Out of 587 sailings from South Wales Ports during the first period, there
were 7 casualties, or about 1*19 per cent., while during the second period,
out of 589 sailings, there were 10 casualties, or 1*7 per cent. This shows
that in each period there has been but a small percentage of casualties in
coal from the South Wales Ports, but that the percentage has increased
nearly 50 per cent, in the second period. (4.) Birkenhead.
Here, while out of 120 sailings from Birkenhead during the first period,
there were no casualties, during the second period, out of 133 sailings,
there were 3 casualties, or 2'27 per cent. (5.) Liverpool.
In these shipments, out of 69 sailings from Liverpool during the first
period, there were no casualties, while during the second period, out of 109
sailings, there were 13 casualties, or 11'9 per cent. (6.) Scotch Ports
(East and West).
Out of 89 sailings from Scotch Ports (East and West), during the first
period, there were 3 casualties, or 3*37 per cent., while, during the second
period, out of 97 sailings, there were 9 casualties, or 9*28 per cent.
VOL. XXV.—187G
u
136 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
This shows that while the percentage of casualties in the coal from the
Scotch Ports is high in each period, it has increased in the second period
nearly threefold.
The statement of these facts not only forcibly demonstrates a large increase
in these casualties, but also that the increase is not confined to any
special district, and that in the short space of twelve months, one
district, previously almost free from such casualties, now shows casualties
from fire amounting to nearly 12 per cent.
This leads to the inquiry, does this increase arise—
(1.) From any change in the mode of shipment, size of cargo,
or extent of ventilation, or (2.) From any alteration in the quality or
condition of the coal shipped ?
There is no reason to believe that during the periods in question there has
been any change in the mode of shipping, or of ventilating the coal, or any
decided change in the general size of the cargoes.
One is, therefore, led to conclude that there must be an alteration either
in the character of the seams worked, or in the condition of the coal
shipped.
As far as I am informed, however, no noticeable change has taken place in
the character of the seams worked during the two periods ; but it is stated
that certain old seams which had not been worked for some years, have been
again brought into use.
It may, therefore, be inferred that the change is owing to a difference of
condition.
For the last two years there has been a great increase in the cost of
labour, and consequently there has been an inducement to curtail, as far as
possible, all labour beyond that required to get and deliver the coal. The
Coal Mines Eegulation Act, 1872, 35 and 36 Vic, ch. 76, which came into
force, January 1st, 1873, has also made one source of cheap labour less
available. By this Act, children are not allowed to work at the mine, except
under certain restrictions which have had the effect of gradually removing a
great many of those who were formerly employed in cleaning and selecting the
coal, and the remainder of the children, I am told, have thus been able to
secure an increase in their wages of nearly a hundred per cent.
There has also been a great demand for coal, and a ready sale has been found
for inferior and uncleaned sorts which would not formerly have been
marketable. The pitman, it is stated, would have been fined for sending up
so much bad stuff, and the stony and metallic part of the coal which
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 137
did come up would be carefully separated at the pit's mouth. Now, the coal
agent, in order to meet the demand, appears to accept anything passed to
him, as he meets with a ready market for it. And in some cases, even where
the precaution of ordering a particular kind of coal has been adopted, some
uncertainty has existed whether the whole of the shipment was of the exact
kind agreed for.
It was naively remarked to me by a shipper who had seen a cargo of coal
which subsequently caught fire, that he was surprised to hear of the
casualty, as the coal was such rubbish that he did not think it would have
caught fire if fire had been put to it.
I have further heard of masses of small coal, pasty from moisture, being
brought for shipment, and that in one case a careful captain actually
refused to ship the coal which was brought alongside his vessel for this
purpose.
It has been observed also that the heaps of slack which were formerly a
noticeable feature in coal yards have, for some little time past, quite
disappeared.
The following remarks by Captain Heathcote, in his report to the London
Salvage Association on coal shipped from Swansea for the West Coast of South
America, bear closely on this branch of the subject, and if they were
applicable in 1866, when he wrote, how much more must they apply to the
circumstances present in 1874:—"The miner sends to the surface coal from any
vein he is ordered to work, and in time of extraordinary demand produce will
be drawn from strata which, in the absence of such pressure, would be
considered undesirable. The comparative freedom from dangerous qualities of
the coal of one vein from that of another is well known to the coal-owner,
either from actual experience or from private analysis ; and when supplying
coal to be carried to a distant part of the world, he will, no doubt, if
possible, avoid sending the more dangerous, and this, I believe, is the
general practice; but urgency of demand may force, and, in some recent cases
has forced, the coal-owner to supply a proportion of the shipment from a
vein which experience has shown to be less adapted to a long sea voyage ;
and in like manner the exigencies of trade may induce a merchant to accept a
supply which would otherwise be, declined, as coming avowedly from a vein of
at least doubtful quality, so far as regards comparative tendency to heat."
Another circumstance supposed to affect condition, is freshness from the
mine. It has been observed that the coal shipped in 1874 was probably
fresher from the mine than that shipped in 1873. This is pos-
138 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
sibly to some extent true, as in the beginning of 1873 reserves of coal were
available, while no such reserves existed in 1874. In the latter period, the
coal intended for export has no doubt been sent to the ship as soon as won
from the mine. How far this may cause an increased number of cases of
combustion in 1874 is certainly matter for discussion. The statistics which
I have prepared show a larger percentage of casualties at about sixty days
from the date of sailing in 1874, but they also show that in neither year
did the fires occur until the vessels had been at sea about forty days.
The next feature affecting condition is dampness. As to the influence of
weather on the coal shipped, there is no reason for supposing that the
season of 1874 was damper than that of 1873. For, taking in each year the
three months July, August, and September, when most of the coal cargoes
affected by fire were shipped, there appears to have been no appreciable
difference in the amount of rainfall in North and South Wales during these
two periods ; while in Lancashire and Yorkshire, Northumberland and
Scotland, these months were decidedly drier in 1874 than in 1873. Again, it
is evident that the more rapidly the coal goes from the mine to the ship,
the less chance of its absorbing moisture from rainfall, although it must
not be forgotten that if the coal comes wet from the mine it has not the
opportunity for drying. It cannot, therefore, be supposed that the increase
in the number of fires in 1874 has arisen from a greater rainfall. It must,
nevertheless, be remarked that, as Captain Heathcote has correctly stated in
the report already referred to, a large amount of moisture is not required
to produce spontaneous combustion. It is also a noteworthy fact, that while
there is moisture in the coal, the danger from spontaneous combustion is
present however much you may be able to close up the coal from the action of
the atmosphere. The decomposition of the water which takes place in damp
coal affords a much larger supply of oxygen for the purpose of combustion
than the air contained in the hold of the vessel does, as a cubic foot of
water contains more oxygen than 3,000 cubic feet of atmospheric air. This
fact seems to be overlooked by those who propose the introduction of
carbonic acid gas as a means of preventing spontaneous combustion.
It is stated that about two per cent, less small coal passes through the
screens when the coal is damp then when it is dry.
While, therefore, dampness is no doubt a necessary element for the fires,
the whole of the facts collected point to a larger shipment of small and
unclean coal as the chief cause for the increase in the number of fires.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 139
It is as well next to briefly indicate, at the risk of repeating what is
well-known, how the shipment of small and unclean coal influences
spontaneous combustion. Previous reports, and particularly one prepared so
long ago as 1846 by Sir Henry De la Beche and Dr. Lyon Play fair on steam
coal for the Eoyal Navy, leave no doubt as to the cause of spontaneous
combustion in coal cargoes. In fact successive reports, in a great measure,
repeat the same warnings and point out the same precautions.
When a vegetable body is exposed to the action of water, decomposition
ensues, and a certain amount of heat is generated. The heating of hay, where
it has been stacked in a damp state, is a familiar example of the action on
shore, while the heating of damp cotton and grain is known to underwriters
and merchants to be not uncommon at sea. The same effect is produced in
coal. All coals, even at ordinary temperatures, are uniting more or less
rapidly with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and thus undergoing slow decay.
The heat, however, which is thus generated, is not as a rule, sensibly
appreciable unless under favourable conditions. These are (1) a finely
divided state of the coal, so as to increase, to a large extent, the surface
exposed to oxidation, and (2) the coal being stowed so that the heat
generated is very slowly conducted away. Imperfect ventilation is certainly
favourable to this last condition. As the heat is slowly generated, slight
differences in ventilation, and even in external temperature will sensibly
affect its accumulation. This is shown by the fact that by far the greater
number of cases of heating have occurred in vessels which have sailed during
the summer, and on voyages where the summer heat is retained and increased.
If the cases of heating be examined, it will be found that in many of them
these favourable conditions were probably present. Some of the vessels in
which this occurred were large ships with deep holds, and some had also no
laid lower deck. Others were foreign vessels which have not the hatch
accommodation of English ships, and are awkward for trimming. Each of these
facts will tend to the increased breakage of the coal, and consequently add
to the amount of small coal already spoken of as being sent from the mine.
The small naturally lies immediately under the hatches, while the large coal
rolls to the sides and ends of the ship, and it is a significant fact that
the fires are found to chiefly originate beneath the hatches. It must also
be remembered that the small coal absorbs proportionately the most moisture
; so, if the coal has been at all exposed to rain, or been worked from a wet
seam, this is the part of the cargo most likely to retain it.
140 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
The investigation, therefore, leads step by step to the conclusion, that the
increased number of casualties from spontaneous combustion, proceeds from
the condition in which the coal has been shipped, and there can be little
doubt that the cargoes shipped in 1874, were not so free from pyrites or
from small coal as in preceding years.
The remarks of a Marseilles correspondent, with regard to the number of
fires which occurred in the latter half of 1874 in shipments from that port,
further indicate that the causes for the increase here indicated are not
confined to coal from the United Kingdom. French Underwriters have
successfully pleaded in some of these cases that they are not liable under
their policies. Copy of the judgment in one case, together with the remarks
alluded to above, will be found at page 33.*
The number of missing vessels carrying 500 tons of coal and upwards, which
have sailed from the United Kingdom for ports south of the equator during
the periods in question, is not large ; and particulars are recorded of some
of these vessels which make it probable that they either foundered at sea or
were wrecked. Possibly three in the first period and four in the second
period may have been lost by fire. The addition of these to the totals will
not materially affect the averages which have already been given.
* Mr. R. Cooper Rundell's Pamphlet.
VolXKY Plate: J,
To ttbustratv ISC Theo. Wood Bicnrdngs j>aper orv Tha Prevention/ of Span-
-iuneow? CoTnbu&Hon/ of Coal at Sea/!'
FIG.I
PROCEEDINGS,
141
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, APRIL 1ST, 1876, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., Pbesident, in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected :—
Membee— Mr. Alpeed Edwaed Tyloe, 42, Leazes Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Student— Mr. L. Clipfobd Cox, Hardingstone, Northampton.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting :—
Oedinaey Membees—
Mr. James Sinclaie, Fire Engine Manufacturer, 48, Blackfriars Street,
Manchester.
Mr. John Haepee Clifpt, 26, Devonshire Street, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Mr. John Beoughton, Land Agent, Chapel House, Westoe, South Shields.
Mr. Matthew Stainton, Iron Founder, South Shields.
Students—
Mr. Chaeles B. Caee, Harton Colliery Offices, South Shields. Mr. John T.
Milling, Redheugh Colliery, Gateshead. Mr. W. F. Addy, North Seaton
Colliery, Morpeth.
The meeting was then made special; and
Mr. Bewick begged to move, that Rules 4 and 10 in future do stand as follows
:—
4.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
VOL. XXV.-1876.
m
142 DISCUSSION—OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION.
10.—Persons desirous of being admitted into the Institute as Ordinary
Members, Life Members, or Students, shall be proposed by three Members.
Honorary Members shall be proposed by at least five Members ; and shall in
addition be recommended by the Council, who shall also have the power of
defining the time during which, and the circumstances under which, they
shall be Honorary Members. The nomination shall be in writing and signed by
the proposers (see Form A), and shall be submitted to the first general or
special meeting after the date thereof. The name of the person proposed
shall be exhibited in the Society's room until the next general or special
meeting, when the election shall be proceeded with by ballot, unless it be
then decided to elect by show of hands. A majority of votes shall determine
every election. Notice of election shall be sent to each Member or Student
within one week after his election, on Form B, enclosing at the same time
Form C, which shall be returned by he Member or Student, signed, and
accompanied with the amount of his annual subscription, within two months
from the date of such election, which otherwise shall become void.
Mr. Cochrane had great pleasure in seconding the motion.
The President said, he thought there was not a great deal of difference
between the two rules, excepting that a distinction would now be made in the
mode of electing honorary members and the ordinary members ; and it would be
required that the Council should recommend honorary members for election.
The motion was then passed unanimously.
<~ ME. EMBLETON'S PAPER.
The President asked if Mr. Embleton or any other gentleman had any further
remarks to make on Mr. Embleton's paper, " Notes on the Oaks Colliery
Explosion in 1866 ?"
Mr. Cooke said, there were two or three points upon which he desired
information. There was the possibility of the absorption of the gases
alluded to varying from the pressure; then what was the gas—was it
carburetted hydrogen—and how long was the tap open, and was the time
observed minutely ; also, whether the fire was known to be out at the time ?
He did not know whether any gentleman had observed whether a very watery
atmosphere had or had not any effect upon the evolution of gas in mines.
The President supposed Mr. Cooke meant that the absorption of the gases
accounted for the difference of the pressure; or did Mr. Cooke mean that the
absorption in the mine varied at different periods ?
discussion—oaks colliery explosion. 143
Mr. Cooke said, he alluded to the capacity of water for absorbing and giving
off gas.
The President—Yes, but that would vary under circumstances, would it not ?
Did he mean to say, that during the time the mine was shut up the pressure
itself would vary, and also the absorption ?
Mr. Cooke said, what he meant was this : that if by some cause the water was
applied, it might give off a considerable amount of gas, and so raise the
pressure. That was conceivable as an explanation; but as to the facts, the
main thing about which he was curious was, whether the time of closing this
tap was minutely observed, and whether it was exactly the same at all times,
and also as to how much was known as to the time when the fire was out ?
Mr. Embleton said, he might state that they would find in the diagram the
times when the valve was open and shut, and every care was taken in making
the observation. With regard to what Mr. Cooke had mentioned about the
absorption of the gases by the water, he could scarcely think that any
absorption would cause the differences in the pressure shown on the diagram.
He would notice the curious alteration of the pressure which took place,
and which could not be accounted for by any known observations which they
had made. The water which issued from the shaft before the mine was closed
partially filled the dip workings. There was a large blower in those dip
workings which was used formerly in lighting up the pit, and it was possible
enough that the gas collecting in some cavity or other, as soon as its
pressure exceeded that of the water, would come away. But then they saw
it was frequently the case that the pressure jumped through several inches
of water gauge at once, and came down again in the same way; at the latter
part of the observations, that same cause ought to be acting, but if they
observed the diagram they would find there was not the same great variation
of pressure at the later period of the observation ; and they had also this
curious fact, that with a rising barometer there was a decrease of pressure,
and also an increase of pressure with a falling barometer. It was hoped
by the discussion that some facts or theories might be suggested or
observations made which would lead, perhaps, to a solution of the curious
appearances which had presented themselves. The observations were
certainly taken with great care every hour, from January to November. It was
almost impossible to say when the fire occurred; but he thought it was
within three or four weeks after the last explosion. Then, they found the
temperature of the gas more equal.
The President said, it was a very interesting paper, and required a
144 DISCUSSION—OAKS COLLIERY EXPLOSION.
great deal of thought as to why the pressure varied. He thought that the gas
coming off through the water in the deep workings, might very easily account
for the variation in the pressure. It would, of course, depend very much
upon the position of the blower, and the height of the water through which
the gas had to come, and possibly the fire itself would have some effect in
varying the tension of the gases. With respect to what Mr. Embleton had
said, as to the pressure decreasing with a rising barometer, if he was not
mistaken the pit was hermetically closed during the time, and, therefore,
removed from the influence of barometric pressure.
Mr. Embleton—Of course, that pressure was on the upper part of the valve,
when the valve was closed, and with the valve open it would be upon the gas
itself. The pressure during the latter part of the time was the greatest
when the barometer varied from 29*18 to 29*20 and at the least pressure the
barometer was very low. In fact, at the great depression of the barometer in
Yorkshire, in February last (it stood at 28*33), and during the whole of
that low pressure, so far as he could gather, and from his own observation,
there was no increase of gas in any of the pits in Yorkshire.
Mr. Greenwell—If a fall in the roof took place in the workings, would not
that suddenly throw a pressure upon the valve during the time the fall was
taking place ?
Mr. Embleton thought that might do so if the fall was near the shaft, but
not if it was a fall in the interior of the mine.
The President begged to move a vote of thanks to Mr. Embleton for his paper,
and for his having come so far to the discussion. He was sorry the
discussion had not been longer, because it had been very interesting.
Mr. E. E. Boyd seconded the motion, and it was carried unanimously.
Mr. Embleton said he was very much obliged for the honour they had done him.
Mr. E. F. Boyd then read the following paper, entitled "Remarks on the Coal
Measures and Oil Produce of the United States of America, collected during a
visit to that country in the autumn of 1875 :"—
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 145
REMARKS ON THE COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF THE UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA, COLLECTED DURING A VISIT TO THAT COUNTRY IN THE AUTUMN
OF 1875.
By Mr. E. P. BOYD.
The geological as well as the social and commercial features of a country
are always interesting to the observer, when entirely new to him, even
during a rapid journey through it, especially if that country happens to be
another continent than his own, and possessed of such extensive resources as
America.
The writer being strongly influenced by this feeling during his recent visit
to the United States, and having ascertained that the Proceedings of the
Institute have not hitherto recorded any observations of the kind which it
is proposed to lay before you, felt that he might venture to offer a few
notes, which may be the more interesting at this time when the government
and people of the United States are about to celebrate the hundredth
anniversary of their existence as a nation, by a "centennial" International
Exhibition at Philadelphia (the city of brotherly love, so named by William
Penn, the quaker, when he made it the capital of his new territory, granted
him by charter in 1G81, and named after him, " Pennsylvania")—an exhibition
of unrivalled magnificence, which they anxiously hope English people may
visit in great numbers, thus testifying by their presence at a city of such
well-omened name that they have now long forgiven and forgotten the fact
that the American colonies first asserted their independence by what was at
the time considered as no better than an armed rebellion against the mother
country.
It may be that some of the gentlemen of the North of England may contemplate
a visit on this occasion, in which case a few of the economic facts which
the writer has been able to collect may be the means of affording them some
additional interest.
146 0OA.L MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
Besides, the mere statement of resources so vast and yet so approachable,
and capable of being brought into action by a nation speaking the same
language and gifted with the same ingenuity and indomitable perseverance of
the Anglo-Saxon blood, may to some slight extent prove a partial hint and
warning to Englishmen to exercise the greatest possible amount of economy
and caution in the development and application of such area of mineral
property as has been entrusted to, and yet remains in, their charge.
The general geological formation may be classed into four periods, and
subdivided into nine groups. Plate XLIII.
Eozoic............ Eozoic and Metamorphic.
C Cambrian and Silurian. Palaeozoic ......... -(Devonian,
(Carboniferous.
(Triassic and Jurassic,
Mesozoic ......... < _ ,
I Cretaceous.
( Tertiary,
Kainozoic ......... < Alluvium,
(.Volcanic.
The older granites and metamorphic rocks of the Huronian, Labra-dorian, and
Laurentian series, are included in the first group of Eozoic.
The more recent metamorphic rocks of the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains are
embraced by the Paheozoic and Mesozoic periods.
The single blue colour on the map represents the whole of the Paleozoic
series, whether Silurian, Devonian, or Carboniferous.
These earlier rocks form the mountain region of the Eastern States (the
White Mountains in New Hampshire and Maine). They occupy a large portion of
the Atlantic border, extend widely into Canada, and skirting the great lake
region and district about Lake Superior, form the " margin" or " rim" of the
great interior region of comparatively horizontal Palgeozoic formations,
holding the vast " coal areas" of the continent.
The natural geological and geographical outlets of this interior basin of
coal and iron—the Carboniferous division—are towards the south-west, through
the open valley of the Mississippi, and on the east, across the narrowest
portion of the harder rock rim or border to New York.
It would be too great an extension of the limits of this paper were the
writer to enter into detail of the distribution throughout this vast
continent of the successive series of strata overlying the Carboniferous;
but having denoted the vast basin, occupied by the black colour, or
Carboniferous and Permian series, as that of the most importance, attention
will
COAL MEASUEES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 147
be briefly drawn to the area occupied by the successive series overlying the
Carboniferous.
The Triassic and Jurassic formations constitute long lines of limestone in
the east, and gypsum-bearing beds to the west of the Mississippi.
The Cretaceous, next above the last-named Triassic, lie outside of them, and
may be traced almost continuously from Long Island through the Carolinas to
Alabama, and then northerly by the Mississippi and mouth of the Ohio river,
and so skirting the great Rocky Mountain Chain into the British possessions,
this formation occupying a larger area of the continent than any other. This
series is usually covered by Tertiary or Alluvium, but can be traced along
the great transverse river valleys.
The Tertiary again lie outside of the Cretaceous along the whole Atlantic
coast south of Cape Cod, and follow like the former over a large portion of
the western region.
The Alluvium lies outside the Tertiary, along the coast, composing the
peninsula of Florida and the Mississippi Delta.
Reference to the rough copy of the best geological map which could be
procured, one which has been published under the authority of Congress, and
taken from Mr. Francis A. Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States,
coloured to endeavour to show the successive geological periods, will prove
sufficient to give a general idea of the geology of the United States, and
to be a short record of the knowledge of the same up to the present date in
the volume for 1876 of the Institute's Transactions, and until some more
active members may follow in developing the rich stores of mineral wealth
with which this immense continent appears to be so highly gifted, but the
more minute details of which the limit of a short visit in 1875 would not
permit the writer to obtain.
It may be remarked that this, which may be called the eastern portion of the
United States, differs materially from the western portion in its geological
features; the former, with its enormous supplies of coal and iron, being
evidently adapted by nature to be the manufacturing region, whilst the
latter, with its immense plains and veins of precious metals, would seem to
be pointed out as a grazing and metallic mining country.
The occurrence of the long succession of Cretaceous and Tertiary strata down
the valley of the Mississippi would appear to indicate that the valley had
been gradually reclaimed from the Gulf of Mexico.
The overflows of lava and recent volcanic discharges do not appear in the
eastern division, but are very extensively apparent in the western, and to
the north-west of the Rocky Mountain Chain, these being composed
148 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
chiefly of gneiss and red and white granite ; whilst the valleys of the
Columbia and Snake rivers in Oregon, and in parts of Sierra Nevada, occupy
some degrees of longitude and latitude in unbroken district of lava cones
and igneous overflow, even to a thickness it is said, on the Columbia river,
of 3,000 feet.
The great plains and prairie districts, occupying nearly one-fourth part of
the country, between the eastern slopes of the Eocky Mountains and the
Mississippi and Missouri rivers, would seem to be formed chiefly of
Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, deposited very level, very slightly disturbed,
and throughout extensive areas covered with Alluvium, these latter being
again cut through by the river courses in deep ravines down to the
Cretaceous beds.
Recent limestone or fresh water deposits are not infrequent throughout the
continent, and where dried up have left flat beds of fine clay and water
lines, the Humboldt, Tulare, and great Salt Lake of Utah, being the largest
instances of this effect.
It is unnecessary to remark that glacial action has had much to do with the
formation of the present surface of this wonderful continent, not only in
the eastern division in scooping out the valleys of the great lakes of
Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie, with the river course of the St.
Lawrence, as also the sweeping off large portions of the Silurian, Devonian,
and Carboniferous strata from the State of Maine to Alabama, but on a scale
of huge proportions; likewise in the western in the river valleys of the
plane country, and still more gigantic in the mountain ranges of Colorado,
California, the Cascades, and the western slopes of Sierra Nevada (up to
3,000 feet of transverse cutting in Sierra Nevada, and in Colorado even to
one mile in depth through strata of all ages) in the latter of which the
accumulations of boulders and gravel deposited by the streams are the chief
repositories of the gold particles of such worldwide notoriety.
To give some idea of the nature of the so-called " canyon," attention is
drawn to photographs of the Ausable Chasm, in Vermont, a narrow gorge in the
millstone grit, 100 feet in depth, and 50 or 60 of water, which the writer
visited, with a river course through it, and three or four waterfalls of
considerable depth.
In this rapid outline of the geology of the United States, no attempt is
made to give even the map of that part of the area of it which occurs to the
west of the 103rd degree of longitude, because from about that point
commences the great Rocky Mountain district, composed more of volcanic,
plutonic, and primitive rocks, overlaid in the valleys by
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OP AMEHICA. 149
Cretaceous and Tertiary ; and also because this division has not hitherto
been proved to contain coal of any workable character, except lignite,
deposited in the Tertiary and Cretaceous, between the mountain ranges ; and,
besides, its description is far beyond the intention of this paper.
Having then premised that the great geological feature of this immense
continent is the circumstance that between the 73rd and 103rd degrees of
longitude there lies an immense comparative plain of level surface, enclosed
to the east by the Alleghany Mountains and their offshoots, designated the
Appalachian range, of nearly 1,000 miles in length, and to the west by the
great range of the Rocky Mountains, reaching beyond which it would require
another paper to describe, the writer will proceed to describe how this fact
contributes to the existence, to so large an extent, of minerals of so
valuable a character as coal and iron within its area.
A deep carboniferous sea appears to have extended over a very large portion
of the United States, a period of elevation succeeded, with deposition to
east and west of clay and sandy layers, adapted to the growth of plants and
peat mosses, and the formation of coal beds.
The plain extends over an area of probably one-and-a-half millions of square
miles, and is entirely drained by one river, the Mississippi, and its
tributaries, the Missouri and Ohio, with a number of other branches, such as
the Arkansas, Tennessee, and Red River.
One of the most noticeable facts as regards the large area is its slight
elevation above the sea level, for Cairo, the junction of the Ohio and
Mississippi, 1,100 miles from the mouth of the latter, is only 322 feet
above the sea level, and at Pittsburg, the head of the Ohio, 975 miles
further inland, an elevation of only 699 feet is attained.
The water-shed into the great lake system of Superior, Michigan, Huron,
Erie, and Ontario, is in the contrary direction, being to the north and
east, and eventually down the St. Lawrence river.
These lake areas extend over 90,000 square miles, affording consequent
facilities for commercial intercourse by marine engine power, and the most
noteworthy fact is the very near approach of the water-shed to the lower end
of Lake Michigan, near Chicago, proved from the circumstance that only a
very small amount of excavation has been required to cause the waters which
formerly flowed into that lake to run now towards the Gulf of Mexico. Lake
Ontario is, however, 330 feet lower than Lake Erie, one-half of this
quantity being the cause of the great Niagara Falls in one descent.
The following quotation is from the remarks of Mr. Abraham Hewitt, United
States Commissioner to the Paris Exposition in 1867, wherein he
VOL. XXV.—187G.
-.j
150 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
says :—" The position of the coal measures of the United States suggests the
idea of a gigantic bowl filled with treasure, the outer rim of which skirts
along the Atlantic to the G-ulf of Mexico, and thence returning by the
plains lying at the eastern base of the Kocky Mountains, passes by the great
lakes to the place of beginning, on the borders of Pennsylvania and New
York. The rim of the basin is filled with exhaustless stores of iron ore of
every variety and of the best quality. Upon these vast treasures the world
may draw for its supply for centuries to come."
These large river courses appeared to be, and continued for some time to be,
the natural channel by which the produce of coal and iron were brought
together, or each of them to their best market; and, as Mr. Isaac Lowthian
Bell says, in his very interesting paper, " Notes of a Visit to Coal and
Iron Mines in the United States," read before the Iron and Steel Institute,
in London, in 1875—"An instance of this may be quoted in the conveyance of
coal from Pittsburg down the Ohio. 20,000 tons of this mineral are shipped
on board a flotilla of flat-bottomed boats, conducted by one steamer, and
carried for a distance of 1,600 miles, at rather less than Is. per ton,
which includes the cost of bringing back the empty barges."
By reason, however, of its more rapid delivery, and the probable facilities
recently rendered to the development of the railroad system, by the
clearance of forest and extension of cultivated lands, the locomotive engine
has throughout the country very much taken the place of the marine engine,
and alongside of many of the large rivers, such as the Hudson, Delaware,
Susquehanna, and upper branches of the Ohio, there are now extended in many
cases even double lines of the iron rail, as shown on the railroad map
(Plate XLV.).
The charges for carriage of mineral produce vary somewhat in proportion to
the distance on each line, rising up to about l^d. per ton per mile, in
short distances; and where competition is brought so seriously to bear, and
the great systems from New York, Philadelphia, and Washington come in
contact, these charges are reduced even to ^d. per ton per mile.
We come, now, to a little more minute description of the Carboniferous
series, as that containing the two mineral substances of coal and petroleum
(or coal oil), which it was the original object of the writer to consider.
The Carboniferous series, then, of the United States does not differ in its
characteristics very materially from the conditions attached to it in
England and other countries, viz., its fourfold divisions. 1st,—The coal
measures proper, to be described.
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OE AMERICA. 151
2nd.—The millstone grit, coarse sandstones, and conglomerates.
The serai of Pennsylvania, and conglomerates of Ohio. 3rd.—Mississippi, or
mountain limestone group. 4th.—The lowest sandstones and conglomerates,
known as the Waveiiey sandstones of Ohio, Michigan, Catsgill, and New
York—vespertine of Pennsylvania, and knobstone of Kentucky. Although
it is usual in America to divide the coal measures proper into only two
divisions, severed by the so-called Pittsburg seam, having the Anthracites
above it and the Bituminous shales below it, yet, in order to conform to the
divisions of the map, it may be best to arrange it in the natural basins
there pointed out, viz. :—
8q. Miles.
The New England basin ...... ... Area about
750
Anthracite beds of Pennsylvania ...... ,.
472
Appalachian beds ... ...... ... ..
59,10,")
Michigan do............. ,, 6,700
Illinois do............. „ 47,188
Missouri do. ............ „
70,500
Texas do. ............ „
0,000
Total area 190,715
It would cause the paper to extend far beyond the intended limit to attempt
to give detailed sections, even so far as they have been explored in each of
these divisions, but a few general written sections, besides those defined
by map, are given of those districts which have been most fully developed,.
and from which may be sufficiently gathered the immense mineral resources of
this highly-favoured country.—See Plates NLVL, XLVIL, and XLVIIL, the one in
the Alleghanies, at Pottsville, and the others at Pittsburg, all in
Pennsylvania.
The anthracite portion of the coal field (Plate XLIV.), occupying the
north-eastern district of Pennsylvania, has hitherto occupied the largest
amount of attention and enterprise. From the map produced (Plate XLVI.), it
would appear that, subsequent to their original formation, a displacement,
upheaval, and lateral compression, influenced by subsequent denudation, have
each in their turn exerted their powers to produce the present remarkable
features of the district. A wave-like appearance, with successive slopes at
various angles, and deep ravines or valleys between, with the coal seams
appearing at intervals, sometimes even overlapping each other, give a
peculiarity of lateral section (see plan and section), though
152 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OE AMERICA.
not difficult to drain, almost unparalleled, except perhaps in Prussia, in
the deposition of coal measures proper.
The mining of coal seams, so situated, necessarily gives occasion for the
exercise of peculiar ingenuity.
Long slopes of varying steepness are worked by means of stationary engines.
On its arrival at the surface the coal is further elevated,, generally by
means of the same engine, to the highest floor of a timber section, 80 or 90
feet in height, called a " breaker," with which every anthracite mine must
be supplied.
Together with the apparatus for breaking, the same building covers screens,
platforms, and hoppers, to receive and deliver, at different levels,
assisted by water currents for drawing, the various sizes into which the
hard coal is necessarily broken.
The cost of thus preparing the coal may be stated in general as varying from
35 to 50 cents., or about Is. 6d. per ton; if for the prepa- • ration of
1,500 tons per day, the cost of the erection may amount to 85,000 dollars
(£21,000).
Its difficulty of ignition, requiring a large surface of it, not too thickly
distributed, to be exposed to the action of the air, renders this process
necessary, and involves a considerable waste of the small coal, which, from
the close manner in which it lies on the fire, is almost entirely rejected,
and amounts to about 25 per cent, of the whole quantity produced on the
surface.
Under some of the boiler fires the writer observed the application of a
small donkey engine, driving a fan or blast, therewith to increase the
current of air through the bars of the fire.
And as the mode of getting coal of such thickness, viz., by leaving pillars
of different sizes, according to the difficulty of working and inclination
of the bed, and the seam being overlaid by freestone roof of considerable
extent, is far from perfect, an additional loss of 25 per cent, in the mine
may reasonably be stated as the deduction from the actual produce of the bed
of coal—this frequently extending even to 33 and 40 per cent.
The royalty rent varies considerably, affected by the periods at which
arrangements were made for the coal-fields. When the Philadelphia and
Reading Eailway Co., the York and Erie, the Delaware and Hudson Canal Co.,
and others at first enterprised in coal mining, the land under which these
valuable seams of coal lie could be purchased for a few pounds per acre, but
a recent lessee would now be called upon to pay at the rate of Is. per ton ;
in some instances, in recent years, even 2s. per ton.
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 163
A railroad map (Plate XLV.) is given to show the large amount of enterprise
and competition made use of to gain entrance and exit to and from these
extensive coal mines, and to explain their connection with the cities of
Buffalo, Cleveland, and Erie, and the blast furnaces to the west, and with
the larger demands by Philadelphia, Washington, Baltimore, and New York to
the east.
An approximation to the total amount of coal disposed of from this district,
in the year 1874, may be stated at about 19,000,000 tons.
Of this quantity the amounts despatched to the east, by tidal water, might
be about 8,250,000 tons, the remainder being distributed throughout the
markets above mentioned, to the west, among the blast furnaces and iron
works at their different centres; and it is not unreasonable, under ordinary
circumstances, to expect a profit of 1'15 dol. per ton on that disposed of
to the west, and about TOO dol. on that delivered to the east. The following
is a close approximation to the ordinary working-charge of anthracite coal,
premising that the seams of this description of coal are difficult to work,
and require the employment of blasting by gunpowder throughout, the workmen
finding or supplying it. The particulars were afforded by one of the
officers of the Erie Kailroad Co. :—
Dol. Cent.
Mining ..................... 1 11-88
Loading and waggons ............... 0 19-97
Breaking, weighing, and cleaning............ 0 06-06
Agency ..................... 0 02-19
Blacksmiths..................... 0 01-82
Joiners and house repairs............... 0 01-22
Timber, stores .................. 0 02-55
Royalty rent .................. 0 40*76
Taxes, &c...................... 0 00-68
1 90-18
Less by deductions, house rents, fire coal, smiths' shops, &c. 0 15-12
Cost into trucks at the pits ...... 1 75*01
The writer has been favoured by Mr. Lebour, of Newcastle, with the plans and
sections (Plates XLVL, XLVIL, and XLVIII.) herewith produced, of this part
of the Pennsylvania coal-field, got up by Mr. Harvies Daddow, of the United
States, and published at Pottsville, Pennsylvania, which displays very
clearly the remarkable distortion from the effects of high lateral pressure,
caused by the near contact of the older and harder rocks with the
Carboniferous series.
154 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
The total acreage of this severed district being :—
Sqviaro Acres.
In Lehigh ............... about 90,000
„ Schuylkill ............ „ 125,000
„ Lackawanna ........... „ 125,000
340,000 Or about 530 square miles.
The Lackawanna quantity is held by the following companies :—
Acres.
Delaware and Lackawanna Railroad Co. ...... 17,000
Delaware and Hudson Canal Co. ......... 25,000
Pennsylvania Coal Co................ 10,000
Lehigh and Wilkesburgh Coal Co. ... -..... 15,000
Lehigh Valley Railroad Co............. 10,000
Susquehanna Coal Co....... ......... 5,000
Various other small Companies............ 32,000
Lackawanna and Erie Railroad Co. ...... ... 11,000
125,000
BITUMINOUS COAL.
Reference to the general section and the geological map will give some idea
of the immense proportions of the area of this continent occupied by the
coal measures of this class. (Plate XLIY.).
The two most valuable and most widely distributed seams are the Block coal
of Briar Hill, in Upper Ohio, and the Pittsburg seam, in Pennsylvania, the
former of which, about 5 feet in thickness, by reason of its clear condition
and peculiar structure, is capable of being used in the raw state in the
blast furnaces of that district, and the latter, from 10 to 11 feet thick,
furnishes the celebrated coking fuel, known as the Connellsville coke, which
approaches nearest in quality, strength, and brightness to the north country
coke of England. The yield from this coal may be stated at about 62^ per
cent., with a large proportion of ash (not less than 7 per cent.) and a
little sulphur ; and the cost of working throughout the district may be
considered, including the use of breaker and delivery into trucks at the
mines, at about 1*30 dollars, or nearly 5s. per ton.
The railway from Pittsburg, through Harper's Ferry, Cumberland, to
Washington, passes through a large portion of this coal-field, and a
stranger is very much struck in travelling through this mountainous country
with the absence of disturbances and dislocations—the regularity of the
outcrop of the seam, the apparent economy in amount of
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 155
capital required in winning, and the free water level, by reason of the
thick seam of coal, appearing, as far as hitherto explored, above the level
of the river courses.
All the associations of Pittsburg produced a feeling of resemblance (though
much further inland) to Newcastle-on-Tyne—its busy and numerous
population—its fine river, with quays and wharfs and coal and timber barges,
railroads, and locomotive and stationary engines—and its being surrounded
for miles by collieries and coke ovens, blast furnaces, and rolling mills.
Whether or not the anthracites are the same or a part of the bituminous
coals, converted by their nearer approach to the older and harder rocks, and
by plutonic action, into their nearly pure carbon condition (said to be 93
per cent, of solid carbon), the writer does not venture to express an
opinion, but it may be remarked, on examination of the general section,
Plate XLVIL, that this Pittsburg seam occupies a very marked position in the
series ; for if taken at a point, say 200 feet below the surface, its usual
appearance is :—¦
Ft. In. Ft. Im.
Good Coal ......... 4 0
Shale Band ...... 10 10
Good Coal ...... 6 6
Coal ... 10 6 and 1 0 Shale Band.
Underneath it almost invariably occurs a long range of so-called barren
measures, of 300 feet.
Ft. In.
The next seam appearing at about 500 ft., the upper freeport ... 2
6
,, „ 550 ,, the lower freeport ...
5 0
„ „ 600 ,, cannel coal ...... 2
0
„ „ 650 ,, the Hanning coal ...
3 6
,, „ 725 „ scrub grass ...... 3
0
„ „ 775 ,, clarion coal ......
5 0
„ „ 1,000 „ block coal ...... 4
0
And below this the thick sandstones of the millstone grit, with the
underlying shales and limestones, the deposit of the petroleum and coal oil
gases.
THE MICHIGAN BASIN
Would appear as an isolated deposit of Carboniferous strata, resting on the
Devonian, with 123 feet of measures and about 11 feet of coal in the
different seams. In the centre the coal is thickest, thinning out towards
the edges of the basin.
156 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA,
THE ILLINOIS BASIN AND THE MISSOURI BASIN.
It would be quite impossible in a paper of this nature to describe the
extent of exploration even of the present day, in these extensive fields of
coal and iron.
In the Illinois basin, in the states of Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky, the
beds of coal have been attempted, through the comparison of plants and
organic remains, to be assimilated with the beds of the Appalachian field,
and the comparative section of the measures in both series tend to warrant
such a conclusion.
The coals in the Illinois are not so thick as in the Appalachian, though
their number is about the same. The general thickness of the measures is
also greatly reduced, and the limestones appear to be more abundant.
The coals are generally non-coking, or free burning, and the Block coal
would appear to supply chiefly the present demands for iron smelting and
general purposes.
THE GENERAL SECTION IN INDIANA. UPPER PAET.
LOWER PART.
Ft. In. Ft. In. Measures ...... 45 0
Coal. N ...... 4 6
Measures ...... 81 8
Coal, M ...... 0 6
Measures ...... 41 0
Coal, L ...... 8 0
Measures ... ... 40 0
Coal, X ...... 4 0
Measures ...... 40 0
Coal, K ...... 5 0
Measures ...... 17 7
Coal, T ...... 2 0
-------- 238 10
Carried forward 238 10
Ft. In. Ft. In. Brought forward 238 10
Measures ...... 16 0
Coal, I (main block) ... 4 4
Measures ...... 13 0
Coal, H ...... 1 6
Measures ...... 17 0
Coal, G .., ... 4 0
Measures ...... 23 6
Coal, P ...... 4 0
Millstone grit......265 0
Coal,B ...... 2 0
Measures ...... 20 0
Coal, A ...... 3 0
Shales and their coals 47 0
--------- 420 4
Total...... 659 2
MISSOURI AND IOWA. The difference of these deposits on comparison with the
Appalachian, as to the measures being thinner and the coal seams less in
section, are more intensified in this field than in that of Illinois, and
the coals themselves are also more apt to be impure.
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 157
The series is divided by Mr. Brodhead, the State Geologist, into three
parts. The upper division is 137 feet, including 4 feet of coal in two
seams; the middle division is 324 feet, with 7 feet of coal divided into two
seams of 21 and 24 inches, one seam of 12 inches, and six others still
thinner ; and the lower division is 300 feet, with five workable beds,
varying from 1^ to 4^- feet each.
In Kansas, Professor Swallow reports the measures 2,000 feet thick, with
more than 80 beds of limestone and about 20 seams of coal, 10 of them over 1
foot in thickness, and some up to 7 feet. In the Indian territory and
Arkansas, though the coal measures are made to cover a very extensive area
of square miles, and seams of coal are observable in the river beds and
ravines, still little is known of a reliable character as to thickness or
quality. The two beds in Arkansas, beneath the millstone grit, aie said to
be each 4 or 5 feet in thickness.
The condition in which these extensive coal-fields are generally found is
that of a basin, the lower measures with the greatest thickness in the
middle, underlying the upper ones, and exposing their outcrops on all sides
of the basin, but in several instances in this extensive continent nature
asserts her prerogative of varying these uniformities, by the introduction
of gradual sinking of the land during the age of the coal measures, and by
the intervention of extensive faults in the otherwise regular deposits, and
these, subsequently acted upon by glacial action and denudation, have caused
the newer beds of the upper coal measures to be brought successively into
direct contact with the Devonian or Silurian, or older formations; and
sometimes, as will be found in the mid-region and southern coal-fields, to
leave the upper series, and even in certain regions the upper and middle
series, entirely denuded by glacial or other action, and overlaid in other
portions by the Tertiary, Alluvium, and even Volcanic deposits.
REMARKS ON PETROLEUM, OR MINERAL OIL, AND OIL GAS, AND FIRST AS TO ITS
GEOLOGICAL POSITION. Plate XLLX. is a map of the so-called " Oil Eegion,"
from which it will be seen that the district to which this wonderful produce
of the strata is confined is the northern division of the state of
Pennsylvania.
The writer has very little doubt that its relative geological position is
the same as that of the oil shale at Bathgate, in Lanarkshire, and as more
recently discovered in the northern part of the county of Northumberland,
viz.:—contained within the lower portions of the argillaceous shales of the
mountain limestone series.
VOL. XXV,-] 876.
y
158 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
This view is also confirmed by the description of its occurrence, or place
appointed for it in the section.
The line of country, then, between the outer edge of the coal seams and the
outcrop of the limestones and their accompanying shale beds, which all
appear on the surface before they reach the shores of Lake Erie, is
evidently the site of this curious produce.
Thus, at Millerstown, the borings producing mineral oil are projected to the
depth of 1,550 feet, whilst at Titusville they are only '400 feet, and the
deep sandstones, which are the reservoir for the oil, all crop out a few
miles north of "Warren and by the shores of Lake Erie.
A remarkable contingency attached to the explorations by borings is the
circumstance that that which is found as a fluid or petroleum, down to a
certain depth within the sandstone rock, appears at a lower depth in the
shape of gaseous matter.
Can this be due entirely to the increase of temperature as the depth
increases ?
A comparison of relative temperatures gives something like the following :—
Land springs usually have a temperature about ...... 52 deg.
At St. Alban's, the water in a well sunk 540 ft,, temp, is ...
58 „
At Barclay and Perkins'Brewery, London, 367 ,, „ ...
55 „
At Monkwearmouth Colliery...... 1,500 „ temp, of rock is 71 „
At Artesian Wells, GreviUe, France ... 1,794 ,, temp, is ... 82
,,
Cornwall United Mines ...... 1,770 „ „ ...
96 „
Artesian Wells of Germany ...... 3,000,, ,, ... 116
,,
This increase is scarcely apparent untih400 leet is attained, and the ratio
of increase would appear to be about 1 degree of Fahrenheit to each 60 feet.
And as petroleum cannot be expected to exist as a fluid whilst exposed to a
certain temperature, does this fact fully account for its being found in
that fluid state whilst the borings only penetrate to the open and
pebbly-formed sandstone strata overlying the shale beds, which would seem
the cooler reservoir, in which the condensation takes place and lodges the
oil, and its instant appearance as a light hydro-carbon gas immediately the
borings penetrate below this sandstone rock ?
