NEIMME Transactions
Volume 31
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
TRANSACTIONS.
VOL. XXXI.
1881-82. -
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE: A. REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE HILL.
1882.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE : ANDREW REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE
HILL.
CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXI.
PAGE.
Report of Council............... vii
Finance Report .................. ix
Account op Subscriptions ... xii
Treasurer's Account............ xiv
General Account ............... xvi
Patrons .............................. xvii
Honorary and Life Members xviii
Officers.............................. xix
Original Members............... xx
Ordinary Members............... xxxiii
PAGE.
Associate Members ............ xxxiii
Students ¦'........................... xxxv
Subscribing Collieries......... xxxix
Charter.............................. xli
Bye-laws ........................... xlvii
barometer readings............ 249
Abstracts of Foreign
Papers ............,........End of Vol.
Index ........................... „
GENERAL MEETINGS.
1881.
PAGE.
Sept. 16.—Visit to Skelton Park and Lumpsey Mines ... ...
... ... 1
Oct. 1.—Notes upon Messrs. Pernolet and Agnillon's "Report upon the Working
and Regulation of Fiery Mines in England," by Mr. A. L. Steavenson,..
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 5
Discussed ... ... ....... ... ...
... ... ... 27
Nov. 19.—¦" Description of a Method of Surveying with the Loose Needle among
Rails and other Ferruginous Substances," by Mr. T. E. Candler ...
33 Discussion of Mr. T. J. Bewick's Paper, " On Diamond Rock Boring" 40
Dec. 17.—Intimation of Alteration with respect to the holding of,
General
Meetings ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 49
Paper by Mr. Charles Parkin, " On Jet Mining" ... ...
... 51
Paper by Professor G. A. Lebour, " On the Present State of our
Knowledge of Underground Temperature" ... ... ...
... 59
Discussed ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 71
1882. Feb. 11.—Intimation of Arrangements made for the Publication of
Abstracts
from Foreign Papers ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 75
Paper by Mr. W. J. Bird, " On the Comparative Efficiency of Nonconducting
Coverings for Steam Pipes" ... ... ... ...
77
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 83
FAOK.
Paper by Professor J. H. Merivale, "Abstract of an Analysis, by Dr. Chance,
of Fire-damp Explosions in the Anthracite Coal Mines of
Pennsylvania" ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 87
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 90
Paper by Mr. T. J. Bowlker, " An Account of a New Ventilating Fan" 93
Paper by Mr. A. L. Stcavenson, " Remarks on the Points of Interest at the
Skelton Park and Lumpsey Mines, on the occasion of the
Visit of the Institute, September 16th, 1881".......... ... 105
Paper by Mr. J. W. Swan, "On an Electric Safety-lamp, with
Portable Secondary Battery" ... ... ... ...
... ... 117
Discussed .. ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 118
April22.—The President's Address ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 123
Paper by Mr. Robert Stevenson, " On the Use of Salt for Laying Dust
in Mines''........................... 145
Discussed ... ... ... ... . . ...
... ... ... 147
Paper by Mr. Edwin Gilpin, " On the Gold Fields of Nova Scotia" ...
151
June 10.- Paper by Mr. E. F. Melly, " On the Anthracite Coal of South Wales"
175
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 191
Paper by the Secretary, " The Fleuss Apparatus for Breathing in
Noxious Gases" ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 197
Discussion of Professor Lebour's Paper, " On the Mineral Resources of
the Country between Rothbury and Wooler" ... ... ...
... 203
Discussion of Professor Lebour's Paper, " On the Present State of our
Knowledge of Underground Temperature" ... ... ...
... 201
Discussion of Mr. Charles Parkin's .Paper,'; On Jet Mining"...... 205
June 22. -Excursion to the Langley Barony Lead Mines .... "...
..'•. ... 209
Aug. 5.—Paper by Mr. J. D. Kendall, " On the Hjematite Deposits of Furness"
211
Discussed ... ... ... ... ...