The three dotted lines through the course of the map are intended to show
the eastern and western dividing lines between oil and gas wells, and the
dividing line between light and heavy oils. The yellow spots
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 159
denote the position of actual oil wells, the red spots of actual gas wells,
and the black belts those parts of the district most productive in oil.
When the gas and oil are found together, the oil occupies a lower stratum;
but when gas is found independently, the depth is much greater and the
tension very much higher.
There is, however, no escaping the other facts of experience of borings in
the different localities, that this porous sandstone pervades the whole of
this part of Pennsylvania, though not always of the pebbly character; that
along the course of the outside lines along this area, and where the
superincumbent strata must be less in thickness, the produce is always in
the shape of gas ; and that where the superincumbent strata is thicker, as
at Parker, Oil City, Titusville, and Sideout, along the middle line, here
the produce always appears in shape of oil, light and heavy.
When the drill reaches the sandstone rock, but finds no pebble, the usual
expression in the district is, " The rock was too close ; the sand was too
fine." Hence, two items seem to be regarded with considerable caution and
foresight in boring for oil in Pennsylvania :—
1st.—That the boring should not extend below the line of condensation ; and
2nd.—That if possible the drill should strike a bed of porous pebbly rock,
which constitutes the condenser and reservoir. The total area of possible
oil country (red sandstone reservoir) may be stated at about 10,000 square
miles. The extent actually tested by drill is 3,100 square miles, of
which the producing surface is confined to 40 square miles.
The farthest wells to the north and east, which have continued to produce
oil, are at Warren and McKean, and as these are so far to the rise, and
tending towards the outcrop, it follows that the oil-bearing rock there must
underlie the hitherto developed oil country, and leads to a somewhat
reasonable expectation that by boring to the depth of about 3,000 feet at
Millerstown, the same rock as at Warren may be found.
The circumstance of the draining of one set of wells into another is a very
unsatisfactory truth, accounting readily for the dreaded event of exhaustion
of this hitherto wonderful source of wealth, but holding out less hope, from
the open character of the rock, of any large extent of new fields remaining
yet unexplored.
This circumstance of oil being a moveable produce, and not solid like coal,
involves another difficulty. The different proprietors of land cannot claim
royalty for oil which may be tapped by an intelligent enterpriser, adjoining
to but not on their property ; and there is no restrictive law on this
point, nor on the annual amount to be produced.
160 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OE AMERICA.
Should the lapse of a few years at the present high rate of production tend
rapidly to hasten this event, there is another important result of the
periodical abandonment of discontinued holes, which would seem to influence
speculation in the future, viz. :—the waterlogging of the sand rock, from
the accumulation of water in the abandoned holes, as it is almost
universally admitted that any deeper explorations must be made at the cost
of withdrawing this water now allowed to accumulate in the higher portions
of the porous sandstone.
Mr. Wrigley, of Oil City, has drawn an interesting statement of the average
"life" of oil wells, and the daily produce of a well. Thus in :—
Average daily No. of Wells
Average Price
Product of one well. drilled. Life.
per year per barrel.
Barrels. Years.
Dollars.
1860 ... 5-i- ... 200 ... 14
... 6-40
1861 ... 11| ... 200 ... 2\
... 2-78
1862 ... 12J ••• 300 ... 3|
... U68
1863 ... 8i ... 500 ... 2|
... 8'99
1864 ... 6 ... 950 ... \\
... 9-66
1865 ... 8 .., 900 ... li
... 6-57
1866 ... 74 ... 800 ... \\
... 3-76
1867 ... 6 .. 869 ... 2£
... 3-18
1868 ... 6 ... 990 ... 2|
... 4-15
1869 ... 6| ... 900 ... 2$ ...
580
1870 ... 8 ... 1,007 ... 2|
.. 3-89
1871 ... 7J ... 946 ... 2J
... 4-35
1872 ... 8 ... 1,034 ... 24
... 3*75
1873 ... 11 ... 550 ... 3§
... 1-84
1874 ... Ill ., 430 ... 4i
... 1-17
It is understood that there have been since the commencement of operations
about 18,000 wells, and these have now explored more than three-quarters of
the total area supposed to be oil producing.
The first nine years produced 20,700,000 barrels, and the next six years, up
to January 1st, 1875, 42,000,000 barrels, from 4,939 wells. J**-. the
years 1873 and 1874 the demand was greatest, and realized nearly one-half of
the last-named quantity.
In the years 1864-5 the average cost of producing a barrel was 3'25 dollars,
whilst in 1871-5 the average was only 1*25 dollars, but the selling prices
were in proportion, being in 1864 9^ dollars per barrel, and in 1875 . 2'80
dollars per barrel.
The nature of the speculation may be guessed at by the following figures
:—In 1864 there were 1,248 wells at work, and the usual product of each well
from start to finish (say 1^ years) was about 4,500 barrels,
or about 10 barrels per day.
/
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 161
Dollars.
Price obtained, say 8 dollars ......... 36,400
Cost of drilling, pumping, superintendence, material, repairs, and leading
during the 1\ years...... 15,000
Net profit ...... 21,400
But these were "good times" of oil business. In 1875 there were 3,21 wells
at work, averaging 10 barrels per day per well for a life of 4^ yeai the
total produce of each well in the k\ years being 16,400 barrels.
uonars. Jjoiiars.
At average price of 2#80 = 45,900 Drilling would cost
8,000 Pumping, &c, 4^ years 15,000
--------- 23,000
Profit for the 41 years ... 22,900
The circumstance of the migration of the oil from a waterlogged rock to one
previously dry, as was found to be the case at Pithole and Cashup, proves,
in my opinion, very little more than the result of pressure exercised on the
strata at different points and periods, and the extreme porous and open
nature of the freestone rock, permitting the " flow" to be influenced by the
above circumstances.
It is very natural that the question of duration and exhaustion of the
spontaneous production of this valuable material should become a subject of
anxiety to the inhabitants of this part of Pennsylvania—nay, even to the
world, for in no other country, except G-allicia, in Austria, has such a
product of the strata appeared, and the comparison of cost is much, as yet,
in favour of American oil, the cost of producing one gallon of oil in
Gallicia being 9 cents., whilst the same in America is not more than 2
cents.
It may be that future contrivance may suggest means of exploring the deeper
recesses of the basin, even beneath districts where the surface is occupied
by the coal measures proper, and so prolong the duration of the supply; or
chemistry may aid in converting into more solid form the immense amount of
gases at present being wasted and burnt off as it rises in the abandoned
borings ; or, as a last resource, an endeavour may be made to sink to and
win the oil shale within the mountain limestone series, and which is
understood to be the matrix of both gas and oil, effective measures in that
case being instituted for draining the water, ventilating the workings and
shafts, and avoiding the strong effluvia which at present accompanies the
process.
162 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
It has only required fifteen years to travel through and almost exhaust the
100 miles explored, and if it is the hard truth that only a few more years
can be added to this state of prosperity, this would seem to hold out but a
sad prospect to the well-doing of a very large region, for three large
cities and a number of smaller villages have been built and flourished
during the above period. Eastern capital has introduced the railway system
into the heart of the country, and more than 2,000 miles of pipes for the
more economical transfer of the oil from the point of product to the
refineries and stations. All this has involved an extraordinary outlay of
capital in works and buildings, which at present influence and interest an
immense population, and for the period it has shone out afforded, it may be
said, a large amount of light and life to a great portion of the habitable
globe.
The refining of the oil for illuminating purposes is extensively carried on
in the city of Cleveland, on the shore of Lake Erie, and other places. There
again, the manipulation of many thousand gallons of refined oil daily, and
the cooperage required to pack it in the many thousand oak casks or barrels,
afford lucrative occupation to a large population.
Although the gaseous product of some of the borings is utilised to a large
extent at some of the deep and more recent trials, as at Pittsburg and
elsewhere, from a three-inch bore hole,—and this, by the aid of the pressure
at which it exudes, is enabled to be applied to general purposes of other
fuel, of lighting, heating, puddling, and even of motive power-still, as a
stranger approaches the outlying districts of the oil country, on the banks
of the Clarion and Alleghany rivers—and this especially at night—he cannot
but be moved by the apparent waste of a valuable gaseous substance, as his
eye meets the frequent jets of blue coloured flame issuing from the mouth of
the many oil-exhausted borings, and kept burning for safety, interspersed
throughout the wide forests and deep ravines of this otherwise uncultivated
region.
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 163
SECTION OF THE COAL MEASURES IN WEST VIRGINIA.
Thickness.
No. Description op
Strata.---------------------------
From. To.
Upper Coal Measures— Feet.
Feet.
1—2 Shales and sandstones ............... 20
3 Coal........................ 7i
4—15 Shales, sandstones and limestones .........
211
16 Coal.............. ......... 5J
17—23 Shale, sandstone and limestone............ 31
24 Coal..................... 3 4
25—26 Shale and limestone ...............
22
27 Coal H, Pittsburg............... 6£ 9*
Total feet, 310. 310$
Barren Measures—
28—29 Limestone and shales ...............
16
30 Coal g ..................... 2
31—34 Shale, conglomerate, sandstone and limestone......
201
35 Coal G .................. 2$ 3
36—38 Shales and sandstone ............... 53
39 CoalF .................. 1
1J
40—48 Shales, sandstone and limestone ... ........
144
Total feet, 730. 420^
Lower Coal Measures—
49 Mahoning sandstone ............ 60
70
50 Shale..................... 5 6
51 Coal E, thin.................... 1
52 Shale..................... 30 40
53 Coal D, friable ............... 3J
4
54 Shale........................ 12
55 CoalC .................. 1
2
56—60 Sandstones, shale, limestone and iron ore ...
17 67
61 CoalB ..................... 1
62 Sandstone and shale ...............
30
63 Coal A, friable ............... 1£
2\
64—68 Shales and sandstones ............ 46
64
Total feet, 1,029. 299$
SECTION OF THE COAL MEASURES IN OHIO.
Upper Coal Measures—
1 Limestone ..................... 7
2 Sandstone ..................... 40
3 Coal, No. 13.................. 1 2
4 Sandstone and shale ...............
70
5 Coal, No. 12.................. 1 6
6 Sandstone and shale ............ 20
40
7 Coal, No. 11.................. 1J 4
8 Fire-clay ..................... 1
9 Sandstone and shale ...............
50
10 Limestone ..................... 6
Carried forward ......... 226
164 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
SECTION OP THE COAL MEASURES IN OHIO.—Continued.
Thickness.
No. Description or Strata.
-------------,--------------
From. To,
Feet. Feet.
Brought forward ......... 226
Upper Coal Measures—
11 Sandstone...................... 45
12 Coal, No. 10.................. 3 6
13 Fire-clay ...................'.. 3
14 Sandstone .................. 35 40
15 Coal, No, 9..................... 2»
16 Fire-clay ..................... _
17 Limestone ................. 30 70
18 Black shale.................. 2 10
19 Coal, No. 8 (H, Pittsburgh) ......... 4
8
Total feet, 411. 411
Barren Measures—
20 Fire-clay ..................... 8
21 Limestone ................. 4 30
22 Shale and sandstone ... ...........
110
23 Shale..................... 5 10
24 Crinoidal limestone............... 2
8
25 Shale..................... 1 7
26 Coal, No. lb (G) ...... ......... \
4
27 Fire-clay ..................... 2
28 Shale and sandstone ............ 50
100
29 Shale..................... 2 10
30 Coal, No. la (F) ............... 1
6
31 Fire-clay ..................... 1
32 Sandstone and shale ...............
50
33 Coal, No. 7..................... 5
34 Fire-clay ..................... 3
35 Limestone .................. 2 10
36 Mahoning sandstone ............ 30
80
37 Grey shale .................. 5 20
Total feet, 870. 459
Lower Coal Measures—
38 Coal, No. 6 (E, Upper Freeport)......... 4
7
39 Fire-clay ..................... 3
40 Limestone ..................... 8
41 Shale........................ 50
42 Coal, No. 5 (D, Lower Freeport)......... 2
4
43 Fire-clay ..................... 4
44 Shale and sandstone ............ 20
60
45 Grey limestone ............... 3
6
46 Coal, No. 4 (C, Kittanning) ........ 2
6
47 Fire-clay ..................... 3
48 Shale and sandstone ...............
20
49 Coal, No. 3a (local) ............ 2
3
50 Fire-clay ..................... 3
51 Shale and sandstone ............ 10
50
52 Blue or ferriferous limestone ............
4
53 Coal, No. 3(B) ............... 2
4
54 Fire-clay .................. 6 12
Carried forward ......... 247
COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA. 165
SECTION OF THE COAL MEASURES IN OHIO.—Continued.
Thickness. |
No. Description or
Strata.__________________j
From, j To.
Feet. Feet, j
Brought forward ......... 247 I
Lower Coal Measures—
55 Shale and sandstone ... ............
; 75
56 Coal, No. 2 (thin)............... 1 j
6
57 Shale........................ | 20
58 Sandstone .................. 20 I 70
59 Shale..................... 5 j 40
GO Coal. No. 1 (A, Briar Hill or Block Coal) ......
4
Gl Fire-clay ... ..................
3
62 Shale........................ 20
63 Conglomerate .................. 100
64 Waverley .....................
Total feet, 1,465. j 585
I
I |
SECTION OF THE COAL MEASURES IN PENNSYLVANIA, FROM MERCER TO GREENE
COUNTIES.
Dpper Coal Measures—
1 Blank.....................j ... 200
2 Grey and buff sandstone ... .........| ...
110
3 Dark calcareous slate ...............
5
4 Limestone ..................- ... 5
5 Blue, buff and olive shales............ ...
56
6 Dark grey sandstone ......... ......
18
7 Green micaceous sandstone ............
44
8 Limestone, thin ........,..........
9 Yellow, blue and brown shale ............
27
10 Grey sandstone and shale............... 42
11 Limestone ..................... 0£
12 Coal, 10 inches .................. 1
13 Limestone ..................... 3
14 Shale and laminated sandstone............ 15
15 Limestone ..................... 2
16 Dark grey shale .................. 18
17 Coal........................ 1
18 Shale and limestone.................. 10
19 Thin-bedded sandstone ............I 15
25
20 Limestone ...................... 3
21 Blue shales and sandstones ............
42
22 Coal, 10 inches .................. 1
23 Blue and buff shales, thin...............
24 Flaggy sandstones...... ............
13
25 Shales and sandstone ...............
62
26 Yellow micaceous shale ............... 15
27 Grey micaceous sandstone............ ...
14
28 Buff shale .................. 17 20
29 Grey micaceous sandstone............ 11
14
30 Buff shale ..................... 50
31 Limestone ..................... 3\
32 Buff shale ..................... 20
Carried forward ......... 839f
VO_. XXV.-1876.
w
166 COAL MEASURES AND OIL PRODUCE OF AMERICA.
SECTION OF THE COAL MEASURES IN PENNSYLVANIA, FROM MERCER TO GREENE
COUNTIES.-Continued.
Thickness.
No. Description of Strata.
_-----------------------------
From, To.
Feet. Feet.
Brought forward ......... 889 g
Upper Coal Measures—
33 Coal............... ........ 1
34 Sandstone .................. !.. 20
35 Brown and blue shale ............... 4
36 Coal.....................| ... 1
37 Brown and blue shale ............' ...
10
38 Sandstone, in three layers............j ...
20
39 Blue and yellow shale ... ... ...
... ... 10
40 Limestone, in three layers......... ... ...
4
41 Soft blue shale .................. 4
42 Limestone ... ..................
4
43 Soft blue shale .................. 3
44 Coal........................ 2
45 Blue friable shale.................. 7
46 Grey and brown sandstone ............
35
47 Yellow and brown shale............... 10
48 Coal I, Waynesbury ...............
6
49 Soft shale ..................... 5
50 Sandstone and shale ...............
35
51 Upper limestone .................. 8
52 Shale........................ 10
53 Flaggy sandstone ......... .........
20
54 Shale........................ 10
55 limestone ..................... 18
56 Black slate ... ... ... ...
... ...... 5
57 Slaty sandstone ... ...............
18
58 Black calcareous slate, sometimes changes into )
„
2-^ feet of coal............ j
59 Limestone (the best) ...............
16
60 Shales .................... 20
61 Grey slaty sandstone ... ... ...
...... 25
62 Brown shale..................... 30
63 Coal H, Pittsburg............... 5 8
Total feet, 1,216. 1,216$
Barren Measures—
64 Limestone ..................... 25
65 Shale and sandstone ...............
30
66 Limestone ... .,, ............ 3
5
67 Red and yellow shale ...............
12
68 Limestone ..................... 2
69 Yellow and purple shale .............. 10
70 Buff shales...................... 18
71 Red and blue shales.................. 4
72 Limestone ..................... 3
73 Shale and slaty sandstone... ... ...
...... 10
74 Red marly slate .................. 12
75 Ligonier sandstone............ ......
70
76 Olive slate and buff shale............... 100
77 Limestone ..................... 2
78 Coal G ..................... 1
Carried forward ......... 304
DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA. 167
SECTION OF THE COAL MEASURES IN PENNSYLVANIA, FROM MERCER TO GREENE
COUNTIES.—Continued.
Thickness.
No. Description of
Strata.--------------------------------
From. To,
Feet. Feet.
Brought forward ......' ... 304 ;
Barren Measures—
79 Red and blue shale, Pittsburgh......... ...
20.
80 Slaty sandstone ...............' ...
30
81 Thick shale..................! ...
82 Coal F, Elk Lick ............... 1
2
83 Mahoning sandstone ... ...... ...
... 75 I
84 Shale........................ 50
Total feet, 1,697. 481
Lower Coal Measures—
85 Coal E, Upper Freeport ............ 3
6
86 Fire-clay and shale............... 1
10
87 Limestone ............ ...... 4
7
88 Shale and sandstone ............ 30
40
89 Coal D, Lower Freeport ............... 3
90 I Freeport, Dunbar, or contorted sandstone ...
50 60
91 Slate and shale ... ... ...
... ...... 75 j
92 Coal O, Kittanning............... 3
4
93 Slate and sandstone ...............
30
94 Buhrstone and iron ore ............ \
6
95 Ferriferous limestone ... ............
15
96 Slate and shale .................. 30
97 Coal B, Clarion, Blossburg, etc.......... 3
4
98 Slate and shale ... ...............
25
99 Coal A, Brookville............... 1
2
100 Slate and shale ............... 5
15
101 Conglomerate and Tionesta sandstone ...... 50
60
Total feet, 2,089. 392
The President said they must be very much obliged to Mr. Boyd for his most
elaborate and interesting paper. It must have struck all present that he
certainly had not visited the United States without bringing away with him a
great deal of knowledge acquired during his visit.
Mr. Boyd, in answer to a question respecting the Niagara Falls, said he
expected that the gradually receding face of the Falls is due very much to
the circumstance of the shale bed intervening between the two strong
limestones. The shale bed is wasted away by the action of the atmosphere,
and the moisture caused by the fall of the waters ; being thus hollowed out
beneath the thick top limestone, it topples over, and so forms that curious
hard curved outline which they
168 DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA.
heard of as the Horse-Shoe Falls—one of the most wonderful extents of water
in motion one could possibly conceive; a river seven times the width of the
Tyne going over in one sheet 190 feet high.
Mr. Greenwell asked if the anthracite in America was similar to the
anthracite in South Wales ?
Mr. Boyd—Yes, it is exactly the same as in South Wales ; if anything, of a
more brilliant colour, more brilliantly bright, and, perhaps, hardly so
strong. It seemed to require very great caution and very great care in
manipulation to get it reduced to a size of 2^ or 3 inches, without which it
will not burn at all. It has 93 per cent, of carbon.
Mr. Greenwell—From what he had seen, thought it was very like the anthracite
of Llantrissant, in Pembrokeshire.
Mr. Boyd—If anything, more brilliant.
Mr. Cochrane asked if Mr. Boyd brought over any specimens ?
Mr. Boyd said he did not. Mr. Bell offered him the use of his specimens to
bring before the meeting to-day, but he (Mr. Boyd) thought it hardly proper
to avail himself of another gentleman's labours.
Mr. Green said he brought over some specimens and presented them to the
Institute, and they were in the Museum.
Mr. Lebour said, there were a few points to be noted during the course of
Mr. Boyd's very interesting and valuable paper, upon which he would like to
get Mr. Boyd's opinion. In the first place, Mr. Boyd mentioned the Eozoic
rocks—those in America which underlie the Palceozoic. That was a term we
were not used to in England or Europe generally, though it was frequently
used in America, and it included a great mass of metamorphic rocks, the age
of which was not very easily ascertained, and it was very possible that at
some place or other fossils of some kind would be found in them. Therefore,
the term Eozoic, which meant the dawn of life, if applied only to the
Laurentian rocks, was correct. But going a little lower down to those rocks
where no life had been found, but where it was hoped it might some day be
found, then it would not be applicable ; but if the term was used by Mr.
Boyd only as it was in America, then it was a very good term. Next, he would
like to ask Mr. Boyd if he noticed anything as to the succession from the
Coal Measures to the Permian in America ? It was an interesting point, for
here the Permian is considered as a transgressive formation which in this
country is unconformable to the Coal Measures, yet in America it was so
perfectly conformable to them that there were no means of telling in many
places—(certainly not in the far western parts, upper Missouri, for
instance)—where the Coal Measures end, or
DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA. 1 69
where the Permians begin. He would like to ask Mr. Boyd if he noticed
anything, anywhere in his travels, with regard to the junction between the
two ? He thought Mr. Boyd said the western districts were not mining
districts; that at least a great part of them were grazing districts.
Mr. Boyd said, by the word "mining," he meant mining for lead and other
metallic ores.
Mr. Lebour—What he wished to ask was, did Mr. Boyd mean to r*y tiiat the
immense deposits of lignite in the West, both, in the Cretaceous and
Tertiary on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, were so valueless as not to
be accounted of any commercial value ? He did not know much about them ; he
only asked for information. He knew they were in existence geologically, but
he did not know anything as to their commercial value. The next matter, he
thought, was the most important of all from a strictly geological point of
view—that was, Mr. Boyd mentioned the Millstone Grit several times in the
course of his paper. He believed that one of the diagrams on the walls
represented a section through the Millstone Grit, and in that case what Mr.
Boyd called the Millstone Grit, or what is called the Millstone Grit in
North America, was what in Ohio formed the base of the Coal Measures. But
going from Ohio into the western regions, into the Upper Kanawha River
district, they would find that the Great Conglomerate there, as it was
called, which was the Millstone Grit, was there, no longer distinct from the
Coal Measures, but was really inserted within their lower part, and had a
layer of true Coal Measures below as well as above it; was it, therefore,
not probable, though it was called the Millstone Grit, and although it might
be perfectly equivalent to our English Millstone Grit, that it was merely a
subdivision of the Coal Measures which occasionally forms their base as it
does in England, that its position in England is really exceptional, and
that it was not one of the great divisions of the carboniferous system ? He
did not quite understand whether Mr. Boyd considered the Waverley group to
be really the equivalent of the Calciferous Sandstones of Scotland, and he
should like very much to hear his opinion on that subject. Mr. Boyd
mentioned the oil shales of North Northumberland and of Bathgate, Scotland,
and he (Mr. Lebour) thought it exceedingly interesting that both in North
America and in Britain the oil-bearing shales seemed to be limited to the
lower parts of the Carboniferous System. He considered that from what they
knew of the mode of deposition of these lower beds of the Carboniferous
System and from their not being continuous, it appeared
170 DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA.
that the presence of the oil had something to do with shore or inland sea
deposits, and seemed to be far removed from those deposits which owe their
existence to the deep sea. Then Mr. Boyd said something about underground
temperature. Perhaps they would allow him to mention that many of the
American observations which had been made lately—and a great number had been
made lately in very deep bore-holes in North America —had proved of very
small value owing to the fact that the thermometers, by means of which they
were taken, were put down almost immediately after the bore rods had been
removed, and before the friction heat had been lost, so that in the
observations taken in these bore-holes the readings were all much too high.
This retention of heat in bore-holes was so remarkable that in one case it
was found to have lasted more than five months, xlbout six months after
boring, the underground temperature committee considered it safe to send
down a thermometer, but not before. Mr. J. B. Atkinson, who was sitting by
him, was kind enough some years ago to put down a thermometer for him in a
South Hetton bore hole, and there he got a very valuable set of observations
on underground temperature at different depths, which were perhaps the most
reliable which had been made on the subject in England ; and he also gave
him a set of readings which had been taken directly after the boring of this
hole. The discrepancy between the readings of that first series of
observations and the second, which were those taken long after the bore-hole
had been made, was very great indeed, and very remarkable.
Mr. Boyd said, in answer to Mr. Lebour's remarks, he might briefly state
that the word Eozoic was the word admitted, and he supposed adopted, by the
Americans, and therefore he had thought it was perhaps as well to keep to it
himself. It was quite possible that animal life might be found in these
metamorphic remains. It was not long since Sir Roderick Murchison proved
this with regard to the Silurian system—the great mountain of Snowdon is an
instance; it was never expected to contain specimens of animal life. He (Mr.
Boyd) had himself gathered specimens on the heights of Snowdon. With regard
to the Permian series, he thought it might be well, in answer to Mr. Lebour,
to adhere to the principle adopted in England, namely, that it was entirely
unconformable in its deposit to the coal formation. They had had many
instances of it, and he might give Mr. Lebour a very distinct one in
England. The magnesian limestone and the new red sandstone underneath it
pervaded, as they all knew, the eastern side of the eounty of Durham, and
many people were led to the impression that the bottom
" DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA. 171
of the limestone and the top of the coal formation were conformable. At
Trimdon, they were at that moment proving it by the running or cropping out
of the three upper seams—the five-quarter, the main coal, and the low main,
against the bottom of the magnesian limestone. They had actually proved
three of them to depart as they came up to the red sandstone underneath the
magnesian limestone. What did that teach ? It taught that there was an
immense denudation of the surface prior to the deposit of the magnesian
limestone. The magnesian limestone was the great deep sea deposit; the
carboniferous strata had previously been deposited one after the other, and
amongst them " peat" afterwards formed into coal, and all had been lowered
down into a deep sea; then, the magnesian limestone deposited its shells and
scales of fish to a great thickness upon these measures, and became the
bottom of that deep sea; but not until after the depression of the
carboniferous series, and after the denudation had swept off at least three
or four of the seams which they knew to exist in that strata, and these
unconformable symptoms, he thought they would find of a similar character in
America. With regard to the interlying millstone grit, he would be very glad
to adopt Mr. Lebour's observations. He had been very much puzzled to find
that they had very good seams occurring below what they called the millstone
grit. In the North of England there were instances at Muggleswick and Edmond
Byers—(which Mr. Bewick would confirm)—of small, very thin layers of coals
in the shales of the millstone grit there, and some of the shales were very
black and very bright, and almost capable of being burnt; but they in the
United States had the coals up to two and three and in some places four feet
thick. There, there are no coals in the millstone grit more than a foot
thick, and he was very much surprised that the two seams recorded had
occurred under what they called the millstone grit; therefore, he would be
very glad to adopt Mr. Lebour's observation, that the millstone grit must be
merely inserted between the coal seams. With regard to the bore-holes in the
Oil Region, he was not at all inclined to adopt the principle that the
transformation of the oil into gas was owing to the circumstance of the heat
acquired by the extra depth. In a basin of coal and its underlying measures
abutting against the Alleghany Mountains on one side, and cropping out
towards Lake Erie on the other, it might be expected that the lowest point
of that basin was the one most likely to be pervaded by gaseous matter. If
the great depth and increased heat produced the effect of altering the
natural oils existing there into gases, that change might be expected to
take place more decidedly in the centre of the
172 DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA.
basin ; but on the " outside " of the basin there is gas, with thinner
overlying sections of strata, whilst in the centre where the strata are
deeper the produce exists in shape of oil. If any gentleman would be kind
enough to give him assistance in solving this problem, he would be very much
obliged to him. He might mention that they utilized these gases to an
enormous extent. Engines were absolutely driven by them ; houses with
large public rooms in Pittsburgh were lighte,d by the gas escaping from a
bore hole, which was down, he thought, 1,500 feet. The pressure of the gas
was said to be very great. He did not introduce it in his paper, because
he did not meet any person who could tell him accurately what the pressure
was ; but it was said to be 70 lbs. to the square inch, the gases issuing at
that rate were then collected into reservoirs, and distributed for different
purposes in the town of Pittsburgh, showing that the inhabitants were very
anxious to make use of that which they found was escaping unutilized into
the atmosphere ; but they had not yet been able to change the gases into
oil.
Mr. Cochrane said he had been very much interested in Mr. Boyd's paper, as
everybody must have been. With regard to the last observation, he
understood when in America that they had succeeded, and did absolutely
reduce the gas, by mechanical means, into oil. The waste of gas Mr. Boyd
spoke of was something enormous, from the fact that they did not plug the
abandoned holes; but now, as in England there were Government regulations
for coal mines, so in America they had Government regulations for oil wells,
and these regulations compelled abandoned holes to be stopped up in the most
effectual manner, so as to prevent the waste of gases. The difficulty
which Mr. Boyd had mentioned about the gas appearing on the outcrop did not
appear to him (Mr. Cochrane) to be so very great. If the plutonic
theory was admitted, and there was heat below to form the gas, it must
follow that the gas will accumulate in the highest cavities, and as in the
case of intermittent springs when the oil has been drawn off, the gas will
follow—in fact, the gas forces the oil to the surface and gives rise to the
flowing well. As soon as the oil has been exhausted in any particular
district, as at the outcrop in the first instance, then the gas escapes, so
that it was not an insuperable difficulty that the gas was occurring at the
edge. Mr. Boyd had not called attention to the fact that no oil was ever
found above the millstone grit, and that it was always necessary to bore
below the coal measures before coming to the oil measures. As to the coal
measures of the United States, he called attention to a similar change of
character of coals as in South Wales, though in a
DISCUSSION-COAL MEASURES, ETC., OE AMERICA. 173
reversed position. The coal measures commencing on the east were
anthracitic, and became gradually bituminous as they went westward. In South
Wales, the bituminous basin was on the east, and it became anthracitic in
the west. But respecting the reasons which had been given as to the
change—one of which was that the anthracitic was in the volcanic region and
the bituminous was away from it—Mr. Boyd hazarded a theory that the
bituminous coal had been formed into anthracitic by plutonic agency. He
believed that the American geologists who had offered any opinion.upon it
did not think that the coal was formed as a bituminous coal primarily, and
then altered by heat, but that the anthracitic was absolutely formed as
anthracitic under conditions favourable to such formation. What these were
was matter of speculation, but as against the theory of a bituminous coal
being converted into anthracite, he did not know of any fossils being found
in anthracite.
Mr. Boyd—Are there no shells or vegetable remains above it ?
Mr. Cochrane—There may be. Did he (Mr. Boyd) see any ?
Mr. Boyd—Yes ; one from the roof of the anthracite bed.
Mr. Cochrane—The anthracite of the Lehigh valley has generally a
conglomerate roof. He would ask Mr. Boyd if he saw any of the coal measures
which were overlaid by any other strata than the alluvium ? He did not; and
he understood it was pretty well proved that the coal measures Avere all
outcrop, and that they were rarely overlaid by any other strata than the
alluvial. Mr. Boyd would recollect that at Pittsburg the coal measures were
above the river level, and that was one great advantage they had over the
coal measures in England. These measures were also remarkably clear from
faults, and were worked without the difficulties of expensive plant or
pumping. In comparing the anthracite of the States with the Welsh
anthracite, it must be remembered that the former includes seams which are
from 60 to 70 feet thick, and extend over many square miles. The latter is
only a small development of anthracite, a few thin seams, and of very
limited area on the western outcrop. In the States the large anthracitic
deposit has led to industries in which this class of coal is solely used,
especially in the iron manufacture, while the limited yield of South Wales
has been insufficient to command anything more than its use to a very
unimportant extent. There is another difference, namely: very little,
probably a portion of only one small seam, of the Welsh anthracites can
compare in quality with the bulk of the anthracite of the States. The
fracture of the Welsh anthracite was more nearly cubical; it is rarely
conchoidal, while in America the fractures were always conchoidal; the
miners, in working it, cut their hands as if with
VOL. XXV.-1876.
x
17 4 DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA.
glass. The question of transit on the Ohio had been alluded to. He had seen
the river barges, and the extremely cheap transit was owing to the fact
that, although they travel about 1,600 miles, it was the flow of the river
which conveyed them. These great flotillas of barges laden with coals,
probably 4 feet deep, cover upwards of four acres. For, calculated at 1,200
tons per foot per acre, 4 feet deep, the 20,000 tons which Mr. Boyd spoke of
came to about 4^ acres of barges, in the centre of which was one of these
huge steamers with paddlewheels of 50 feet diameter, and a crew of about
sixty men. They were often obliged to wait until the water rose in the Ohio
to carry them down ; the steamer did little else than simply act as the
rudder all the way, and it had to bring the empty barges back again against
the stream.
Mr. Green well said, he was sorry to disagree a little with what had fallen
from Mr. Cochrane as to the character of the Welsh anthracite. He had had a
great deal to do with the Welsh anthracite collieries for some time past,
and he would be very happy to show Mr. Cochrane some specimens with
precisely the same conchoidal fracture which the American anthracite,
exhibited by Mr. Boyd, had shown; and he would also have great pleasure in
showing Mr. Cochrane specimens of lepidodendron and lepidostrobus, and also
anthracosia taken from the immediate roof of an anthracite seam.
Mr. Boyd said, he heard that in America there were vegetable remains in some
of the rocks above the anthracite, probably in some part of the shale beds
there, and it certainly did surprise him.
Mr. Greenwell thought that they would require to know a very great deal more
before they arrived at the conclusion that the formation of anthracite was
attributable to igneous action. If they considered the absence of all
volatile carbons in anthracite, and assumed that any sudden check to the
exhalation or dispersion of volatile carbon during the time of the action
taking place in the carbonaceous base—if they could assume that that
dispersion was checked by the deposition of superior strata—they then at
once came to a solution of the question. But if they could imagine the
deposit of vegetable matter, which ultimately might become bituminous or
anthracite, to be exposed to the action of the atmosphere so long as to
allow the whole of the volatile carbons to become dispersed, they would then
have anthracite left behind. He did not himself think it was at all
necessary that they should bring igneous action into the question in
accounting for anthracite.
Mr. Lebour said, that with regard to the continuity of the bituminous into
the anthracitic coal of North America, he believed there were a few
DISCUSSION—COAL MEASURES, ETC., OF AMERICA. 175
beds of impure limestone found in the lower parts of both series, and he
believed he was right in saying that some of these beds of limestone ran
throughout, or were continuous throughout; and, although the calcareous
beds, of course, were not altered in the same manner as coals, it seemed
curious that one bed should be altered, and not the other. He did not know
whether he was right about these limestones.
Mr. Boyd thought he was quite right, and that the observation followed Mr.
Greenwell's very properly, because where it was found that the coal in this
country is affected by igneous action (by basaltic dykes coming through the
strata and the coals), all the other minerals adjoining to it are also
affected by it. The shales are transformed into a sort of porcelain, the
sandstone made into a brittle glass-like substance ; and if any limestone is
in the neighbourhood, it also becomes richly vitrified.
Mr. Lebour thought that in the western part of the South Wales coal-field
the action of heat is usually supposed to have been the means of bringing
about the anthracitic nature of the coal. And it must have been on a much
larger scale than such a slight heating as would have been caused by a mere
Avhin dyke. If these coals had been baked, it must have been by some means
of which we know absolutely nothing at present. There was nothing left by
which the source of any heating action could be traced.
The President said, they would adjourn the discussion until after the paper
was printed. K"o doubt, when it came into the hands of the members, a great
many more would be prepared to discuss it than there had been to-day,
although the discussion had been a most interesting and exhaustive one. He
begged to move a vote of thanks to Mr. Boyd for his paper.
Mr. Bewick begged to second the motion, and it was carried unanimously.
Mr. Boyd said, he was very much obliged to them for the compliment they had
paid him. He wished the paper had been more valuable, and that he had been
able to make it more detailed; but when they remember that he did not go to
xlmerica for the purpose of mining exploration, but that he went for the
purpose of seeking health, they would, he was sure, make allowance for any
shortcomings in the paper.
The meeting then terminated.
PROCEEDINGS.
177
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, MAY 6th, 1876, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., President, in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting', and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were then elected :—
Members—
Mr. James Sinclair, Fire Engine Manufacturer, 48, Black Friars Street,
Manchester.
Mr. John Harper Clifft, 26, Devonshire Street, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Mr. John Broughton, Land Agent, Chapel House, Westoe, South Shields.
Mr. Matthew Stainton, Iron Founder, South Shields.
Mr. W. F. Addy, North Seaton Colliery, Morpeth.
Students— Mr. Charles B. Carr, Harton Colliery Offices, South Shields. Mr.
John T. Milling, Redheugh Colliery, Gateshead.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Members— Mr. J. M. Wright, 21. Collingwood Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr.
Robert Berryman, Hawick Villa, Pershon Road, Birmingham. Mr. Cedrig Vaughan,
C. and M.E., Hodbarrow Mines, Leyfleld House,
Millom, Cumberland. Mr. Edward Windsor Richards, General Manager, Messrs.
Bolckow,
Vaughan, & Co., Middlesbro'.
Student— Mr. George Albert Tucker, Ouston Colliery, near Chester-le-Street,
178 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
Mr. Bunning- stated that he had to thank Mr. Hunt for having taken the
trouble of travelling some distance to attend this meeting. That gentleman
had had great experience in the matter of spontaneous combustion, having
being employed by Government to investigate cases which occurred at
Devonport Dock Yard. He (Mr. Bunning) had also received a letter from Mr.
Mitcalfe, of which the following is an extract:—
I beg to enclose a letter received from Mr. Rundell on this subject. He, in
common with nearly all underwriters on the west coast, has hitherto
entertained a strong feeling in favour of ventilation, but the facts brought
forward at your last meeting appear to have altered his views on this point.
I am more than ever opposed to ventilation, and as it is almost impossible
to stow coals in air-tight bunkers, I think it very desirable that ships
should be provided with means of extinguishing fires by the application of
carbonic acid gas. Mr. Cargill states that fire will not exist in the
presence of 5 per cent, of this gas, and there should be no great difficulty
or cost in applying it.
Jn the letter alluded to by Mr. Mitcalfe, Mr. Eundell says—
As far as my own individual researches go, I am confirmed in the opinion I
expressed in my report, that is, that the increased number of casualties
from spontaneous combustion proceed from the condition in which the coal has
been shipped ; that is, from its condition as respects impurity and as
respects size. I am glad to find that I am supported in this view by the
remarks of Messrs. Forster and Daglish at page 119 of the Proceedings, and
more particularly by Mr. Steavenson's statement at page 23, that he had
always found the most impure coal was the most liable to ignite, and that,
in fact, when very clean coal was stored there was not the slightest fear of
its taking fire. I would, therefore, urge that it is of very great
importance that the coal be carefully cleaned before shipment, and that the
carriage of small coals be avoided as much as possible ; to this end let
every cargo be carefully screened and wailed under impartial inspection, and
the small coal which must necessarily accumulate under the hatches when the
coal is thrown, be dug out before the vessel leaves the port. The next point
which comes for consideration when these precautions as to the condition of
the coal have been taken, is that of ventilation ; experience, apparently,
shows that to thoroughly and efficiently ventilate the large cargoes of coal
now carried on long voyages, is practicably impossible owing to the expense
of the arrangements and the space they would occupy. There are, however,
modes of meeting the difficulty and lessening the danger, without adding
that further danger which is involved in imperfect ventilation ; in very
large cargoes, it has been found desirable to divide the whole shipment into
two halves by means of vertical bulkheads of wood or iron, placed
longitudinally amidships on each side of the stanchions, sufficiently apart
to allow a man to walk from one end of the cargo to the other ; in smaller
cargoes, I would suggest merely that roomy shafts
DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 179
should be placed in each hatch where the small coal had been dug out, large
enough to admit a man going down to examine the temperature of iron rods
placed beforehand through the cargo of coal, and if necessary, using their
spades for removing the coal.
It is to be remarked here that, in the last discussion it has been already
stated that such shafts had been put down through the small coal before the
ship sailed, but that the result had not been beneficial, inasmuch as the
coal heated further away from the hatch than it otherwise would have done.
He (Mr. Bunning) also thought, that although a great effort had been made at
the last meeting to come to some definite conclusion as to the cause of
spontaneous combustion, no satisfactory result had been arrived at. He
thought it would be exceedingly interesting if more light were thrown upon
this, for, after all, a knowledge of the cause was the most important part
of the whole question.
Mr. J. A. Ramsay said, in the first place he thought that in the discussion
at the last meeting there was a great difference of opinion, one party being
in favour of no ventilation at all, and the other in favour of ventilating
thoroughly. His opinion was, that to avoid spontaneous combustion there
ought to be a thorough ventilation, and that opinion was forced upon him by
experience, acquired in a district yielding a fuel that was more liable to
spontaneous combustion than perhaps any other which existed. Either pyrites
or coals by themselves do not, he considered, fire spontaneously, but when
mixed or when one is incorporated with the other, spontaneous combustion
frequently results, and its frequency is to be measured by the comparative
readiness of different qualities of impure coal to absorb oxygen at ordinary
temperatures when exposed to the action of the air; under such conditions
all coal goes under oxidation more or less rapidly, the rapidity and
intensity of the action depending, not alone upon the chemical composition
of the coal, but also upon its physical structure: the generation of heat
under the hatches of sea-going ships is attributable to the small coals and
the pyrites being mixed together in a state of very high division, and to
the very large surface which the coals in this condition offer to the
oxidising agent. It may also be that small coals contain a greater
proportion of pyrites than round coals, but he thought that neither one nor
the other was entirely free from that substance. He might also state he had
had considerable experience in connection with self-originating fires ;
certainly these fires were not found in the true coal of the carboniferous
formation of this country, but in the brown coal of the older miocene
formation. Before commencing to state particulars he would read the
following
180 DISCUSSION— SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION
extract from a German work on some of the characteristics of this brown
coal:—
" Under the influence of atmospheric air. brown coal suffers (especially the
earthy and lignitic varieties) more or less in its consistancy, falls into
pieces and partly into dust, and loses a certain quantity of its bituminous
component. Those portions lying near the surface or but thinly covered,
generally undergo considerable change in comparison with those portions
lying at some depth. According to researches made by T. Bischof, a heap of
earthy brown coal, 8 feet in height, after having lain for five years,
materially changed its component parts, which originally consisted of—
Carbon ... ... ... ... ...
... ™ ai
Hydrogen ... ... ... ... ...
... 5*70
Oxygen ... ... ... ... ...
... 22-60
Ashes ... ...... ... ...
... 12-76
100-00
was then found to consist of—
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen Ashes. Total.
In the Lowest Layer ...... 55-85 5-02 23-95
1518 10000
In the Middle Layer ...... 55-61 4-96 24-08
15-23 9988
At the Top of the Heap...... 52-65 4-76 24-75
17*82 99-98
Nearer to the top, where the brown coal was most exposed to the air, sun,
and rain, the burning elements had decreased and the non-combustible parts
increased in proportion. The heating power of fresh worked coal was in
proportion to that of the weathered coal, as 20 is to 17-5 ; and in five
years there had been a loss of 12^ per cent, of the original heating power."
This brown coal, in the neighbourhood of which he had had experience, was
produced from a seam of irregular and variable thickness ; in some cases
exceeding 200 feet, and at others thinning down to a few inches. The produce
was separated in the mine and sent to bank in three different
classes:—first, in very large pieces called "grob"; secondly, in pieces
varying from a couple of cubic inches to twelve or fourteen cubic inches ;
and thirdly, of the small which consisted of the dust and pieces below the
size of two cubic inches. During the whole period he was connected with the
management of brown coal collieries, extending over a district of about one
hundred miles in length and eight or ten miles in width, he never once heard
of a heap of either the grob or the middle coal firing spontaneously,
whereas the spontaneous firing of small coal was
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 181
of constant occurrence, and generally took place after the coal had lain
about two months. The first heap of small coal he laid down proved no
exception to the rule, but, on a subsequent occasion, having to heap a
quantity, he placed a number of fascines in the mass, which fascines were
made of rough rods as shown at A in Plate L., Fig. 1. This promoted a
free circulation of air and proved entirely successful, but a grave
objection would be raised against using so inflammable a substance in such a
way for such a purpose on board ship, and he would propose having tubes
constructed about 18 inches in diameter, and from 5 to 6 feet long, that
portion of the circumference which was to form the top being made of sheet
iron, the rest being made of strong woven wire of about half-inch mesh.
These tubes might taper so that they would fit into one another (see Plate
L., Fig. 2) and form a tube of any required length. They should be laid
down in the bottom of the coal and communicate with vertical tubes made
entirely of sheet iron. These vertical tubes could be made much shorter
and more conical than the others, and be provided with studs in such a way
that they would rest one upon the top of the other and leave an annular
space at each juncture for the admission of air (see Plate L., Fig. 8).
This arrangement, he thought, would be a very satisfactory one for use on
board ship, as the tubes would allow of extension in any direction and the
upright ones could be built up as the cargo was shipped. They could be
used in any number and connected at any desired point in the cargo. A
very singular case of spontaneous combustion came under his observation
about twelve years ago, at a fault A, which ran abo ut forty yards from the
bottom of the pit E, of which he was the resident viewer (see Plate L., Fig.
4), in a seam of brown coal about 32 feet in thickness. The galleries D F
were driven about 7 feet above the bottom of the seam ; the fault was about
18 inches in thickness and was composed of the same quality of coal as that
in the seam on either side, excepting that the coal in the hitch was all
broken up very small. It was not charred as the coal is sometimes found
in hitches in this country, but it resembled the small coal of the adjoining
seam firmly compressed together. This hitch was afterwards found to mark
a downthrow of 2^ feet. There was a considerable amount of moisture in
the neighbourhood of the hitch which was not, however, sufficient to cause
it to come away in drops. One Sunday morning, about eight or nine months
after the formation of the gallery, the pit was examined by the overman as
usual, and reported all right; at six o'clock in the evening the night-shift
men on going down discovered a "small fire" D, Fig. 4. This was
reported, and he (Mr. Ramsay) immediately went down the pit; on examination
it was found that smoke
VOL. XXV.—1876.
Y
182 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
was coming from the roof and half way down the side of the hitch, about 2
feet from the bottom at A, and the coal in the hitch was found to have a
dull red heat. Efforts were immediately made to extract the heated mass,
that portion of the hitch which was red-hot was first removed, and found
only to extend about a foot from the gallery, the heat, however, " was not
perceptibly diminished after this had been done, and the removal of the hot
debris was continued ; the higher the excavation was made the greater became
the heat and smoke. After a considerable distance had been knocked away (as
in Plate L., Fig. 5) the heat became so excessive that the men had to cease
work and pour in water, when suddenly there was a fall of red-hot cinders
amounting to probably 15 cwts., after which the fire was quickly reduced,
and by ten o'clock the hitch was so far free from the heat and smoke that a
man could stand within it. The closing up of the crevice was then commenced,
four uprights A A, Plate L., Fig. 6, were put in the main way, and planks B
B were extended between them and the side and top of the gallery, the space
0, between, being filled up with dry brown coal ashes tightly tamped; and at
two o'clock on the Monday morning the pit was ready for the men. Brown coal
ashes differ very materially from the ashes of the coal from the
carboniferous measures, as these are in no way gritty, but resemble more the
ashes of wood, and feel fine and floury to the touch. Wet ashes or clay were
commonly used to put out underground fires, but he used the dry ashes in
preference, because the clay on heating is liable to crack and allow the air
to be drawn through. During the day, the additional precaution was taken of
plastering the seams and ends of the planks with mortar, and fire never
again made its appearance. With regard to spontaneous combustion on board
ships, he thought that even if the coal were ever so carefully sealed from
the air it had all the elements of combustion within itself, and would be as
likely to burn as now, only the gases evolved would in the end, if confined,
put out the fire.
Mr. Freibe Mabreco said, the matter was one which he would hardly like to
give a positive opinion upon, on simply a priori grounds. It was a matter of
experiment which could be only satisfactorily carried out on a large scale,
but there were one or two points upon which he would like to remark. First,
as to the cause of spontaneous combustion. He was inclined to doubt whether
pyrites played the very important part in it that had been attributed to
them. He thought there were elements in the coal itself quite sufficient to
produce spontaneous combustion. The experiments of Thomas pointed out, that
if the gases were extracted from a sample of coal in the Sprengel vacuum,
the exhausted coal exposed to the
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 183
air for a certain length of time and then exhausted again, a second supply
of gas was obtained. Now, when it was remembered that coal which had not
been exhausted lost a considerable quantity of its gases by exposure to the
air, he thought that this second result by Thomas showed that there must
have been a notable amount of change going on in the coal during weathering.
The gases obtained in the second exhaustion probably did not represent the
whole of the gases which had been produced in the interval, but the total
quantity, less loss ; and this on the whole, he thought, showed that coal
even in fine weather was capable of undergoing very considerable change by
exposure, though as to the exact extent and importance of that change it was
very difficult to speak positively. If, then, a substance so finely divided
as small coal, became exposed to moisture, which he thought played an
important part in the process, he doubted if it was necessary that pyrites
should be present to initiate a process of oxidization in the coal. He did
not mean to say that pyrites might not in some cases take part in causing
spontaneous combustion, but he did not think it absolutely necessary that
pyrites should be present to cause the coal to heat. With regard to the
prevention of these accidents, it was well known that spontaneous combustion
meant a chemical change, producing oxidization, accompanied by an increment
of heat, at first slight, but which, if not carried away, would go on
increasing, and would ultimately become sufficient to kindle the coal. Long
before it was raised to that kindling point it would begin to exhibit signs
of change by smoke. Of course, if any substance in a condition leading to
spontaneous combustion could be so thoroughly ventilated that the heat could
be taken away as fast as it was produced, it could be prevented from
arriving at the kindling-point. But it occurred to him that the amount of
ventilation to do this was a matter more for practical experiment than for
theoretical reasoning. It was quite evident that if the ventilation was so
slow as to cause only a slight ^current of air round the oxidizing
substance, then probably it would rather assist than prevent the kindling
point being attained. Therefore, he thought that if the ventilation was not
thoroughly carried out, it might easily do more harm than good.
Mr. Patton said, that he had had considerable experience in loading ships
with round coal. He thoroughly approved of ventilation, which, naturally, to
be effective must be thorough. All the ships he had sent away to China and
India had always been ventilated in the following way :—A triangular passage
was formed along the keel of -the ship by building up planks at an angle of
45 degrees, communicating with each hatch by means of a square box, which
gave a thorough ventilation fore
184 DISCUSSION— SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
and aft, and in no case had ships so fitted met with any disaster. He
thought this had confirmed what Professor Marreco had said about thorough
ventilation. All the ships he had laden carried above 1,000 tons, and were
laden with round coal. He had had no experience with small coals.
Mr. R. Swaeley Thoepe said, there were a number of highly volatile matters
in coal which oxidize with extreme rapidity and at very low temperatures,
which he thought would materially assist in producing the evil. Carbon by
itself was not liable to spontaneous combustion, and it was never known that
cargoes of coke or charcoal ever took fire.
Mr. Steinson stated that throughout his experience all the ships he had
known to take fire had been ventilated. He did not say that all ventilated
ships had been burnt, but in no case had he known a ship that was not
ventilated to have been destroyed. The ships he had to do with carried from
1,000 to 3,000 tons, and in his opinion it was practically impossible to
give them such an amount of ventilation as to prevent dangerous results. Not
long ago he loaded a ship during a severe storm of rain, and although the
coals were shipped very wet, and the ship was not ventilated, she arrived
safely at her destination, the length of the voyage being about 180 days.
Mr. Robeet Hunt stated that it gave him the greatest possible pleasure to be
present at a discussion of this practical nature. He had not come to make
any remarks, but he should wish to state what his experience had been in
relation to spontaneous combustion. Many years ago, he had been employed by
the Admiralty Solicitor with regard to the destruction of two men-of-war by
fire in Devonport dock-yard, and he succeeded in proving that the fire
originated from a receptacle for waste (in which was thrown sawdust, wet and
oily hemp, and other refuse), which was erected round some of the wooden
pillars which supported the shed under which the ships were repairing. He
considered this was a distinctly proven case where oleaginous, carbonaceous,
and vegetable matter exposed to the action of the atmosphere had
spontaneously ignited, and he was induced, at that time, to make some
experiments on the spontaneous combustion of a variety of substances, and
amongst others of coal. He obtained samples of Newcastle and South Wales
coal at Devonport; he reduced them to powder, and placed them in suitable
boxes capable of containing several bushels, and he found that within a very
short time— in some cases only two or three weeks — a considerable increase
of temperature was exhibited by all those samples. He found those samples
that contained the largest amount of sulphur were more liable to heat
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 185
than the others. But there was a particular kind of South Wales coal—
which decrepitated in a very short time. He found in that coal a certain
amount of change had gone on in the iron pyrites, which instead of remaining
a sulphide had become a sulphate of iron (the ordinary green copperas). Here
was a chemical action already set up by simple exposure to the air, and the
coal in which this took place was more liable to an increase of temperature
than any of the other kinds. Of course there is great difference in iron
pyrites. For instance, there was an iron pyrites which some years ago was
used extensively by ladies for ornament, and made into neck chains and
bracelets, and the like ; and there were also varieties of iron pyrites
obtained from the copper, tin, and lead mines of Cornwall and Devonshire,
which were not liable to decomposition, but this was not so with the iron
pyrites obtained from the coal-measures, most of which were exceedingly
liable to decomposition by the action of the atmosphere, moisture being
always the principal agent. It was not necessary that there should be actual
wetness, but dampness was sufficient. Dampness, in fact, accelerated
change, whereas dryness retarded it. It appeared to him, therefore,
that even with perfect ventilation there was still a disposition to heat, in
a dangerous degree, in several kinds of coal. He had himself personally
experienced a very ludicrous case of spontaneous combustion in his own
house. He had had a large drawing-room carpet shaken during a rainy day,
and as he did not want it for some time, it was wrapped up and put away.
Shortly afterwards an offensive smell pervading the house, it was traced to
the carpet, which, on examination, was found to be on fire. Now here was
a case in which carbonaceous matter, certainly free from pyrites, had, after
exposure to the damp, generated heat sufficient to destroy it in a short
time. Setting aside altogether the question of emission of marsh gas from
the coal, which had nothing to do with spontaneous combustion, if coal were
reduced to powder there came into action a peculiar condition of things
which, if he recollected rightly, was called epipolic force by Sir John
Herschell. There was thus a peculiar mechanical force developed, which
was exhibited in its highest degree in the condition of spongy platinum—and
that condition, which produced the ignition of the hydrogen gas in the
spongy platinum used in the Dobereiner Lamp, was precisely the same as that
which existed in a limited, but ever-increasing, action in any porous
substance, especially of a carbonaceous nature. He endorsed the remark
that powdered charcoal was not liable to spontaneous combustion. Again,
the same action might take place in powdered coal which took place in wood
when exposed to a little moisture, and produced
186 DISCUSSION— SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
dry or wet rot. A peculiar condition of surfaces exposing- an infinite
number of pores to the action of the atmosphere—that is, to the absorption
of oxygen—compelled its combination with the hydrogen, or with the carbon,
thereby producing that heating which we see in a haystack put together in a
damp condition. Eeverting again to the fire which burnt the two ships,
together with the sheds under which they were built, it was manifest that
the fire ran up the supported pillars and along the upper part of the sheds
in a peculiarly rapid manner, indicating to him that, during the slow
combustion which was going on in the waste heap below, there was a
distillation of vapourous matter, similar to that which led Mr. James Young
to his experiments in the Derbyshire Coal Mine, and to the distillation of
Scotch coal and shale for the production of paraffin. Therefore, by the slow
combustion of coal on board a ship, analogous hydro-carbons may be given
off, which, when the point of combustion has been reached, spread the fire
with great rapidity. It must be recollected that a temperature of a thousand
degrees of Fahrenheit must be attained before the igniting point is
obtained, and therefore a long range of observations could be made before.
danger commenced. This point, however, once reached, fire might extend with
great rapidity through the ship, and this would lead to the conclusion that
a complete system of ventilation would be of great use, but ventilation
alone should not be relied upon. He perfectly agreed with Professor Marreco
that it would be advisable to make experiments on a large scale so as to
determine absolutely the exact condition under which coal of all conditions
should be shipped safely to all parts of the world. He had been asked some
time ago by the authorities at Lloyds' for advice upon this important
question, particularly in reference to coal shipped at Swansea for South
America ; and from the evidence placed before him, it seemed that all
accidents might be traced to carelessness in loading : either the coal was
shipped in wet wreather—with an unusually large quantity of small coal, or,
it contained a large proportion of " brasses." His opinion was, that if all
these circumstances were carefully avoided, there really was no risk in
carrying coal to any distance.
Mr. Patton stated that he always gave orders to the captains of the ships
carrying his coal that they should keep the hatch-ways open whenever the
state of the weather allowed them to do so.
Mr. Newall stated that a few years ago there was a very curious case of
spontaneous combustion on board a submarine cable ship in the Thames. Before
leaving, the cable had been tested by submerging it in a tank, and after the
testing the water had been run off, and the cable
DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 187
left in a saturated condition. It was found that the temperature of the hold
increased very rapidly and in a way which could not be accounted for.
However, on examination, it was found that the cable itself was actually in
a state of combustion. The outside wires of course exposed a very large
surface to oxidization. The oxidization was very rapid, and the heat so
generated was so intense as to damage the gutta percha covering of the
telegraphic wires inside. The vessel was towed back to Falmouth by the
Government steamer sent to accompany her, but unfortunately she sunk in
entering the harbour. She was raised and the cable was taken out, and found
to be very much oxidized and seriously damaged.
Captain Scott stated that he had seen a very curious -case of combustion
which occurred on board a ship laden with small gas coal. She got out
apparently safe, but when they were discharging the cargo they found under
the hatch a quantity of coke from 2 feet to 18 inches in thickness; and in
going through this they came to an immense cavern with a heap of ashes at
the bottom. The small coal had burnt to ashes in the centre of the hold, and
as the size of the fire increased, sufficient oxygen was not at hand to
continue the combustion, and the burning mass became coked all over, which
effectually shut off the rest of the cargo. This cavern was in the form of
an egg, about 24 or 25 feet long, and its lower part was formed by the
keelson and bottom skin of the ship. The keelson was entirely burnt out, and
the floor timbers were charred to the depth of an inch, while the beams
which penetrated the cavern were burnt through for about 10 or 12 feet,
leaving the two ends sticking out of the ship, and suspended by the knees.
The President, in concluding the discussion, stated that the question was of
great importance. He thought that whether spontaneous combustion arose in
the way Mr. Thorpe suggested, or from the decomposition of the pyrites, or
from these two causes combined, the small coal would be the most likely to
be affected. Again, it was unquestionably the fact, which could be confirmed
by all those engineers who had had coal-heaps on fire, that wherever wood
was in contact with coal it added very considerably to the danger of
spontaneous combustion ; but whether ventilation would or would not stop
combustion was a question which he thought would be very difficult to
decide. There was no doubt, however, that if the ventilation was imperfect,
it would increase the danger instead of decreasing it, and the question then
arose, what is perfect ventilation ? for the same amount of ventilation
might be perfect for one kind of coal and imperfect for another, and this
was the question which would require many series of
188 DISCUSSION—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
experiments to determine. Indeed perfect ventilation might necessitate
taking such a large area from the cargo as would render it almost impossible
to be carried out.
Mr. Simpson thought before closing the meeting a vote of thanks should be
given to all those gentlemen who had kindly attended, and more especially to
Mr. Hunt, who had travelled a long distance to be present.
Mr. Patton seconded the vote of thanks, which was carried unanimously.
•
The meeting then separated.
VozJXF Plate. L.
To zUzc&trate/MTMmnsaysllrwuwhs on ffioe'rrSj>onbarowix<s GnrbbuMior^ of
Coal>'.'
president's address. 189
PROCEEDINGS.
MEETING IN THE THEATRE OP THE INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS,
23, GREAT GEORGE STREET, WESTMINSTER, LONDON,
ON WEDNESDAY, MAY 31st, 1876.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., President, in the Chair.
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
Gentlemen,—I have to thank you for the great honour you have conferred on me
by electing me your President; and although I feel that I am unable to
perform the onerous duties which devolve on that office so efficiently as
they .have been discharged by the eminent gentlemen whom I succeed, yet I
trust that, with the assistance of your Council, the utility and prosperity
of this Institution will continue to increase during my term of office as it
has since its formation in 1852 ; and it cannot but be a source of
gratification to you, and especially to the survivors of those twenty-one
gentlemen who took part at the meeting which was held at Newcastle for the
purpose of forming this Society on the 3rd July, 1852, to look back on the
progress it has made both with regard to the number of its members, which
now amount to nearly 1,000, and also to what is more important, the
character and value of the papers and discussions which have been published
under its auspices.
When the committee, which was appointed at the first meeting of this
Institute to draw up its rules, made their report, they dwelt at some length
on what they considered would be one of the chief difficulties in its
formation and future prosperity, namely, its finance. In the second
paragraph of their report, they state that they do not consider it necessary
to enlarge upon the objects of the Society, as that was well understood ;
but in recommending that the annual subscription of an ordinary mem-
YOL. XXV.—187Q.
z
190 president's address.
ber should be £2 2s. per annum, they anticipated that the permanent number
of paying members would be 100, and that the requirements of the Society
would be from £400 to £500 per annum, and, therefore, there would be a
deficiency of from £200 to £300 per annum.
I think no greater proof can be shown of the value which the public has
attached to its proceedings than by comparing this original estimate with
the state of facts at the present time. Instead of 100 permanent members,
there are now 757 members and 93 students—in all, 850 ; the increase, on an
average, during the last four years, having been at the rate of 50 per
annum. Instead of the finances leaving a deficiency of from £200 to £300
yearly, your Society has a revenue of more than £2,000 per annum, with a
surplus income of about £200.
Having given you a brief statement of the growth of the Institute since its
formation, I will now endeavour to give some account of the advancement of
mining engineering, which was the principal object for which the Association
was formed ; for it was only by an advancement in this direction that the
numerous accidents which were taking place in connection with mining could
be prevented, and a saving of life obtained.
One of the first subjects, and probably the most important, which Occupied
the attention of the members of this Institute, was that of ventilation. The
first paper which was read before the Society was on this subject, viz.,
that by Mr. Longridge, "On the Action of a Jet of Steam as a motive power
for the purposes of Ventilation." With the exception of one or two papers,
the whole of the first volume of the proceedings was devoted to this
subject, and numerous other papers have from time to time been read and
discussed ; all of which—and perhaps none more so than that contributed by
the late John Atkinson, on the theory of ventilation—have done much towards
the advancement of the knowledge of of this important branch of mining.
There is no subject which a mining engineer has to deal with which gives
more anxiety and requires more thought than the ventilation of a mine, both
as to the proper distribution of different splits of air, and the proper or
theoretically correct position in which to place the regulators by which the
different currents are governed ; and this is especially so in large and
extensive mines, where the different currents must to some extent be
connected with each other either in the intakes or returns. The mere
obtaining of a large quantity of air in a mine is a very small part of the
ventilation of it. It is a proper distribution of the air into the various
working parts of the mine, and having that distribution arranged in such a
manner that the proportionate quantity of air passing in each district
president's address. 191
cannot be altered, or, if altered at all, then in the smallest possible
degree, by an unforeseen accident occurring in any of the different
districts, or by an alteration of the total quantity of air circulating in
the mine.
For many years the furnace was almost the only means by which mines were
ventilated, requiring the upcast shaft to be kept at a very high
temperature, which could only be done by consuming a large quantity of
coals, and even then the required amount of ventilation could not always be
obtained ; but latterly mechanical means have been used to a very large
extent, and with great benefit, especially in mines where the depth from the
surface to the coal is not very great, as in these cases a great saving is
experienced, both in the quantity of fuel consumed and the damage done to
the shaft by the great heat. The saving is not so great in deep pits where
the ventilating column is a long one, and thus rendering unnecessary such
high shaft temperatures and such large consumption of coals. In some cases
in our deep mines, where furnaces are used, the consumption of coal for
ventilating purposes is very little, if any, greater, per effective horse
power, than that required for mechanical ventilation, and it is in some
cases as low as from 7 to 8 lbs. of coal per horse power per hour, and
giving 240,000 cubic feet of air per minute with a water-gauge of 4^ inches;
and where such results as this can be obtained, it is quite as efficient and
much cheaper, and less liable to derangement by accident, than any
mechanical means. Mechanical ventilation is not by any means a modern
invention, although it has not until within the last few years been a
practical utility. So long ago as the year 1824, a gentleman wrote a letter
which was published in the January number of the Newcastle Magazine of that
year, in which he proposed to place a fan over the top of the upcast shaft;
and although this was intended to be placed horizontally, yet in principle
it was very much the same as that now generally adopted as the best
mechanical means. But as the letter is not a long one, and is, from its
antiquity, interesting, I will read it in exfenso :—
From the " Newcastle Magazine," January, 1824.
On Coal Mine Ventilation.
Sir,—I give the following idea of Coal Mine Ventilation, not as a plan which
I assert to be practicable, but as an original idea. Most of us have seen a
fanner in a common winnowing machine, and with what force it propels air
from its extremities, which is supplied from its centre. Suppose then, that
there are in a coal pit, a downcast shaft and an up-cast shaft, at a
distance from each other, the up-cast shaft to be widened at the top with
stone or wood work to 20 feet diameter inside, and be raised four feet from
the ground, then a fan like that in a winnowing machine, of as great a
diameter as the outward diameter of the shaft placed horizontally upon it,
192 president's address.
the fan to be closed, boarded over at the top, but open at the bottom and
sides, except that part which joins the outward wood-work or stone-work
round the shaft mouth ; give the fan extreme velocity ; it will be supplied
with air from the shaft. This air will be thrown by velocity into the
atmosphere. Consequently, as much as is thrown out must be supplied by the
pressure of the atmosphere down the downcast shaft, and from thence through
the workings, and as last come up the up-cast shaft mixed with hydrogen. As
for saying how the machine is to acquire velocity, that is too simple a
question now-a-days to speak about, especially to the strong mechanical
genius of coal owners, who may very probably see at once the futility of
this plan. It is upwards of eleven years [1813] since I mentioned this to an
engineer, taut he said he thought it would not answer, as the air in the
up-cast shaft would not enter the centre of the fan, but rather submit to a
partial vacuum. I did not pretend to contradict him, as I gave it as a hint
for his own use, if he thought necessary.
N.
Of mechanical ventilators, Messrs. Griiibal's fan seems to be that in most
general use, and giving very satisfactory results ; in some cases as much as
from 240,000 to 250,000 cubic feet of air per minute, although the
ventilation of collieries has been very much improved in late years, and
this has been almost entirely produced through the instrumentality of this
Institution ; for, previous to its formation, there were very few standard
works on ventilation or mining science, and the true principles of
ventilation were very imperfectly understood and still less practically
adopted. Yet we do not find the total number of deaths or number of
accidents which take place annually in mines have decreased in number. This,
however, is accounted for by the increase in the number of collieries which
are now working, and to the vastly increased number of persons employed, the
production of coal alone being almost double since 1855, which was then
about 64| million tons and is now upwards of 126^ million tons per annum.
Although the total number of deaths which occur in and about mines in Great
Britain and Ireland still average upwards of 1,000 per annum, yet it is
gratifying to find that the death rate (from accidents) per persons employed
has very greatly decreased.
About the time when this Institution was founded, it was as high as one
death for every 226 persons employed, but this has been reduced, according
to the statistics published for 1874, to one in every 510 persons employed,
or equivalent to a saving of upwards of 1,300 lives per annum. The several
Mines Inspection Acts of Parliament which have become law have undoubtedly
contributed towards this saving of life, yet inspection would have been of
little avail if there had not been at the same time an increase both in the
knowledge of mining sciences and the
president's address. 193
diffusion of that knowledge, which was one of the great objects in the
formation of this Society.
It is only by a very careful analysis of the causes from which fatal
accidents occur that means can be adopted for their prevention, and although
this would be beyond the scope of an address such as I am now reading, yet I
trust by calling the attention of the members to some of the chief causes,
it may be the means of producing a diminution of the lamentable consequences
which arise from some of them.
The causes and prevention of accidents by explosions of fire-damp have
occupied a great deal of the attention of the members of this Institution,
and their labours have not been without success ; for, although there have
been some very serious accidents from this cause, yet, with the exception of
three out of the twelve mining districts, this class of accident has been
very materially reduced, there being an average during the last three years
of about one death in every 9,000 persons employed underground. The annual
average, however, for the whole of the mining districts is much in excess of
this, being about one in 3,500 persons employed ; there is therefore still a
great deal to be done in investigating and preventing loss of life by
explosions.
There is, however, another class of accidents which is much more destructive
to human life than explosions, namely, that arising from falls of stone ;
and it behoves not only every mining engineer, but every workman, to devise
means and use every precaution for their prevention, for they cause about 42
per cent, of the total number of deaths which occur, and between three and
four times the number which are caused by explosions. They are a class of
accident which are very greatly under the control of the workmen themselves,
and are of all other classes of accidents the least under the control of the
manager of a mine; yet, with a proper system of timbering and examination of
the slab of the coal during its excavation, much may yet be done for their
prevention. It is, however, to the workmen themselves that we must look for
assistance, by their exercising the greatest care for the security of their
working places while at work.
There are other accidents which I think require attention, namely, those
which happen in shafts, and which form about 14^ per cent. of the total
number that occur ; and there is one peculiar fact connected with them which
deserves special attention; it is, that the largest number of accidents
occur from a cause which appears to be one that could more easily than
almost any other be to a considerable extent provided against, and that is
by persons falling down the shafts either from the top or part
194 president's address.
way down ; while, on the other hand, those arising from causes which entail
a great risk and require great care to prevent, such as over-winding and
breaking of ropes, are exceedingly small. From over-winding there were only
seven deaths in 1874, and five in 1873, which, considering that there are
upwards of 400,000 men ascending and descending every day, or upwards of
100,000,000 making the double journey per annum, does not appear a large
number, more especially when we consider the increased size of, and very
high velocity at which winding-engines are now run, some of which have
attained the speed of a mile a minute when the cage is running at the
greatest velocity, and have an average speed throughout the whole depth of
the shaft, including the time required for starting and stopping, of
half-a-mile per minute, or 800 yards in 56 seconds ; and this, I think, may
be taken as an example of the advance which has been made in this department
of mining engineering during late years, for I feel sure that had any such
velocity been proposed fifteen or twenty years ago, it would have been
thought either impossible or highly dangerous.
Before leaving the subject of preservation of life and safety in working
mines, I should like to draw your attention to the subject of safety-lamps.
It is one which, I think, deserves a greater share of the attention of the
members of this Institution than it has yet received. With the exception of
papers published in the first and second volumes of your Transactions, the "
Report of the Committee on Safety-lamps," published in 1863, and one or two
references to patents, there has not been any information of importance
communicated to this Society ; and our mines still continue to be lighted by
lamps which are very little, if any, improved from the original ones of
Davy, Stephenson, and Clanny. Considering the importance that any
improvement to the safety and lighting power of lamps would confer on the
whole mining population of Great Britain, it is surprising that so little
progress has been made towards their improvement ; and I know of no subject
to which this Institute could better appropriate some of the funds which it
now awards for meritorious papers communicated to it, than by devoting a sum
of money, to be given in books or otherwise, for the best essay on the
improvement and safety of safety-lamps.
Mechanical engineering connected with mining has considerably advanced in
proficiency of late years, and this has no doubt been greatly stimulated by
the reduction of the hours of manual labour which have taken place during
the last four or five years, and which have in some of the largest producing
districts amounted to two hours per day, or one-sixth of the total time
worked, thus rendering necessary the employment
president's address. 195
of large and powerful machinery in order to keep up the annual production of
coal. As I before remarked, the engines now employed to draw the coals up
the shafts have been very greatly improved, and some of the largest and
best-constructed are performing a very large amount of work ; in some
instances they are developing as much as from 900 to 1,000 indicated
horse-power, and lifting between 120 and 130 tons of coals, in excess of the
weight of tubs, cage and rope, per hour, from depths of upwards of 1,200
feet.
The use of compressed mode for transmitting power is becoming
much more general in coal mining than formerly, and one of the most recent
applications is that of driving underground hauling engines. A very
interesting paper on its application at Kyhope Colliery was read before you
by the late Mr. W. N. Taylor; and his deductions are very favourable as
regards the loss of power evolved in its transmission. It is, however, a
subject on which I think we are deficient of information, and which I trust
will, at no distant date, occupy the attention of some of our members.
If this description of power can be produced and transmitted economically to
the main road station and there utilized for working small engines for
hauling the tubs from the working face of the main stations, by endless
chain or otherwise, it will be the means of very greatly economizing the
labour of small boys, which is a very desirable object to attain.
It has been used for pumping water for some years, and with great success,
for it is a power which can be applied in situations where none other except
manual or that of ponies could be adopted.
In my own experience I have always found a considerable loss between the
indicated horse-power required to compress the air and that of the indicated
horse-power obtained when utilized at a distance of 1,000 to 1,500 yards
from the compressing engine. Yet this loss of power, although great, is not
much, if any, in excess of that expended by transmitting power by means of
wire ropes, and is much more economical in wear and tear.
There is another use to which I hope some day to see it applied, namely,
that of driving ventilating fans underground placed at long distances from
the bottom of the shaft. I need not tell any of you gentlemen that when the
main airways of a pit reach a distance of two-and-a-half to three miles from
the shaft, that the ventilating power at that distance, as measured by the
water-gauge, or rather the power available at that point for driving the air
round the working places, which may be at a further distance of a half or a
quarter mile from it, is generally very small,
1&6 president's address.
seldom more than two or three-tenths of an inch of water pressure, and this
is so, even when very large and powerful ventilating apparatus is used,
producing as much as five or six inches of water pressure at the shaft— the
whole of which power, except the two or three-tenths of an inch, is expended
in driving about one-tenth of the total quantity of air into the district
which is situated at that distance. I do not mean to say that no power is
expended over the remaining nine-tenths of the. quantity of air which is
circulating through the other districts of the mine ; it is, however, the
power necessary for dividing the air into the furthermost split which
governs that required for all the other splits ; for it matters not howT
short or how near the shaft the other splits may be, they must be regulated
either naturally by means of smaller area of airways, or artificially by
means of regulators, to such an extent that the resistance of the quantity
of air circulating through them produces the same resistance and requires
the same amount of power as that of the air circulating round the
furthermost split. It will, therefore, be easily seen that if the
resistance, or the power necessary for driving the air round the tar off
splits, could be reduced, it would reduce that required for all the other
splits, and with the same and original shaft ventilating power a very much
larger quantity of air would be obtained in all the different districts.
I, therefore, venture to think that if small ventilating fans—I mean small
as compared with those used on the surface—worked by compressed air were
placed in the returns of the furthermost off splits capable of giving the
required quantity of air, with even one inch of water pressure, it would
give so great an assistance to the general ventilating power by relieving
the resistance of the air in travelling round these far off splits, and
consequently relieving the artificial resistances (if I may be allowed so to
call it) of all the other districts or splits, and producing such a total
increase of air, as to amply repay the cost or loss of power by using
compressed air for driving the fan.
Coal cutting by machinery has been much improved during late years, and in
some mining districts has become much more general in use.
The whole of these machines are now, I believe, worked by compressed air,
all other modes of power having been abandoned as impracticable, and this is
without doubt the best means of applying power in such situations as that
where coal-cutting machinery must be applied, for the compressed air does
good, rather than evil, when exhausted direct from the cylinders into the
working face, which is not the case with either steam or water.
I do not, however, attribute to its use so great an advantage as some
president's address. 197
writers have done as a means of improving the ventilation and reducing the
temperature of the working faces. There can be no doubt that it does assist
the ventilation in both these ways, but it is to such a small extent that it
is hardly appreciable.
Those machines most generally in use, when working at an ordinary speed, use
from 25 to 30 cubic feet of air per minute, which is a very small quantity ;
and even if three or four machines were working in one long-wall face, they
would not give off more than 150 cubic feet of air per minute, which is a
very small addition to an ordinary current of say 5,000 cubic feet of air
per minute, and that quantity is the least that would be required to pass
over the number of men which the working of four machines would employ ; and
so, also, with regard to the cooling power; for although the exhaust air in
the act of expanding produces a temperature of about 32°, yet the quantity
is so small compared with the ordinary ventilating current, that it produces
a very small decrease in the temperature of the total quantity of air.
So far as regards the practical results obtained from cutting coal by
machinery, there has not yet, I think, been that amount of saving of manual
labour which was expected, and wThich, I believe, will be accomplished.
This, however, varies very much in different districts and in different
seams.
In some districts, where the seam is naturally suited for working by
machinery, the saving in manual labour is stated to be considerable ; my own
experience, however, does not show more than a small saving in the cost of
labour, but I do find a considerable saving in production of large coals, as
much as 13 to 15 per cent, increase, which, in house and steam collieries,
is a great desideratum.
I doubt I have already trespassed too long on your attention, especially as
there are some very interesting papers to be read before you this morning,
as well as some large and interesting engineering works to be visited. I
cannot, however, close my address without saying a few words on the
increased facility which is now afforded to those gentlemen who, in the
North of England, are studying for the mining and engineering professions,
as well as for other branches of commercial industry—I mean by the
establishment of a College of Physical Science at Newcastle-on-Tyne. This
town, being the centre of the largest coal and iron producing districts in
England, as well as having other large and important branches of industry in
its immediate neighbourhood, has long felt the necessity of such a College,
and discussions have frequently taken place by the members of this
Institution as to how this object could be accomplished.
VOL. XXV.-1876.
A 1
198 president's address.
Your former President, the late Mr. Nicholas Wood, at the first meeting of
this Society, in 1852, called the attention of the members to the necessity
and advantage which would be derived by such a scheme being carried out; and
although several gentlemen, and amongst others the late Duke of
Northumberland, used great exertions to obtain its formation, they were not
successful, and it was not until October, 1871, that, by the assistance of
the University of Durham and the untiring zeal of its Warden, Dean Lake,
sufficient funds were obtained for its endowment and this most important
object was attained.
Although it has been little more than four years in existence, it has proved
very successful. Five chairs in the most important branches of science have
been established, viz. :—
1. Pure and Applied Mathematics.
2. Chemistry.
3. Experimental Physics.
4. Geology.
5. Natural History.
These are presided over by five eminent professors and there are also
classes formed for instruction in Latin, Greek, French, German, Mechanical
Drawing, and Geological Surveying. The College has also the power of
conferring, subject to certain regulations and examinations, the degree of "
Bachelor of Science" and " Associate of Physical Science," as well as five
exhibitions and four scholarships. Therefore, we have now in the centre of
our collieries the means by which our mining students can obtain a
thoroughly scientific education, which is so exceedingly valuable —nay,
almost indispensably necessary—for those to whom the management of large
collieries and the safety of the numerous lives employed in them have to be
entrusted ; and I am glad to be able to state that a large number have
already availed themselves of the facility thus afforded, there being at
present eighty students attending the classes.
It is impossible, I think, to attach too high a value to the establishment
of this College, and the results which I venture to assert will be derived
from it; for without such an education as it affords, how can our mining
engineers develop our great mineral resources with that degree of economy
which is necessary to enable other branches of manufacture in which the
consumption of coal forms so large an item, to be produced at a cost which
will enable England to compete with continental production ?
Mr. Boyd was sure that all the members present would join in a vote of
thanks to the President for his address, and for the precise
president's address. 199
and clear way in which he had brought forward and alluded to the objects for
which this Institute was established. The Institute was founded for the
express purpose, above all others, of saving life, and there can be no doubt
that the very great success which has attended the efforts of the Institute
in that direction has been mainly due to the energy and activity of his late
father, Mr. Nicholas Wood, and of those who followed him in the presidential
chair. He was glad to find that a gentleman so thoroughly connected with the
coal trade, both as an owner and a practical viewer, should at this time be
at the head of the Institute, when such important questions connected with
the safety of mining operations were being brought before the notice of the
public. These questions were receiving the earnest attention of the members
of the Institute, and he had no doubt that they wTould be investigated, and
such conclusions arrived at as would very materially contribute to the
safety of mines.
Mr. Wm. Cochrane had much pleasure in seconding Mr. Boyd's resolution, which
was unanimously carried.
The President thanked the members for their courteous appreciation of his
endeavours. He was sorry he had not been able to give a longer or a more
interesting address.
Mr. John Daglish then read a paper " On the application of Counterbalancing
and Expansion to Winding Engines."
COUNTERBALANCING WINDING- ENGINES. 201
ON THE APPLICATION" OF COUNTERBALANCING AND EXPANSION TO
WINDING ENGINES.
By JOHN DAGLISH, Tynemouth.
In a Memoir, published in Volume XX. of the Transactions, the writer gave a
resume of the various methods of counterbalancing winding engines in
operation up to that time ; a brief account was also given of several other
arrangements, some of which had not then been applied practically, and
others had not been sufficiently long in operation to enable any definite
decision to be arrived at as to the probability of their ultimate success.
Since that date, the scroll drum, to which reference was made in the Memoir,
has been introduced successfully at a number of collieries. This arrangement
consists of a spiral grove on the exterior of a cone drum ; in some cases
the groove is cut out of the wood covering of the drum, in other instances
it is formed by a spiral of channel iron attached to the framework. During
the last three years two drums of this character have been brought into
successful operation in the North of England ; the first at Boldon Colliery,
at which the scroll is formed in the first manner; the second, at Eppleton
Colliery, where the scroll is formed in the second manner, and seems to give
the greater satisfaction of the two : it is 16 feet at the minimum, and 25
feet at the maximum, diameters, with five turns on the fiat, at the largest
diameter. At both of these collieries this arrangement of counterbalancing
works extremely well, and, as will be seen by examination of the diagrams of
moments of load (Plate LI.), the work actually performed by the Boldon
engine during the windings is very uniform.
The only drawback to this arrangement of counterpoise is, that in very deep
pits the space passed through by the cage at the bottom of the pit, and by
the cage at the top of the pit, when changing the tubs, varies greatly.
Thus, taking the case of a pit 600 yards in depth, with a cage having four
platforms, each platform being 4 feet 6 inches apart, in order
202 COUNTERBALANCING WINDING ENGINES.
to equalise the load on the engine, the smallest diameter of a spiral drum
should be about 15 feet (or 45 feet in circumference), whilst the maximum
diameter of the drums should be about 30 feet (or 90 feet in circumference)
; so that whilst the engine lifts the cage at the bottom of the pit 13 feet
6 inches, in order to change the tubs, it will at the same time lift the
cage at the surface 27 feet. It is not possible, therefore, with cages
having several platforms, to change the tubs at the top and bottom of the
pit simultaneously. This has consequently to be done in successive
operations by the engineman, which necessarily causes serious detention.
This objection no doubt can be surmounted in several ways, viz : by a system
of balances, or drops, by which, at the top of the pit, all the full waggons
are simultaneously taken out of the cage at the levels of the various
platforms on to suitable stages, and then allowed to fall by self-acting
drops to the level of the heapstead, whilst the empty tubs are being dealt
with in a similar way at the bottom of the pit; or, by having separate
galleries at the bottom of the pit at different levels, and loading the cage
simultaneously at these, whilst at the same time the cage is disloaded at a
heapstead, having also several levels or platforms; but a much more perfect
arrangement, by hydraulic elevators, has been introduced by Mr. Fowler,
which is in operation successfully, and which has already been described at
length in the Transactions (Page 29, Vol. XXIII., Plate III.)
Three other methods of counterbalancing engines have been suggested since
the reading of the above memoir, but only one of them is as yet in practical
operation in England. One is for storing up force by compressing air into a
receiver during the early part of the winding, from which it is given out
towards the termination ; apart, however, from the difficulty of arranging
the necessary mechanism, a serious objection to this mode arises from the
absolute loss of power entailed through the loss of heat formed during the
compression of air. Another system, which has been in operation in Belgium
for some time, has recently been introduced into England (referred to
hereafter, page 205), viz., that of accommodating the quantity of steam to
the absolute work to be done throughout the winding by variable expansion.
(System G-uinotte.) The third system, viz., that of pumping water into an
accumulator, has for some time past engaged the attention of the writer.
Whilst treating on the subject of the application of counterbalancing and of
expansion to winding engines, the writer desires to lay before the Institute
a description of a successful application of these principles to a large
winding engine, at Silksworth Colliery, near Sunderland, the property
COUNTERBALANCING WINDING ENGINES. 203
of the Marquess of Londonderry. The valves of this engine are of the usual
equilibrium, or double-beat description. (Plate LII.) In ordinary engines
worked by eccentrics, the steam valve A is opened by a tappet B, describing
the arc of a circle which lifts the lever of the valve, and keeps it open
during the whole stroke ; this tappet has not always the same travel, as
this depends on the position of the block 0, in the link D. In the
Silksworth engine, the lever of the steam valve can be slightly shortened or
lengthened in effect, by a simple appliance G attached to the end of the
lever, which, moving on a joint in one direction, allows the tappet to pass
it in returning, and is the whole of the apparatus necessary for working
expansively. When it is desirable to use the " cut off," the long end of the
lever is slightly shortened by turning the screw E, and raising the long end
of the lever G, which is then so adjusted that the other end slips off the
point of the tappet (thus closing the valve at the desired point) when the
block is working in the extreme end of the link, i.e., when the arc
described by the tappet is greatest; but if the block is removed 4 inches
from the end of the link, and the length of the arc travelled by the tappet
is thus shortened, the end of the valve lever no longer slips off the
tappet, and the engine works Avith full steam during the whole stroke. In
commencing the winding, the engineman, by allowing the block to rest 4
inches off the end of the link, works the engine with full steam during the
first three or four strokes, for the purpose of overcoming "the inertia" of
the engine and getting up speed quickly. After this, he moves the block to
the end of the link, when the expansion gearing conies at once into
operation ; again, about three or four strokes from the termination of the
winding, the block is brought into the first position, and the engine comes
under full control, with full steam on the whole stroke, for facility in
changing the tubs, &c. Small dash pots or air cataracts H, with an air tap
near the bottom, are fixed on the end of the steam valve rods, to prevent
the too rapid fall of the valve on its seat. It will be seen that this
mechanism can be used expansively or not, at will, and is under the
immediate control of the engineman, and its action during an entire
revolution is fully explained in the Diagrams 1 to 8, Plate LII. The
following is a description of the engine :—
Two cylinders, diameters ............ ... 48 inches
Length of stroke..................... 72 „
Pressure of steam in boilers ......... ...... 45 lbs.
Pressure given by indicator in engine ......... 40 „
Cut off at........................ a „
Diameter of main winding drum (cylindrical) ...... 25J-feet
204 COUNTERBALANCING WINDING ENGINES.
Circumference of steel rope ............... 5£ inches
Weight per yard do. ......... ...... 14 lbs.
Depth of pit ..................... 600 yards
Number of turns in winding...... ...... ... 22£
Time in making the winding ... ............ 45 sec.
Weight of cage and chains ......... ...... 6,160 lbs.
Total weight of rope ................... 8,169 ,,
Weight of eight empty tubs ............... 2 tons
Weight of eight full tubs of coal ......... .. 4, ,,
Diameter of counterbalance roll at mid-winding ... ... 2
feet
Do. Do. end of winding... ...
7 ,,
Weight of chains at commencement of winding ... ... 14
tons
Depth of counterbalance staple ............ 144 feet
The counterbalancing is obtained by two heavy chains with attached weights
(Plate LIIL), winding and unwinding on rolls of small diameter, down small
pits or staples, during each ascension. The arrangement of the chain and
weights is different from that hitherto adopted, and is an application of
the principle suggested by the writer in the before-mentioned memoir. (Page
210.) The terminal weights are adjusted as required, so as to give the
desired counterpoise. The apparatus is in duplicate, in case of the breakage
of one of the chains ; i.e., there are two chains, ascending and descending
in separate staples.
The diagram (Plate LIV.) represents the actual moments of load on the engine
of each rope, and of the counterbalance, and of their resultants. The line A
B represents the moments of load at the end of each stroke of the ascending
rope, cage, and full tubs, being their actual load multiplied by the
leverage of the drum. The line C D, those of the descending rope, with cage
and empty tubs; the line E F, the difference of these. The line G H
represents the moments of load, at the end of each stroke of the
counterbalance. The line I K is the resultant of all these loads, and
represents therefore the moments of actual load on the engine, or work to be
overcome. The line L M represents the weight of coals alone, multiplied by
the leverage. The more I K coincides with L M the more nearly perfect is the
equilibrium maintained throughout the winding, statically considered.
The question, however, requires to be considered also dynamically, in
consequence of the great weight of the mass to be moved. In order to meet
this in the engine at Silksworth, the weight of the counterbalance towards
the termination of the winding considerably exceeds that required merely to
counterpoise the lr>ad on the engine : and whilst this excess of
counterbalance aids in overcoming the " momentum" at the termination
COUNTERBALANCING WINDING ENGINES, 205
of the winding, and in rapidly bringing the engine to rest, at the
commencement of the following winding, it also aids in overcoming the "
inertia," and in quickly getting the machinery into motion. The dotted lines
I n and K o show this.