... ¦ ¦ ¦ • • ¦ • • • 237
Discussion of Mr. T. J. Bowlker's Paper, " Description of a New Ventilating
Fan" ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 238
Paper by Mr. E. P. Rathbone. " On the Dry, or Wind, Method of
Cleaning Coal" ........................ 245
The thirtieth year of the Institute has been one of such uniform and quiet
prosperity that it leaves very little material for the Council to comment
upon.
There are no shortcomings of income to gloze over, no great exceptional
occurrences to explain, but simply a progress to report, and that too not of
an exceptional or intermittent character, but one of a permanent and solid
nature, showing that the Institute is becoming more and more secured against
the fluctuations of the funds derived from subscriptions.
There is no doubt that the Institute has felt considerably the very great
depression that has existed in the coal trade during the last few years, and
that its progress has not been equal to that of some former years; but it is
hoped that its present indication of increased prosperity may prove the
forerunner of increased activity in mining generally, and foreshadow more
rapid and substantial successes in the future, similar to those which caused
the Institute to move onwards with leaps and bounds, and more than double
its members a few years ago.
There have been many valuable additions to the Library, and . exchanges have
been effected with a great number of Foreign Societies to such an extent
that probably few Libraries out of London are in possession of such valuable
information respecting the progress of Mining Science in all countries, and
this has enabled the Council to publish extracts and translations from such
foreign papers as seemed to deserve particular attention, which will very
materially add to the interest of the Transactions. In this the Council has
been assisted by Professor Lebour, who has devoted much time and attention
to this department.
The papers read before the Institute have been exceedingly interesting. The
difficulty, not to say the impossibility, of gentlemen with but an imperfect
knowledge of our language being able to study sufficiently in a few weeks so
complicated a matter as the extraction of coal, so as to be able to write a
report that should not contain many inaccuracies, has been fully
demonstrated in a very able review by Mr. A. L. Steavenson of the Eeport of
Messrs. Pernolet and Aguillon.
Underground temperature has received special attention from Professor
Lebour, and that gentleman has contributed a very able report as to our
present information on that important subject.
(viii)
Professor Merivale has contributed a paper tabulating the explosions that
have taken place in the Anthracite Coal Mines of Pennsylvania.
Among the Geological and Mining papers is one contributed by-Mr. Charles
Parkin "On Jet Mining," which contains most valuable and interesting
information on a subject that had not previously been treated of in the
Transactions.
Mr. Gilpin has contributed a very valuable paper "On the Gold Fields of Nova
Scotia," and Mr. Melly one " On the Anthracite Coal of South Wales;" both of
which add considerably to the value of the Transactions as works of
reference.
Mr. Kendall has also written another of his carefully prepared and
beautifully illustrated Geological papers "On the Haamatite Deposits of
Furness."
The more mechanical portion of the miners' profession has been treated by
Mr. T. E. Candler in a paper "On a Method of Surveying with the Loose Needle
among Rails and other Ferruginous Substances;" by Mr. Bird in a paper "On
Non-conducting Coverings for Steam Pipes;" and by Mr. Bowlker who has
contributed a description of an ingenious adaptation of the Guibal Fan,
whereby he considers the efficiency of the original has been attained,
whilst its size has been considerably reduced.
The safety of mines has not been overlooked, and a very excellent suggestion
of Mr. Robert Stevenson's to use salt as a means of keeping down and
rendering harmless the dust in mines, gave rise to an interesting and
instructive discussion. The Secretary also added a description of the Fleuss
apparatus, which, in the hands of Mr. Corbett and his able assistants
rendered such valuable service at Seaham in enabling the men to explore the
mine when filled with noxious gases.
The members also are much indebted to the President, Mr. G. B. Forster, for
his very excellent Address, which contains a general summary of all the
modern improvements in mining to the present time, and much other valuable
information.
There has been no excursion to distant places this year, but Mr. Bewick
kindly invited the members to inspect the Langley Barony Lead Mines, where
the whole process of extracting lead and rendering it fit for sale was
inspected by about 40 gentlemen, and a most interesting and enjoyable day
was spent.