The writer recently visited the district of St. Etienne, in France, for the
purpose of examining the action of the " cut off" apparatus introduced there
by M. Audemar. This apparatus consists of an auxiliary equilibrium, or
double beat valve, A (Plate LV.), placed on the steam pipe or outer side of
the steam chest, and opened by a revolving and sliding double cam B, worked
off the main shaft; this valve can be kept open throughout the whole stroke,
or shut off at any time, thus regulating the admission and "cut off" of the
steam. This cam is conjoint through a toothed sector with the link motion,
and is therefore worked by the same handle. This apparatus seems to work
well, and is especially adapted for engines such as underground hauling
engines, where a variable expansion would be most useful. In a Memoir
published in the Bulletin of the Societe Industrielle, in 1870, M. Audemar
states the requirements for any apparatus for expansion attached to winding
engines to be:—1st, to be able to work with " full steam" or " expansion" as
required at any moment, especially at the commencement and end of each
winding; 2nd, to have an expansion variable at will during the winding, and
so capable of being arranged according to the variation of the resistance to
be overcome ; 3rd, not to require the manipulation of the engineman, whose
attention is already fully occupied, nor to increase the number of his
duties; 4th, that the mechanism be simple and equally effective, whether the
engine revolves in one or another direction, and that if disarranged from
any cause it should not effect the working of the engine. M. Audemar states
that in one instance in actual practice an economy in the use of coals to
the extent of 37 per cent, has been attained by cutting off at half stroke.
The writer has also had an opportunity of examining the apparatus of M.
G-uinotte, previously referred to, in operation at Mariemonte, near Mons, in
Belgium. The principle of this ingenious invention is that of gradually
shortening the " cut off," so as to equalise the quantity of steam to the
work actually to be done. The objections to this system, however, appear to
the writer to be, that the absolute benefit due to expansion is partially
lost, there being with a given pressure of steam one particular point of "
cut off" which is in practice most efficient and economical. And, moreover,
in nearly all deep pits drawing large quantities, especially where wire
ropes are used, which require drums of large diameter, the
VOL. XXV—1376.
-g 1
206 COUNTERBALANCING WINDING ENGINES.
moments of load become a negative quantity towards the termination of
winding ; i.e., the weight of the descending rope with its cage and empty
tnbs is greater than the weight of the ascending rope with its cage and full
tubs. Not only, therefore, is absolutely no steam required to complete the
ascension, but power has to be applied to retard the machinery. Practically,
with powerful engines without counterbalancing apparatus the steam is
entirely shut off a considerable distance from the termination of each
winding, the acquired momentum assisted by the descending rope being
sufficient to bring the load to the surface without any steam. Manifestly,
therefore, there can be no expansion or " cut off" during the portion of the
winding where no steam is used, and an examination of the diagrams (Plate
LVI.) of a continuous indicator shows this.
Plate LVI. is a copy of an actual diagram taken by a continuous indicator,
the invention of M. Guinotte, Belgium. This instrument is a modification of
Richard's Indicator,, having two drums, on one of which a long band of
specially prepared paper is wound, and by an arrangement of wheels it is
gradually unwound on to the second barrel, in passing round which the
indicator marks the steam pressure ; this is shewn on the diagram by the
continuous upper thick black line A, B, 0, D, E, F, G, II, &c, the faint
dotted black line E, I, K, L, 0, &c, is the return* stroke E, F, G, H, drawn
in reversed j thus forming, for purposes of comparison, a complete diagram
coloured red, similar to that obtained by the ordinary Richard's Indicator,
shewing the full effective steam pressure in the cylinder throughout the
stroke.
It will be observed, that during the winding recorded, full steam was on the
engine the whole of the first revolution and a greater part of the second
revolution, when the expansion gearing was put in operation, and continued
exactly the same up to the end of the seventeenth revolution, when it was
necessary to throw a little steam against the engine at the point M, in
order to retard the velocity. During the eighteenth revolution, steam was
thrown against both sides of the piston, with a greater pressure in the
return stroke, giving the diagram coloured blue, which shows the counter
pressure. The. same action was in operation during the nineteenth
revolution. During the twentieth revolution the preponderance of steam was
in favour of the winding, the engine being then under complete control.
The indications vary more or less, especially towards the termination, in
every winding. If the winding is made sufficiently slowly, so that the
counterbalance is able gradually to take up the momentum, little or no steam
is thrown against the engine at the termination of the winding ;
DISCUSSION—WINDING ENGINES. 207
out if the engine is run with great velocity, a larger quantity of steam is
required to bring it to a state of rest, and thoroughly under the control of
the engineman.
Plate LYIL, Fig. 1, shows a portion of the lines marked on the card of a
Richard's Indicator allowed to indicate during the whole number of
revolutions, the first and last diagram of each successive change only being
given, as explained on the plate. Fig. 2 is a/ac simile of a continuous
indication by a Richard's Indicator, no expansion having been used.
Mr. Dagilish here exhibited an instrument, the invention of M. Guinotte,
which took continuous diagrams of any number of consecutive strokes made by
an engine; a reduced copy of these continuous indications is given in Plate
LVI.
The President in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Daglish, stated that there
was no doubt that there was a large loss of power in drawing coals,
especially with large engines. The diagrams produced by Mr. Daglish showed
that it was not only necessary to use the power of the steam to get the
coals to bank, but it was also necessary to use the steam to prevent the
cage from coming too quickly to the surface. His experience also agreed with
that of Mr. Daglish with regard to the grooves in the scroll drum. Both the
collieries described in the paper wdiere the scroll drum has been brought
into use were under his management, and he certainly considered the iron
groove a very great improvement over the wooden one; he, however, thought
that Mr. Daglish slightly overrated the loss of time in changing the tubs.
He found in practice, that by first placing the bottom deck of the cage on
the keps at the surface, and the top deck of the other cage on the keps at
the bottom of the pit, in order to change the other two decks of the cages,
the one at the surface is run past the keps down the shaft sufficiently to
allow the small diameter of the drum to lift the cage at the bottom of the
shaft so as to place the bottom deck on the keps. The engine is then
reversed, and the cage at the surface brought back and the top deck placed
on the keps. In this way they were raising at the collieries named upwards
of 1,000 tons and changing 500 men in ten hours. There cannot be a doubt of
the benefit which would arise from the adoption of some apparatus for
raising and loAvering the tubs, and removing them from the cages, without
the necessity of moving them up and down by means of the engines,
208 DISCUSSION—WINDING ENGINES.
for he felt sure that the adoption of such apparatus would save one-half of
the wear and tear which is caused by the jerks given to the cage and ropes
by the present mode of changing. He would like to ask Mr. Daglish whether
the self-acting cut-off apparatus was at all times completely under the
command of the brakesman ?
Mr. "Daglish—With regard to the changing of the tubs, Mr. Wood has no doubt
been perfectly successful in the speed attained by his arrangements, but it
must be borne in mind that he only had two decks in each cage; if he had
three or four, he would find the case different. With regard to the cut-off
apparatus, so long as the machine is working satisfactorily it acts
automatically, but should the engineman perceive anything going wrong, he
can, by a motion of the hand, throw the starting-handle out of gear with the
automatic process, and have complete control over the engine.
Mr. Adamson thought that Mr. Daglish's paper was clearly illustrative of the
economy attending the use of expansion in winding engines, but he also
thought that still more economy could be obtained if greater regard were
paid to those leading principles connected with the use of expansive steam,
which alone give satisfactory results. For instance, using a full cylinder
of steam at a high pressure at the commencement of the lift without an atom
of expansion, and unnecessarily heating a large surface exposed to the
cooling of the atmosphere, could scarcely be called scientific engineering ;
and he would submit that the subject was well worth the attention of the
mining engineers of Newcastle, where the mines were so deep and the time for
extracting the mineral so limited. He considered it well worthy the
attention of the whole body of the Institute to study the use of the
compound high-pressure engine, in such a form, as would allow of an
expansion of from 1 to 8, and which would give the minimum amount of surface
in the cylinder of the high-pressure steam. He was very much in favour of
employing a number of cylinders to carry out the work of expansion, for he
thought that this method prevented much unnecessary condensation, and this,
his experience had always confirmed. James Watt had effected a very
considerable economy by the introduction of a separate condenser into which
the steam was condensed, and he looked upon the introduction of separate
cylinders, for the expansion of steam passing from one small high-pressure
cylinder, as a step in the same direction, and which would always prove
economical; no doubt much can be done by jacketing the cylinders,; but still
there is no knowing the loss incurred when large degrees of expansion are
brought about in a single vessel.
DISCUSSION—WINDING ENGINES. "209
Mr. Bunning said, the mode of winding described by Mr. Daglish was rather an
endeavour to get over an inconvenience in an economical way than an attempt
to arrive at anything approaching ultimate theoretical economy. The work to
be done varied considerably as the load came to bank, and the practical
question seemed to be, how to meet that variation with the least expenditure
of power, and how to employ expansion, which involves the closing of valves,
during those portions of the stroke, when the cylinder has the least power
over the load, and at the same time to give the enginemen complete power
over his apparatus. Of course if the load were constant, very much more
economical apparatus could be used.
Mr. W. H. Hedley asked Mr. Daglish what depth of pit he thought afforded
scope for the economical application of the system described ?
Mr. Daglish replied that it would only be practically economical where the
pit was very deep, and where it was necessary to have engines of very large
power.
Mr. F. H. Pearce, whilst admitting the great importance of
balancing-colliery engines and the theoretical perfection of the scroll
drum, would ask whether an almost insurmountable practicable objection had
not arisen in the weight it was necessary to give this description of drum ?
He would be glad to hear if any improvements had been made in the mode of
constructing them so as to reduce their weight. With regard to the indicator
diagrams shown, he presumed they were taken from the engine balanced by the
chains ; could Mr. Daglish show him diagrams taken from an engine balanced
by the scroll drum ? The diagrams produced seemed to indicate wire drawing
through the too gradual closing of the valve, and he much doubted whether
any economical expansion had been effected at all.
Mr. Lawrence thought that the diagrams exhibited a very high degree of
economical expansion ; the cut-off was sudden and altogether very complete.
Of course still greater economy could be effected by the use of the
condenser, but the want of water usually felt in the neighbourhood of pits
rendered their application impracticable. There was no doubt that the use of
compound engines would prove of still greater economy if it were not for the
large amount of power required to start the load, which would require the
introduction of the high-pressure steam into one or more of the expansive
cylinders, and this would perpetuate and increase the very evil Mr. Adamson
complained of. He thought it also undesirable to increase the number of
moving parts, and considered that much loss would arise from the friction
which would be caused by the additional cylinders, which would very much
increase the size of the engine-houses, which were
210 DISCUSSION—WINDING ENGINES.
now sufficiently expensive, for many of them cost from five to six thousand
pounds. These considerations, together with the increased cost of repairs,
made him consider Mr. Daglish's arrangements better than the one proposed by
Mr. Adamson. With respect to the weight of conical drums, he would state
that every endeavour was being made to manufacture them as light as possible
; and a drum varying from 19 to 80 feet in diameter could now, by the free
use of steel plates, be reduced to fifty tons in weight.
Mr. J. B. Simpson asked Mr. Daglish if he could tell him how many tons of
coal could be raised in the shaft by his arrangement for every ton consumed
under the boiler ?
Mr. Wi. Cochrane stated that at a colliery in Derbyshire they had applied
the system of Mons. Guinotte, mentioned by Mr. Daglish, but as it was only
ten days since the valves had been properly arranged, he was unable to give
full particulars as to their efficiency. The full pressure of the steam is
used to start with, and the cut-off is gradually increased as the load comes
to bank. The saving of steam is important, inasmuch as with the gear one
boiler out of three is dispensed with. With regard to Mr. Simpson's
question, there had been drawn 876 tons gross in eight hours five minutes.
He was obliged to put it in that form because they were working several
seams, at different depths, with different sized drums, one 16 and one 14
feet diameter, the net result in the form Mr. Simpson suggested being one
ton of coal raised for every 8*7 pounds of coal burnt. The Gruinotte system
is simply the introduction of a cam, which works a lever attached to the
expansion gear, and the cam is arranged in such a manner that the curve
corresponds precisely with the balance of moments on the drum. The curve for
any condition of loads once ascertained, the machine becomes automatic for
that condition, and at the same time is under the control of the engineman,
who can at any moment put full steam on. When he had time to get the machine
in perfect working order, and try the necessary experiments, he would
communicate the results to the Institute.
Mr. Adamson—With regard to the observations of Mr. Lawrence, he would remark
that compound engines were not necessarily condensing engines. He also
contended that they could be made considerably lighter than single engines,
because the strain was more uniformly distributed over the working parts,
which were, therefore, lighter than those of single engines which had to
take a high initiative pressure, probably five times greater than the
average utilized pressure. The wear he considered was also reduced by this
equality of pressure. His experience, which
DISCUSSION—WINDING ENGINES. 211
was somewhat great in this class of engines, proved that if the packing of
the first piston is regularly and carefully attended to, the other parts of
the engine required little or no repairs. He denied that these engines were
necessarily either heavier or more dangerous than ordinary ones, and as
their economy was admitted, he thought they were as applicable to
coal-winding as to any other kind of work, for now a ton of coal was worth
as much to a coal-owner as to a manufacturer. Besides, whatever tended to
reduce the price of a ton of coal, tended also to reduce the price of all
manufactured articles, which was a great national consideration.
Mr. Simpson, in answer to Mr. Hedley's question, stated that he had put down
a small portable engine with multitubular boiler for winding coal from a
depth of fifty fathoms. It had two cylinders of 9£ inches iu diameter. In an
experiment over three days he found that he could raise 300 tons of coal
with a consumption of only 12 cwts., which was in the proportion of 500
units raised to 1 consumed, and this was a much better result than that
attained by Mr. Cochrane, which was only 260 to 1. The pressure of steam in
the boiler was 100 lbs. per square inch. During the experiments one of the
pistons failed, and they were obliged to work with only one cylinder, and
had to increase the pressure of the steam in consequence ; and this increase
of pressure gave a still greater economy, reducing the 12 to 10 cwts. In
conclusion, he would remark that small engines using very high pressure
steam, as for instance those of a loco- ^ motive, were notoriously
economical, and it might be well worth consideration whether it would not be
advisable to introduce them more generally into colliery use.
Mr. Daglish stated that he had never been able to ascertain the exact amount
of fuel consumed, because other engines were supplied from the same boilers
; but when the engine was employed in pumping, it took six boilers to drive
it eight strokes without the expansive gear ; when the expansive gear was
put on, the same six boilers drove it 14 strokes ; the saving, therefore,
was as 14 to 8. Mr. Adamson approached the subject from a very much higher
stand point than he had ventured upon, for to his knowledge steam of 100
lbs. had never yet been used at collieries. They had, he was sorry to say,
scarcely ventured upon half this as yet, and thus limited as they were in
pressure, and frequently unable to have condensers, he thought one cylinder
preferable to two. If he recollected rightly, Mr. Adamson had stated, in a
paper read before the members of the Iron and Steel Institute, that in an
engine he had erected in Manchester he had succeeded in reducing the
consumption to 2 lbs. per horse power, whereas he was sorry to say that a
consumption of 20 lbs,
212 DISCUSSION—WINDING ENGINES.
for the same work was the usual colliery expenditure ; so that there was
ample margin for improvement without arriving at the high standard proposed
by Mr. Adamson. He would also remark that with steam cut off at one-half,
there was not that extreme variation of strain there would be if a higher
amount of expansion were used, and with two cylinders the strain on the
shaft was very fairly equalized. With regard to M. G-uinotte's "cut-off"
invention, he was aware that an engine on his plan had been erected in
England by Mr. Cochrane, and had hoped that that gentleman would have
favoured the Institute with a paper on the subject. He knew that it was a
dangerous thing to differ with a gentleman of M. Gruinotte's high
attainments, but he certainly thought that gentleman relied too much upon
expansion as a means of overcoming the difficulties presented by the
ever-varying load in winding, and in this view he considered that he was
supported by high authorities both at home and abroad, notably by Mr.
Audemar, who had read a paper on the subject, a copy of which he held in his
hand. He had a continuous diagram taken from one of M. Guinotte's engines
where the winding was completed in 24 strokes, in the last eight of which
there was no trace of steam in the cylinder at all, the vis viva and the
weight of the descending rope alone, completing the winding. He thought in
Mr. Oochrane's instance the pit was not so deep, and* the rope did not
exercise that preponderating influence, so that the steam could there be
continued to the end of the operation, and no doubt under such circumstances
it was a very efficient arrangement; still he ventured to submit that in
deep pits where steel ropes became a necessity, drums of large diameter must
be used, and must be accompanied with some mechanical counterbalancing
apparatus.
Mr. F. H. Peaece did not think the importance of the question or its
practical bearing was sufficiently appreciated or understood. When steam at,
say under 40 lbs., was used without a condenser, it would be absurd to
expect any great saving to be made by the use of expansion, for if any great
cut-off were attempted, the steam would expand below the pressure of the
atmosphere, and a back pressure would be caused which would materially
diminish the useful effect of the engine. There was, however, a very great
advantage to be gained by the use of high pressure steam when used in
non-condensing engines independently of any advantage gained by its
expansive action. For instance, suppose equal volumes of steam at pressures
of 30 lbs. and 180 lbs. respectively above the atmosphere are taken, then
the total pressures would be 30 + 15 = 45 lbs., and 180+ 15 = 195 lbs. ; but
the available pressures obtained in non-condensing engines would be for the
low pressure steam -ff, or only § of the total pressure of the steam used,
while the non-available pressure
DISCUSSION—WINDING ENGINES. 213
would be 4;f, or actually ^ of the total pressure ; with the high pressure
steam the available pressure would be \%%, or \9- of the total pressure,
while the non-available pressure would only be -jtffe, or TW of the total
pressure. The amount of work that would be performed by the equal volumes of
steam, under the respective pressures, would be as y^0, or as 6 to 1, but
the quantities of water to be evaporated to produce the steam
would be as —-------—, or as 4^- to 1 ; that is, supposing the pressure
and density of the steam increase in the same proportion ; thus showing,
that in the case stated, six times the work has been done by the high
pressure steam by the evaporation of 4^ times the quantity of water, which
is equal to a saving of fuel of about 28 per cent, in favour of the high
pressure steam compared with the low pressure ; but really the saving is
considerably more than this, for there is another advantage to be gained by
high pressure steam on account of its pressure increasing faster than its
density, so that it will be found that the density of steam of 195 lbs.
pressure is only 4 times as great as at 45 lbs., and thus the saving by the
high pressure steam would be as 6 — 4 = 2 in 6, or a saving of 33 per cent.
It was only in locomotives that an effort had been made to work economically
with non-condensing engines, by raising the pressure of the steam, which had
from time to time been increased from 20 lbs. to 180 lbs., and ever with
increased success. He believed that the predilection there was for single
engines with their unequal strains and large cooling surfaces, had
materially retarded the use of high-pressure steam. In his opinion the
present style of winding would in a very short time be done away with and
entirely superseded by the use of small high-pressure engines. A locomotive
in actual daily work consumed about one-and-a-half lbs. of coal per
indicated horse-power, which would be probably only one-sixth of the coal
consumed by an ordinary winding engine, while the locomotive which was
giving out 1,000 indicated horse-power only weighed, tender and all, 40
tons, one-third or one-fourth less than the weight of an ordinary winding
engine required to do the same work.
Mr. Wm. Page, alluding to variable automatic expansion gear, remarked that
the Corliss engine was constructed on this principle, and great economy in
the consumption of fuel had been obtained by it. At Manchester, there was a
compound engine, burning 1£ lbs. of coal per horsepower per hour. The
high-pressure cylinder has the Corliss valve gear ; the cylinder is 14
inches diameter and 4 feet stroke, making sixty revolutions, or a piston
speed of 480 per minute. With a boiler pressure of 165 lbs., the steam
enters the cylinder at 160 lbs. (see Plate LVIIL), and when cut off at
one-fourth of the stroke, gives a mean pressure
VOL. XXV.-1876.
q j
214 DISCUSSION — WINDING ENGINES.
of 68 lbs., and indicates 153 horse-power. The low-pressure cylinder has a
common slide and expansion valve, and is 24 inches diameter and 4 feet
stroke ; the cylinders are horizontal, and placed alongside of each other
with a receiver between them and the cranks at right angles, the loss of
pressure between the cylinders being only 1 lb. The steam entered the
low-pressure cylinder at a pressure of 27 lbs., which gave 149 horsepower;
or, collectively, these engines indicated 302 horse-power, the boiler
employed evaporating about 10 lbs. of water with 1 lb. of coal. It will be
remembered that Sir William Armstrong, in his address to the Institute in
1873, stated that he had replaced ten small engines of the ordinary
construction by two large Corliss engines, and the result by one of these
engines alone was a saving of nearly 60 per cent., or in a reduction from 60
tons to 24 tons of coal consumed per week. As an example of the complete
command over the engine by the valve apparatus, at Halbeath Colliery, in the
county of Fife, there has been at work for several years a Corliss pumping
engine. The cylinder is 33 inches diameter, and 4 feet 6 inches stroke; it
works by bell cranks two sets of 16 inch pumps in a pit 68 fathoms deep. The
bell cranks are driven by gearing, in the ratio of 1 to 4 ; that is to say,
the engine makes four revolutions for every revolution of the pump wheel,
and the remarkable result is found that, in the course of seven seconds, the
load on the engine varies between the extremes of 11 and 137 indicated
horse-power (see Plate LIX.), the engine being entirely regulated by the
automatic expansion gear ; in fact, it has been found in practice that the
sudden breaking of a spear rod makes no difference in the speed of the
engine, though elsewhere it is often the cause of a serious accident.
Mr. Cochrane said, that he had listened with very great attention to Mr.
Daglish's paper and the interesting discussion that had followed, and he had
much pleasure in proposing a vote of thanks to that gentleman for the
valuable information he had given them.
Mr. Bewick seconded the proposition, which was carried unanimously.
Mr. Daglish expressed his appreciation of the compliment paid him. He
thought it right to state that he did not claim any part in the special
design of the mechanism, which was that of the maker of the engine, Mr.
Barclay ; there was, also, considerable credit due to Mr. Bunning, who had
assisted in getting up the plans and perfecting the details.
Mr. Bainbmdge then read a paper entitled " A description of various modes of
Lubricating Coal Tubs or Corves,"
LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES. 215
A DESCRIPTION OF FOURTEEN DIFFERENT MODES OF LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR
CORYES.
By EMERSON BAINBRIDGE.
Amongst the numerous and various expenses which have to be incurred in
producing coal, the most important charge, next to "wages," is usually that
of " materials," and of the materials which are required for colliery
operations the item of " oils and grease," used for lubricants of machinery,
wagons, tubs, &c, occupies a prominent place. Whilst many of the various
materials used remain in existence for some time, lubricants have, as a
rule, the peculiarity of being of no further use after once being applied,
they being in this respect somewhat in the same category as coals for
firing, &c. It is important, therefore, to derive the maximum amount of
benefit from such materials before they run to waste.
Improvements in the oiling of ordinary railway trucks in use upon the chief
railway systems of this country have resulted in a good degree of economy
having been reached, but the different conditions to which the small wagons
or coal " tubs" or " corves," which are used in collieries to bring coals
from the face of the mine to the surface, and the hard usage to which they
are very often subjected, have made it difficult to apply the same improved
modes of lubricating to them. Hence, at a great numbei of working collieries
the lubrication of tubs is carried on in a rough and wasteful manner which
involves unnecessary expense, and causes the friction of the wheels of the
tubs to be very much greater than need be.
Though apparently a trivial item in the expenditure of a colliery, the
expenses upon oil or grease used for lubricating tubs amount, in a large
pit, to a considerable sum in the course of a year, and as a number of
interesting and useful devices have recently been brought out, with a view
of improving this department of colliery management, the writer has ventured
to bring before this Institute a description of some of the chief of these
improvements.
Scope for improvement lies in several directions. In the first place, in the
waste of the oil and grease; in the second, in the time taken in the
ordinary system in applying the oil by hand; in the third, in the extra wear
and tear of the tubs where the oil is insufficiently applied ; and
216 LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES.
lastly, in the expense of, and damage to, horseflesh in dragging about tubs
which are badly greased ; this also applying to the extra engine-power
required under similar circumstances.
Numerous patents have from time to time been" taken out with a view of
saving labour and material in oiling. It is proposed, in this paper, to
describe the various merits of several of the chief modes of doing this
work—that is, those modes which have been tested at various collieries. They
may be divided as follows :—
I.—Modes of lubricating corves in which the grease is applied to the bare
axle by external appliances :—
1. The ordinary mode of lubricating corves by a hand-brush or
spatula.
2. Lubricating by means of revolving circular brushes moving in
oil, but set in motion by studs or cams struck by the axle.
3. The application of oil by means of a revolving disc running in
the oil.
4. Oiling by means of a metal star-shaped wheel, also moving in
the oil.
5. Lubricating by means of a small |brush, which is arranged to
strike the axle of the tub as the tub passes over the machine.
6. Greasing by means of vertical brushes, which are caused to dip
into the lubricant by the movement of the tub.
7. Oiling tubs by the application of a jet of oil to the bare axle.
II.—Modes of lubricating by enclosing the oil in a chamber adjacent
to the axle, the lubricant being wasted after being applied only once :—
1. The ordinary box in which the grease is applied in a somewhat
similar way to that in which railway wagons are lubricated.
2. Oiling by a "Needle" lubricator in a small box filled from the
inside of the tub.
3. By a chamber filled from the outside of the tub, the passage of
the oil to the axle being retarded by means of a bail.
4. By the wheels of the tub being made hollow and forming the
receptacle for the lubricant.
5. By using a box containing oil, which is only applied to the axle
when the tub is inclined at a certain angle from the horizontal.
III.—Lubricating by means of appliances, which allow the lubricant to be
used repeatedly:—
1. By means of a box, which allows the oil it contains to revolve without
spilling when the tub is turned over to be emptied, the oil being supplied
to the axle (when the tubs move) by means of a small chain or ring.
LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES. 217
2. Lubricating as above, but having the apparatus so arranged as
to make the chain or ring unnecessary, and sufficient oil being
applied to the axle when the tub is turned over to last for
some time.
It will thus be seen that there are altogether fourteen modes of oiling
comprised in the above abstract. It is now proposed to describe these in
the order in which they have been mentioned, and to illustrate, by means
of the sketches of the different systems, the action and characteristics of
each.
The ordinary mode of greasing by hand is well known, this being performed
either when the coals are being emptied from the tub, or when the tub is
turned on its side for the special purpose of being oiled. This plan is
always wasteful, as the grease is often applied to a wrong place, and it is
almost impossible to prevent some of it falling from the axle. Besides this,
the time taken by the process, reckoned over a whole day, will be found to
be of considerable importance. When pits are wet, or when the distance
traversed by the tubs is great, it is next to impossible to secure
sufficient lubrication by this method. The time taken in filling the
grease-boxes or oil-cans should also be borne in mind. Where " oil" is used
the waste is considerable. A thick, good grease is generally found most
economical in this mode of lubricating, which is the plan adopted at present
at nearly all collieries.
The second mode of lubricating by external appliances is that in which a
revolving brush is used. This system has been applied at a number of
collieries. The mode illustrated by Plan No. 1., on Plate LX., is that
introduced some years ago by Mr. Daglish at the Seaham collieries. The tub
passes over the brushes, which are made to revolve about one-third of a
revolution by the axle striking one of three cams C C C fixed to a strap,
this action causing part of the circumference of the brush, which is
saturated with thick oil, to turn and touch the axle as the tub passes over
the machine. Instead of a strap, the wheels are sometimes set in motion by
friction wheels, the driving wheel, with an India-rubber tyre, being struck
by the centre of the axle. A.small trough contains the oil, and extends a
short distance beyond the apparatus to catch any oil which may drop. The
straps attached to the pedestals to secure the axle, are placed diagonally
in order to allow the brush to strike the axle. The saving at Seaham
Colliery was considerable, the system reducing the cost of lubricating from
0*587d. per ton to 0*312d., both large amounts, in consequence of the long
distance run by the tubs.
Some years ago the writer found that sufficient lubrication was obtained by
the employment of revolving brushes without any gear to set them in
218 LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES.
motion, a grease being used thick enough to keep the brush saturated, but
sufficiently liquid to allow it to be moved round by the axle of the tub.
The wheel used in this mode (referred to under the third head of the
abstract) is shown in Plan No. 2, on Plate LX., in which the disc
illustrated is surrounded by an India-rubber disc in place of a brush, and
is found to answer very well at the Wingate Grange Colliery. The waste by
these systems cannot fail to be considerable, though clearly the loss must
be much less when the grease is applied to the tub in its natural position
than when it is turned on its side, or upside down. The chief evil of
this mode appears to be the rapidity with which the brushes wear, and the
attention required to keep them in thorough working order. It is difficult
also to keep the grease box, which is open to the air, clear from
impurities. The brushes are costly in the first instance, and wear quickly,
and when the wheels are not in perfect order the lubrication is found to be
insufficient.
The mode of lubricating, No. 4 (illustrated by the drawings on Plate LXL),
is an adaptation of the principle of lubricating by means of a wheel. This
has been adopted for some time at the Shireoaks Colliery, in
Nottinghamshire, and consists of four star-formed metal wheels, which run in
small tanks containing thick grease. Each tub passes over all four wheels,
and the guides A, B, C, and D, are so arranged as to cause each end of the
axle to be lubricated by one wheel on one side of the pedestal, and by the
other on the other side, and in this manner a very perfect degree of
lubrication is obtained. It will be seen that the wheels are so formed that
when the tub is moved, the axle is certain to strike one of the points of
the disc, thus causing it to make part of a revolution.
The manager of the Shireoaks Colliery states that as compared with
hand-lubricating, the saving in the consumption of grease Jam ounts to about
48 per cent.
The fifth system is that adopted by Messrs. Knowles of Pendleton, and was
brought out by them many years ago. It is a machine by means of which a
spatula or flat brush applies the grease to the axle when the tub passes
over the machine, the application being made by the foot of the man pushing
the corf, striking a lever. The writer has not got drawings of this mode,
but understands that it is only in operation at the Eadcliffe and Bank Top
Colliery, in Lancashire. The operation is very similar to that in which hand
labour is employed, the grease being'applied, however, when the tub is
horizontal.
The sixth system to be described is that invented by Messrs. Lampen and
Theedham, of Wakefield, and is shown on Plate LXII. The action of this
machine is as follows :—The tub is passed over the apparatus, and
LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES. 219
as the anchors A A are struck by the tub, the brushes B B by means of levers
are elevated from the box containing the grease in which they generally
rest, and strike the axle. Thus each brush rises twice from the grease box
as each tub passes over. It will be understood that this machine is
self-acting. It is now in successful operation at several
collieries.
The last mode which comes under the first principle noticed in this paper,
is that known as " Halliday's," which is adopted at a large number of
collieries. The action of this system will be understood on reference to
Plate LXIII. A small pump A is placed in a trough of oil, and the tub is
pushed over the oil tank against a fixed stop ; when the tub reaches this
point, the spouts of four jets are adjacent to the four pedestals of the
tub, and the man pushing the tub presses his foot upon the lever L of the
pump, causing jets of oil to be applied simultaneously to all the bearings.
This machine could doubtless without difficulty be made self-acting. It is
found to answer very satisfactorily, but though most of the surplus oil will
doubtless drop in the trough, waste will be caused by subsequent
droppings.
It will be observed, with regard to the adoption of any of the modes of
greasing which have been described, that the pedestal and the axle of the
tub may be of the form in ordinary use ; that is, no special arrangement of
pedestal is required to allow the lubrication to take place. In most cases
the machines are applicable only to tubs which have the wheels fast upon the
axle, but Halliday's is equally applicable when the wheels run loose
on the axle.
It will be understood, that though there may be more waste of oil in these
systems than in those about to be described, yet the fact that only one or
two machines are enough for a large number of tubs, and that a limit is thus
formed as to the apparatus getting out of order, is certainly advantageous.
Attention may now be drawn to the modes of lubricating tubs by enclosing the
oil in a chamber adjacent to the axle.
The first of the schemes comprised by this principle is that of having an
ordinary grease-box in the pedestal with a lid through which the grease is
applied. This system is well known, and has been tried at various
collieries, but it has not been thought necessary to give a drawing of it,
as the arrangement is so simple. As far as the writer has been able to
ascertain, the disadvantages of this mode of greasing are considerable.
The next mode (being No. 2 of the second system) is illustrated by Plate
LXIY., which represents a mode of oiling tubs recently patented by
220 LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES.
the writer. This was devised with a view of adopting an arrangement by means
of which the axles of tubs might be lubricated with greater economy and with
less constant attention than is generally required. The casting is made of
malleable iron, and can therefore be constructed of light weight. The
principle of the needle lubricator is adopted, and the needle N is widened
at the point 0 to prevent it from slipping too far down. The oil is inserted
at the bottom of the tub from the inside by removing the cap C. An
arrangement has also been designed for avoiding the use of the bolts, this
being done by making the cap C large enough to form a large bearing surface
upon the bottom of the tubs, thus causing the oil chamber to act as a
sufficient bolt for keeping the pedestal in its position.
A large number of these lubricators are now at work at the Nunnery Colliery,
Sheffield, and, as far as can be ascertained, one application of oil will
last about eight weeks. There appears to be no reason why the needle
lubricator should not answer as efficiently in this case as when applied to
ordinary shafting, and if this be found to be the case, one application of
oil should last many months.
Mode No. 3 (illustrated by drawing on Plate LXV.) has been patented by a Mr.
Watson. By this system the passage of the oil from the chambers to the axle
of the tub is regulated by means of a moveable ball B, the position of which
is maintained by a small plug and by a guard placed above the ball. The
chamber is filled by an oil can with a fine spout which presses down the
spring S. The cap of this spring, when in its ordinary place, makes the
chamber tight. This arrangement has been tested to a small degree at Messrs.
Bolckow and Vaughan's collieries, and preliminary experiments have shown it
to answer rerj well.
The next mode to be referred to No. 4 is that shown on Plate LXVI., which
exhibits Mr. Lupton's mode of lubricating axles by means of a hollow wheel,
the oil being applied to the axle also by means of the passage N. A plug G-
entering the hole by which the wheel is filled with oil, also acts as a
means of preventing the needle from getting out of its place. The writer has
not been able to get the result of any experiments with this mode of
lubricating. It will be seen that it is most easily applicable to tubs which
have the wheels loose upon the axles. The weight of the tub will be
increased since it will be difficult to make the wheels of anything but cast
metal.
Process No. 5 has been designed by Mr. Hadfield, of Sheffield, and is
illustrated on Plate LXVII. The pedestal consists of a chamber, which is
filled with oil, the level of the oil being so arranged that it is only when
the tub is turned over, or on one end, that it passes through the sponge
which
LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES. 221
fills up the vent-hole. This action fills the sponge with enough oil to give
adequate lubrication till the tub is again turned over. Preliminary tests
with this apparatus have shown that the oil lasts a long time. The chamber
is refilled by removing the cap C.
With reference to the modes of lubricating, described above, it may be said
that Mr. Lupton's and Mr. Hadfield's present the peculiarity of being
intermittent in their action, the oil being only applied to the axle in any
quantity at certain times; in Lupton's case only when the tub is in motion,
and in Hadfield's, when the tub is turned over. In the latter case it will
doubtless be found that the oil absorbed by the sponge will escape as
rapidly as in the modes shown on Plates LXIV. and LXY.
The third principle of lubricating is by meains of appliances which allow
the same grease to be used repeatedly, and this system certainly would
appear to be the best if it can be as successfully carried out as it has
been with regard to ordinary shafting.
Plates LXVIII. and LXIX. show two proposed modes of accomplishing this
object, and a trial of both modes is now being conducted.
In the first, illustrated by Plate LXVIIL, the pedestal consists of a box
chamber so arranged, that when the tub is turned upside down the oil passes
round the chamber without spilling, and a small chain or band is enclosed in
the pedestal, and hangs in a loop on the axle, the lower part dipping into
the oil. When the tub is in motion this chain or ring raises sufficient oil
to lubricate the axle.
Plate No. LXIX. shows a mode of accomplishing this object without the use of
a ring or chain. In this case the plates A A are cast in the box, and when
the tub is turned upside down the oil passes through one of the holes H H.
When the tub returns to its horizontal position part of the oil which has
passed through the hole is retained by the receptacle above the axle, upon
which it drops during the next journey of the tub.
By the time this paper is before the Institute for discussion the writer
hopes to have practical tests of these two modes to report. A difficulty may
arise in the fact that the oil-chamber is slightly exposed in consequence of
the open space between the bottom of the axle and the box. This might,
however, be provided against by a sliding cap.
A number of the inventions detailed above are well worthy of careful
consideration. The important point to decide is, as to which of the systems
combines the least first cost, with the least cost of keeping in repair
for a series of years, and the smallest consumption of lubricating material.
vol. xxv.-i87<j.
-p x
222 LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES.
It will be found most difficult to make a proper comparison between the cost
of lubricating by various systems, as the conditions affecting the cost are
so various. Appended hereto is a table showing the cost at eighteen
different collieries, and from this it will be seen that the cost of
lubricating tubs varies from O075d. to 0'82Id. per ton of coal raised.
The cost of tub grease varies from '2 to -5 per cent, of the total
expenditure at a colliery. So great a variance in cost as that mentioned
above points out the scope for improvement.
TABLE SHEWING COST OF LUBRICATING TUBS.
Quantity Quantity of „. Price of
M- . T . . Cost o
No. of of oil used coal raised $£™eer_ class of Lubricant
Lubricant 3wVrdi^j?or oil 0I
Colliery, per year, in one year. °^°°rJ,es Olass ot moncant,
perTon, eating lommary or greag|
Tons. Tons. ln use"
otnerwisej. per to]
£ d.
1 9-25 279,650 837 Antifriction grease. 9-50
Ordinary. 0-075
2 13-60 233,941 1200 Pine grease. 11-00
Pelf-acting 0.U5
' &
cogged wheels.
3 12-75 138,256 600 Grease. 7-00
Ordinary. 0-150
4 1-30 13,500 1200 Grease. 9-00
Ditto. 0-190
5 8-00 68,214 170 Ordinary grease. 7'50
Ditto. 0-211
6 22-00 240,000 600 Pine grease. 10-50
Self-acting 0-230
to cogged wheels.
7 7-50 134,004 450 Thick vegetable oil. 18-00
Ordinary. 0-240
8 9-75 66,245 260 Antifriction grease. 7-50
Ditto. 0-265
9 16-05 122,643 300 Antifriction grease. 8-50
Ditto. 0-267
10 4-70 45,160 150 Pine grease. 1U00
Ditto. 0-270
11 15-00 76,850 400 Black grease. 6-00
Ditto. 0-280
12 11-65 72,256 300 Antifriction grease. 7-50
Ditto. 0-289
13 1-80 22,204 184 Thick vegetable oil. 18-00
Ditto. 0-350
14 3-75 33,098 250 Thick vegetable oil. 18-00
Ditto. 0-480
15 • 31-00 136,256 ^ 375 Black oil. 9-00
Ditto. 0-490
16 1-05 13,500 1200 Oil.
34-00 Ditto. 0-630
17 3-75 19,500 161 Thick vegetable oil. 18-00
Ditto. 0-820
18 5-00 26,312 166 Thick vegetable oil. 18-00
Ditto. 0-821
It should be noted that a low cost per ton may possibly, in some cases,
really mean that the tubs or corves have been insufficiently lubricated.
DISCUSSION—LUBRICATING COAL TUBS OR CORVES. 223
The President was sure that they were much obliged to Mr. Bain-bridge for
having given so complete an account of this very important item of colliery
consumption.
Sir G-eorge Elliot—As Mr. Bainbridge was going to make more experiments, and
as these, to be of any practical value, should be strictly comparative, he
would suggest that they should be made with different sorts of grease and
oil; for one apparatus might be only suited to one kind of lubricant, and
wholly unfit for others, and it might be that the adoption of some of these
contrivances might necessitate the use of more costly lubricants than those
at present used, and, therefore, fail to effect the economy sought. He
was exceedingly glad to find that gentlemen of such attainments as Mr.
Bainbridge, and whose time was so valuable, saw the necessity of economy,
even in so small a matter as the saving of colliery grease, and that they
laboured to effect it. He thought there was no subject connected with
colliery management so little understood, although there was none that had a
more direct bearing on the maintenance of the pullies, ropes, and in fact of
the plant generally, as the quality and nature of the lubricants used, and
the proper mode of applying them. Mr. Sidebotham, who had charge of the
rolling stock of the Egyptian railways, had invented a very simple means of
lubricating the axles of the carriages, which had effected a marvellous
saving in expense, and which he (Sir George) had advised him to patent in
this country. It consisted of a lubricating box in which there was a
material which absorbed the oil by capillary attraction, and was acted upon
by a spring, while a second spring pressed it on the axle. These axles
were so perfectly and economically lubricated, that it was unnecessary to
renew the oil more than once in every six or eight months.
The meeting then adjourned till Thursday, the 1st June.
Permission had been kindly given for the members to inspect the following
places :—The Abbey Mills and Deptford Stations of the Main Sewage of London
; the Beckton Gas "Works ; Messrs. Silver and Co.'s Gutta Percha and
India-rubber Works ; Messrs. Humphrys, Tennant, and Co.'s Engine Works ;
Messrs. Bennie's Engine Works ; Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, and Field's Engine
Works ; and Mr. David Kirkaldy's Steel and Iron Testing Works ; and many
members availed themselves of the privilege.
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND. 225
PROCEEDINGS.
MEETING, IN THE THEATRE OF THE INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS,
23, GREAT GEORGE STREET, WESTMINSTER, LONDON,
ON THURSDAY, JUNE 1ST, 1876.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., President, in the Chair.
ON THE LARGER DIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND.
By G. A: LEBOUR, F.G.S. London and Belgium, F.R.G.S., etc.
INTRODUCTION.
" Of all formations, the Carboniferous has, perhaps, suffered the most, from
a tendency to give undue weight to local peculiarities, and to separate, as
distinct sections, those members which, in reality, have only a limited
range and importance—the Yellow Sandstone, the Mountain Limestone, the Calp,
the Coal Measures, and the Millstone G-rit, becoming by turns the prominent
local object, although they are all parts of one great system, characterized
by the frequent recurrence of vegetable matter, and by a remarkable
combination of limestones, shales, and sandstones, either of which may in
turns become the predominant member of the system."*
These words of General Portlock should be taken to heart by every one
pretending to enter the field of Carboniferous geology, and the writer thus
prefixes them to the present paper in order to show that, although he is now
dealing with a limited area, he yet has no wish to extend the conclusions he
has arrived at, as to the Carboniferous Series within it, to other regions,
or, in other words, to argue from the particular to the general.
* Gen. Portlock's " Geol. Report on Londonderry, etc." Dublin, 1843, p.
573.
226 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND.
The detailed mapping of outcrops has one possible consequence which is apt
to be overlooked. This may be best illustrated, perhaps, by a case common
in alluvium mapping. The observer begins by following the base of a
valley-flank. The line is at first as clear as possible, and seems to
continue so, but after walking along it some distance, and on relaxing his
attention, he is surprised to find himself at a level much higher than that
at which he began, the true alluvium which he intended to map is far below
him, and his line is seen to be now merely that of gravel terrace divisions,
which by gradual blending, first with the alluvium, and then among
themselves, have insensibly drawn him from the loamy river fiat. On a
much larger scale this is what sometimes tends to happen in carrying
boundary lines between great rock-series across wide areas—lines are run on
from districts m which they mark important changes into others where none
take place-It is by considering what divisions of such a great series are
legitimate in each separate area that the range of the boundary lines can be
checked, and when this is done with some degree of completeness, the more
general recognition of the following geological truth may be looked for,
viz. :—that hard and fast lines cutting up the geological column in any
locality are, or have at some time been, invariably replaced by insensible
passage beds in some other region. " Mountains are not to be studied with
a microscope," said De Saussure, but the details could be ill spared on
which any large view of stratigraphy must be based to be worth anything.
PREVIOUS VIEWS ON THE SUBJECT. In Winch's classic paper* the only divisions
recognized in the Carboniferous are the Coal Measures and the Lead Mine
Measures, or
Mountain Limestone.
In 1824 William Smithf called the lower part of Winch's upper division "
Millstone Grit," and set apart the top portion of the lower one as "
alternations of grits and shales, with a thin limestone and coal between the
Millstone Grit and the Metalliferous Limestone," the latter being his term
for the Lead Mine Measures of Winch.
Westgarth Forster in 1821^: adopted for the rocks between Alston and
Newcastle the three orthodox divisions—Coal Measures, Millstone Grit, and
Lead Measures.
* N. J. Winch. " Observations on the Geology of Northumberland and
Durham" [18L4].—Geol. Soc. Trans, iv., 1817, pp. 1—101. f " Geological Map
of Durham." London, 1824. t " Section of the Strata," etc. By
Westgarth Forster. 1821.
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND. 227
The late Mr. George Tate, of Alnwick, divided the Northumbrian series in
1855 thus :—Coal Measures, Millstone Grit, Carboniferous Limestone Series
(in two parts—a Calcareous and h Carbonaceous), Tuedian (= Calciferous
Sandstone of Maclaren, 1839), and Upper Old Red Conglomerate.*
In 1868 Messrs. Howse and Kirkbyf grouped the Carboniferous rocks of Durham
and Northumberland under the following heads:— First, Coal Measures
(including part of the Permian series). Second, Millstone Grit. Third,
Yoredale Rocks. Fourth, Scar Limestone series. Fifth, Tuedian beds.
Up to the present time the divisions adopted by the Geological Survey for
the northernmost county are—Coal Measures, Gannister beds, Millstone Grit,
Carboniferous Limestone Series (including some beds above the highest
limestone). The latter member will in course of time probably be subdivided,
but the writer is not aware of any term or limits having been yet adopted by
the Survey authorities respecting anything below its upper beds in this
region.
THE COAL MEASURES.
The top division, the Coal Measures, is recognized by all. Its limits are
sufficiently clear, although something has been done to obscure them by
those authors who would unite to it the friable yellow sands and red
sandstone of the unconformable Permian above. This proposal has not been
generally accepted, and resting, as it does, only upon the presence of a few
plants of Carboniferous species in the red bed, was rejected after careful
consideration by Sir Eoderick Murchison, Mr. Aveline, and other competent
observers,! and this rejection has since been embodied in the published maps
of the Geological Survey.
The true highest bed of the Coal Measures we are, of course, unacquainted
with, owing to the unconformity of the overlying Permians, but all the beds
between the base of the latter and the Brockwell seam inclusive, are
acknowledged Coal Measures.
* See Geological Map in Tate's " History of Alnwick," 1869, and previous
papers in the publications of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Field Club.
f Synopsis of the Geology of Durham and part of Northumberland." Newcastle,
1863, p. 19.
% See Murchison's " Siluria," 4th edition, 1867, p. 328. He there says:—" I
do not admit that the occurrence of a few Plants, said to be of
Carboniferous species, in the underlying red sandstone at Tynemouth affects
any conclusions as to the true base of the Permian,"
228 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND.
GANNISTER BEDS.
There is, however, some difference of opinion as to the classificatory value
of the next set of beds, the so-called Gannister series. The question is
comparatively unimportant, and is simply this :—Do these beds belong to the
Coal Measures or to the Millstone Grit, or do they form a neutral series of
passage beds from the one to the other ? Beyond their litholo-gical
character—a deceptive one at best—these beds have little or nothing to
distinguish them. Had their recognition as a distinct horizon not begun
where this lithological character is much more marked than with us, as in
Yorkshire and in Derbyshire, there would probably have been no question of
their attaining the dignity of a separate division. In the Coal-field they
derive an importance not their own, from the fact that they underlie what is
commonly looked upon as the lowest workable seam of coal. It will perhaps be
safest to admit the Gannister beds in Northumberland as a small subdivision
of the Coal Measures. But in allowing them a place in the local
Carboniferous series, the writer deprecates the position accorded to it in
the Government maps of our county, where, by giving them a special colour, a
value in the column equal to that of the greater Carboniferous divisions is
implied. To adopt for the nonce the language of Biology, the writer would
prefer to consider the Gannisters as a sub-genus of the genus Coal Measures.
MILLSTONE GRIT.
The Gannister question, however, is a very small one compared with those
raised by the next lower member of the geological table—the Millstone Grit.
Almost everywhere the Coal Measures (with or without Gannister) overlie an
unproductive Farewell Bock, formed of conglomerates and grits, so coarse as
frequently to justify the term Millstone Grit. It so happens that in
England, where it was first studied, this rock attains an enormous
thickness, and being in this country placed between a strongly marked
calcareous and a most useful coal-bearing series, it acquired at once very
distinct recognition as the great middle member of the Carboniferous system.
Wider knowledge has, however, failed to show that the most marked characters
of the Millstone Grit are of anything but local value. Even in Britain it is
frequently absent altogether in places where both the limestone and coal
beds are present in their normal condition. In America, where it has for
years been the custom to regard it as being represented by a bed known as
the Great Conglomerate, the latter is now shown to be sometimes underlain,
as well as overlain, by true
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM TN NORTHUMBERLAND. 229
Coal Measures, and the division, as a leading one, appears to be in
consequence justly discredited.* Again, on the continent a large majority of
the small detached coal basins, which lie unconformably Upon older rocks
(Silurians, and what not), have at their base a set of coarse conglomeratic
beds, similar to our Millstone Grit in their relations to the coal-bearing
series ; but here, where the lower conformable calcareous series is absent,
and where these coarse deposits evidently graduate into the finer sandstones
which accompany the coals, it is certainly not usual to label the
conglomerates Millstone Grit, or in any way to differentiate them from the
Coal Measures, of which they represent simply the rough beginning. In
Belgium, the place of the Millstone Grit is taken by a thin series of
Ampelites or Alum shales, which, if the ordinary tri-partite division of the
Carboniferous be enforced, has to do duty for the great mass of our
Ingleborough grits.
In Northumberland the place where the Millstone Grit should be, undoubtedly
exists, but the grits themselves are sadly deficient, both in character and
thickness. Shales, shaly sandstones, and sandy shales, with a few beds of
sandstone, seldom coarser in grain than many beds in the Coal Measures, and
not nearly so coarse nor so thick as some of the grits of the limestone
series below—these, in considerable spreads between the Derwent and the
Tyne, and in a narrow band from the latter river to the sea near Warkworth,
are the component parts of the Northumbrian Millstone Grit. This miserable
representative of the great hill-capping deposit further south would never
have been recognized as a chief division here had Northumberland been an
island, and had not the traditions of its greatness come from elsewhere. In
fact it may be affirmed that the Millstone Grit has, as it were, traded on
its thickness. In Northumberland it is thin where it enters the county to
the south, and it is much thinner where it leaves it on the East Coast; it
has here no lithological character which it does not share with members of
the series above and below ; it has no distinctive fossil remains ; in
short, it has nothing peculiar to it but its position. Why then regard it as
being anything more than the Gannister beds, a portion of the base of the
Coal Measures ?
* The latest writer on this subject says :—" In view of this confusion, I
think all will agree with me that the terms Millstone Grit and Coal Measure
Conglomerate should either be used to designate a uniform horizon in the
Carboniferous system, or be abandoned as geological terms and retained only
for their lithological meaning."—Professor E. B. Andrews, in " American
Journal of Science and Arts," Series 3, Vol. x. (1875), p. 290.
VOL. XXV.-1876.
j, j
230 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND.
True, this Millstone Grit of ours is the attenuated continuation of beds,
which, elsewhere (Yorkshire, &c.,) yield occasionally marine remains of
species characteristic of the Limestone Series, and this it was probably
which induced Sir Roderick Murchison to class it together with the uppermost
beds of that Series as the Middle Carboniferous. But it must be remembered
that similar marine forms have been found in the true Coal Measures of
Coalbrookdale, at Ryhope, in the Durham Coalfield, at seven horizons in the
Mods Coal-field, in Belgium,* and plentifully in the Upper Coal Measures of
the United States. It will, therefore, be seen that the fossil evidence,
which would tend to unite the Millstone Grit with the Lower rather than with
the Upper Series, would apply equally well to connect the Coal Measures
proper with the Limestone division.
Taking all these facts into consideration, the writer hopes not to meet with
much opposition, if he ventures to place the Millstone Grit of
Northumberland in the same category as the Gannister beds ; that is to say,
as the lowest member of the Coal Measure or Upper Carboniferous group.
Another difficulty now crops up as to where the base limit of the Millstone
Grit should be drawn. The top of the highest limestone of the Limestone
Series would seem to offer a good common-sense boundary line. This, however,
has not been adopted in drawing up the Geological Survey maps of the
district. In these maps a considerable but variable thickness of shale and
sandstone has been excluded from the Millstone Grit, in accordance, it is
believed, with what obtains far away in typical Yoredale areas. But when the
extreme variations are considered to which such deposits are subject, even
in very short distances, and when further known that this variability
increases as it is proceeding from south to north, there is seen to he at
least & prima facie objection to the course followed. The narrow zone
referred to, may or may not belong to the Limestone Series as it is found
elsewhere, but here, in Northumberland, where it comprises the well-known
massive sandstone worked at Harlow Hill, on the line of the Roman Wall,
there is no evidence to support that view, and the fades, or general aspect
of the band, is in every way identical with that of various members of the
Millstone Grit. Besides which, the impossibility of finding in any but rare
and exceptional cases a natural top limit for this set of beds, in a country
where the Millstone Grit is so degenerate, would of itself lead one to
regard it as being the lowest member of that formation.
* fcee Cornet and Briart in " Bulletin de 1' Academie royale de Belgique,"
Serie 2, T. xxxiii., No. 1, 1872.
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND. 231
BERNICIAN SERIES (YOREDALE ROCK AND SCAR LIMESTONE BEDS).
By acting upon the view just propounded a sharp and well-defined line of
junction is obtained, separating the lowest division of the Upper
Carboniferous—the Millstone Grit—from the Limestone beds, the latter being
fitly heralded in by their first or highest calcareous band—the Felltop
Limestone. And this is the first perfectly clear line of division to be met
with in the Carboniferous System as it occurs in Northumberland.
The writer believes that he has sufficiently shown elsewhere that the
Yoredale Bocks of Phillips have no claim to recognition as a separate
division in this part of England. He will, therefore, merely point out
briefly the chief facts on which his opinion, which he is glad to know is
shared by some of the most competent judges, is based. These are:— First,
the intrusive character of the Great Whin Sill, and its consequent
uncertainty of horizon. Secondly, the impossibility of tracing the
Tyne-bottom Limestone for any considerable distance to the north. Thirdly,
the similarity in the fossils in the so-called Yoredales and in the Scar
Series in Northumberland.* Having thus called attention to the worthlessness
of the usually accepted lower limits of the Yoredale series, he proposed its
abandonment as a special member of the Northumbrian Carboniferous, and that
it should, together with the so-called Scar beds below, be united into one
great formation, to which the name " Bernician" might appropriately be
attached, denoting the state of things occurring in Bernicia, as
distinguished from that obtaining in Scotland on the one hand and in
Yorkshire on the other.
This arrangement also abolishes Mr. Tate's Calcareous and Carbonaceous
groups. Had that able North Country geologist had the opportunity of
studying the beds of the southern half of the county as closely as he did
those of the northern, the writer feels sure that he would have seen the
inapplicability of these groups to the whole district. Still, however, their
convenience may be allowed for a limited tract, and the fact that he placed
the junction between them very much below the supposed base of the Yoredales
is another proof, were any required, of the unsatisfactory nature of the
latter term.
* See Lebour " On the Limits of the Yoredale series in the, North of
England." Read at the Bristol Meeting of the British Association, 1875.
Published in full in " Geological Magazine," Decade II., Vol. ii., No. 11,
November, 1875.
232 CARBONIFEltOUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND.
TDEDIAN SERIES—VALENTIAN OF GEIKIE (MS.), OR CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF
MACLAREN.
Once more we are brought up by the difficulty of finding a base for a
series. What is the bottom bed of the Bernician division ? At some places
within the county the question seems easily answered. The Har-bottle grits,
in the upper Coquet, and the Great Dour grits, in the burn-valleys running
from the north into the upper Redewater, form a lower line very distinct
from the Tuedian purple shales and cream-coloured beds upon which they rest.
But to the east and north of these localities the boundary fails us. These
marked grits soon disappear, and the Tuedians gradually encroach upon the
Bernicians from S.W. to N.E. One of two things takes place here. Either the
Bernicians as a whole, thin out in a remarkable degree, in which case the
grits line must be a true boundary whether the grits themselves continue or
not (and this is the view which has hitherto been acted on), or the lower
portion of the Bernician series merges by degrees laterally into the
Tuedians, when the grits line would merely be one of the merest local use.
There are several facts which induce the writer to advance the last
hypothesis as being probably the true one. At all events its assumption
renders many things clear which are obscure otherwise. The tolerably thick
limestones, purely Tuedian in character, of Hetchester and elsewhere, to the
north of Coquet, if followed from north to south, are seen to strike towards
the lower Bernician mass, and similarly, some of the numerous limestones of
the latter strike from south to north apparently into the Tuedians. Again,
in Western Mid-Northumberland, where the Tuedians proper are not known, many
limestones of the usual Carboniferous Limestone type alter suddenly in
character for a greater or less distance, and assume a fades
indistinguishable from that of Tuedian limestones, and at the same time,
from richly fossiliferous, become nearly or wholly devoid of fossils. The
sandstones, on the other hand, are alike in both divisions, contain the same
plant-remains, and form similar features. It is only when the very flanks of
the porphyritic mass of the Cheviots are reached that the Tuedian beds
assume the red hue and coarse structure which are characteristic of the
Scottish Calciferous Series—the coarse grain being with us derived in a
great measure, if not entirely, from the porphyry, of which fragments are
indeed found disseminated in the grits.
That the Tuedians should cease to be looked upon as entirely below all rocks
of Carboniferous Limestone age is not such an innovation as it may appear to
be at first sight. For, if Mr. Goodchild is right in his suggestion that the
Roman Fell Conglomerates in Westmorland may be
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND. 233
the representatives of the Scottish Calciferous beds (a view also held, it
is understood, by Mr. James Geikie, F.R.S.), that horizon is, in parts of
the Vale of Eden, underlain, as well as overlain, by true undoubted
Carboniferous Limestone.* (See Section No. Ill, Plate LXXI.)
As far, therefore, as Northumberland is concerned, the writer would give to
a line separating Tuedian from Bernician beds merely the kind of value that
would attach, in a map of our present sea-bottoms, to a boundary dividing
the sands and muds off the British coasts from the contemporaneous
globigerina ooze of the deeper ocean.
To the north the dividing line is a good one, and it would be difficult to
say at what point in its southward course it ceases to be so ; but here
again there is good reason for believing that Northumberland affords the "
passage" locality between two members of a great series. A zig-zag, broken,
and indefinite line is all that one feels justified in using to define the
Upper Tuedian limit in this county.
The base of the Tuedians we do not know here, as we cannot admit that the
so-called Upper Old Bed Conglomerate, mapped by Mr. Tate, as occurring at
Biddlestone, Roddam, &c, on the flanks of the Cheviots, is anything more
than part of the Tuedian series—at least on the evidence as yet adduced.
Should these beds be ultimately proved to be really Upper Old Red, no great
mistake will have been made by the writer in awaiting the event, since he is
able to quote the following words from a report of a very recent paper read
by Professor A. Geikie, F.R.S., on the Old Red Sandstone :—" It has been
abundantly proved that there was contemporaneously [with the Upper Old Red],
in the clear seas outside, the fauna which characterized the Carboniferous
Liniestone.f
CONCLUSION.
The changes advocated by the writer in the course of this paper may be
summarized as follows :—
1.—That the Coal Measures proper, the Gannister beds, and the Millstone
Grit, as far down as the Felltop Limestone, should be grouped together as
stages of the Upper Carboniferous in Northumberland.
* J. G. GoodcMld, F.G.S., " On the Carboniferous Conglomerates of the
Eastern Part of the Basin of the Eden."—Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, Vol. xxx., 1874, p. 394.
f " Colliery Guardian," March bid, 1876, p. 345.
234 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN NORTHUMBERLAND.
2.—That the Yoredale Rocks, the Scar Limestone Series, the Calcareous group,
and the Carbonaceous group, be abolished, as incapable of natural division,
and that the beds comprising them be blended together, into one great
Series, the "Bernician," forming the upper member of the Lower Carboniferous
in Northumberland.
3.—That the so-called Upper Old Red, in this county, be merged into the
Tuedian Series, and that the two together form the lower member of the Lower
Carboniferous in Northumberland.
4.—That the divisional line between the Tuedian and the Bernician, being one
which here separates conditions of deposition rather than rigid horizons, be
regarded as a variable one in Northumberland. The appended table will
further illustrate the proposed changes.
TABLE—CORRELATING PROPOSED DIVISIONS WITH OLD ONES.
Northumberland, proposed.
Synonyms.
COAL MEASURES. Coal Measures. 1 Upper
p4
y Car-
g Gannister Beds. Gannister Beds. J
boniferous.
' tvttt q n-av Pt>tt. i Millstone Grit and ^
g I millstone, ubii. | Carboniferous Limestone in part.
Middle
g ---------------------------------
y Car-
pq l Yoredale Series
and | boniferous.
|3 \ Calcareous Group in
part. J
£ BERNIIAN. < c T. . „ .
, -.
g > Scar
Limestone Series and
pq . / Calcareous Group
in part, phis
Ph ^ ( Carbonaceous
Group.
^ ^
Lower
° i Calciferous Sandstone,
> Car-
\ or Tuedian, | boniferous.
TUEDIAN. ^ or Valentian,
j and Upper Old Bed Conglo-
( merate in part. J
In Plate LXX. will be seen, in a somewThat diagrammatic form, the
stratigraphical changes undergone by the Carboniferous Series from
Derbyshire to Berwickshire, on which the views brought forward in this paper
are based.
Mr. Boyd stated that he had chiefly hitherto confined his observations to
those narrower portions of Northumberland that were situated between Belford
and Berwick. It would be very interesting to him if Mr. Lebour
DISCUSSION—CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM, ETC. 235
could give them his opinion as to the probable effect which the protrusion
of the great plutonic mass of the Cheviots has on the horizontal strata of
the mountain limestone through which it had passed. At Roddam, a point where
contact would most decidedly have taken place, he had searched diligently
for traces which would have enabled him to have solved the question, but the
juncture at this point seems to have been overlaid by a sort of conglomerate
composed of broken and water-worn porphyritic masses, probably derived from
the Cheviots themselves, which had rolled down the Roddam valley. The upper
portion of this conglomerate seems almost like debris, which had fallen from
the sides of the hills, and which had been compressed by means of a matrix
into a solid mass afterwards. He had not followed Mr. Lebour through the
points of his difference of classification. It may be that the mountain
limestone requires such subdivisions as geologists have in many other cases
adopted.
Mr. Simpson asked Mr. Lebour if he were quite satisfied that there were
gannister beds below the Brockwell Seam on the Tyne, and if so, was he able
to compare them with the gannister beds in Yorkshire, and with those which
he believed were found in the Auckland district, and if he had personally
examined and satisfied himself on the point. So far as he at present knew,
in the river Tyne district, the result of all explorations below the
Brockwell proved, that no gannister beds existed there, and this was
supposed also to be the same in the Auckland district, where a bore hole had
lately been put down 100 fathoms below the Brockwell, near Tudhoe ; and he
understood the gannister beds had not been reached.
Mr. Boyd—The bore hole is not far from Sedgefield. It penetrates through the
lowest of the coal-measure series—then through the millstone grit, and
displays the mountain limestone with shells existing in it. The bore hole
was not made with any intention of exploring the gannister beds, and its
chief importance is, that it proves where the last trace of coal is to be
found on the southern edge of the county of Durham. The gannister beds are
very well displayed in the West of Durham, as the pure limestone grit is
approached.
Mr. Warington Smyth had had the opportunity of frequently exploring the
counties of Northumberland and Cumberland, and it appeared to him that, when
the limits of the various subdivisions, which Mr. Lebour had presented to
their observation, were approached, a large field for consideration was
opened out, and that many difficulties prevented those hard and fast lines
being drawn which he considered more or less necessary in all geological
descriptions. The more these districts
236 DISCUSSION—CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM, ETC.
are visited the more it is found desirable not to attempt to draw these
lines with too great precision, but rather to leave them open for much
future consideration. "Whilst listening with much interest to the paper, he
had felt that there was a tendency to upset those old broad lines of
division, and introduce new terms, which possibly a more minute examination
of this interesting district may render unnecessary. The question if the
mountain limestone itself follows downwards to those upper portions of the
old red sandstone, no doubt offers a very large field for further research,
and Mr. Lebour has done good service if he has only been the means of
pointing out the difficulty attendant on the solution of the question. He
was sorry he had not had an opportunity of personally examining the western
portions of Northumberland, or those which are "bordering on Scotland, but
with regard to those beds which are found in Alston Moor, and cropping out
on the sides of Cross Fell, he thought that much attention should be paid to
the considerations which had been brought forward in the paper. At the same
time, he felt sure that there were many who would be most desirous of only
making such changes in the received mode of nomenclature as can be applied
to other districts. Passing into Scotland, these lower measures become of
very high commercial importance, and, therefore, every proposal to create
new subdivisions should be very cautiously considered. Those vast lower
carboniferous formations, which recently have attracted attention in Russia,
and which occupy an area of many hundred miles in length and of considerable
breadth, can only be judged of by the experience obtained from
Northumberland and parts of Scotland; and the exact knowledge • of these
districts will not only be of great advantage in settling questions with
regard to coal measures of this country, but also in considering those of
foreign countries, especially in those parts where there is reason to
believe that a deeper limit may be obtained by what might be called the
different distribution of the deposits, which appear to have commenced at a
much earlier date than those in our own country. He had that day received a
communication from Professor Tan Beneden, to the effect that recent bore
holes had reached the coal measures in the northern part of Belgium, where
it had been thought impossible for them to exist. These borings had been
undertaken, in consequence of the extraordinary folds, which had been shown
to bring coal measures to a workable distance from the surface, in the
valley of the Ruhr, and which has extended that coalfield to an additional
60 kilometers in width. When it is considered how large a tract of ground
has been thus added to the available coal measures of Belgium and Germany,
it shows that very material modifications may
DISCUSSION—CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM, ETC. 237
have to be made in respect to the consideration of those coal-fields which
are overlaid by newer rocks.
Mr. Lebour, with reference to Mr. Boyd's remarks as to the debris
overlapping the junction between the lower Carboniferous beds and the
porphyritic mass of the Cheviots, thought they were probably conglomerates
similar to that which Tate looked upon as the upper Old Bed conglomerate. He
believed the porphyritic mass was intruded long before the deposition of any
Carboniferous beds whatever, that the mass had since been frequently
upheaved, and that this accounted for the great inclination of the
Carboniferous strata as they came upon the flanks of the Cheviots. In some
cases, as for instance up the Bidlees burn, the Carboniferous strata were
lying flat and undisturbed upon the porphyry, although a few miles off they
were found nearly vertical. He was glad to hear from Mr. Simpson that no
true gannister beds had been found by him in Northumberland, for that
completely confirmed his view. In the woods at Chopwell a boring was made to
some 300 feet below the Brockwell Seam, and the whole result of that boring
consisted of shales and sandstones, with the addition of a little coal, too
thin to be worked. Of course, in talking of gannister beds in
Northumberland, he meant the beds which occupy the horizon which that stone
occupies in Yorkshire, and in the typical gannister district. In answer to
Mr. Warington Smyth, he had been under the impression that, instead of
coining new divisions for the Carboniferous rocks in Northumberland, he had
been grouping a number of subdivisions which had been previously made on
apparently insufficient grounds, into larger ones, which would come in
accord with the general features of the formation, and so facilitate the
work of the geologist. He pleaded guilty to the introduction of the word "
Bernician," but "Northumbrian" would do nearly as well.*
Mr. Bewick moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Lebour for his valuable paper,
which was unanimously agreed to.
Messrs. Hall and Clark's paper on "The Mechanical Effect of 'Blown-out
Shots' on Ventilation," was considered as read, and ordered to be printed.
* The word " Bernician" has a narrower and more exact meaning in this
connection than " Northumbrian," which, in its wider sense, includes a much
greater extent of country than is characterized by the geological features
to which I have applied the former term.
VOL. XXV.-1878.
JT 1
238
PROCEEDINGS.
The meeting then separated. Many members availed themselves of the kindness
of the several managing engineers, and visited the Chelsea and Lambeth, the
Grand Junction, Southwark, and Vauxhall Water Works.
On Friday, a large number of members visited the Woolwich Arsenal, where
they were received with every courtesy by Colonel Younghusband; and, after
inspecting the various objects of interest, they witnessed a number of
gun-cotton experiments, and the firing of the 81 ton gun.
A considerable party also visited the Enfield Small Arms Factory, where they
were received with great kindness by Colonel Close.
MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS.
239
THE MECHANICAL EFFECT OF "BLOWN-OUT SHOTS" ON VENTILATION.
By Messes. HALL (H.M. Inspector op Mines) and CLARK.
An opinion is frequently expressed in Lancashire and elsewhere, that in
blasting coal with gunpowder in a mine fairly clear of fire-damp, an
explosion may result from the exhaustive action of the blast itself. It is
held that a shot fired under certain conditions will relieve the atmospheric
pressure on the face of the coal to such an extent that fire-damp will be
instantly given off in considerable quantity, and that in very fiery seams
the danger from this source is imminent. The circumstances under which this
is stated to be most liable to arise are these :—When in driving a narrow
"winning" or "heading" (Fig. 4, Plate LXXIL), and having advanced some
distance beyond the innermost "holing" or "cut through," a charge of
gunpowder is so improperly planted or insufficiently stemmed at A, as to
cause it to blow out and spend its energy on the ventilation passing along
the " heading" instead of doing its legitimate work of blowing the coal.
Such an occurrence is locally termed a " blown-out shot." It must not be
confounded with that with which all miners are familiar, called in
Northumberland a " standing bobby." In this latter case the powder expends
itself by ripping the coal, and escapes as it were by distribution without
affecting the ventilation, and generally leaving the stemming in the
drill-hole.
A " blown-out shot" would appear to attain its maximum force when it occurs
in very strong coal where a heavy charge is necessary, and the stemming has
been fairly well done, so that it. withstands for an instant until the
exploding powder rapidly gaining accumulated power through the heat of its
own combustion forces itself out, driving the stemming as from a cannon.
There is, perhaps, more heard about these shots in Lancashire than in other
districts, on account of the coal being so very strong and the unfortunate
practice of shooting partially " fast"—that is without " nicking" or "
side-cutting"—entailing heavy charges, amounting in many instances to 2\
lbs. of gunpowder, or even more. Indeed locally
240 MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS.
this subject has assumed very great importance, many mining men of
considerable experience having given it as their opinion that some of the
recent disastrous explosions have been due to this cause alone. Notably an
explosion at the Wynnstay Colliery, of the New British Iron Company, near
Euabon, on April 24th, 1873, in which seven persons lost their lives. (See
Plate LXXI.)
The following description of the accident is from the Inspector's report :—
The mine, which lies at an angle of one in three, was worked with locked
safety-lamps, the colliers being allowed to use gunpowder for the purpose of
bringing the coal down after being holed, and a fireman was appointed to
light the shots after they had been charged by the workmen, and his
instructions were to examine the places before doing so, to ascertain if
they were free from gas.
Two levels were being driven, and it appears that the colliers in both
places were ready to have their shots fired, when Griffith Hughes, the
fireman, since deceased, went into the lower level X, Plate LXXI., and fired
a shot, which went off all right as spoken to by the witness, John Hughes.
Shortly after, another shot was heard by him to go off, as he thought, in
the higher level A, immediately followed by an explosion.
The accompanying sections (Figs. 1, 2, and 3, Plate LXXII.) show the
positions of the shots as placed in the coal in the upper level where the
explosion took place; the shot A, Fig. 1, on the lower side of the place,
appears to have blown only a small piece of coal off from a slip at the
front. The higher side shot (B, Fig. 3) had been badly planted, the hole
being drilled into a hard " brass" lying above the portion of coal seam
worked, and probably insufficiently stemmed, which would account for the
charge being blown out, and the two reports being heard so closely following
each other shows that both shots had been lighted together instead of
separately. If the shot A exploded first, gas might have been liberated from
the slip in the coal, and the second shot B would ignite it. Neither of the
shot holes had been drilled deep enough.
At the adjourned inquest held at Rhos-y-Medre on the 16th of May, before B.
H. Thelwall, Esq., Coroner for Denbighshire, the following evidence was
taken:—
Mr. Ealph Darlington sworn, said—" He was the certified manager of the
Wynnstay Colliery, and personally knew all the deceased. He produced a plan
of the workings of the colliery, Plate No. LXXI.; Nos. 1 and 2 Pits were
downcasts, and No. 3 was the upcast for all the colliery, the ventilation
being produced by a furnace placed at the bottom. The men were working in
No. 1 Pit in the new coal seam, which is 308 yards deep, and were 820 yards
from the ' Pit-eye' in S.W. direction. The explosion took place at 12 15
p.m. on the 24th of April. He had not been down the pit that day; had been
down the day previous, but did not go to the very point of the accident. No
man could examine the whole of the pit himself, and they had three
certificated managers. The fireman had seen the place in the morning, it
being his
MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS. 241
duty to inspect it, and he now produced his report which stated—' I have
duly examined the above district and find all the working places free from
gas and dirt, and in good working order.' His opinion was that a shot had
been overcharged and badly planted in the top level. He saw the place
three-quarters of an hour after the explosion, and did not believe there was
any gas in the place. It was the duty of George Edwards to bore the hole. He
(witness) believed the explosion was from powder, and that the men were
burnt by the powder in consequence of the shot blowing out. There were two
shots in the place, and the first appeared to have been overcharged and had
only blown a little coal off at a slip. The hole ought to have been at least
12 inches deeper. The fireman had been appointed eighteen months, and he
considered him a competent man. Did not think him in any way to blame, but
thought the colliers had made a mistake in planting the shots badly. The
second shot did not break any coal, the hole being driven into the brass
above, but it was not customary for that to be done. They had no rule to the
effect that the fireman was to inspect the holes before charging. He was of
opinion that if the hole had been properly drilled the accident would not
have happened. The men nearest to the shot when it went off were about
forty-seven yards from the face, the others about one hundred and eighty
yards from it. He thought the B, Fig 2, or second shot, did the mischief. It
exploded two minutes after the A shot. The shots were 12 to 13 inches long
and 1£ inches diameter. He believed the second shot going off so soon after
would set fire to the dust caused by the first, which would account for the
flame as spoken to by some of the workmen. He believed the man Thomas who
was found one hundred and eighty yards off had been burnt by the heated air
and not by the flame. Had known a bag of powder fired fifty yards from a
blown-out shot. He had never seen gas in this place ; although the
ventilation had been cut off for fifteen days, nothing had been perceived.
If there had been an explosion of gas, a vacuum would have been caused which
would have drawn out gas, but in the present case there was no such vacuum,
nor was there any afterdamp, which is always left after an explosion. There
is a Workmen's Committee appointed, who examine all the places weekly and
report the result in a book [book produced], and all reports appear
satisfactory. He considers such reports valuable. The total amount of
ventilation is 201,800 cubic feet per minute, of which 31,400 cubic feet
goes into the new coal workings. Since the explosion a set of rules has been
drawn up for the shot lighters, one of which is that no hole is to be
charged until it has been examined by the fireman. He has already had to
condemn four badly bored holes as being like those blown out on the 24th of
April. The lighting of two shots in one place at one time is contrary to
orders, and the fireman ought not to have done so." Mr. Joseph Darlington,
sworn, said—" He was the certificated manager of No. 1 Pit at Wynnstay
Colliery, in which the explosion took place ; he knew ail the deceased who
worked under him ; he was down the pit on the morning in question, and
examined the places about six a.m., but there was no gas to be seen ; it was
the colliers' duty to drill the holes and charge them, then send for the
fireman. His opinion was that the men were burnt from the effects of two
blown-out shots ; the holes were not deep enough, and the powder was put in
the 'fast;' the ramming was too weak, and would be forced out of the hole
without breaking down the coal ; he thought the collier had not been
sufficiently cautious, judging from the position of the holes, and that if
the shots had been properly planted the accident would not
242 MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS.
have occurred. The two shots had been lighted together against orders, and
the lower side one going off first would raise the dust, and the second shot
blowing out would set fire to it, and, in his opinion, the flame would
continue so long as it had any support, and this is what burnt the men. When
he last saw the men they were waiting to have the shots fired. He looked at
the place and found it all right; the men told him they had never seen any
gas in the place. He was about six hundred yards from the place where the
explosion took place, and distinctly felt the shock and rush of wind. He
thought no shot ought to be charged before the fireman had examined the
hole, and orders had since then been given to that effect."
John Hughes, collier, said—" He worked in the new coal in No. 1 Pil, and was
acquainted with all the deceased. On the day of the accident he was down
about six a.m.; he worked in a deep place of the low level ; he heard a shot
fired shortly after noon, as he thought, in the lower level, which went off
all right ; and about ten minutes after he heard another shot go off in what
he believed to be the higher level, closely followed by a great rush of wind
and flash of fire which threw him down in his working place. As soon as
possible he got up and saw some sparks on the level; on getting to the top
of his place he fell again, and could get no further than the main road,
where he found Richard Thomas had been killed ; he was nearly smothered with
dust before getting out. Thomas was a greater distance from the shots than
any of the others."
Thomas Philips, aged 14, horse-driver, said—" He was in the pit on the day
of the explosion and was near to where Richard Thomas was killed ; about a
minute before it happened he had spoken to Thomas, who was taking a tub to
be filled when he met the blast, which threw the tub over to the other side
of him, and he did not see him alive after that. Witness was sitting down at
the time, and was burnt a little on the hands and face. He saw a flame come
along the level and close to his head, and then he was blown over by a great
rush of wind,"
David Roberts, collier, said—" He was working at the Wynnstay Colliery, and
was one of the Workmen's Committee for inspecting the mine, which he
believed was authorised by the New Mines Regulation Act. He knew the place
where the explosion took place, and last visited it on the 18th of April;
there was no gas present ; he never saw gas in that place; he had been in it
frequently ; did not think the deceased were burnt with gas but by powder
from a blown-out shot; the coal-dust had, he thought, caught fire, though he
had never known such a thing to happen before. He was one of twenty-four
workmen who examined the working places and return air-roads every week and
made their report in a book kept for that purpose."
Mr. Thomas Bell was sworn, and said—" I am the Assistant-Inspector of Mines
for the West Lancashire and North Wales district, and am now acting in
charge during Mr. Higson's illness. I examined the workings of the Wynnstay
Colliery four days after the explosion. On the low level I found a shot had
been fired in the coal, which was blown and still lying. It appeared to have
done its work properly. In the" upper level a shot had been fired at A (Fig.
1, Plate LXXIL), doing very little work, simply blowing a small piece of
coal off at a slip in the front in wedge shape. The hole was not drilled
deep enough, having apparently got against the brass at top and been
stopped. A charge of powder -twelve or thirteen inches put in would not
leave much room for stemming. The shot B (Fig. 3) on the rise side
MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS. 243
of the place had been started near the top, and bored at an angle of one in
three, going right through the hard or ' brass,' and not more than half the
depth of the holing. The first shot was in a better position although it did
touch the ' brass.' Powder placed in such a position could not break down
the coal, as it would be held by the seam of ' brass'; and, as the stemming
would be too light to resist the force, it was sufficient to account for the
shot been blown out. The effect of a large charge of powder like this being
blown out with such force would be sufficient to account for the burning of
the four men who were only forty-seven yards off on the upper level, but not
to follow on its course to lower level and burn the boy Philips, who was
about 180 yards off, the flame having to go round two turns at right angles
to the level before reaching the latter place. That two shots had been
lighted at one time in the upper level seems to admit of but little doubt. I
am of opinion that one of two things must have occurred to cause the
explosion, and to do the damage to the mine which the shot of itself could
not do. First, a shot was fired on the lower level about ten minutes before
the explosion, and any gas that might be liberated at that point would be
carried by the current of air to the tipper level, where it would just have
about time to reach when the shot A went off, when it would probably be
augmented by gas coming from the slip or break in the coal, and the two
might be sufficient to foul a portion of the place, and would be ignited by
the shot B. Second, the effect of shot B being blown out with sufficient
force would be to create a partial vacuum in the place, which would be
immediately filled with gas from the cavities in the coal, and would at once
become mixed with sufficient atmospheric air to make it explosive, and would
be ignited by the burning embers left by the shot."
The jury said—" That from the evidence before them, the accident occurred
from an explosion of powder arising from the drill-holes not being
sufficiently bored, and the stemming being improperly secured."
The writers do not think it desirable that they should express any opinion
on this particular case. It is mentioned rather to show to the Institute the
very serious results that have been, and which continue to be, attributed to
this cause, and it is hardly necessary to point out how highly important it
is that the subject should be thoroughly investigated with a view to proper
precautions being taken if they prove to be needed. This subject has special
interest at the present time, because there is a tendency to impute to
blasting in mines, results and dangers which it is questionable whether this
operation, when fairly carried out, does really entail. It was with the
object of gaining some reliable information as to the actual effect of
"blown-out shots," which are no doubt the worst aspect of blasting, that the
experiments, the details of which it is proposed to lay before the
Institute, were undertaken, and with the hope that this beginning might lead
to discussion and a thorough investigation. If it is true that people are
maimed and burned by blasting at distances varying from ten to a hundred and
eighty yards, when there is no fire-damp present to
244 MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS.
cause such destruction, then it is quite clear that this results, either
from the simple force and flame of the shot on account of the weight of the
charge, or from this force and flame assisted by the rapid combustion of
coal dust as it travels on its course ; or, from the force and flame
assisted by an instantaneous emission of gas, in consequence of a partial
vacuum being formed by the rushing blast.
With a view to testing the first of these assumptions, viz., " that the
havoc is caused by the unassisted gunpowder contained in the charge,"
varying charges were fired from a strong iron tube, 2 feet long and
2-g-inches diameter at the face of a slant or adit, which had been driven
down from the surface and arched with brickwork a distance of 45 yards.
(This slant is shown in Plate LXXIIL, Figs. 1 and 2) ; its sectional area
was 30 feet, which would fairly represent a "winning" or "heading." The
stemming was done with small debris, and the mouth of the cannon directed so
that the discharge might pass freely up the slant. Gauze sheets of thin and
easily inflammable material were suspended at intervals of 15 feet by means
of cross pieces of timber, reaching from about two-thirds the height of. the
arching, nearly down to the thill, and in each cross-piece small holes (1
inch diameter and 2 inches deep) were drilled so as to face the blast, and
these were filled with fine gunpowder.
Experiment, No. 1.—Fired 1| lbs. powder ; canvas and cross-piece at 15 feet
knocked down, but no appearance of flame having reached this distance.
Experiment, No. 2.—Fired 2 lbs. powder ; canvas and cross-piece at 15 feet
knocked down, but no appearance of flame having passed.
Experiment, No. 3.—Fired 2^ lbs. powder ; canvas and cross-piece knocked
down at 15 and 30 feet, but no appearance of flame.
Experiment, No. 4.—Fired 2 lbs. powder ; canvas and powder burnt at 15 feet.
Experiment, No. 5.—Fired 2£ lbs. powder ; canvas and cross-piece knocked
down at 15 and 30 feet, but no appearance of flame.
These experiments were continued, but in no case was either canvas or the
powder burnt beyond five yards from the point where the shots were fired.
The tube was afterwards stemmed very tight, so as to cause the explosion to
burst it, but the flame travelled no further in this case. The blast at the
mouth of the slant (45 yards) was certainly perceptible, but comparatively
unimportant.
To test the second assumption, viz., "that the force and flame is assisted
by the rapid combustion of coal dust as it travels on its course," a similar
tube was used, the stemming in this case being small coal j gauze
MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS. 245
sheets and gunpowder were fixed as before at intervals of 15 feet in the
slant; the thill for eight or nine yards from the face was thinly covered
with coal dust obtained from the screens.
Experiment, No. 1.—Fired 1^ lbs. powder; canvas and powder at 15
and 30 feet burnt, at 45 feet not burnt; blast at mouth of slant very
strong.
Experiment, No. 2.—Fired 2 lbs. powder ; canvas and powder at 15,
30, and 45 feet burnt, at 60 feet not burnt; blast very strong, knocking
down the three nearest cross-pieces.
Experiment, No. 3.—Fired 2^ lbs. powder ; canvas and powder at 15,
30, 45, and 60 feet, all burnt; blast at the mouth of the slant a distance
of 45 yards, very fierce, lifting and driving a metal pipe weighing nearly
half a hundredweight 15 yards, and moving a coal tub A, on the pit heap
75 yards distant.
Experiment, No. 4.—Coal dust having been scattered on deals the
whole length of the slant (the thill being very wet), fired 2\ lbs. powder;
in this case flame issued strongly at the mouth of the slant, having
travelled 45 yards. The blast was very fierce, and would certainly have
proved fatal to anyone struck by it in its course.
It was noticeable in these experiments that not only the flame was
largely increased, but the blast was also proportionably greater; and,
bearing in mind that the floor of the slant was very wet, the roof dripping,
and the temperature low (50°), we may fairly assume that in dry mines, at a
high temperature, and where the roads are always thickly covered with fine
dust, that this dust will play a considerable part in extending and adding
to the destructiveness of an explosion.
To pass now to the first part of the third assumption, viz., " on any
partial vacuum being formed in a colliery working there is an instantaneous
emission of fire-damp," it is of course well known that any relief of
atmospheric pressure causes fire-damp to be given off more freely, but since
natural variations of this description are gradual and occur within narrow
limits, it is usually quite practicable to deal with them without much
difficulty. But the assumed condition is much more serious than this, and at
any rate may be supposed to amount to a relief of one-half the natural
pressure, or seven or eight pounds per square inch, and this occurring in an
instant. For the purpose of testing the result of such a sudden and unusual
occurrence in a mine, a wrought iron pipe, 4 inches diameter and 4 feet
long, was procured and fitted with a piston (P) and a vacuum gauge (Y),
Plate LXXIIL, Fig. 3. This instrument when tried experimentally registered a
vacuum of 13 lbs. It was then taken underground,
VOL, XXV.-1876
q 1
246 MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS.
and a hole having been drilled 18 inches deep into the coal on the side of a
level in the Bastian seam (360 yards deep), was inserted and wedged as
air-tight as possible with wooden wedges. On the piston being drawn once
rapidly back, the gauge registered 2^ lbs. for an instant, but the issuing
firedamp seemed immediately to fill the tube, and quickly balanced the
outside pressure. Then forcing the piston forward, fire-damp was driven in
large quantities through the coal in various places at some distance from
the point where the pipe was fixed, and on being lighted, had the appearance
represented in Plate LXXIT. The gauge was now taken off and the firedamp
allowed to escape through the aperture; the issuing gas was in this case
sufficient to feed a flame 8 feet long. The pipe was next inserted in the
face of a " heading" in the Wigan, 9 feet, one of the most fiery seams known
(190 yards deep). On the piston being drawn back, fire-damp followed
instantly, no vacuum being shown. On account of the dangerous character of
the seam, it was not attempted to burn the gas on making the return stroke,
but there was evidently a large quantity forced through the coal as in the
last experiment. The next trial was in the Pemberton, 4 feet (240 yards
deep), a seam considered to make very little gas, but the result was the
same, large quantities being driven out, and its appearance on being lighted
is fairly represented in Plate LXXIV.
Although the superficial area of coal exhausted in these experiments was
very small, amounting only to a few inches, the quantity of fire-damp given
off was very remarkable. Great care was taken to burn it, yet in one
instance a rather serious quantity collected about the roof.
The writers have not as yet succeeded in proving an affirmative as regards
the second part of the third assumption, viz., " that a partial vacuum is
formed by the rushing blast from a blown-out shot." The following
experiments with this object have been carried out:—A boiler was procured,
24 feet long and 6 feet diameter, and having closed all the openings with
the exception of one end, a vacuum gauge was attached, and charges of
powder, varying from \ lb. to 1 lb., fired from a tube fixed at the closed
end, and so directed that the blast might pass freely towards the open end.
A number of shots were fired, but in no case did the gauge register any
vacuum. A small mercurial gauge was also fitted on, but this was put out of
order by the vibration. Having failed with the boiler, the downcast pit in
connection with the slant (D, Plate LXXIIL, Figs. 1 and 2) was next closely
covered with deals and sand, and %\ lbs. of powder fired, but the gauge
still refused to show any relief of pressure. It was noticeable in this last
experiment that through the ventilation being entirely cut off? the effect
of the shot was very slight as compared with similar
MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS. 247
charges fired when the air was passing freely. The writers hope at some
future time to carry these experiments further and record the result, as it
seems quite impossible that there should not be a considerable relief of
pressure, it may be only for an instant, but still appreciable, because the
expanding gases from the powder come in contact with the air passing as
ventilation after having attained considerable velocity, and must
necessarily reverse its direction, and meantime these gases are cooling down
and their pressure rapidly diminishing.
In conclusion, the writers feel confidence in submitting as the result of
their observations and experiments —
1st.—That flame from a " blown-out shot," unassisted by gas or coal dust,
does not travel further than five, or, at the utmost, ten yards, entailing
little or no danger.
2nd.—If coal dust be present, even in a comparatively damp mine, this flame
may travel fifty yards ; that in a dry mine of a high temperature this
distance would be greatly exceeded; and since miners as a rule consider
themselves safe at from fifteen to twenty yards from the point where the
powder is being used, a " blown-out shot" under these circumstances is a
source of great danger.
3rd.—That the violence of the blast from either gunpowder or firedamp is
much increased when coal dust is present.
4th.—That on any partial vacuum being formed in an underground coal-working,
fire-damp will instantly issue in dangerous quantity ; and there are fair
grounds for assuming that a shot blowing out in the face of a narrow
heading, and setting coal dust on fire in its course, would, by its
exhaustive action, produce such a vacuum, and might cause a serious
explosion in a mine practically clear of gas.
5th.—Although no experiments have been made directly to test the result of
coal dust set on fire in air heavily loaded with firedamp, there is every
likelihood that such an occurrence would be attended with grave
consequences.
6th.—That it is desirable that any system of blasting coal which entails
heavy charges of gunpowder and an unusual liability to shots blowing out,
such as blasting without " side-cutting" or " nicking," or using improper
material for "stemming," should be discontinued.
248 MECHANICAL EFFECT OF BLOWN-OUT SHOTS.
7th.—A large body of flame, such as results from a veryTieavy* charge, or
from a "blown-out shot," is required to ignite coal dust; that in blasting
with charges not exceeding twelve ounces, accompanied by the proper
preparation of "holing" and " side-cutting," there is little liability to
this taking place.
As these experiments progressed, the important part which coal dust seemed
to play was forced upon the writers' attention.
There are some interesting remarks as to the amount of work stored up in
coal in a paper forming part of the " Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society," published in November, 1875, contributed by Capt. Noble and
Mr. F. A. Abel, entitled " Fired Gunpowder." They state:—" It is interesting
to compare the above work of gunpowder with the total theoretic work of 1
gramme of coal, which is about 3,400,000 gramme units. The work stored up in
one gramme of coal is therefore more than ten times as great as that stored
up in one gramme of powder (332,128 gramme metres). The powder, it is true,
contains all the oxygen necessary for its own combustion, while the coal
draws nearly 3 grammes of oxygen from the air. Even allowing, however, for
this, there is a considerable inferiority in the work done by gunpowder,
which is doubtless in part due to the fact that the coal finds its oxygen
already in the form of gas, while a considerable amount of work is expended
by the gunpowder in placing its oxygen in a similar condition. In an
economic point of view, also, the oxygen stored up in the gunpowder is of no
importance, as that consumed by coal costs nothing, while the oxygen in the
powder is in a most expensive form. The fact is perhaps worth noting as
demonstrating the impracticability of making economic engines deriving their
motive power from the force of gunpowder." Now it would appear to follow
from these remarks that if coal could be consumed with a rapidity at all
approaching that of gunpowder, then it would partake somewhat of the nature
of an explosive. Perhaps the fact that it has to obtain its oxygen from the
surrounding air is in the way of its attaining anything like instantaneous
combustion, but we must bear in mind that when finely disseminated in air of
a high temperature, it is certainly in a condition most favourable to rapid
combustion.
PROCEEDINGS. 249
PROCEEDINGS.
ANNUAL MEETING, SATURDAY, AUGUST 5th, 1876, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL.
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., President, in the Chair.
The election of officers for the ensuing year was proceeded with, Messrs. S.
C. Crone, J. T. Ramsay, W. Green, and F. Gosman being appointed scrutineers
of the voting papers.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting, which were confirmed and
signed, together with the proceedings of the Council, which were also agreed
to.
The Reports of the Council and Finance Committee were then read.
The President said it devolved upon him to propose the adoption of the
report. He did not know that there was anything special in connection with
it to which he need call their attention. He thought, however, they might
congratulate themselves on the steadily increasing number of members of the
Institute. They were increasing at the rate of something like fifty members
a year, which was really a large number ; and he thought they might also
congratulate themselves that the character of their Proceedings had been
sustained. That this was so, he thought might be proved by the steady
increase in the number sold to the general public, which for the last two
years was very much higher than it had been at any preceding time, last year
the sales realising the sum of £116. Certainly the past year had been an
expensive one, on account of their having held two meetings away from
Newcastle—one in the Barnsley district and the other in London—and this had
very much increased the expenses. There had also been a considerable sum of
money expended in furnishing the suite of rooms for the accommodation of the
members, in common with those of the coal trades of Northumberland and
Durham, their share of which amounted to upwards of £160. But in spite of
all these extra calls upon their funds, their income had exceeded the
expenditure by £80. He, therefore, had much satisfaction in moving the
adoption of the report.
250 PROCEEDINGS.
Mr. E. F. Boyd said he was very happy to second the President's remarks and
the adoption of the report. He thought they might congratulate themselves on
having gone through a very successful year; and a most important sign of
success he conceived to be the great interest which the members continue to
show in the active work of the Institute, which interest he was glad to hear
would be shortly exemplified by the publication of some valuable experiments
on the action of coal dust in mines.
•
The motion was then put and carried.
The following gentlemen were then elected members :—
Members— Mr. J. M. Weight, 21, Collingwood Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr.
Robert Berryman, Hawick Villa, Pershon Road, Birmingham. Mr. Cedric
Vaughan, C. and M.E., Hodbarrow Mines, Leyfield House,
Millom, Cumberland. Mr. Edward Windsor Richards, General Manager,
Messrs. Bolckow,
Vaughan, and Co., Middlesborough.
Student— Mr. George Albert Tucker, Ouston Colliery, near Chester-le-Street.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Members— Mr. Richard Carter, C.E., Cockerham Hall, Barnsley. Mr. Nathaniel
Eckersley, Standish Hall, Wigan. Mr. Thomas Hindmarsh, Cowpen Lodge, Blyth,
Northumberland. Mr. I. W. H. White, St. Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.
Mr. T. Lindsay Galloway, M.A., Ryton-on-Tyne.
Mr. John Ashworth, Rose Hill House, Bradshaw,Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
Mr. Robert Laverick, West Rainton, Fence Houses. Mr. Martin Morrison, Royal
Exchange, Middlesborough. Mr. Wm. Bromilow, Colliery Owner, 9, St. Mary's
Place, Newcastle. Mr. Richard Cuthbert, Beaufront Castle, Northumberland.
Students— Mr. Frank Robinson, Croxdale Rectory, Durham.
Mr. Robert Humble, Usworth Colliery, Washington Station, Co. Durham. Mr. J.
C. B. Hendy, Usworth Colliery, Washington Station, Co. Durham. Mr. William
Donkin, Usworth Colliery, Washington Station, Co. Durham. Mr. Fred. Ernest
Crone, M.E., Killingworth House, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr. F. W. Walker, Harton
Colliery, South Shields. Mr. R. H. Longbotham, Framwellgate Colliery,
Durham.
The Secretary then read a paper communicated by Mr. W. 0. "Wood, on " The
Long-wall Workings at East Hetton Colliery."
LONG-WALL WORKINGS AT EAST HETTON. 251
THE LONG-WALL WORKINGS AT EAST HETTON" COLLIERY.
By Mr. W. 0. WOOD.
About two years ago a system of long-wall was introduced by the writer in
the Harvey seam at this colliery, which has proved very successful, and has
been considerably extended since that period.
The mode of working is not at present practised, he believes, at any other
colliery in the Counties of Durham or Northumberland; and a description of
the system may be interesting to many of the members of the Institute.
The Harvey seam at East Hetton is 135 fathoms from the surface, and varies
from 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 9 inches thick of clean coal. The thill of
the seam is a bed of coarse seggar (hereafter called the band), varying from
5 inches to 18 inches, and in some places 2 feet in thickness, and below
this there is 5 inches of coal.
The roof consists of blue metal, with post girdles of varying thickness.
There is always at least 6 inches of blue metal next the coal. The top of
the seam adheres very strongly indeed to the metal, so that it is impossible
to separate them without using powder.
After working a portion of this seam for some time by the usual method of
modified long-wall practised in the district, and obtaining a produce of 52
per cent, of round coal, the writer determined to try the long-wall as
worked in Derbyshire and South Yorkshire, viz., to work the coal in a
straight face as long as practicable, and to underhole in the coal and band
below the seam, at the same time dividing the labour into three
classes, viz.:—
1st. The holer or kirver ; to be paid by the yard.
2nd. The getter ; to be paid by the shift.
3rd. The filler; to be paid by the " score." The last to be an inferior
class of workmen, and to be paid considerably lower wages than the former
more skilled men.
Very considerable opposition was experienced when introducing this system,
not only by the men on the colliery, but also by the executive of
252 LONG-WALL WORKINGS AT EAST HKTTON.
the Miners' Union; but it was decided by an arbitration, in which Messrs.
John Taylor and T. Taylor-Smith acted on behalf of the owners, and Messrs.
W. Crawford and Forman on behalf of the men, that the system should go on,
and that the hours of the fillers should be eight hours bank to bank.
The duties of the various classes of men are defined as follows :—The holers
to kirve under the seam 3 feet 6 inches, or such distance beyond that as may
be agreed upon from time to time. To cast back all band, &c, got in the
kirving into the goaf, and to keep it out in front of the timbers and packs
; to put in their own stays where required. After finishing the holing or
kirving the prescribed distance, all band, stone, dirt, small, or refuse, to
be cleared away along the face, so that the coal will fall upon the clean
thill. The getters to take down at nights the coal made ready during the
day. The fillers to fill the coals and to take down all loose coal shaken by
the shots or wedges along the face ; their hours to be eight hours, bank to
bank.
In commencing the system in 1874, a face of about 250 yards in width, in No.
1 district (see Plate LXXV.), was selected for the experiment. This has
since been gradually extended to 386 yards, the roads now being 200 yards
into the goaf. Other two districts have also been sometime in operation; No.
2 having a face of 300 yards; No. 3 having a face of 480 yards, so that
there are now 1,166 yards of face in daily work.
The present output from these districts averages 330 tons per day.
METHOD OF WORKING.
The variable thickness of the band below the seam renders it necessary to
alter somewhat the plan of keeping the faces, although the method of working
is the same ; and it is therefore requisite to describe separately each
mode—1st, where the band is thick, i.e., from 8 inches to 18 inches and
upwards, Plate LXXVL, Fig. 1 ; 2nd, Fig. 2, where it is thin, i.e., below 8
inches.
With the thick band the gateways are arranged 40 yards apart; the main or
rolleyway gates are 9 feet wide between the pillars, which are packed 12
feet thick on either side. These pillars are chiefly made with the stone
taken down to make height. The off-gates are packed 9 feet to 10 feet thick.
Plate LXXYL, Fig. 1.
Between the gates, and 9 feet apart, are built middle packs, composed of the
larger pieces of band from under the seam. These middle packs are about 6
feet in thickness, and are built up to within 4
LONG-WALL WORKINGS AT EAST HETTON. 253
feet to 6 feet of the face between the packs; the smaller band, dirt, or
refuse is cast or "gobbed" up to the roof. These middle packs effectually
support the roof, and very little timber is required, the average being a
prop to each two yards. These props are from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 6
inches long, and 7 inches to 8 inches diameter at the top.
Two holers are employed in each gateway, one in the fore shift and the other
in the back shift. They kirve in the 5 inches of bottom coal, and the weight
on the face of the coal causes the band to fall away from the seam (which is
supported by stays and chocks) as the kirving advances, and is then cast
back into the goaf or packs. After the holing is completed, the face is
timbered close up, and the back timber drawn out.
At night the getters take down the coal thus prepared during the day. These
men are under the charge of an inspector, who carefully examines the faces,
and with each set of getters a competent man is employed to fire the shots
required to bring down the coal.
The fillers fill during the day the coal taken down the previous night. Half
of them go into the pit at 6 a.m., riding at 2 p.m.; and the remainder at 8
a.m., riding at 4 p.m.
The hands employed in working the coal are as follows :—-
Per Cent. Holers... ... ... ... ...
55-8
Fillers............ ... 30-9
Getters ... ... ... ...
13-3
100-0
At the face of each gateway a double turn is laid, and the tubs are taken
along the face 20 yards on each side. The way is laid by the fillers as the
coals are removed ; and to avoid the use of plate nails, the sleepers, which
are 2^ inches thick, have a notch cut out for the plate ends to rest in.
This answers remarkably well, and prevents great waste of nails and
sleepers. As the face advances, cross-gates are formed at from 70 to 80
yards, or such further distances as may be convenient. (See Plate LXXV.).
It is found that the face progresses at the rate of about 3 yards per pay of
11 days, or 78 yards per annum if full time is worked.
"With the thin band the method of working, as before stated, is identical
with the thick band, but as the band is much thinner, there is not
sufficient material to form the middle packs, and instead of support-
VOL. XXV.-1876.
jj 1
254 LONG-WALL WORKINGS AT EAST HETTON.
ing the roof by them and props, two rows of chocks are used, which are
shifted up to the face in the usual manner (Fig. 2, Plate LXXVL). The
kirvings are cast back behind these chocks, special care being taken to
prevent them being buried or lost.
FORMATION OF GOAF.
In consequence of the goaf being so well packed there are no falls; the roof
bends down and gradually subsides upon the debris behind the face.
Where the band is thinner, as in the last described district, and no middle
packs are formed, occasionally a piece of blue falls about 8 inches or 10
inches thick behind the chocks, although this seldom occurs. This gradual
subsidence goes on for about 70 to 80 yards back from the face, where it is
found the goaf has become quite settled. The roof of the rolleyway gates is
very good, requiring no timber, and the off-gates are generally in the same
condition, a prop being an unusual thing.
There is frequently some trouble in keeping the faces in first forming the
districts. When the gates are about 40 yards up, the weight generally comes
on suddenly, occasionally breaking down at the face. After this, the weight
and settlement is quite gradual.
VENTILATION.
The ventilation of the workings is very simple; the air is carried to the
extreme in-bye point of the workings, and back along the face, the current
of air employed being from 8,000 to 10,000 cubic feet per minute, according
to the length of face open—a scale is kept on the gateways sufficient to
keep them well ventilated.
WASTE OR LOSS OF COAL. It will at once be seen that in this long-wall the
waste is very much less than in board and pillar; practically, the whole of
the seam is got. For the purpose of comparing the two systems, 2\ per cent,
is calculated as waste or loss in long-wall working, while 5 per cent, is
calculated for loss in board and pillar.
PRODUCE OF ROUND.
The produce of round coal on the old system from the Harvey seam, over a #
inch screen, is :—
From the whole mine ...............52 per cent.
From the pillars ..................44 „
And as one-fourth of the mine is got in the whole, and three-fourths in
pillars (the pillars being 20 yards by 30 yards); the average produce
throughout the seam is 46 per cent, of round coal:—
Tons.
Taking an acre of coal 3 feet 6 inches thick to yield...... 5.317
Deducting 5 per cent, for loss in working ......... 265
Net yield ............5,052
Quantity of round produced per acre at 46 per cent....... 2,323
The produce of round in this long-wall system has been repeatedly tested,
and runs from 68 per cent, to 69 per cent; the last time over a quantity of
330 tons, 68*3 per cent, was realised :—
Tons. Taking an acre of coal 3 feet 6 inches thick as before ... 5,317
Deduct 2\ per cent, for loss in working............ 132
Net yield ............5,185
Quantity of round per acre at 68 per cent..........3,525
An increase of round per acre over pillar and stall, of ... 1,202
COST OF WORKING.
Before entering into this part of the subject, it is only fair to state
that, so far as working costs are concerned, the system is in a transition
state, and, as explained below, the present working charges will be much
reduced. In developing new methods of working, experience points out, and
suggests from time to time, many improvements, both in economy and in the
method of dealing with difficulties which can only be taken advantage of as
circumstances permit.
LABOUR.
As the cost of putting, driving, deputy work, and other classes of labour
are the same under this system as in board and pillar, it is only necessary
to give the costs of getting the coal, and such incidental charges
256 LONG-WALL WORKINGS AT EAST HETTON.
as are requisite for that purpose. The present cost of working the
long-wall at current rates of wages, is as follows:—
Holing ........................ 1 004
Getting and inspecting.................. 0 4'97
Filling ...... .................. 0 4-23
Total Hewing......... 1 9-24
Making gateways, crossgates, packs, and all shift work of
every description .................. 0 7*09
Total cost ..... ... 2 4-33
The cost of working board and pillar in the same seam, is as follows :—
Per Ton. s. d. In the whole mine, including yard work ... ...
... 1 11'4
In the broken mine, including all shift work, lowering and
making height.....................1 10
As one-fourth of the mine is got in the whole, and three-fourths in the
Hrnkp/n. thp.n thf>. post of whnlft and hrnkfvn is •—
Per Ton. s. d. 1 @ Is. 11-4d. + 3 @ Is. lOd. _ x 10<3
4
Cost of long-wall ..................2 4*33
Cost of board and pillar ...............1 10*30
Extra cost of long-wall per ton...... 0 6
The writer expects, in the course of a short time, to reduce the cost of
holing by 2d. per ton. It is also expected to do away with the cost of
making and keeping the gateways, by winning out faces in given areas or
stints, by narrow places, and bringing the faces back instead of carrying
them forward through the goaf as at present. It is estimated that this will
further diminish the cost about 3d. per ton, so that the extra cost of
working this long-wall will not exceed Id. per ton more (with a produce of
68*3 per cent, of round coals) than the old system with a produce of 46 per
cent.
MATERIAL. After a district is once timbered along the face, the consumption
of timber is extremely light. In Nos. 1, 2, and 3 districts, over five
pays, and with an output of 13,930 tons, the timber consumed was as
follows:—
£ s. d.
144 chocks at 4|d. each ............... 2 17 0
91 props at Is. 9d. each ............... 7 19 3
Total ........ 10 16 3
Cost per ton..................... 0 0 0-018
LONG-WALL WORKINGS AT EAST HETTON. 257
No brattice is used except for doors, and the quantity of plates, sleepers,
&c, for a given output are much less than in the board and pillar.
COMMERCIAL RESULTS.
Although there is no doubt the present cost of working will be greatly
reduced, and ultimately will not exceed that of board and pillar by more
than Id. per ton, it will be as well to take the point of difference as it
now stands in estimating the result arrived at. This is calculated on the
gain of round coal per acre, which has already been shown to be 1,202 tons.
Supposing the difference of the value of round and small to be 5s. per ton.
then—
£ . s. d.
The gross gain of round per acre is 1,202 tons, at 5s ... 300 10 0
Deduct extra cost of working 5,185 tons (the yield from
one acre), at 6d...................129 12 6
Net gain per acre ......... 170 17 6
There are continued variations in difference of the value of round and
small, and the following table shows the result at various differences of
from 4s. to 8s. per ton:—
Difference Gross Gain on Net Gain per Acre, Net Gain
per Acre, Net Gain per Acre,
in value increased yield of after deducting
after deducting after deducting
between 1,202 Tons of Round increase in working increase in
working increase in working
Round and Coals per Acre (out expenses of 6d. per expenses of
4d. per expenses of 2d. per
Small. of 5,185 Tons). Ton on 5,185 Tons. Ton
on 5,185 Tons. Ton on 5,185 Tons.
s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.
£ s. d. £ a. d.
4 0 240 8 0 110 15 6 153 19 8
197 3 10
4 6 270 9 0 140 16 6 184 0 8
227 4 10
5 0 300 10 0 170 17 6 214 1 8
257 5 10
5 6 330 11 0 200 18 6 244 2 8
287 6 10
6 0 360 12 0 230 19 6 274 8 8
317 7 10
6 6 390 13 0 261 0 6 304 4 8
347 8 10
7 0 420 14 0 291 1 6 334 5 8
377 9 10
7 6 450 15 0 321 2 6 364 6 8
407 10 10
8 0 480 16 0 351 3 6 394 7 8
437 11 10
Calculating the increased working expenses at 2d. instead of 6d., the result
will be as tabulated, and this, the writer is quite sure, will ultimately be
the normal figure in the East Hetton long-wall.
In conclusion, the writer wishes to remark that he has endeavoured to bring
the subject before you in a practical and condensed form, and
t
258 DISCUSSION—LONG-WALL AT EAST HETTON.
has avoided amplifying details as far as possible. He hopes, however, he has
succeeded in making it perfectly clear, and begs your kind consideration for
any imperfections that may be found to exist.
Since the above was written, the cost has, as anticipated, been reduced 2d.
per ton on the prices paid to holers, so that the extra cost now stands at
4d. only above board and pillar.
The Secretary stated that Mr. Hall from East Hetton was there in the absence
of Mr. Wood to answer any questions.
The President said that, as Mr. Wood was absent it would hardly be fair to
enter into a discussion of the paper, which he thought a very useful one,
and which would require much careful study; a great many points would be
open for discussion when the paper was printed and in the hands of the
members. Certainly if an additional thousand tons of large coal per acre
could be obtained by this mode of working it would be a very great saving.
At present the cost per ton being more than the usual mode of working, the
saving did not amount to very much ; but, if Mr. Wood could reduce the cost
of getting down the coal to about the same cost, or even Id. or 2d. above
it, and get nearly 22 per cent, more round coals, it would be a very
considerable saving.
Mr. Daglish stated that the system of working described by Mr. Wood was
exactly that which was in operation both in the four feet seam in South
Wales and at Barnsley, in Yorkshire, at the present time, wherever they had
sufficient material to fill up the goaf. The advantage there was found to be
very great ; but in neither of these districts had they separate sets of
men, although they had separate sets near Nottingham, where the long-wall
was extensively worked. He thought this was the point at issue; whether
there was a saving in this division of labour, or whether there was not a
certain rest for a man in changing from holing to filling and getting down,
and he thought this question of the division of labour required considerable
and careful examination.
Mr. E. F. Boyd asked if Mr. Dagiish could tell them whether he had ever seen
an instance where the whole face was taken in hand by a set of gangers or
overlookers who hired their holers, getters, and fillers ? He rather thought
that in some part of the eastern side of Warwickshire there were instances
where a set of men would take in one contract, to keep the face, put in all
the timber and tramways, do all the shift-work, and hire men to produce the
coal at so much per ton. If such a practice could be introduced along with
the advantage of realising an extra quantity per acre, it would probably
increase the value of this long-wall system
DISCUSSION—LONG-WALL AT EAST HETTON. 259
very much. He might also ask Mr. Hall if he could tell them in what
direction the line of the face was in this case—whether it was headways-wise
or boardways-wise that they worked ?
Mr. Hall, in answer to several questions by Mr. Boyd and other gentlemen,
stated that the line of face was board ways to the coal, and the seam rises
about one inch to the yard as it is being worked, so that any water drains
away down the gateways, and is thus carried off without difficulty. They
are working with lamps and shooting down the coal.
Mr. Boyd thought that they were fortunate in being able to work to the rise
so that the drainage was carried away without difficulty, as described, for
in some cases of long-wall he had seen in Scotland the face was at such an
angle to the rise that the drainage came down past the workmen, and gathered
at the extreme edge of the face, where it had to be extracted at great cost
and inconvenience.
Mr. Hall said, in answer to Mr. Daglish and other gentlemen, that they found
it a very great advantage to the men having these different classes of
labourers. The getters, who were a superior class of men, perhaps felt the
advantage the most; they of course had nothing to do but to put in the holes
for the shots and shoot down the coal. The holders or kirvers undercut the
band and cast it back into the goaf in the manner indicated by the rules ;
they also fix the stays. After some experience at this work many of them
advance to be getters. The fillers, who had nothing to do but to shovel the
coals into the tubs, were the lowest class of labourers. There is no
difficulty in recovering the props and chocks. The holes for shooting were
about 5 feet apart. The Harvey seam had a " scabby" roof, with a very bad
parting between the coal and the stone, and in consequence very little
advantage was derived from the weight above.
Mr. E. F. Boyd asked if the action of the creep taking place behind in the
goaf did not put some pressure at least on the face of the coal, which
rendered the shooting", lighter.
Mr. Hall said that he had not found this to be the case. Whatever pressure
there was some distance back did not extend to the face ; however, the roof
in coming down left ridges or waves every 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet,
corresponding to the depth of the kirving. No heat is developed in the
workings.
Mr, Simpson asked Mr. Hall if he had any idea of the amount of small coal
left below?
Mr. Hall—The 68 or 69 per cent, mentioned in the paper means that 68 or 69
per cent, of the total quantity of coal brought to bank is
260 DISCUSSION—LONG-WALL AT EAST HETTON.
round or Wallsend; the small coals and band cast back are not considered as
part of the seam, and are not included in the disposable contents of the
seam, since that portion which lies under the band would be lost in every
case and under all circumstances. Winning places are driven in advance of
the face for the purpose of drawing off the gas and making the workings more
safe. In answer to a question, Mr. Hall admitted that in the board and
pillar working, with which the long-wall working was compared, the kirving
was in the coal above the band, and this fact, and not the mere long-wall
system, materially increased the quantity of round coal gotten. He was not
in a position to say how much percentage of saving there would be in the
long-wall over the board and pillar kirved in the band, but he was sure it
would be very great, and all the extra small due to the broken in coming
back would be saved, besides it is quite impossible to kirve in the band in
the whole mine.
In answer to further questions from the President, Mr. Hall stated that the
roof consisted of from 6 inches to 15 inches of blue metal, above which was
from 2 feet to 5 feet of post girdles, and above this strong grey metal,
which made a very good roof, and favourable to the mode of working adopted.
The President stated that he had found one of the greatest difficulties in
this system of working was to keep the roof good near the face, especially
when the face was very long. In working the long-wall, where the roof was
not good, this difficulty was diminished by advancing the juds, as it were,
one in front of the other so as not to have one long straight face.
Mr. Hall preferred the long unbroken face.
Mr. Logan asked Mr. Hall if he had tried the method with such a roof as was
to be found in the five-quarter seam of the district, if the exposure of
such a long straight face had a tendency to harden the roof, and if the same
method would answer equally well with soft and hard roofs ?
Mr. Hall said that such was the case, it " winded" the roof, as it was
technically called.
The President moved a vote of thanks to Mr. "Wood for his paper, which was
seconded by Mr. Boyd, and carried unanimously.
Mr. A. M. Potter then read the following paper on—" Apparatus for saving the
Breakage of Coals when falling from Colliery Screens into Wagons."
APPARATUS FOR SAVING THE BREAKAGE OP COALS. 261
APPARATUS FOR SAVING THE BREAKAGE OF COALS WHEN FALLING FROM COLLIERY
SCREENS INTO WAGONS.
By Mr. A. M. POTTER.
The large quantity of small coal now worked, and brought to the surface at
many of the collieries in Northumberland and Durham, and its comparatively
worthless value, renders it of great importance that every endeavour should
be made, not only to reduce the percentage of small coal worked in the pit,
but to prevent any further breakage of the round coal from the tub into the
wagon. At present the round coal falling from the foot of the screen into an
empty wTagon, a height varying from 6 feet to 8 feet, breaks the coal
considerably.
At Shire Moor Colliery an apparatus has been arranged which almost entirely
avoids this breakage, and enables the colliery to produce even a larger coal
than before over a smaller screen, and has had practically the effect of
causing a diminution of small coal to the extent of from five to ten per
cent., and in fact entirely preventing the breakage of the coal in falling
from the screen into the wagon.
The following is a short description of the apparatus, which will be
understood by reference to accompanying Plate, No. LXXVIII.—A tray A,
slightly longer than the width of the screen B, and about 2 feet 6 inches
Avide, is hung underneath the flat part of the screen by two chains C C,
working over pulleys D D, and balanced by two weights E E, which are heavier
than the tray. The back chain C is attached to the tray by two iron rods, F
F, which work in guides G G at each side of the end of the screen. In these
rods are a number of holes H H, about six inches apart, in which pins 11 are
placed equidistant from the tray to regulate its descent. The balance
weights are held down by a weighted lever K until the weight of coal on the
tray is heavier than the lever, and therefore raises it, and disengages the
weights; the tray then descends into the wagon, and when reaching the
required depth the back chain is checked by the pins I I striking the low
guides L L, w7hich causes all the coal to slide off the tray, thus
depositing it without any fall into the wagon.
VOL. XXV.—1876.
T ,
262 13ISCUSSI0N—BREAKAGE OF COAL.
The tray being empty, the weights bring it back to its original position,
and at the same time by two catches the weights fall under the lever, and
the whole apparatus is ready for work again. It may be stated that the
apparatus is self-acting, excepting that the screeners have, by altering the
pins, to regulate the descent of the tray as the wagon fills, all being
accomplished without any loss of time.
The President said the machine seemed to him to be a very ingenious mode of
lowering the coals into the wagons without breakage. He had very often tried
to arrive at a good practical and economical way of doing this, but had
never succeeded in procuring a machine that seemed to do it so easily and so
effectively.
Mr. Potter said that one of these machines had been at work for about eight
weeks and had done all that was required of it, namely, preventing any
breakage of the coal when falling into the wagon; and to prove its
efficiency they had re-screened some wagons, and found that the coal in a
wagon loaded by this machine over a half inch screen, was as large as that
passing over an inch screen without the machine—the great saving being in
the lower part of the wagon.
Mr. Boyd asked if the machine could be made to weigh the round so as to form
a sort of " Billy Fairplay."
Mr. Potter stated that they were arranging the apparatus so as to weigh the
coal on the tray before it descended into the wagon, but as yet it was
unfinished ; the chief difficulty in doing this is the size of the tray,
which has to be large enough to contain the whole of the " round" coals in a
tub.
The President, in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Potter, stated that his
paper was one that had a similar object to that contributed by Mr. W. 0.
Wood, viz., increasing the quantity of large coal. At the present time any
contrivance for doing this was of the greatest value, both to the employers
and employed.
Mr. Boyd seconded the motion, which was carried by acclamation.
The meeting then separated.
APPENDIX No. I,
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS
FOR 1875.
By the SECRETARY.
These readings have been obtained from the observatories of Kew and Glasgow,
and will give a very fair idea of the variations of temperature and
atmospheric pressure in the intervening country, in which most of the mining
operations in this country are carried on.
The Kew barometer is 34 feet, and the Glasgow barometer 180 feet above the
sea level. The latter readings have been reduced to 32 feet above the sea
level, by the addition of *150 of an inch to each reading, and both readings
are reduced to 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
The fatal accidents have been obtained from the Inspectors' reports, and are
printed across the lines, showing the various readings. The name of the
colliery at which the explosion took place is given first, then the number
of deaths, followed by the district in which it happened.
At the request of the Council the exact readings at both Kew and Glasgow
have been published in figures.
VOL. XXV., 1878.—APPENDIX No. I.
a
2 BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS.
BAROMETER READINGS, &C. JANUARY, 1875.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Baeometer. peeatuee.
Baeometer. peeattjre.
I 4A.M. 10 a.m. 4 p.m. io«.S£2£ J 4a-m- 10a-m- **•*• l0™-S:S:
1 30-150 30-161 30-030 29'842 33-4 199 1
29'990 ...... 29'662 29-398 351 19'9
2 29-721 29-927 29'988 29-923 44-0 31-0 2
29'288 29-396 29'572 29-540 42-3 34-0
3 29-775 29-928 30-048 30'032 507 41'1 3
29-392 29-384 29'650 29-776 453 38-0
4 29-901 29-866 29766 29-756 50'4 4V2 4
29'626 29-496 ...... 29180 40'2 36-6
5 29-843 29-967 29'996 30-002 49'6 40'9 5
29-618 29-686 29-690 29-692 47'0 38'5
6 29-988 30-011 30-009 30'023 49'3 39'9 6
29'666 29'658 29'684 29'724 49'4 44'5
7 30-014 30-051 30-081 30-137 42'8 39-4 7
2^828 29-890 29-940 30-032 45'9 40-2
8 30-128 30-126 30'091 30075 427 37'1 8
30-062 30-014 29-934 29-896 40'1 32-2
9 30-028 29-983 29-881 29-813 46'5 381 9
29-812 29758 29-650 29-578 44-1 35-2
10 29-783 29-773 29752 29766 45'8 370 10
29'622 29-640 29-670 29-680 44'9 41-5
11 29789 29-825 29'828 29-864 49'0 39'0 11
29702 29740 29-734 29-750 42'9 40'0
12 29-869 29-906 29-918 30-009 49"3 40'9 12
29748 29742 29750 29-808 46'0 38'9
13 30030 30-070 30-060 30-060 49'6 42"9 13
29-818 29'834 29-800 29-820 48'1 44-0
14 30-037 30-044 30'084 30-093 511 44'9 14
29716 29708 29-788 29-840 51-0 43'3
15 30-014 29-863 29'802 29'844 50'8 451 15
29'694 29-446 29'274 29'376 51'0 44'5
16 29-722 29-614 29-610 29-700 51'3 44-4 16
29'362 29-334 29'352 29-370 47'0 42'0
17 29-700 29-699 29'679 29721 48"8 441 17
29'430 29'510 29182 29-462 47'0 38'5
18 29-784 29-749 29'650 29-870 53'3 45'8 18
29-430 29-256 29'350 29-31. 50-3 44'4
19 29-872 29-900 29'846 29708 52'8 47'2 19
29"230 29'230 29'204 29-092 517 42-5
20 29-628 29-712 29-571 29'494 53"6 43'4 20
29-(i54 29-210 29'104 29'104 44-9 38'4
21 29-336 29-462 29'263 29-307 45'8 38'3 21
29-221 29-341 29'359 29-473 393 291
22 29-705 29-892 29'972 29-990 42'2 31'5 22
29597 29735 29-801 29751 37'0 312
23 29-851 29-602 29-600 29'525 53'6 481 23
29"501 29'359 29-311 29'215 39'3 32-3
24 29-316 29-184 29'065 29-127 50"9 40'9 24
29'827 29-661 29-634 29'684 43'4 35'4
25 29-157 29-253 29"528 29732 46'3 38'7 25
29'852 29-148 29142 29724 42-0 34'0
26 29-918 30-157 30'240 30 243 42'6 36'2 26
29-930 30-008 29'929 29799 457 323
27 30-216 30-235 30'183 30-167 50'3 40'9 27
29'803 29'827 29719 29'753 497 44'2
28 30-163 30-214 30-228 30-252 51'8 42-0 28
29'777 29'773 29790 29-886 477 351
29 30-262 30-291 30-197 30'165 51'3 40'0 29
30'060 30-166 ...... 30-341 43"2 33'9
30 30-355 30-567 30-607 30-640 49'9 32'5 30
30-431 30-475 30-403 30-333 44-5 32'5
31 30-614 30-569 30-476 30-434 43'3 317 31
30'281 30'145 30-155 30-079 481 44-7
FEBRUARY, 1875.
1 30-377 30-365 30-300 30-294 47'4 29-9 1
30-031 30-037 30'005 30'021 47"0 42'9
2 30-246 30-230 30-147 30-087 43'2 28'9 2
30-039 30'083 30'045 29-980 43-2 36'2
3 29-941 29-911 29-897 29'905 43'3 29-9 3
29'882 29'870 29'874 29'920 40'9 321
4 29-933 30-005 30-059 ! 30-175 40'8 30-1 4
29-954 30'044 30-088 30-184 37'5 27'1
5 30-261 30-339 30-338 30'359 367 28'1 5
30230 30-264 30234 30-220 35"0 24'3
6 30-339 30-329 30-245 30-159 393 24-9 6
30-174 30'144 30-086 30-060 367 331
7 30-080 30-103 30-116 30-142 397 31-5 7
30-026 30-012 29"982 I 29'986 39'0 35'3
8 30-166 30-225 30-225 30'230 33'8 29'5 8
30'056 30-144 30-165 ! 30-133 37 5 307
9 30-191 30-116 30-054 30-087 338 28'0 9
30055 30021 30-011 i 30-081 36'4 305
10 30-100 30-158 30-173 30-194 339 31-5 10
30-073 30'073 30'021 ' 29'997 36'5 SO'l
11 30-179 30-160 30-065 29 987 384 30-5 11
29'927 29-801 29-641 | 29'643 419 351
12 29-876 29-855 29-858 29'942 45'8 36-2 12
29713 29767 29791 j 29'843 421 34'2
13 30-004 30-058 30-048 30'061 44-3 39'0 13
29-801 29785 29723 ! 29'679 49'2 39'1
14 30-003 30-020 29-980 30'049 49'8 43'5 14
29'583 29-691 29-801 ; 29'931 48'7 40'1
15 30-133 30-248 30-294 I 30-417 49'6 34-0 15
30-027 30'125 30'277 ! 30-361 47'3 377
16 30-455 30-487 30-403 1 30-289 46'0 30-0 16
30-383 30397 30-354 - 30108 49'6 38-0
17 30-257 30-246 30-194 j 30-205 45-3 37'0 17
30-420 30-428 30381 30-377 45'0 35-0
18 30-175 30-200 30-169 ! 30189 39-8 33'0 18
30-353 30-361 30-298 30'292 39"5 300
19 30-164 30-143 30'060 j 30-069 34-6 30'0 19
30-294 30-322 30-318 30-328 37'3 328
20 30-008 29-998 30-012 30-042 327 28'9 20
30-318 30'334 30-341 30-351 37'0 32-3
21 30-038 30106 30-096 i 30-152 373 31'8 21
30-351 30 403 30-406 30-414 40'0 34-3
22 30133 30-130 30-076 30-040 37'9 29'5 22
30-346 30-308 30 211 30-159 39'5 34-2
23 29-933 29-831 29 678 29-580 34-5 29'5 23
30-017 29-909 29786 29780 37'0 30-0
24 29-419 29-314 29-265 29-329 35'9 25-5 24
29'656 29-592 29-604 29'628 36'2 29-1
25 29-358 i'9141 29'466 29-528 42-0 32-0 25
29606 29'626 29-648 29'669 35-9 32'6
26 29493 29-518 29-469 29-476 45'3 34-5 26
29'692 29'684 29736 29784 37'2 33-8
27 29-537 29-6<>7 29'642 29'684 387 31'0 27
29792 29-832 29-881 29 919 370 j 34-1
28 29-708 29-756 29739 29746 337 30-5 28
i9-933 29-955 29-943 29943 34'6 329
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS. 3
BAROMETER READINGS, &C. MARCH, 1875.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Baeometee. iem-
Barometee.
PEEATUEE. u«i«j««ijiii.
PEEATUEE.
| 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 4 P.M. 10 P.M. JJSSK; | 4A.M. 10
A.M. 4 P.M. 10 P.M. ^ M^
1 29-725 29-74(5 29'739 29-759 33-6 30'0 1
29'929 29"983 30-000 30-058 34'6 32"5
2 29-735 29786 29789 29'835 34'6 30-5 2
30-044 30-066 30'042 30-054 388 33-8
3 29-810 29-835 29'855 29'915 37'0 32'5 3
30-018 30-062 30'062 30'106 37'1 33-8
4 29-927 29-983 29-959 29'990 40'0 31-0 4
30M'68 30-064 30-002 30-002 38'7 31-8
5 29-966 29-961 29-891 29-896 477 28"5 5
29-974 29-954 29'834 29-798 39'5 29'2
6 29-775 29-734 29-657 29"664 49"6 36"0 6
29"642 29-554 29'492 29-408 42'0 31'2
7 29-702 29-846 29-896 29-876 54'6 44"5 7
29'306 29-368 29-497 29'537 51'0 37'9
8 29-893 30-028 30'048 30-011 56'7 50'3 8
29'617 29'751 29'772 29'584 51'2 44'0
9 29-812 29-8?2 30-101 30'312 54'3 40'9 9
29-158 29-640 30-024 30-226 48"1 36-9
10 30-383 30-423 30-365 30'367 49'3 30'1 10
30-326 30-368 30-333 30'353 47"3 32-0
11 30-295 30-251 30'140 30-097 45'3 32'2 11
30'313 30-307 30-250 30'286 44'6 32-3
12 29-998 29-959 29-904 29'909 40'9 34"5 12
30-228 30-196 30-109 301i 3 37-6 33-8
13 29-906 29-926 29-924 29-967 42'2 37'0 13
30-103 30-123 30-123 30'159 37'8 34-9
14 29-981 30-065 30'061 30-110 46'2 34'6 14
30'147 30'175 30-169 30-201 40'2 35'3
15 30-103 30-149 30-137 30-183 47'8 31'0 15
30-191 30-213 30'173 30-l»7 41'2 31-1
16 30-199 30-213 30-150 30'156 45-8 31-9 16
30-151 30-147 30-156 30-246 41'1 297
17 30-176 30-269 30'340 30-503 43"5 35'9 17
30-364 30-528 30-598 30-616 39'0 350
18 30-545 30-583 30-461 30-377 405 31'2 18
30'592 30-486 30-283 30-111 457 30"5
19 30-202 30-113 30-085 30-091 46'8 32-2 19
30'095 30-137 30-086 30'144 45'4 34-0
20 30-097 30-119 30-093 30-138 41-3 32-0 20
30'136 30-172 30-101 30-111 43-5 27'0
21 30-125 30-152 30-148 30164 417 34'9 21
30'081 30-183 30-062 30-074 50-3 36-1
22 30-110 30-066 30'043 30-145 50'3 34-8 22
30'072 ' 30-094 30-110 30192 53-2 39'4
23 30-219 30-336 30-331 30-368 46'5 32-2 23
30220 30'256 30-252 30-258 513 40-3
24 30-344 30-356 30-336 30-369 53'0 31-0 24
30-212 30-164 30-131 30451 517 422
25 30-373 30-:!64 30-293 30'275 55'4 38'8 25
30-109 30'029 30'904 30'890 49'0 45'9
26 30-2(9 30-218 30-143 30 125 54'8 44-1 26
30-886 30-862 30'852 30-826 50-1 41"4
27 30-119 30-067 30'000 30-021 54'6 38'5 27
29714 29'804 29'833 29'967 45-2 37'3
28 30-058 30-195 30-255 30-316 467 36'9 28
30-111 30-173 30'227 30-309 49'5 35"9
29 30-376 30-441 :s0-432 30-444 50-8 38'0 29
30-315 30-337 30'325 30-353 49-2 41'0
30 30-431 30-473 30-470 30-505 537 42-4 30
30-365 30-427 30436 30'494 j 53'0 42'5
31 30-503 30-523 30'497 30-537 55'9 436 31
30'504 30-528 30507 30-523 52"4 41-8
APRIL, 1875.
1 30-515 30-535 30-485 30-491 523 429 1
30-513 30-507 30-464 30-432 49-1 41'5
2 30-455 30-433 30-311 30-217 53'4 42'0 2
30'324 30'246 30-069 29'933 48-1 43'0
3 30-116 30-029 29'851 29'748 526 40'3 3
29749 29-527 29-325 29-219 49-5 43'8
4 29-643 29-673 29-615 29-529 55'8 44-9 4
29289 29'435 29'419 29'345 46-0 36'5
5 29339 29-257 29'267 29-339 538 43-4 5
29131 28-955 28'955 28'892 42"2 34-1
6 29-367 29-443 29-444 29123 531 40'9 6
29064 29-134 29145 29-125 48'0 38'3
7 29-296 29-359 29-371 29-445 523 37'5 7
29129 29-279 29 405 29-603 47'2 37'6
8 29-473 29-597 29-688 29762 52'8 35-9 8
29751 29-909 29 983 30107 52-4 40-2
9 29-818 29-887 29'965 30-078 432 38'8 9
30-147 30197 30'239 30-337 53'3 38'3
10 30-110 30-114 30-081 30-112 481 40'3 10
30'375 30-387 30-355 30-375 53'3 35"9
11 30-102 30116 30-101 30-172 497 417 11
30-331 30-323 30'271 30'277 55'0 38'8
12 30-173 30-202 30-138 30-174 47'3 37'8 12
30267 30-293 30'278 30-302 52-2 36-9
13 30184 30-255 30241 30-289 500 36 0 13
30-268 30 310 30-239 30'253 56'2 38'0
14 30-303 30-323 30274 30 303 54"0 371 14
30'237 30253 30'219 30-293 611 40'3
15 30-324 30-S91 30358 30'370 50"4 35'5 15 30
311 30'321 30261 30-259 601 40-0
16 30-359 30-350 30'271 30261 558 34'0 16
30241 30-249 30 184 30-174 59'5 39-0
17 30-239 30-221 30131 30-123 61'0 32'0 17
30162 30-154 30'075 30'075 61-4 40-1
18 30-091 30-087 30-027 30-070 61'8 32'9 18
30-(45 30-043 29'974 30'014 65-0 38'8
19 30-077 30121 30-102 30-163 66-8 34-5 19
30'028 30-060 30030 30-068 66-7 39'3
20 30-153 30-143 30-038 29-996 72'8 371 20
30064 30-042 29'946 29'898 67"3 39'1
21 29-894 29-854 29797 29'893 69'4 389 21
29-816 29 942 29'952 30-018 511 34-8
22 29-889 29-882 29'834 29'868 45-3 388 22
29'982 29'952 29'832 29'850 54-0 301
23 29-882 29-968 29996 30'092 50 4 34'3 23 29
874 29'966 29-992 30'i'38 47'2 39-5
24 30-150 30-212 30196 30-258 496 37'8 24
30082 30120 30-113 30-169 53-0 34-3
25 30-254 30-275 30-226 30238 551 30-1 25
30-181 30-197 30-163 30-149 537 43'5
26 30-198 30-174 30-094 30077 587 32 2 26
30'083 30'009 29'932 29-890 57'3 41-6
27 30-027 30-027 29-992 30'050 651 42-9 27
29'820 29"854 29'845 29"927 57'0 46-4
28 30-080 30-130 30-102 30-139 681 447 28
29-939 29979 29'966 29-956 58'0 467
29 30-143 30-139 30086 30-084 61'8 44-4 29
29'932 29966 29'972 29'996 59'0 44'0
30 30-060 30-050 i 29'975 29959 693 41'8 30 29
978 29'984 29967 29'963 , 52'9 37'2
4 BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS.
BAROMETER READINGS, & C. MAY, 1875.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Barometer. pbmtom.
Barometer. pera^u're.
| 4 a.m. 10.A.M. 4 p.m. 10 p.m. £s«g; I 4a- 10a-m- 4p-m-
^-St'st
1 29-938 29'8b5 29'855 29-881 56-3 46-9 1
28-905 29"875 29-840 29-908 54'8 43"4
2 29-881 29-934 29'916 29'939 60'4 48-1 2
29-894 29'892 29'822 29-842 54"6 43'2
3 29-922 29-922 29'9u0 29-946 64-8 43'8 3
29'802 29'814 29796 29-830 59-4 45'1
4 29-934 29-976 29-960 29'993 64-9 43-8 4
29'856 29-908 29'933 29'973 58'1 46'2
5 29-980 29-975 29-913 29-899 67'3 44-9 5
29'961 29'949 29'845 29795 62-0 44'0
6 29-787 29-773 29745 29-675 62-8 50-6 6
29'667 29-595 29'503 29-487 60'0 47"2
7 29-550 29-549 29-620 29709 577 47'5 7
29'391 29'397 29-446 29-514 60-8 48'5
8 29-752 29-838 29823 29797 60-5 52'1 8
29'536 29-540 29'476 29'476 60'2 441
9 29-813 29-873 29'873 29-953 62'9 48-9 9
29'476 29*484 29'542 29'686 60'0 48 2
10 30-003 30-123 30-210 30-332 62'6 49-0 10
29'808 29-966 30-094 30-140 57'3 45-8
11 30-384 30-408 30-348 30-375 66'8 43-8 11
30'070 30-004 30-023 30-025 5u'0 47'3
12 30-349 30-336 30-269 30'279 70'4 46'9 12
30"029 30-085 30-102 30-116 61'9 51'5
13 30-272 30-290 30-241 30'251 73'3 487 13
30-114 30-158 30-196 30-204 56'0 50 9
14 30-249 30-251 30-181 30-168 75'8 52-2 14
30-168 30-158 30'072 30-012 62'5 51'0
15 30-127 30-139 30-098 30'187 78'8 50-1 15
29'910 30-038 30-152 30-188 557 45-1
16 30-192 30-210 30-155 30-167 68'3 47'9 16
30-188 30-204 30-161 30-121 59'0 44-4
17 30-110 30-040 29-894 29'824 63'8 41-5 17
30-041 29'943 29'803 29'683 58'3 41'5
18 29-638 29-560 29-551 29'591 63'2 47 8 18
29-545 29'415 29'329 29'327 537 42'3
19 29-551 29-601 29-663 29789 587 44-1 19
29-325 29'371 29-421 29'461 54-3 41'3
20 29-807 29-755 29'694 29777 56'8 43'1 20
29-429 29'345 29'338 29'464 577 44'0
21 29-784 29-718 29-568 29'680 70"8 52'9 21
29-476 29-446 29-223 29'219 58-1 460
22 29-756 29-840 29'864 29-932 64'4 52'0 22
29-287 29'449 29-483 29-585 57'0 43"0
23 30-030 30-134 30-180 30-316 63'3 46'9 23
29'637 29-755 29'863 30'043 531 44-3
24 30-364 30-468 30'332 30-315 67'8 43'9 24
30-157 30-065 29'996 29'998 55'0 44-0
25 30-272 30-287 30-238 30-272 687 46'0 25
30-054 30-156 30'187 30'219 557 46'2
26 30-264 30-238 30'208 30-247 60-8 44'0 26
30-197 30'235 30'235 30'287 59'8 457
27 30-245 30-222 30-114 30-040 59'8 42'9 27
30'237 30-155 30-028 29'934 59"2 45'8
28 29-928 29-858 29768 29754 633 50'6 28 29780
29-826 29-878 29'958 57'7 45'8
29 29-758 29-806 29'823 29'877 557 46'9 29
29'952 29-972 29-904 29'902 607 43'7
30 29-873 29-909 29'879 29'941 60'9 42"4 30
29'870 29-882 29-864 29'898 59'3 449
31 29-969 30-005 29-991 30-090 62'8 38'9 31
29'904 29-974 30-008 30-110 58-3 48'2
JUNE, 1875.
1 30-103 30-119 30-106 i 30-160 72"1 439 1
30'152 30-205 30-204 30-256 70"4 43-7
2 30-115 30-097 30-039 ! 30-015 74'8 50'3 2
30'298 30-278 30-193 30193 65"0 47'0
3 29-944 29 934 29'868 29'888 81'3 527 3
30-141 30'051 29'932 29-912 67'6 46'6
4 29-874 29-881 29'829 • 29'936 78'4 53'1 4
29'800 29-&08 29'836 29-886 59'0 49'5
5 29-978 29-986 29'934 ¦ 29'939 71'8 51-6 5
29'902 l 29-866 29"794 29726 60-6 46'9
6 29-893 29-889 29'916 ! 30-046 71'8 55-3 6
29-580 29'584 29'708 | 29'838 62-2 487
7 30-077 30-117 30-065 i 30-111 717 54-9 7
29'814 ! 29772 29-749 29-881 58'3 49'9
8 30-121 30-167 30-133 I 30-104 74-9 56-1 8
29'983 ' 30-041 30'071 i 30-053 59'9 48'0
9 29-984 29-804 29-688 29722 78'4 51-6 9
29-907 I 29701 29'512 ! 29-408 62'3 467
10 29-689 29-701 29-625 29-597 6/4 64-0 10
29'300 ! 29'372 29-358 29-362 59 0 487
11 29-493 29-619 29'698 29714 60'8 49-6 11
29'342 , 29'370 29'381 ! 29'433 55'2 46'6
12 297< 2 29-673 29"634 29743 60'8 49-1 12
29'423 ! 29'435 29-423 29-483 61-2 45'6
13 29-777 29-760 29-632 29-545 617 47'2 13
29'489 I 29-477 29'393 ! 29-367 59-4 46"3
14 29-542 29571 29'537 29-511 64-3 55-6 14
29'293 1 29'201 29'095 j 29-039 60-5 44"9
15 29-451 29-451 29"433 29-505 62'8 53-6 15
29'067 29'047 28-981 I 29'059 577 46'3
16 29-537 29-580 29'604 29-689 64-3 51-1 16
29'093 29-107 29"294 , 29'476 59-1 48'5
17 29-723 29-783 29795 29-883 66-3 45'0 17
29'614 29744 29'781 ', 29-887 60-1 50'5
18 29-917 29-998 30'024 30-108 62-9 50-1 18 !
29923 29'975 29-969 | 30-009 62-2 47'5
19 30-138 30-138 30-078 30-079 69-8 45-5 19
29'971 29'909 29796 i 29-800 60-3 51'0
120 29-971 29-919 29'817 29773 68-9 53-8 20
29'822 29'822 29742 ! 29718 61-7 49-0
121 29-735 29795 29-873 29-983 60-3 52'5 21
29-700 29732 29772 j 29'880 60-7 46'1
22 30-076 30-137 30'134 30'185 69-7 434 22
29'912 29 "922 29-888 29'942 60'0 49'3
23 30-171 30-162 30-141 30-171 70'1 50'0 23
29'958 29'990 30-045 I 30-109 60-5 52"1
24 30-194 30-200 30-145 30-125 72'5 52-6 24
30'099 30'073 30-028 : 29-974 64-5 52'6
25 30-077 30-051 29'968 29-948 72-1 52-1 25
29896 29"832 29763 I 29-691 637 51-6
26 29-909 29-893 29'895 29'988 71'5 53-1 26
29'675 29'723 29758 ! 29-854 58-0 47'6
27 30-031 30-001 29'929 29'905 70-0 46-1 27
29'848 29'822 29'751 j 29'722 54'4 44-6
28 29-816 29-800 29'800 29 838 68'6 54'0 28
29-719 29'825 29'888 29'952 59-3 50'6
29 29-819 29-832 29-812 29'8.)2 69'4 56'2 29 i
29-936 29'952 29'923 | 29'967 62-0 51-7
30 29-826 29-822 29799 29'814 67'0 56"5 30 I
29-919 29-869 29757 29'691 59"0 52'2
_____________
_____________________________________ \ I
' ___________________________
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS. 5
BAROMETER READINGS, &C.
JULY. 1875.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Barometer. Tem-
Barometer. Temperature.
i-A»umjjj.i>n, PERATURE.
I 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 4 P.M. 10P.M. ^;S; I '4A.M. | 10 A.M.
4 P.M. 10 P.M. ^-W
1 29-760 29-715 29-669 29'676 68-6 58-6 1
29'645 29'633 29-584 29-586 667 53-3
2 29-700 29-724 29744 29 785 69-0 55"6 2
29'528 29'542 29-611 29735 667 54-4
3 29-795 29-»72 29-927 30-056 66'3 55'8 3
29845 29'979 30-063 30-187 69"8 51-9
4 30-140 30-244 30-265 30-331 61-4 52'1 4
30-261 30-295 30-293 30-323 68'8 57'6
5 30-307 30-290 30-263 30'288 68'6 46'0 5
30'297 30-315 30-292 30-318 67"6 51-0
6 30-280 30-288 30-251 30'298 72'8 55-2 6
30'322 30'324 30-278 30-288 727 49'2
7 30-265 30-259 30'166 30'130 68-8 54-2 7
30-282 30-250 30-100 30-142 73"4 52'0
8 30-015 29-966 29-897 29'851 66'2 56-1 8
30-072 29-986 29'898 29-816 65-9 497
9 29-750 29-669 29-483 29'319 60-9 50'2 9
29'680 29-514 29'349 29-337 56'3 47"8 10 29-450
29-623 29'695 29'660 66'3 52-1 10 29'347 29"401
29-407 29-385 63-7 48'8
II 29-515 29-473 29-610 29774 61-0 49-1 11
29-303 29-385 29-455 29-611 657 47'8
12 29-860 30-001 30-083 30-181 64'3 51-3 12
29743 29'891 29-992 30-078 61-1 47'0
13 30-200 30-190 30-137 30-114 64'8 43-9 13
30-082 30-054 30-018 29-996 62-0 46-3
14 30-100 29-955 29-842 29718 63"3 48"0 14
29'924 29-896 29'862 29-916 62'3 50-6
15 29-605 29-60) 29-641 29705 60-0 53'9 15
29'924 29-960 29'988 30-050 62-2 48'6
16 29-710 29-770 29-813 29-844 63-6 56'5 16
30'038 30'036 29-993 30-009 64-1 44'6
17 29-850 29-810 29-766 29730 637 55-6 17
30'003 29"985 29"933 29-977 68-1 52'0
18 29-700 29-712 29-700 29781 76'3 56-6 18
29-955 29'915 29-843 29'861 58'7 53-0
19 29-790 29-811 29-804 29-843 66'3 57'3 19
29-835 29'865 29-916 29'956 63-7 | 57'2
20 29-875 29-918 29-9LI 29-941 70'3 57'3 20
29-908 29'942 29'958 29-992 68'7 I 57"9
21 29-900 29-856 29-804 29'807 64-8 54"5 21
29-982 29"950 29'876 29-864 72'8 | 57'4
22 29 780 29-763 29-715 29-720 687 53-0 22
29792 29702 29-621 29-605 72'9 \ 52-7
23 29-675 29-662 29-638 29-660 68-4 52'8 23
29-551 29-519 29'484 29-442 59-1 j 50-9
24 29-650 29-653 29707 29794 677 55'4 24
29-430 29'438 29-524 29-632 58'7 47-3
25 29 860 29-911 29-962 30-113 66-0 48-2 25
29"478 29 738 29'827 29'975 59-6 ! 467
26 30-205 30-2S1 30-293 30-337 69-1 46-4 26
30'087 30-145 30'154 30'217 62-3 ! 44-7
27 30-355 30-358 30-304 30-319 70-8 46-9 27
30"247 30'279 30-280 30'286 64'3 I 50"9
28 30 290 30-273 30-266 30-316 73-3 5M 28
30'288 30'272 30-268 30-276 69'9 > 45-0
29 30-340 30-306 30-227 30'207 76-4 50-0 29
30-248 30-172 30-074 29-974 72"3 i 49"9
30 30-135 30-111 30-120 30-177 71-8 52-9 30
29'966 30-110 | 30-148 30'168 62'1 l 50'1
31 30-120 30-112 30-066 30-110 66"3 51-4 31
3Q-136 3Q-132 j 3Q-Q95 30-141 67"1 | 46-6
AUGUST, 1875.
1 30-130 30-153 30-161 30-211 66-4 48"0 1
30-155 30-171 30-135 30-161 68'5 48"8
2 30-225 30-228 30-177 30-177 67'0 45"8 2
30-165 30-139 30-116 30-112 66"5 46'7
3 30-150 30-103 30-031 30'064 68'8 49-4 3
30-090 30-098 30-110 30-164 68-3 51-7
4 30-060 30-066 30-045 30-086 65'8 49-4 4
30'156 30-152 30-107 30-147 677 50-0
5 30-(45 30-001 29"932 29'927 67'8 46'3 5
30'149 30-151 30-137 30-173 54'3 47'3
6 29-870 29-871 29-846 29-930 75"9 58'0 6
30-151 30-141 30-127 30'135 64-3 49"0
7 29-900 29-949 29'961 30-011 74-3 59'3 7
30-121 30-135 30-110 30-138 627 537
8 30-015 30-024 29960 29-899 77'8 58'4 8
30-090 30'080 30'045 30-001 55'8 52"3
9 29-770 29-775 29-817 29'872 72'8 60"7 9
29'905 29"827 29'716 29'676 58'6 54'2
10 29-845 29-803 29-760 29-840 74-1 57'9 10
29'654 29'654 29"599 29-607 60-0 56'0
11 29-800 29-860 29'883 29-917 72'3 60'9 11
29-601 29'659 29"677 29'755 57'6 53'7
12 29-8-15 29-810 29 700 29704 71'9 59'6 12
29'757 29'753 29'682 29-718 65"8 51-0
13 29-650 29-782 29'884 29'990 73-8 59'2 13
29730 29784 29'818 29'846 60-0 54'6
14 30-005 30-043 30-066 30 146 75'0 60-1 14
29"826 29'850 29'907 29'933 65'7 55-2
15 30-40 30-174 30-150 30-177 75'8 58'0 15
29'929 30-005 30'013 30-011 70"4 56'7
16 30-090 30-062 29-985 29-995 82'8 56-4 16
29-873 29789 29751 29739 657 58"9
17 29-960 29-993 29974 29'998 77'8 59'9 17
29'667 29'735 29'703 29'681 68'3 58"7
18 30-005 30-058 30059 30-135 74'0 62'9 18
29-697 29'813 • 29'908 30'012 66'9 53'0
19 30-150 30-161 30-115 30-123 68'9 54'2 19
30-060 30-106 30-112 30'142 63'9 50'5
20 30-125 30195 30-221 30-285 75"1 56-1 20
30-120 30118 30-110 30104 63'3 48-6
21 30-310 30-342 30"282 30-283 72'6 55"4 21
30-056 30'056 30-105 I 30-157 66'5 52'5
22 30-250 30 236 30180 30-162 73"6 53-4 22
30-119 30-063 29'984 I 29'946 63-8 50-3
23 30-115 30-079 29-967 29'935 73'8 48'9 23
29-878 29'864 29"796 | 29"724 60-8 56'8
24 29-885 29'868 29'839 29-869 74'4 49'9 24
29-624 29'678 29'735 i 29'754 64'2 55'0
25 29 841 29-857 29'870 29-911 72-5 52-8 25
29'613 29-481 29"475 29'543 64'6 55"6
26 29-920 29 971 30-002 30-050 71'9 61-1 26
29-585 29"620 29'684 29"778 62'4 54'9
27 30-090 30139 30117 30H4 72-8 54'3 27
29-832 29-916 29'977 | 30'037 61'0 53'3
28 30085 30-018 29"937 29'904 68"4 51-4 28
30-017 30-009 29'928 i 29-908 62-0 54-4
29 29 870 29-911 29-920 30-010 68'0 54-6 29
29'852 29"846 29'802 29"844 65'2 52'9
30 30-025 30-066 30-050 30-038 67'8 50'8 30
29-822 29-778 29704 I 29724 57'9 487
31 29960 30-031 30-051 30-105 67-3 54"2 31
29-802 29'902 30-000 | 30 093 62'2 47"3
6 BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS.
BAROMETER READINGS, &C.
SEPTEMBER, 1875.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Barometeb. feature. Babometeb.
pebattoe.
J 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 4 p.m. 10 p.m. Ma£ Mini- J ~ ~ ~ 1Q M.
gjW
1 30-210 30-261 30-217 30-214 7(V8 ... 1
30-139 30-151 30-103 30-053 61-0 43-5
2 30-200 30-196 3013> 30-119 73'3 59'5 2
29-967 29'905 29753 29759 51-3 56 9
3 30-010 29-983 29-964 30-055 69'0 56-1 3
29-621 29'631 29737 29-815 601 53'9
4 30-080 3D-098 30-092 30-149 691 50'9 4 \
29-855 29'871 29'874 29'956 57'2 ! 52 8
5 30-185 30-232 30'255 30-280 68'8 501 5
30-034 30-130 30-154 30-178 61'5 52'9
6 30-270 30-300 30'219 30-213 75'6 48'0 6
30'154 30158 30-101 30-073 63-9 541
7 30-145 30-102 SO'OOo 29'968 76'3 49'5 7
29'981 29'919 29-834 29-756 67-0 566
8 29-920 29-871 29762 29723 77'3 .-39 8
29763 29-808 29797 29765 61'3 541
9 29-800 29-902 29'896 29'919 68'5 501 9
29'669 29-691 29-735 29-825 61*4 48'2
10 29-9 '0 29-920 29'919 3 >-028 63'3 46"6 10
29'849 29'893 29'908 30-016 637 481
11 30-105 30-167 30-194 30'275 64-8 47'0 11
30'082 30-166 30-205 30-287 63'6 43'0
12 30-280 30-2K0 30'235 30'266 70 2 57'3 12
30-309 30-337 30-301 30-321 67'0 43'0
13 30-230 30-217 30144 30-199 75'8 567 13
30-307 30-309 30"280 30-310 68-4 45'9
14 30-175 30-179 30139 30164 70'8 571 14
30-328 30-354 30327 30-347 630 | 48 4
15 30-155 30135 30'098 30-110 69-8 56"0 15
30'333 30-323 30'280 30-282 60-7 53'2
16 30-080 30-063 30-020 30'053 71'9 51'4 16
30'256 30-236 30152 30150 617 52-3
17 30-060 30-055 30-023 30'062 76'8 55'9 17
30108 30-106 HO'082 30-104 59'6 523
18 30-050 30-031 29-955 30-009 79-8 54-4 18
30'100 30-146 30126 30-146 57'2 51"8
19 29-995 29-966 29'958 29'988 77'9 56'5 19
30'102 30-076 29'979 29'963 61-5 52'4
20 29-990 29-965 29-916 29'937 70"5 527 20
29'885 29'875 29'847 29'863 56-4 48'2
21 29-92i 29-921 29'845 29773 67'3 56-1 21
29'843 29-857 29-806 29'792 49'8 48'0
22 29605 29-695 29- ;85 29'965 70'8 58'9 22
29748 29-846 29949 30'079 54-2 44'4
23 30030 30-103 30-080 30-113 60-3 53-4 23
30-119 30-157 30-100 30-108 52-1 40'9
24 30-095 30-101 29'997 29'948 60'8 52'2 24
30-050 29-996 29'859 29'773 56-1 477
25 29-8"0 29-865 29-915 30'020 69'0 53-8 25
29-577 29'589 29702 29762 59'9 49'9
26 29960 29 877 29710 29'526 66-1 51'0 26
29 580 ............ 29'010 60-1 51'0
27 29-595 29'691 29776 29'843 64-8 511 27
28'934 29'274 29-387 29-399 55-1 46'9
28 29-730 29-707 29-650 29'698 62'0 53'1 28
29'365 29-407 29-474 29'566 55'5 45-3
29 29-735 29823 29771 29'853 62"0 46'6 29
29610 29-578 29-539 29'671 551 44 3
30 29-900 30-016 30-029 30'038 61-0 49"9 30
29'827 29'909 29-871 29'783 57"5 51'6
OCTOBER, 1875.
1 29-995 29-959 29-908 29-867 61-5 49'0 1
29-659 29651 29'573 29-503 587 50'6
2 29-720 29-639 29752 29'901 59-8 48"5 2
29-501 29'517 29'534 29-568 556 45'0
3 29-920 29-903 29730 29651 573 456 3
29-578 29-518 29'324 29-310 54-0 44"8
4 29-655 29-741 29'852 29-922 66'8 53-2 4
29-348 29-488 29'506 29-498 58 3 477
5 29-720 29-972 29-989 30-169 68 9 52'9 5
29-496 29-568 29'625 29-715 56-9 47'3
6 30-280 30-404 30124 30-453 60'8 46"5 6
29877 29'993 30-103 29'897 56-1 47'0
7 30 360 30-366 30-323 30-318 63'0 46'6 7
29-949 30-049 30-062 30 026 54'1 48'1
8 30-205 30-138 29'957 29-822 59'8 50'9 8
29-898 29774 29'639 29-621 591 45'9
9 29 655 29-653 29'542 29-742 58'8 4f2 9
29 625 29-679 29712 29-744 5V9 38-5
10 29-850 29915 29'820 29-634 54'8 401 10
29-706 29646 29396 29-122 51'5 357
11 29-260 29-267 29-239 29-266 548 39'8 11
29 062 29'064 29 070 29-134 49'3 36'0
12 29-260 29-340 29'359 29-396 52'6 331 12
29-182 29"262 29 250 29-260 47'2 301
13 29-280 29-166 29-154 29'234 52'8 321 13
29250 29'280 29'282 29 362 48'2 31-5
14 29-240 29-231 29-171 29-289 50'0 40'3 14
29-406 29154 29-599 29-691 50'2 37'9
15 29-400 29-486 29'539 29'615 54-8 45-2 15
29-705 29747 29752 29-750 497 43'3
16 29-640 29-687 29713 29751 51'9 369 16
29716 29-( 92 29'673 29-679 49'8 427
17 29750 29-785 29785 29-824 59"5 33-6 17
29-661 29-719 29765 29-833 50 7 47'1
18 29830 29-804 29744 29727 56'3 451 18
29'827 29'879 29'869 29"869 521 45'5
19 29-700 29-718 29-679 29'639 51'8 48'5 19
29-807 29"821 29793 29775 47'3 43-9
20 29-550 29-439 29-376 29-460 51'9 49'3 20
29'669 29-651 29566 29'470 47'2 44-0
21 29-480 29-546 29-510 29-546 603 48-4 21
29-386 29-408 29-406 29-402 531 45'4
22 29-530 29-507 29-444 29'463 56'8 44-7 22
29 352 29-406 29-411 29-431 53'5 49-1
23 29-360 29-348 29-418 29-604 50'3 41-3 23
29183 29-560 29-660 29'810 511 48'0
24 29-805 29-968 30-060 30-154 51'6 44-3 24
29-902 29-998 30-020 30-070 491 47"0
25 30-155 30-202 30-143 30-169 54'8 35-1 25
30-052 30-064 30005 30-003 511 46-0
26 30-110 30-101 30-001 29'906 511 37'8 26
29'913 29900 29'847 29'827 49-3 22-9
27 29 750 29714 29-674 29711 44-6 41-3 27
29785 29 8i7 29838 29-913 48'9 40-1
28 29-750 29-854 29-900 29'954 47'8 43-2 28
29946 30-010 30-018 30'084 47'2 38-7
29 29-980 30-048 30031 30040 47'8 42 5 29
30-087 30116 30-052 30032 481 40-8
30 30-000 29-952 29-915 29-892 43'8 41-5 30
29-972 29954 29-922 29'902 46-1 430
31 29-855 29-862 29-851 29'887 48'0 41-5 31
29-875 29'888 29-875 29'898 45-9 42'0
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS. 7
BAROMETER READINGS, &c. NOVEMBER, 1875.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Babometeb. pJaEttoe.
Babometeb. pe™e.
I 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 4 P.M. 10»*SS»t 4 4 A.M. 10 A.M.
4 P.M. 10 P.M. ^ **£
1 29-870 29-868 29'861 29'888 46'3 37'9 1
29'868 29-851 29786 29754 45"2 38-9
2 29 864 29-882 29-833 29-835 501 41-3 2
29-697 29-669 29'593 29-564 46'9 387
3 29-793 29-793 29792 29-811 537 49'5 3
29'546 29-534 29 523 29-512 55-7 45-0
4 29-817 29-809 29-806 29-870 57'0 44-2 4
29-504 29'582 29-678 29751 54'0 477
5 29-884 29-856 29-688 29 609 56'8 44-2 5
29-660 29-369 29-351 29'276 54-7 48'3
6 29-363 29-151 29145 29-247 56'8 50-8 6
30'086 29993 29'991 29 142 52"6 43-9
7 29-380 29-453 29-400 29-127 52-2 42-2 7
29-190 29-220 29-216 29-186 45-2 34'8
8 29-069 29-355 29'523 29'593 457 35'5 8
29-230 29'310 29'344 29'365 41'8 31'8
9 29-516 29-394 29-250 29-118 49'9 30-4 9
29303 29-272 29-198 29-141 38'9 28 9 10 28-751
28-748 29-167 28'929 53"0 43'8 10 29-022 29-043
29112 29'066 38-1 261
II 28-642 29-118 29-460 29-602 45-8 391 11
29-016 29-120 29-199 29387 39-3 23-9
12 29-657 29837 29914 29-949 497 36'5 12
29'547 29-753 29852 29-916 42'8 30-3
13 29-838 29-618 29-501 29-362 56 6 36'9 13
29'848 29-754 29193 29'239 39-5 29-9
14 29-112 29-004 29-290 29-841 56-3 43"2 14
29-074 29-274 29610 29-807 44'2 34"6
15 30-079 30200 30-219 30'223 477 341 15
29-910 30-028 30-051 30 005 42-4 347
16 30137 30-062 29'928 29-879 51-4 32-6 16
29870 29-718 29-565 29-601 47'0 39-2
17 29-917 30-061 29'996 29-963 55-5 42-2 17
29-658 29 711 29597 29-609 48-0 44"0
18 29-988 30 061 30'088 30-060 58-5 52'8 18
29-734 29 763 29760 29'546 53 7 43'9
19 29-«76 29641 29'577 29-812 56'9 48'0 19
29-301 29-490 29'897 30 087 52'3 371
20 29-941 29-997 30-004 29-996 48 3 36'6 20
30-140 30-205 30-192 30165 39'9 331
21 29-954 29-957 29-990 30-066 44-5 35"0 21
30114 30-200 30-257 30307 41-8 36-7
22 30-084 30-144 30-115 30-140 43"3 349 22
30-317 30360 30352 30 352 407 35-9
23 30-163 30-187 30-147 30-156 43"8 347 23
30-358 30-357 30347 30'341 46 1 35-1
24 30-163 30-164 30117 30-101 41"0 36'5 24
30-329 30-336 30-297 30 255 38'6 348
25 30-056 30-040 30-0(7 30-008 369 31'9 25
30-209 30-189 30-163 30-150 36'1 33-1
26 29-968 29'962 29-963 29-998 36'2 27'8 26
30-112 30'088 30-048 30-124 36-1 32-0
27 29-979 30-000 30-022 30 073 37-6 27'0 27
30-181 30-224 30'269 30-306 36-3 32'9
28 30 079 30-125 30-100 30-072 36-8 34-1 28
30-314 30'338 30-315 30'253 38'0 34-5
29 29-997 29'982 29'987 29-933 36'3 317 29
30-203 30197 30-253 30-179 38'5 34-4
30 29-882 29-867 29'834 29'840 33-5 29'5 30
30160 30-154 30-124 30-120 347 32-8
DECEMBER, 1875.
1 29841 29-864 29'834 29-863 34-1 28'9 1
30-108 30-136 30109 30'095 36-2 27"9
2 29-814 29-783 29723 29730 33'8 30'6 2
29'995 29-989 29'973 29989 36-9 24-8
3 29-732 29-818 29-807 29806 32-2 28'9 3
29'926 29881 29-818 29-840 39'0 28'9
4 29-761 29-803 29"857 29-933 320 21'7 4
29-831 29-958 30'076 30-132 36'3 25-3
5 29-959 29-982 30-000 30'021 31-3 23-9 5
30 152 30-172 30-196 30262 31'5 23'9
6 30>033 30-079 30-172 30'290 33'0 24-4 6
30-316 30-385 30-445 30-497 33'9 28-2
7 30-350 30-389 30'373 30-379 347 29-4 7
30-503 30-510 30170 30-467 32'5 21'0
8 30-375 30-410 30-392 30-387 371 31-6 8
30-430 30-436 30'398 :<0108 377 28'0
9 30-357 30391 30-368 30'390 37'6 317 9
30-380 30388 30-355 30-349 40"8 33-8
10 30-331 30-322 30-237 30-187 39-2 29-2 10
30'271 30221 30-119 30'065 451 36'5
11 30-115 30121 30-096 30105 43'0 37'0 11
30-023 30-037 30-014 29'990 46'0 41'0
12 30-088 30-108 30-105 30-146 451 37 3 12
29971 29-985 29'992 30-007 431 39'3
13 30174 30-206 30188 30-217 45'3 30'3 13
30007 30-003 30'005 30'020 45'1 42-4
14 30-172 30-154 30-102 30-113 37'8 247 14
29'988 29'975 29'963 29'965 45'3 31'6
15 30-095 30-161 30-149 30143 381 34-4 15
29-955 29-984 29-973 29'962 41'8 289
16 30-115 30-136 30090 30-064 38-7 34'3 16
29'940 29-952 29'924 29"904 46'0 41'2
17 30-009 29-981 29-906 29-926 461 31-8 17
29'841 29791 29'690 29'608 45*3 39-8
18 29-869 29-859 29-842 29-809 44'9 31-9 18
29-482 29-481 29-598 29-610 46'6 40-5
19 29-691 29-618 29-603 29"650 470 425 19
29'449 29-337 29'268 29-290 42-2 371
20 29-710 29-708 29-579 29-572 501 397 20
29'279 29-126 29017 29-171 501 36-4
21 29-673 29-904 29"879 29712 50*9 44'0 21
29-305 29-508 29350 29-000 521 37"5
22 29-634 29-651 29-739 29-891 547 45'0 22
29-098 29039 29110 29-328 49'9 377
23 30-002 30-109 30-149 30-243 497 42'2 23
29156 29-506 29-638 29'677 457 38-1
24 30-222 30-205 30112 30112 51'2 43 1 24
29"600 29-512 29 588 29-700 49"0 397
25 30218 30-354 30-400 30-433 50'9 39-1 25
29'897 30'034 30-124 30-181 487 40'6
26 30-449 30-442 30115 30115 46'9 38'2 26
30-200 30-225 30-209 30-192 48'0 44'9
27 30-403 30146 30-422 3 r466 46"3 43 5 27
30-188 30-204 30-157 30-196 48'0 41'8
28 30-478 30-517 30-490 30 466 46-3 43-4 28
30251 30-307 30-243 30-210 42-2 37"8
29 30-421 30-410 30-356 30-347 46-1 42 7 29
30138 30-121 30*077 30-065 48'0 391
30 30299 30-306 30-259 30257 471 42-8 30
29'993 29-965 29-929 29-889 49-0 45-6
31 30-201 30-151 30-065 30-037 44'8 41-4 31
29753 29-584 29'394 29'623 50'0 381
APPENDIX No. II.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS
CONNECTED "WITH
MINING OPEEATIONS,
TAKEN OUT BETWEEN JANUARY 1, 1875, AND DECEMBER 31, 1875,
BEING A CONTINUATION OF APPENDIX TO VOLUME XXIV.
BY the SECRETARY.
The descriptions have been mostly given in the words of the patentee, all
matter being excluded except that which is actually necessary to give some
idea of the general principle involved. The exact details, if required, can
readily be obtained from the Specifications. The patents are classified
as before, viz.:—
1.—Lifting and winding, including safety-hooks.
2.—Mining, boring, and. sinking.
3.—Pumping and modes of raising wTater.
4.—Ventilation and air-compressing.
5.—Safety-lamps and lighting mines.
6.—Coal cutting, getting, and breaking down.
7.—Explosive compounds.
8.—Miscellaneous.
FIRST DIVISION. LIFTING AND WINDING, INCLUDING SAFETY-HOOKS.
1875. No. 760. Defty. The cage coming in contact with a lever shuts the
steam off.
1875. No. 801. Ormeeod. Improvements in apparatus for the prevention of
accidents from overwinding, and relates to improvements described in No.
2350, 1867, in the form of the central or intermediate plate or link of the
shackle, whereby the engineer or other person can (after an overwinding has
taken place) re-adjust the link or shackle without difficulty or danger to
himself.
VOL. XXV., 1875.—APPENDIX No. II.
7.
10 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
1875. No. 891. Vivian and Blackburn. Improvements in hoists, where the
engine driver is able, when hoisting, to drop the cage on to the caps, or to
open them so that the cage can descend into the pit. 1875. No. 1980.
Holt. Forms a safety sump or pit at the bottom of the hoist shaft, into
which the cage falls, in case of the rope or connection breaking. This
sump or pit is of the same form as the cage bottom, which fits nearly air
tight into it, and the cage is stopped gently in its descent by the
compression of the air in the sump or pit. 1875. No. 2438. Ormerod.
Similar in all respects to No. 801, 1875.
1875. No. 3011. Mills. Instead of causing the sudden stoppage of the
cages by clutches penetrating into guides, effects the arrest of the cage by
means of wedges forced between their guides and the upright guides. 1875.
No. 3748. Stannah. A chain .connected from the balance weight of the lift
to a series of eccentrics mounted on axes attached to the cage in such
manner that if the main lifting rope or chain becomes detached or broken the
cage will remain suspended owing to the eccentrics or cams being caused to
bind against the guides. 1875. No. 4056. King. An automatous hook; no
further description given.
1875. No. 4262. Houdaillb. Rods vertically reciprocating in a mine
shaft are applied to raise or lower trucks stage by stage. 1875. No. 4364.
Armstrong. The feature of novelty which constitutes this invention is the
apparatus for stopping the descent of the cage in the event of accident to
the raising and lowering mechanism. 1875. No. 4425. Clark. Bevil clamps
are used for locking the cage or platform to the guides when the rope
breaks, each of which clamps has parallel bearing surfaces placed obliquely
to the levers, one within the other, and pivoted crosswise together, so that
each lever thus bites on both sides of the guides.
SECOND DIVISION. MINING, BORING, AND SINKING.
1875. No. 3. Wise. Improved rock drill.
1875. No. 160. Gay.
A pair of rapidly rotating discs mounted at the end of a narrow jib, which
can be worked upwards or downwards on trunnions, on a movable framing. The
discs are either edged with soft metal and supplied with water or oil and
sand, emery, or other grinding material, or it may be with acids or other
chemical reagents, or they are provided with chisels or cutters, diamonds,
or other gems.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 11
1875. No. 485. Haseltine. Improved rock drill.
1875. No. 769. Firth. Improvements in Patent No. 2977, 1861. The
machine travels around a table and cuts a circular groove, isolating a
central block of rock, which is afterwards blasted. 1875. No. 829.
Beaumont. This invention refers to percussive rock drills worked direct by
fluid under pressure acting on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is made
of differential area, with a large piston rod in front holding the drill and
a smaller rod behind fixed to a crosshead, which works three reciprocating
slotted cams. The first cam has a curved slot, in which works a roller on
a bell crank, jointed to the slide for alternating the admission and
emission of the working fluid. The second cam works a pawl lever on the
piston rod, so as to act on a ratchet wheel for turning the drill partly
round at every stroke. The third cam works a pawl lever acting on a
ratchet wheel on a sleeve nut, so as to turn it partly round on a fixed
screw, and thereby to advance the apparatus as the hole is drilled deeper.
These parts are all accessible and separately adjustable on the exterior of
the cylinder. 1875. No. 900. Ellis. Improved rock drill.
1875. No. 1251. GULLAND. Improved rock drill.
1875. No. 1657. WALKER. Improved rock drill.
1875. No. 1766. Brown. Improved rock drill.
1875. No. 2013. Edwards. Improved rock drill.
1875. No. 2556. WALKER. A vertical shaft is used, resting at its lower
end in the ground. A miser or vessel with cutters at the bottom can slide
up and down the shaft, and can be raised or lowered by chains. When the
miser is lowered and rotated by the shaft it fills with earth, and it is
then raised to be emptied. Means are described for winding up the lifting
chains to raise the miser, and for covering up the top of the cylinder when
the miser is being emptied. 1875. No. 2758. Pyle. Imparting a slow or
fast motion to the drill as desired.
1875. No. 2999. Penrice. Producing tunnels or shafts by means of a machine
cutting an annular groove in the face of the rock. The bore is thus enlarged
at the top and sides to allow the body of the machine to pass and to allow
the core when broken down to be carried back over the machine. The lower
part of the bore is left intact that the machine may slide truly upon it to
and from the working face. The machine has chisel-like cutters set
circumferentially upon the head of a ram; they act percussively. Two or more
cylinders are set, one behind the other, to actuate the ram.
12 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
1875. No. 3057. Adams. Improved machine or apparatus for cutting or
quarrying stone or rock.
1875. No. 3233. Cowper. This invention relates to machinery for
excavating tunnels by means of a number of chisels worked by compressed air
mounted on an arm or arms, having continuous or reciprocating rotary motion
round a central shaft, the chisels cutting chases in the ("material
and other chisels or wedges being applied to break away the intermediate
material. 1875. No. 3322. Terrey. This invention relates to
improvements in rock-drilling or boring machines, whereby they are adapted
for drilling or boring at any desired angle with greater facility than
ordinary rock-drilling or boring machines. 1875. No. 3473. Bosworth.
Making bore holes for wells, and is applicable to the system of boring in
which the work is performed by the rotation of the drill or cutting tool.
1875. No. 3740. Galloway. Improvements whereby apparatus used in sinking
pit shafts is rendered more efficient and the operation generally
facilitated, and consists principally in providing suitable guides and
accessory details arranged to meet the peculiar circumstances of a variable
depth from the surface. 1875. No. 4021. Canard and Muillera. This
consists of an apparatus by means of which the boring and clearing may be
effected at one operation. 1875. No. 4166. Beaumont. A revolving
borehead carries a number of steel cutters arranged in steps receding on
each side from the centre, so that when it is brought against the face of a
soft stratum, such as chalk, and rotated, each cutter will scrape away the
face of the chalk in the form of a circular ledge somewhat in advance of the
next cutter outside it. The borehead is constructed in the shape of two
or more radial arms which as they rotate allow time between the passage of
each arm for the removal of the debris ; the borehead may consist of
separate parts revolving at different speeds. 1875. No. 4207. Blake.
The invention relates to means of changing the direction of the drill
without disturbing the supporting tripod ; also to the mode of actuating
the valve and the feed mechanism, and to devices for holding the tool in its
place, and to other improvements in the details of the apparatus.
THIRD DIVISION. PUMPING AND RAISING WATER.
1875. No. 108. Higoinson. This invention relates to engines in which
the crank is contained in the piston, such piston having a compound motion.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 13
1875. No. 219. Ekstrom.
This consists in arrangements of mechanism, by which the pressure of air in
the delivery and suction pipes of centrifugal pumps which hinders the rising
of the water, is removed by a jet of steam. 1875. No. 261. Colebrook.
Improved means of raising water. 1875. No. 269. Allen.
The pump consists of a plunger which works in a cylinder, the upper part of
which is closed by a gland with a double seating. The ingress and egress
valves are connected by side passages to the upper and lower ends of the
cylinder, and the upper passage passes through the gland between the two
seatings. The hole in the gland must be wider than the passage to allow for
the tightening up of the gland. 1875. No. 323. DAVEY.
This invention relates to deep sunk pumping apparatus worked by hydraulic
pressure instead of rods or rigid connections. One form of the apparatus,
suited for use in sinking shafts, consists of a cylinder fitted with a
differential hollow plunger, worked by water under a higher pressure than
that of the delivery, means being arranged of easily raising the working
parts for repair. In another form, two pumps are combined with one
intermediate quadruple valve-box, their hollow plungers being connected
together and worked by pressure exceeding that of the delivery, and the
valves being alternated in their action by a small slide controlled by
cataract action. Such pumps may be placed at the bottom of a shaft to supply
a set of pumps at a higher level, the lower pumps being worked by water from
the delivery of the higher. 1875. No. 400. Johnson.
An external cylindrical casing with inlet and outlet passages, and an
internal cylinder through which a sliding piston passes ; the spindle of the
internal cylinder transmits the motion obtained when the machine is used as
a motor, or the motion to the internal cylinder when the machine is used
for other purposes. 1875. No. 481. Lee.
The features of novelty consist in so arranging the interior as to do away
with the necessity for cams or eccentrics. 1875. No. 724. Reynolds.
This consists in the construction, combination, and arrangement of turbine
apparatus for obtaining motive power, which will utilize the largest
pressure of fluids to the fullest extent while keeping the revolving speeds
within practicable limits; the ordinary form of turbine being only available
for comparatively low pressures owing to the impracticable high speed
required ; and the object of the invention is accomplished by arranging so
that the fluid will pass through properly proportioned passages in several
turbines in succession, imparting a part of its force to each until entirely
expended, and thus keeping down the rotating speed within practicable limits
while utilizing the full power of the fall or pressure. The improvements in
raising and forcing fluids consist in using similar mechanism to that
employed for obtaining motive power but arranged to act in the inverse
order, so that any required lift or pressure may be attained, which would be
impracticable by ordinary centrifugal mechanism.
14 A DESCRIPTION OP PATENTS.
The improvements further consist in the construction of turbines by making
them somewhat similar to the ordinary fan, the motive fluid passing through
in the reverse direction to that of air through an ordinary fan. 1875. No.
791. Lawrence and Porter.
The improvements relate to that class of centrifugal pumps in which a
revolving disc or wheel draws in water at its centre on both sides and
discharges it at its periphery into a volute or delivery passage which
surrounds it and thence into a discharge pipe, and in which also two suction
pipes or passages are led up from the bed on opposite sides of the volute
and terminate opp®site to the centre of the revolving disc or wheel to
deliver water to it. 1875. No. 812. Clark.
This invention relates to a new construction of pump, and consists
principally in the application of a hinged tongue or diaphragm to and within
a segmental submerged pump chamber, serving as it is moved up and down, i.e.
vibrated in the said chamber, to draw water into the same through the inlet
apertures and to eject it at the outlet, 1875. No. 839. Cooke.
This invention consists in improvements on a patent granted to the present
inventor bearing date the 20th day of April, 1868, No. 1279, and has for its
object the obtaining of an equable, or nearly equable, flow of the fluid or
gas without using duplicate machines on opposite, or nearly opposite,
centres as is at present necessary. 1875. No. 938. Cook.
This invention consists in exhausting liquids or gases or creating a vacuum
in any suitable vessel, whereby liquids or gases may be forced to pass along
any confined tube, channel, or conduit by the action of an intermittent jet
of steam. 1875. No. 950. Cooke.
This invention relates to such rotary pumps and engines as are described in
the Specification of an invention for which Letters Patent were granted to
the inventor bearing date the 20th day of April, 1868, and numbered 1279,
and in the Provisional Specification of an invention for which he made
application for Letters Patent on the 6th day of March, 1875, numbered 839,
and is adapted to such machines as are constructed according to the said
inventions, in which reduced dimensions, weight, and strain of the parts,
and increased stiffness, especially of the "shutter," are desirable. 1875.
No. 999. Brotherhood.
According to this invention a piston is made to travel to and fro in a
cylinder, so as to force or compress fluids therein by means of a screw
spindle, screwing through the piston and rotated alternately in reverse
directions by a motor engine. 1875. No. 1161. Ingram.
Water is raised by the agency of compressed air forced into an air-tight
chamber above the water, by means of a double-action cylinder provided with
air inlet and outlet valves at each end, and containing a piston worked by a
hand lever or otherwise. 1875. No. 1401. West.
One or more vessels, each with piston dividing same into a compartment in
which the air is heated, and another for cold air and with ingress and
egress valves ; by
A DESCRIPTION OP PATENTS. 15
increasing the number of vessels any required pressure can be obtained.
The fluid passing from one compartment to the other traverses a regenerator,
to which it gives off its heat. 1875. No. 1491. Willis.
This invention relates to constructing pumps having the barrel, valve-boxes,
inlet and outlet passages cast in a cylindrical form and forming one
casting. 1875. No. 1494. Budge.
The object of this invention is to raise water or other liquids by forming a
vacuum, not by means of exhausting the air as is done at present, but by
first expelling it by means of steam, which, on condensing leaves the
vacuum. 1875. No. 1515. Lawrence and Porter.
This Provisional Specification describes improved arrangements of combined
engines and centrifugal pumps to allow of their being made more compact and
more cheaply than heretofore. 1875. No. 1542. Samain.
This improved rotatory pump is constructed with a circular drum provided
with flat paddles united in pairs by spring rods, which can slide in
mortices ; the drum is mounted on an axis and turns in a cylindrical cavity,
a portion of the upper part of which corresponds in shape with the drum, but
the lower part widens out. Suitable openings forming an inlet and an outlet
for the liquid are provided.
1875. No. 1790. JAMESON AND SCHAEPPER.
This Provisional Specification describes employing a revolving chamber or
drum so constructed as to give rotary motion to the fluid to be pumped, and
having central supply and discharge orifices ; and within the revolving
chamber or drum is affixed an internal stationary chamber or drum, inside
which the fluid pumped is protected from the action of the rotating force
applied to the revolving chamber. This internal chamber communicates by an
opening or openings in or near the circumference of the same with the
interior of the revolving chamber before described, and externally through
the central discharge orifice of the revolving chamber with a central
discharge pipe in the line of the axis of revolution of the revolving
chamber, to which revolving chamber the discharge pipe is fitted by a
stuffing-box and gland or other arrangement to make it approximately
water-tight. 1875. No. 1816. Wallace.
Inside a receiver and working within it, is a hollow bottle-shaped barrel
with cross-head having attached an outlet piece with holes ; under the
barrel is a suction-pipe moving up and down over the holes inside, and also
clock-valve or clock-ball; a fixed plunger and rod passing through two
glands in connection with the cross-bar above-named, and over which the
barrel moves. 1875. No. 2026. Blake.
Improvements in the steam pumps or water apparatus described in the
specification of former Letters Patent granted to Charles Henry Hall, the
first day of October, 1872, No. 2885, and is designed to improve this
apparatus by simplifying its construction and rendering its parts more
durable and more easy of repair.
16 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
1875. No. 2320. Botjlton and Lmray.
A modification of patent, 1868, No. 3694, and is adapted for raising liquids
to ; considerable height or forcing them with considerable pressure
without the necessity for working at a high velocity. For this
purpose, two or more wheels having vanes or floats on them
are mounted on a shaft at intervals apart from one another, within a
cylindrical casing provided with helical guides for the inlet and outlet
passages of liquid and also in the intervals between the several wheels,
each wheel increasing the pressure of the liquid. 1875. No. 2345.
Morgan-Brown. Improvement in pumps.
1875. No. 2463. Higginson. Improvement in pumps.
1875. No. 2492. King. When the piston arrives near either end of the
steam cylinder it strikes against a stud and thereby reverses the
steam-valve, by which means steam is admitted to the cylinder just before
the completion of the stroke. 1875. No. 2499. Patrick. Improved rotary
pump.
1875. No. 2572. Sagar-Mtjsgrave, Akeroyd, and Ward. This invention
consists of a tubular bucket of as great length as the pump will allow, and
with or without packing rings round it. The bridge to which the pump-rod
is attached is of sufficient height above the bucket to allow a valve to be
passed under it and dropped into a seat upon the upper edge of the bucket.
The pump rod is fitted into the bridge, and its end is sufficiently long to
serve as a stop for the valve, and is held by one or more nuts screwed upon
it. The lower edge of the bucket is brought to an edge to reduce the
friction of the water. The valve has no central stem, but is guided by
three or more feathers fitting in the bucket, 1875. No. 2912. Foster.
Attaching an air-tight copper plunger to the spear to displace half the
water on the down stroke and create an auxiliary power to assist the action
of the pump. 1875. No. 3058. Pinnington. Employing a column of liquid
in a tube in communication with the pump plunger, and resting on a valve
therein to balance, when in action, the column of liquid of large diameter
in the delivery pipe, so that the plunger or piston, has only to do work to
the amount of overcoming the friction and resistance of the water on the
solid portions of the plunger or piston; that is to say, on the parts not
occupied by the valve. 1875. No. 3071, Bayford. A double-acting
cylinder, the solid plunger or piston of which is made differential in
diameter so as to obtain a high and low pressure action; also self-acting
valve or valves, so that when the pressure reaches a determined point, the
low pressure portion is thrown out of action, the high pressure portion
alone being in operation.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 17
1875. No. 3269. Field. This invention has reference to rotary pumping
machinery of that class wherein a cylindrical boss or drum, rotating within
but eccentrically to a cylinder, drives pistons radiating from the axis of,
and rotating concentrically with, such cylinder. 1875. No. 3276. Brae.
Improvements in pumps.
1875 No. 3305. Thornycroft. According to this invention the steam valve
is moved in the first place through Suitable connexions by the steam piston
so far as to close the valve and ultimately stop the motion of the piston ;
and the further motion of the valve required to admit steam at the opposite
side of the piston, so as to make the return stroke, is obtained from a
weight set in motion or lifted during the motion of the steam piston. The
weight, which acts as a kind of governor, is so arranged and applied that
whatever may be the position of the piston on steam being admitted, the
weight will, by the movement of the piston, be brought into position in due
time to cause the required movement of the valve for ensuring the continued
working of the pump, or in the event of any accidental stoppage the pump
may be instantly started by merely moving the weight by hand. 1875. No.
3316. Bartrum. Improvements in rotatory pumps.
1875. No. 3446. Crohn and Okes. A steam engine is combined with a
double-barrelled pump, in which the buckets working in the two barrels
travel together simultaneously, and in which the water is drawn in at the
end of one pump-barrel, and expelled from the same end of the other barrel,
the opposite ends of the pump-barrels being in communication with one
another, so that the water may always flow continuously in the same
direction through both pump-barrels. 1875. No. 3457. McMinn. The
features of novelty which constitute this invention consist in using a
flexible diaphragm, worked by a spear or pump-rod, and working within a
pump chamber or barrel. 1875. No. 3828. Vacherot. Improvements in
rotary pumps.
1875. No. 3867. Neuhaus and Hodgkin. Improvements in Patents Nos. 2885,
1872, and 2026,1875, and it has reference partly to the valves employed in
the apparatus. An important object in the present invention being the
constructing and arranging the valves and their seats and the parts in
connection therewith in such a manner as to admit of the valves and
valve-seats being removed and replaced by others of a different construction
to suit the nature of the liquid to be elevated, or for any other required
purpose. 1875. No. 3872. Fraser. Improvements in pumps.
1875. No. 4298. Weyhe. Improvements in pumps.
VOL. XXV., 1876.-APPENDIX No. II.
.
Q
18 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
1875, No. 4065. Pothetos. This invention consists in the action of a cup
chain, which to facilitate ascension is made to pass over a series of drums
in such a manner as to form a screw, the object of such arrangement being to
cause the greater part of the weight of the raised water to be borne on the
axes of the drums, so that all the force that is required is merely that
which is sufficient for the traction of the chain.
FOURTH DIVISION. VENTILATION AND AIR-COMPRESSING.
1875. No. 94. Rowland. A peculiar construction of air pump having the
inlet valve fitted in the hemispherical end of the piston which is always
surrounded by water or other liquid in order to insure that the cylinder
shall be completely emptied of air at each and every stroke of the piston.
1875. No. 1039. Dronsfield. Improvements in exhausting and forcing
air.
1875. No. 1572. Corfield. Improvements in exhausting air.
1875. No. 1848. Clark. Improved steam ventilator.
1875. No. 2319. Dixon. The invention consists in dividing the tunnel
into sections by means of pivoted partition doors which open on the approach
of a train, and close directly it has passed, and placing a fan blower
midway between the said sections by which the foul air is discharged and the
tunnel ventilated. 1875. No. 2605. Johnson. Obtaining a continuous
supply of compressed air, and consists in the combination of two or more
revolving vanes having curved sides, two or more revolving segments with
intervening concave recesses adapted to the said vanes, a chest or casing
adapted to the vanes and segments, and a valve or valves operating in unison
with the vanes, segments, and recesses, for controlling the outlet of the
blast. 1875. No. 3297. King. Improvements in and connected with valves
for blowing and air-compressing engines. This consists in forming annular
valves of a steel or metal band lined with India-rubber, leather, or like
material. 1875. No. 3587. Rammell. Improvements in centrifugal machines
for throwing air and other fluids, and communicating motive power thereby.
Making vents to open and close ; arranging large machines for two bearings
only ; new arrangement of friction rollers for shafts and spindles ; and
generally of small machines.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 19
1875. No. 3969. Eaglesham.
Apparatus for cooling air-pumping machinery. This invention consists
essentially in the application and use of a jet of water led in with the
air, preferably in the form of a spray, to the cylinders, chambers, or ducts
of air or gas forcing and pumping machinery through which it passes, so as
to moisten and cool the inflowing air, and thus cool the whole apparatus, as
well as lubricate the working surfaces of the cylinders and pistons. The
means or mechanism for effecting this, consists in the application of a
valve and valve-chest, or jet apparatus, connected to a water pipe at its
inlet branch, and at its outlet branch to the air cylinder, or ducts or
chambers, drawing in the air or gas thereto, so as to regulate the flow of
the jet of water, which, by a rose on the said outlet branch, forms it into
a spray as it is drawn in by the suction of the air or by a forced jet to
mix therewith, each stroke of the piston, in the case of reciprocating air
pumps; but in rotatory pumps it may flow in in a constant spray-jet by the
regular motion of their rotating pistons. 1875. No. 4261. Bell.
The ventilation of railway tunnels of considerable length, its object being
to remove the products of combustion and steam or watery vapour generated by
the locomotive easm.es before they have time to cool down and mix with the
cold air
currents circulating in the lower part of the tunnel. 1875. No. 4550.
Gubbins. Improvements in the construction of blowers for forcing air. The
improved blower consists of a metal casing cut in two parts and connected
together by screws, the cross section presenting the form of two radial
sections of a flat thin circular disc placed transversely to the casing.
FIFTH DIVISION.
SAFETY-LAMPS.
1875. No. 75. Edwards. Replacing the safety-lamps used in mines by improved
lamps supplied with air from outside the mine. For this purpose a fixed pipe
or pipes is conducted down the mine, and branches from it are led into all
the workings. Compressed air is forced down the pipe by means of air-pumps
worked at the surface, and the improved lamps are screwed to the air-pipes,
where necessary, by means of couplings and straight or elbow pipes provided
with stopcocks. The improved lamp consists, first, of a metal air-vessel
which receives the compressed air, and into the upper part of which an
oil-vessel drops, fitted with a burner, and a wick (either flat or tubular)
which can be raised or lowered by means of a knob outside the lamp. This
knob can be disconnected from the oil-vessel when it is required to remove
the latter. Above the air-vessel is cemented a tube or cylinder of glass or
crystal, the upper end of which has fitted round it a metal ring, carrying a
cover formed of two pieces of wire gauze a short distance apart. The glass
cylinder is protected by a cage of sufficiently strong metal bars. A
reflector is provided, carried by a ring fitting round the air-chamber and
move-
20 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
able into any desired position. Through the centre of the gauze cover an
opening is left which can be closed by a stopper, and through this opening a
light can be introduced, consisting of a tube or sheath containing an inner
spring clip, which can be raised or lowered by a ring or handle at the top
of the tube from outside the lamp. This spring clip carries a match, which
can be ignited by rubbing its end upon a rough surface prepared for the
purpose at the top of the oil-vessel. When the match is ignited, the lamp
wick is lighted from it, and the match is then extinguished by drawing the
spring clip into the tube, which can then be removed from the lamp, the
opening in the cover being closed by its stopper, and the lamp will then
continue burning so long as the supply of oil and of air continues. A valve
may be provided in the cover. When necessary, this improved lamp may be
screwed to a portable receiver of compressed air or oxygen, instead of to a
fixed air-pipe. 1875. No. 803. Robson and Ellis.
Improvements in miners' safety-lamps, and consists in constructing all
covers and bottoms to one gauge in the screw parts ; and also relates to the
locking staple. 1875. No. 1674. Landau.
Improvements in miners' safety-lamps and other lamps and apparatus for
lighting. Air is admitted through an air-chamber or through passages in the
chamber or oil-well, after passing through spaces left between plates or
supplementary bottoms. Like arrangements are used for the escape of the
gaseous products of combustion. Air orifices are formed in the chimney. A
ring cap or ferrule opens and closes the orifices and air spaces. The air
enters transversely to and through the current to be acted upon. An
arrangement for extinguishing the flame of wicks by acting on the end
opposite to the combustion end is described, and this may be applied to
extinguishing plates for gas flames. 1875. No. 1949. Pinching.
This invention relates to an improved construction of safety-lamp, in the
employment
of which greater illumination will be obtained and the consequent advantages
will result; and it consists in constructing the cylinder or chimney of the
lamp
of a combination of wire gauze, and of what is now known as toughened glass.
1875. No. 4476. Owens.
According to the improved method of securing the lamp, a lever lock is
provided, segmental in form and corresponding in shape and size to the
inside of the lower part of the oil-vessel, in which it is afterwards
fitted. The bolt of the improved lock is so constructed that when acted upon
by the key it shoots upwards and takes into an aperture of suitable size,
provided for its reception in the base of the casing of the lamp, and thus
the fastening is secure and cannot be released without being unlocked. It is
proposed to provide the locks in " suits," that is, that one key shall pass
all the lamps used in the same working, and that a different pattern key
shall be used in any adjacent working; so that in this manner it shall not
be possible for the key used in one pit to unlock the lamps employed in
another pit.
A DESCRIPTION OP PATENTS. 21
SIXTH DIVISION. C 0 AL-G E T TING.
1875. No. 674. Alexander. This invention has for its object the
further improvement of apparatus connected with coal-cutting machinery, and
is intended to be carried out along with Patents No. 3438,1871, and No.
3009,1874. In the compressing apparatus there is a main compressing
cylinder formed with passages at its ends opening directly into two small
cylinders. The small cylinders are fitted with pistons made to
reciprocate by an eccentric crank or cam, and which act as a valve to the
large cylinder, the air entering by the open ends of the small cylinders and
passing off in a compressed state through valves in connection with their
closed ends. The cutters for the coal-cutting machines consist of flat steel
pieces with bevilled cutting edges, and with a slight convexity along the
edges. Each cutter is held against a jaw, formed on the link of the
endless chain, which carries the cutters in machines of the kind referred
to, by a kind of claw-bolt passing through a hole in the cutter and a hole
in the jaw. 1875. No. 722. Firth. This Provisional Specification
describes an arrangement for giving a self-acting forward motion to
coal-cutting machines, in which the cutter receives a reciprocating motion
from an air engine. An arrangement is also described for working coal by
drilling and afterwards pressing or forcing it down. An arrangement for
loading coal is also described. 1875. No. 1036. Foulis. New or
improved machinery for cutting coal and other minerals.
1875. No. 1140. Foulis. New or improved machinery for cutting coal and
other minerals. The features of novelty which constitute this invention
is the coal-cutting machine arranged and constructed as described. 1875.
No. 1713. Munro. Improvements in or connected with tools for cutting
stone, coal, slate, marble, or similar materials. 1875. No. 1890.
Dunlop. The features of novelty which constitute this invention are the
improved cutting or dressing tools, and tool holders, and the arrangement
and construction of certain parts of coal-cutting machines in which such
tools and tool holders are employed. 1875. No. 1944. JORDAN. This
invention consists in arranging and setting one or more circular saw-like
tools, a certain distance apart on a spindle, which spindle is attached to a
more or less vertically moving shaft. The shaft moves in suitable guides
in the cutting machine.
22 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
1875. No. 2021. Adamson.
The features of novelty which constitute this invention are the improved
tools and tool holders, and machinery for cutting coal, and the arrangement
or construction of the machinery or apparatus wherein such tools and tool
holders are used. 1875. No. 3281. MACNAB.
Improvements in getting coals. This invention relates to the employment of
an agent or agents of a non-inflammable and harmless nature as a complete
and equally powerful substitute for gunpowder, guncotton, dynamite, or other
dangerous explosive now used in mining coals, minerals, or blasting rocks,
and which is also a most expeditious and cheap substitute for the present
expensive, tedious, and laborious process of getting coal by manual labour,
or by cutting-machines. The process and method consists of simple boring
machinery combined with bursting or explosive agents, and modified according
to circumstances. The said bursting or explosive agents are generated by
hydrostatic and pneumatic pressure in combination or separately, that is to
say, water and air or other liquids and fluids are compressed or condensed
in combination or separately in a hollow iron shell, or other
non-inflammable bodies acting in a similar bursting or explosive manner may
be employed, but it is preferred to use water and atmospheric air in
combination for getting or mining coals. 1875. No. 3864. Muneo.
Improvement in tools for cutting coal. In carrying out the invention the
holder is formed with a conical recess or socket on its face, and a hole is
bored through from the bottom of the conical recess to the back of the
holder. The cutter is in the form of a hollow or solid cone or conical
frustrum, and is formed with a nipple or button on a short shank at its
small end, which button is adapted to engage in a kind of internally grooved
cup formed in the end of a holding spindle, which is entered through the
hole in the holder. The cup end of the holding spindle is slit
diametrically, so that the two halves can spring a little to or from each
other, and when the button of the cutter is forced in, it opens the halves
and they then close on it. 1875. No. 3887. Young and Brown.
Improvements in getting coal. This invention consists principally in
applying emery in a rigid or consolidated form, and combined or not with
other substances, for getting coal and other minerals. 1875. No. 4356.
Dingley.
The object here is to facilitate the winning or getting of coal from its
natural bed by breaking down after undercutting or by breaking out from the
solid, and to do so by simple and efficient hand appliances, dispensing with
cumbrous power machines and the danger, inconvenience, and expense of
blasting. For these purposes a hand drilling-machine is employed to bore a
deep hole in the coal, and afterwards a breaking down tool or appliance is
used, which latter after being inserted in the drilled hole is caused to
expand or open by the action of a long wedge driven through by blows from a
hand hammer and force the coal from its bed.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 23
SEVENTH DIVISION. EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS.
1875. No. 291. Espib.
A new or improved mining powder, also applicable to blasting purposes. The
feature of novelty of this invention is, that it consists of three materials
only, and the following are the proportions, though the inventor does not
confine himself to these exact proportions, as they may be varied as
circumstances may require:—60 per cent, refined nitrate of soda ; 14 per
cent, refined and triturated brimstone; 26 per cent, sawdust from strongest
wood, such as oak, walnut, mahogany, ebony, logwood, &c. In order to
increase the explosive power, add 5 per cent, of nitrate of soda. 1875.
No. 1739. SPILE.
This invention relates to improvements in the production and
application of xyloidine and of those compounds which consist essentially
of what is known as soluble gun-cotton, specially applicable to the
manufacture of fusees, fusee-tubes, and imitation tortoise-shell or
turtle-shell. 1875. No. 1885. Murdoch.
Consists in forming gunpowder cake into rings or pieces of a circular,
square, hexagonal, or other suitable shape, the said rings having each a
hole through the middle to string a series of them upon a match or fusee.
They may have plain or convex surfaces, with or without grooves, ribs,
projections, or angular parts upon them, and one or more holes or
depressions made in them; and their external peripheries may be ribbed.
1875. No. 2044. Geeening.
This invention relates to the production of so-called soluble gun-cotton, or
of compounds analogous thereto, and consists firstly, in the employment for
effecting the conversion of cotton, or of other ligneous fibres of
hydrochloric acid, in addition to, and in conjunction with, the sulphuric
and nitric acids now generally employed ; and secondly, in the treatment of
soluble gun-cotton, or of products analogous thereto, obtained as before
mentioned or otherwise, after having been freed, by washing in water, from
the excess of acids contained therein, by submitting the same to the action
of an alkaline bath, in order that any acid or acids remaining in the
converted cotton or product may be neutralized and a purer, or comparatively
purer, product may be obtained; thirdly, the employment in conjunction with
soluble gun-cotton, or of compounds analogous thereto, for the production of
ornamental objects, or for other purposes, of transparent or of
semi-transparent materials, or compounds in lieu of the opaque materials
hitherto employed in the production of compounds produced from so-called
soluble gun-cotton, such materials being by preference silica, powdered
glass, or sulphate of lime. 1875. No. 2132. Gaednee.
This relates to portable electric machines used for blasting, firing mines,
torpedoes, and lighting gas. 1875. No. 2135. Muedoch.
The object of this invention is to form rings or cakes of compressed
gunpowder. Two sliding blocks or frames having a reciprocating motion in
opposite direc-
24 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
tions, have upon each of them, and facing each other, one pr more punches or
pistons, the upper punches or pistons being provided with projecting stems
or prongs of the section of the holes to be made through tiie gunpowder
cakes. A plate or table perforated with holes of the section of the said
punches or pistons, and having in them movable pistons or plungers, has
imparted to it an intermittent rotatory motion, which brings the holes above
referred to alternately between the punches or pistons on the reciprocating
frames, and the motion of the said frames causes the said punches or pistons
to compress the gunpowder in the holes in the plate or table and pierce the
required • holes in the cakes thus formed. A roller and inclined plane
beneath the plate or table cause the movable pistons or plungers to rise and
deliver the formed cakes or rings upon the surface of the said plate or
table. 1875. No. 2459. Nordeneeldt. This new or improved explosive
substance, which is termed " vigorite," is compounded or prepared from three
substances incorporated with a compounded material which is termed "
nitroline." The " nitroline" is compounded of, or prepared from, about 25
to 50 per cent, of nitric acid; 50 to 75 per cent, of sulphuric acid; and
5 to 20 per cent, of saccharine matters (such as sugar, honey, molasses,
or treacle). The " vigorite" is subsequently compounded of, or prepared
from, about 25 to 50 per cent of nitroline; 15 to 35 per cent, of nitrate
of potash; 10 to 30 per cent, of chlorate of potash; and 15 to 35 per
cent, of " cellulose." 1875. No. 3088. Dittmar. First, this complete
specification describes one or more new or improved articles of manufacture
or explosive compounds made from vegetable fibre converted to pulp, and
treated with acids, and one or more other matters. Second,
processes or modes of treating vegetable fibre for the purpose of rendering
it explosive, such consisting in reducing the fibre to pulp, desiccating and
reducing such pulp to grains or powder or compact forms, and treating such
with acids and one or more other materials in the manner set forth. 1875.
No. 3217. Lake. Improvements in the manufacture of blasting powder.
1875. No. 4155. MORGAN-BROWN. Improvements in explosive compounds.
This explosive is composed of finely powdered picric acid, nitrate of
potash, nitrate of sodium, flour of sulphur, mixed with wet sawdust and then
dried, 1875. No. 4179. Newton. The object of this invention is to
convert at the ordinary temperature, liquid explosive substances, such as
nitro-glycerine or the nitrates of methyle, ethyle, and am-yle, and
nitro-benzine, into a viscid or pasty state. To this end these substances
are incorporated with another substance which is capable of gelatinizing or
thickening them, and a substance is chosen by preference which will detract
little or nothing from their explosive force. 1875. No. 4268. Punshon.
Improvements in the preparation of nitro-glycerine for blasting purposes.
The nitro-glycerine is cleaned by means of ordinary chalk and water, and
then mixed with charred peat, previously ground and sifted with a silk or
cotton sieve, the peat acting as an absorbent for the nitro-glycerine.
A .DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 25
EIGHTH DIVISION".
MISCELLANEOUS.
1875. No. 60. Wilkinson.
Artificial fuel.
1875. No. 148. LUPTON.
Improvements in self-lubricating wheels and axles for corves or trams used
in coal or other mines, applicable to other surfaces requiring lubrication.
This invention mainly consists in a wheel made of suitable metal constructed
hollow, so as to hold a quantity of the lubricant, which is introduced by
means of an aperture in the side or any other convenient part of the wheel,
such aperture being closed by suitable plug or valve. The oil from the
hollow of the wheel reaches the axle by a suitable hole bored through the
boss, in which hole a piece of wire or other suitable "needle" is placed,
which, as the wheel revolves, moves up and down, and so keeps the hole from
being clogged and allows the oil to reach the axle. 1875. No. 387.
Stevenson.
The first part of the invention relates to the compressing of air by
machinery on the surface, such air being conveyed by pipes to the machines
in the mine or quarry for excavating or getting the coal or other mineral;
and one improvement consists in leading the exhaust air from the working
machines back by a second line of piping to the compressing engine. 1875.
No. 654. Morgan-Brown.
Improvements in treating peat. 1875. No. 739. Richards.
Artificial fuel.
1875. No. 998. Abel.
This invention relates to apparatus for supporting respiration and light in
suffocating atmospheres; consisting, firstly, of parts which the workman
carries with him, such as a respirator connected by a tube to a portable air
reservoir, a clip for closing the nose, glasses for protecting the eyes, and
a lamp for lighting dark localities. The mouth-piece has branch tubes
provided with inlet and outlet valves. The lamp is supplied with air by a
tube connected to the portable air reservoir ; this is formed as a bellows,
and has a branch pipe by which it may be filled with fresh air from time to
time. The apparatus consists further of a pump for a continuous air supply,
connected to an air conduit pipe for supplying the before-mentioned portable
reservoirs, and also a distributing reservoir having branch pipes to which
the respirators and lamps of workmen are connected that are not provided
with a portable air reservoir. 1875. No. 1020. Somerset.
The lower part of the axle-box or bearing is formed with an oil receiver or
vessel to contain the oil, and in this is placed a hollow cylinder of
India-rubber or other suitable material capable of floating in the oil. This
cylinder floating in the oil rolls in contact with the under side of the
revolving axle or shaft, and this lubricates it.
VOL. XXV., 1876.—APPENDIX No. II.
J
26 A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS.
1875. No. 1027. RADBKE.
Manufacture of artificial fuel, based upon a form r Patent, No. 1877, 1873.
The solution of silicate is entirely dispensed with., and boiling water or
steam, with or without a weak dissolution therein of an alka'i, is
substituted ; in some cases bitumen is added. The compound is worked by
mechanical means into a very high state of plasticity. The cost of
manufacture in general is considerably lessened, and the fuel is rendered
absolutely waterproof and, nevertheless, smokeless. 1875. No. 1301.
Coueadi.
Coking peat.
1875. No. 1442. Kinsey.
Artificial fuel.
1875. No. 1458. Kingsford.
This invention mainly consists in consolidating small coal or slack, or
similar substances, by addition thereto of a composition made of a solution
of silicate of soda or potash, to which a small quantity of pitch or other
suitable substance is added, and to enable the pitch to combine with the
solution the silicate is heated with a small quantity of flour or suitable
paste-making materials to convert it into a paste, and while hot the pitch
is added. For consolidating the substances the composition while hot is
submitted to pressure. The coal may be ground, and, if desired, mixed with
clay and lime, which re-act upon the silicates and hasten the solidification
of the fuel. 1875. No. 1460. Hall and Bainbeidge.
Improvements in machinery for carbonizing peat and other matters. An
improved machine for kneading or masticating and cutting and condensing raw
peat. and for cutting it into blocks. The said machine consists of a taper
casing having feed and delivery openings, in which casing is a diaphragm
having ports or openings ; cutters, Archimedean screws, and pug arms are
mounted on revolving shafts in the said casing ; on the pug shaft a disc is
mounted for facilitating the delivery of the peat which is cut by means of a
counterbalanced cutter as it issues from the casing. In some cases the pug
arms may be fixed in the casing. The disc may be dispensed with and
reciprocatory cutters may be used. The shafts aforesaid are caused to
revolve at different speeds by means of gearing of the kind described in the
specification of letters patent, No. 1667, 1870. 1875. No. 1725. Lake.
- •
Refining peat for fuel.
1875. No. 1900. GeAEY.
To manufacture artificial fuel from small coal, coke, or other carbonaceous
substances by mixing same with any suitable form of magnesia, and
subsequently treating the same to form compact blocks. 1875. No. 2575.
Hes.
According to this invention artificial fuel-blocks are prepared by
compounding together turf or peat and small coal or coal dust with coal tar
and river deposit. The peat and coal dust are first ground into a fine
paste, and are then mixed with the other ingredients, and the compound is
compressed in moulds.
A DESCRIPTION OF PATENTS. 27
1875. No. 2593. Ankers. Improved means and apparatus for lubricating the
bearings of the axles of waggons known and distinguished by colliers and
miners as "corves." Between the line of rails on which the wheels of the
corve rotate are placed a series of troughs or boxes to contain grease.
These boxes are arranged side by side in pairs ; a revolving star-wheel is
mounted on an axle in each box, and at one side of the line of rails
opposite to each pair of grease boxes there is a fixed arrangement for
pushing the body of the wagon a short distance along the bearing part of the
axles, so as to lubricate the axles at opposite sides of the bearings
thereof alternately, the pushing mechanism being so fixed as to push the
body of each wagon sideways in the following order :—At the first pair of
grease boxes the wagon is pushed to the right, at the second pair of boxes
to the left, and so on alternately, the effect being to cause the aforesaid
revolving wheels to lubricate each side of each bearing alternately by the
action of the axle, which, coming into contact with the teeth of the
star-wheels causes them to rotate and carry up and deposit on the axle the
lubricating matter. 1875. No. 2792. BEATTIE. Regulating the supply of oil by
rod, with knob at top, and piston at bottom, fitting in cylinder, the bottom
of which is level with the bottom of axle-box ; apertures communicate with
the interior. The quantity of oil in box is ascertained by raising the knob.
Thin metal carriers containing wicks are passed through apertures in
diaphragm. The wicks are made of cotton and worsted placed vertically. A
shield of wood is placed round the collar of the journal made in two parts
pressed apart laterally by springs. The axle-box is divided horizontally
into two parts. 1875. No. 3173. James. Artificial fuel.
1875. No. 3402. Geiepin. These improvements apply to the descriptions
of shovels known as miners' shovels, Bristol rib shovels, and draining
shovels or tools, as also the construction of a shovel that will combine in
its use a spade and fork, the main features of which improvements consist in
forming the shovels or blade parts of sheet steel, and adapting the
tree-sockets, langets, and other parts thereto. 1875. No. 3622. Lake.
Improvements in the manufacture of fuel. Pitch or asphaltum is converted
into a true asphalt by the addition of calcareous earth. Coal-dust is
first mixed with asphalt made as described to about the consistency of
concrete. Clay is mixed with hot water until the whole assumes a pasty
mass. This pasty mass in its hot condition is then thoroughly mixed with
the asphalt. 1875. No. 3636. Maeeiott. Moulding blocks of artificial
fuel in a geometrical form so as to stow close.
1875. No. 3701. Beewee. Improvements in apparatus for enabling persons
safely to enter places filled with smoke, and in lanterns for lighting such
places. A cap or hat with internal webbing resting on the top of the head,
Air drawn in through smoke-filtering appliances ; smoke excluded by mantel
fastened by a string to the neck of the wearer. Refreshing vapours
supplied.to the nose. Lantern fitted with smoke filter.
28 A DESCRIPTION OP PATENTS.
1875. No. 3714. Feeby. Improvements in the production of finely
powdered coal, applicable for being burnt together with air in puddling and
other furnaces. 1875. No. 4301. Bainbridge. Improvements in the axle
bearings of coal-tubs. Upon the under side of the frame of the
tub-bearing, blocks to rest upon the necks of the axles are secured. The
bearing-blocks are perforated for the passage of oil to the axle. The
oil is supplied from a tubular or cylindrical oil reservoir, which is formed
or fixed on the top of the bearing-block, and is let into the timber frame
of the tub. The oil reservoir is closed at the top by a screw cap or cover.
1875. No. 4522. THOMSON. This invention relates to apparatus for
raising, tipping, and lowering trucks by hydraulic pressure.
INDEX TO VOL. XXV.
Accounts, x to xiv. Advertisement, ix.
America, coal measures and oil produce of, by Mr. E. F. Boyd. (See Remarks
on.) Apparatus for saving the breakage of coals when falling from colliery
screens into wagons, by Mr. A. M. Potter, 261.—Discussed, 262.
Plate. 77. Drawing of the apparatus. Appendix No. 1, barometer and
thermometer readings for 1875, end of volume. Appendix No. 2, patents
connected with mining operations for 1875, end of volume.
Appendix to rules, li.
Application of counterbalancing and expansion to winding engines, by Mr.
John Daglish. 201.—Description of the Silks-worth engine, 203.—Discussed,
207.
Plates. 51. Diagram of moments of load of winding engine with scroll drum,
Boldon Colliery.—52. Plan of 'expansion gearing of the Silksworth winding
engine. — 53. Silksworth Colliery counterbalance.—54. Diagram of moments of
load in feet-pounds, Silksworth winding engine. — 55. Plan of M. Audemar's
system of expansion apparatus.—56. Diagram of a complete winding of the
Silksworth engine, taken from one end of the cylinder.—57. Diagrams,
Silksworth 48 in. engine.—Winding eight full tubs with and without
expansion.— 58,59 (illustrating Mr. Page's remarks). Diagrams from compound
engine.— High and low pressure Corliss cylinders. —Diagrams from Holbeach
Colliery pumping engine and Elswick Works Corliss engine. Audemar's system
of expansion apparatus, plate 55.
Bainbridge, Emerson, On fourteen different methods of lubricating coal tubs
or corves. (See different methods of.)
Balance Sheet, xii.
Barometer and thermometer readings, 1875, with diagrams, Appendix No. 1, end
of volume.
"Blown-out Shots," mechanical effect on
ventilation, by Messrs. Hall and Clarke.
(See Mechanical effect of, &c.) Boyd, E. P., On the coal measures and oil
produce of America. (See Remarks on,
&c.) Btjnnjng, T. W., On the prevention of
spontaneous combustion of coal at sea.
(See Prevention of, &c.)
Barometer and thermometer readings, 1875, end of volume.
Patents connected with mining operations, 1875, end of volume.
Carboniferous system in Northumberland,
by Mr. G. A. Lebour. (See Larger
divisions of, &c.) Clarke, Geo. (and Henry Hall), On the
mechanical effect of "blown-out" shots
on ventilation. (See Mechanical effect
of &c.) Coal, apparatus for saving breakage of, by
Mr. A. M. Potter. (See Apparatus, &c.) Coal gases. (See Further notes
on recent
examinations of.) Coal measures and oil produce of America,
by Mr. E. F. Boyd. (See Remarks on.) Contents of Volume, iii. Council,
members of, xvii. Council report, v. Counterbalancing and expansion applied
to
winding engines, by Mr. John Daglish.
(See Application of &c.)
Daglish, John, On the application of counterbalancing and expansion to
winding engines. (See Application of, &e.) Description of fourteen different
modes of . lubricating coal tubs or corves, by Mr. Emerson Bainbridge, 215.
Table showing cost of lubricating tubs, 222.
Plates. 60. Daglish's lubricator. — 61. Anker's patent tub greaser. — 62.
Lampen and Theedam's corf greaser. — 63. Halli-day's lubricator. — 64.
Bainbridge's lubricator. — 65. Watson's lubricator. —66. Lupton's
lubricator.—67. Had-field's lubricator.—68. Holt and Bainbridge's
method.—69. Self lubricating machine.
30 INDEX.
Dislocations in the thill, with the presence, amount, and tension of gas, in
the Silk-stone seam of Strafford Main Colliery, by Robert Miller, 23.
Discussed, 104.
Plates. 2. Plan of part of works at Silkstone coal, Strafford Main
Colliery.—3. Section of pressure gauge and pipe in borehole, and section of
borehole.—4 and 5. Diagrams showing variation of pressure in pounds per
square inch, July, 1874, to June, 1875.
Election of officers for 1876-77, 249. Embleton, T. W., Notes on
the Oaks Colliery explosion. (See Notes on.)
Einance report, viii.
Flintshire and Denbighshire, mineral resources of, by Mr. J. J. Williams.
(See Mineral resources.
Foesteb, Thos. E., memoir of, by Mr. G. C. Greenwell, 5.
Fossils, report of sub-committee on Hutton collection, 1.
France, secondary iron ores of, by Mr. G. A. Lebour. (See Geological
relations of.)
Further notes on recent examinations of coal gases, by Professor A.
Friere-Marreco, 41.—Effect of vacuum in cold, —effect of vacuum in heat,
41.—Effect of reheating after an interval.—Effect of weathering.—Effect of
varying temperature.—Rate at which the different gases are
liberated.—Capacity of exhausted coal for gas, 42.—mine gases, 43.
General meetings, iii.
General statement of accounts, xiv.
Geological relations of the secondary iron ores of France, by Mr. G. A.
Lebour, 59.— Explanation of map.—Rough division of beds, 59.—Chief iron ore
horizons, 60.— Kinds of ore.—Doubtful age of some ironstone deposits,
61.—Cretaceous ores, 62.—Jurassic ores, 64.—Liassic ores, 67. —Triassic
ores, 70.—Ores of doubtful age.—Theoretical considerations, 71.— Table of
formations, 73.—Analyses of some secondary French ores, 75.
Plates. 38. Section of strata at Leadbitter Shaft. — 39. Map of France.
— 40. Various sections described on page 77.
Great and four-fathom limestones and their associated beds in South
Northumberland, by Mr. G. A. Lebour, discussed, 46.
Geeen, Prof. A. H., On the variations in thickness and character of the
Silkstone and Barnsley coal seams, &c. (See Variations in the thickness,
&c.)
Gbeenwell, G. C, Memoir of the late Mr. Thos. E. Forster, 5.
Hall, Henby (and G. Claeke), On the mechanical effect of " blown-out" shots
on ventilation. (See Mechanical effect of &c.)
Honorary members, xvi.
Hunt, Robeet, Remarks on spontaneous combustion of coal, 184.
Hutton collection of Fossils, Report of subcommittee on, 1.
Iron ores of France, by Mr. G. A. Lebour. (See Geological relations fif.)
Larger divisions of the carboniferous system in Northumberland, by Mr. G. A.
Lebour, 225.—Introduction, 225.—Previous views of the subject, 226.—The coal
measures, 227.—Gannister beds, millstone grit, 228. —Bernician series
(Yoredale rock and scar limestone beds), 231.—Tuedian series, Valentian of
Geikie (MS.), or califerous sandstone of Maclaren, 232.—Conclusion,
233.—Table correlating proposed divisions with old ones, 234.—Discussed,
234. Plates.
70. Sections:—Derbyshire, Wensleydale, Cross Fell, Mid and South
Northumberland, North Northumberland.
Leboxje, G. A., Discussion of his papers, On the great and little
limestones of South Northumberland, 46. On the larger divisions of the
carboniferous system in Northumberland. (See Larger divisions of,
&c.)
Life members, xvi.
Little limestone (On the) and its accompanying coal in South Northumberland,
by Mr. G. A. Lebour, discussed, 46.
Long-wall workings at East Hetton Colliery, by Mr. W. O. Wood,
251.—Description of seam, roof, &c, 251.—Method of working, 252.—Formation
of goaf, ventilation, waste, or loss of coal, 254.—Produce of round, cost of
working, labour, 255.—Material,256.—Commercial results, 257.—Discussed, 258.
Plates. 75. Plan of long-wall workings at East Hetton Colliery.—76. Plan
of gateways and face, thick and thin boards.
Lubricating coal tubs or corves, by Mr. Emerson Bainbridge. (See Different
methods of, &c.)
Maeeeoo, A. Feeiee, On coal gases. (See Further notes on, &c.)
Mechanical effect of " Blown-out" shots on ventilation, by Messrs. Hall and
Clarke, 239.—Description of various experiments made, 244.—Result of
observations and experiments, 247. Plates.
71. Plan of workings in the new coal, Wynnstay Colliery.—72, 73, 74.
Sections, &c, illustrating experiments.
INDEX. 31
Membees : Patrons, xv.—Honorary, xvi.— Life, xvi.—Officers, xvii.—Ordinary,
xviii. —Students, xl.—Subscribing collieries, xlv.
Memoir of the late Thomas E. Forster, by Mr. G. C. Greenwell, 5.
Miller, Robeet, On dislocations in the Silkstone seam of Strafford Main
Colliery. (See Dislocations in the thill, &c.)
Mineral resources of Flintshire and Denbighshire, by J. J. Williamson, 81.—
Classification of the minerals found, 81. —Coal measures, &c, 85.—Iron ore,
86.—
i Silica, carbonate of lime, chert, 87.— Hydraulic limestone, argillaceous
ironstone, fire clay, 88.—Surface clays, freestone, &c, 89.—Produce of land
in Flintshire and Denbighshire, 1841,1861,1871, 91. — List of Flintshire
metalliferous mines, 92.—Do. Denbighshire, 93.—Coal formations,
94.—Flintshire collieries, 96. —Section of limestone formation at Rhos
Esmor, 100.
Plate. 41. Map of Flintshire.
Notes on the Oaks colliery explosion on the 12th December, 1866, and on the
subsequent explosions, by Mr. T. W. Embleton, 29.—Discussed, 142.
Plates. 6 to 35. Register of Barometer at Oaks
Colliery and pressure on gas pipe, 1867.
—36. Plan of scaffold at the Oaks
Colliery, 37.—Hand sketch of Oaks
Colliery.
Oaks Colliery explosion, by Mr. T. W.
Embleton. (See Notes on, &c.) Officers, xvii. Ordinary members, xviii.
Patents connected with mining operations, 1875. Appendix No. 2, end of
volume.
Patrons, xv.
Potteb, A. M., On apparatus for saving breakage of coals when falling from
colliery screens into wagons. (See Apparatus, &c.)
Presidential address, Mr. Lindsay Wood, 189.
Prevention of spontaneous combustion of coal at sea, by Mr. Theo. Wood
Bunning, 107.—Captain Scott's method of reaching the seat of fire,
110.—Various methods of ventilation by tubes, &c, 113.—Communication from
Mr. R. G. Coke on the subject, 115. — Moses and Mitchell's machine for
ventilating, 116.—Paton and Harris' pump, 116.—Discussed, 116,133,
178.—Extract from a pamphlet by Mr. R. Cooper Rundell, 133.
Plates.
42. Illustration of Captain Scott's method of removing burning coal.—50.
Illustrating Mr. J. A. Ramsay's remarks.
Remarks on the coal measures and oil produce of the United States of
America, by Mr. E. F. Boyd, 145.—General geological formation,
146.—Carboniferous series, 150.—Division of the coal measures, 151.
—Anthracite coal, 151.—Methods of raising coal, cost, &c,
152-153.—Bituminous coal, 154.—The Michigan basin, 155.—The Illinois and
Missouri basins, 156.—General section in Indiana, 156.— Missouri and Iowa,
156.—Petroleum or mineral oil and oil gas, 157.—Average "life" of oil wells
and daily produce of a well, 160.—Profits, 161.—Section of coal measures in
West Virginia and Ohio, 163. —Section of coal measures in Pennsylvania,
165.—Discussed, 167. Plates.
43. Geological map of the United States.
— 44. Coal fields of the United States.
— 45. Anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania, with their outlets to tide
water. — 46. Map of the anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania.—47. Vertical
section of Pottsville anthracite.— Transverse section from Locust Mountain,
Shanandoah City to Pottsville.—• Transverse section from Newport, in the
lower end of the Wyoming valley, to the Lehigh summit mines.—General western
formation.—48. Section of the coal measures of Pennsylvania, near
Pittsburg.—49. Oil regions of Pennsylvania.
Repoets : Council, v.—Finance Committee,
viii.—Sub-Committee on the Hutton
collection of fossils, i. Rhos Esmor, limestone formation at, 100. Rules,
xlvii.—Appendix, li.—Notice of
alteration of rules 4 and 10, 103. Rundell, Mr., Remarks on spontaneous
combustion of coal, 178.
Sections : Strata at Leadbitter shaft, plate 38.—Sections illustrating Mr.
Lebour's paper on the secondary iron,"ores of France, plate 40.—Limestone
formation at Rhos Esmor, 100.—Coal measures, Indiana, 156.—Coal measures,
West Virginia and Ohio, 163.—Coal measures, Pennsylvania, 165.—Sections of
American anthracite and bituminous coal measures, plates 47,
48.—Carboniferous system— Derbyshire, Wensleydale, Cross Fell, Mid and South
Northumberland, North Northumberland, plate 70.
Siikstone and Barnsley coal seams, by Professor A. H. Green. (See Variations
in thickness of.)
:V2
INDEX.
Silkstone seam of Strafford Main Colliery.
(See Dislocations in the thill, &c.) Spontaneous combustion of coal at sea,
by
Mr. T. W. Bunning. (See Prevention
of, Ac.) Strafford Main Colliery, Silkstone seam.
(See Dislocations in the thill, &c.) Students, xl.
Subscribing collieries, xlv. Subscriptions, x.
Thermometer and barometer readings, 1875,
Appendix No. 1, end of volume. Treasurer's accounts, x to xiv.
Variations in thickness and character of the Silkstone and Karnsley coal
seams in the southern part of the Yorkshire coalfield, and the probable
manner in which these and similar changes have been produced, by Professor
A. H. Green, 13. Discussed, 20.
Plate. 1. Diagrams illustrating the changes in
the Silkstone and Barnsley coal, and diagrams explaining the thickening of a
parting in a coal seam, and the breaking up of a coal seam and
its replacement by shale and stone. Ventilation, mechanical effect of
"blown-out" shots on, by Messrs. Hall and Clarke. (See
Mechanical effect of.)
Williams, J. J., On the mineral resources of Flintshire "and Denbighshire.
(See Mineral resources.) ,
Winding engines, counterbalancing and expansion applied to, by Mr. John
Dag-lish. (See Application of, &c.)
Wood, Lindsay, Presidential address, 189.
Wood, W. O., On the long-wall workings at East Hetton Colliery. (See
Long-wall workings, &c.)
Yorkshire, invitation of Midland Institute to hold a meeting at, accepted,
3.—Proceedings at meeting, 11.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE: A. REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE HILL.
ft