The members have been most courteously invited by the American Institute of
Mining Engineers to visit the mining regions about Colorado; but, owing to
the short time allowed for preparation, only a few gentlemen have been able
to accept the invitation.
The Finance Committee have to report that the Finances of the Institute are
in a satisfactory condition.
The highest income ever realised previous to the present year was in
1876-1877, when it stood at £2,168 16s. 4d.
It now stands at £2,176 9s. 10d., and, therefore, financially this has been
the most successful year of the Institute.
The income for the past year shows an increase over that of the preceding
year of £183 8s. lOd.
This increase is composed of the following items :—£107 4s., the amount of a
third half-yearly dividend, which has been acquired through the Institute
and Coal Trade Chambers Company, Limited, paying their dividends half-yearly
instead of yearly, and which is, of course, an exceptional payment which
will not occur again. There has also been a new source of income derived
from the investment of £1,000 with the River Tyne Commissioners, and as only
six months' interest has been received this year, amounting to £19 lis. 8d.,
this amount will be doubled in future. The amount derived from the sale of
Transactions is £85 9s. 2d. in excess of last year, and there has also been
an increase of £5 12s. in sundry matters connected with the letting of
rooms. From these additions to the income, however, a diminution of £31 8s.
in members' subscriptions has to be deducted, making the net increase £183
8s. lOd. as stated.
There has been a falling off of 41 members, which may be considered due to
two causes; firstly, a depression of trade, and, secondly, the rigorous
carrying out of the instructions of the Council to strike off the List of
Members all whose arrears have exceeded a certain point defined by the
Rules. This step has also reduced the amount of arrears from £569 2s. to
£493 10s., being a decrease of £75 12s. A further decrease in the number of
members will no doubt be shown next year, since the minute of the Council
was passed after the present list of members was made up, but this does not
in any way affect the position of the Institute, as those members on the
list who do not pay are obviously a source of weakness rather than of
strength.
b
00
The expenditure, although more than that of last year, has been £483 16s.
3d. less than the income.
The increase in the expenditure is owing to the payment of £275 10s. 2d.
more for the printing of the Transactions than was paid in the preceding
year, due to the publication of the Report on Ventilators, and to an
increased number of illustrations.
The result of the year's work shows that there has been invested a sum of
£1,000, and that there is in the bank, after deducting the balance due to
the Treasurer, £502 19s. 7d. The bank balance at the commencement of the
year was £1,019 3s. 4d. (after deducting the balance due to the Treasurer of
£10 10s. 6d.), thus showing a net increase to the funds of the Institute of
£483 16s. 3d.
WM. COCHRANE. GL B. FORSTER.
ADVERTISEMENT.
The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the facts and opinions
advanced in the Papers read, and in the Abstracts of the Conversations which
occurred at the Meetings during the Session.
(xii) De. THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT
£ s. d.' To 604 Original Members, as per List 1881-82.
10 of which are Life Members. 594 @ £2 2s..........
...............1,247 8 0
To 22 Ordinary Members, as per List 1881-82. 1 of which is a Life Member.
_21 1 @ £2 2s., 20 at £3 3s....... ............ 65 2 0
To 76 Associate Members, as per List 1881-82. 1 of which is a Life
Member.
_75@£22s. ........................ 157 10 0
To 123 Students, as per List 1881-82.
1 Having paid as an Associate ... ... ... ...
... ... 22 0
122 @ £1 Is. ........................ 128 2 0
To 13 Subscribing Collieries..................... 65 2 0
To 4 New Ordinary Members @ £3 3s................ 12 12 0
To 11 New Associate Members.
1 Having paid as a Life Member ... ... ... ...
... 20 0 0
_H) @ £2 2s......................... 21 0 0
To 9 New Students % £1 Is................... 9 9 0
1,728 7 0 To Arrears, as per last Balance Sheet... ... ...
... £569 2 0
Deduct— Irrecoverable Arrears not inserted in 1881-82 List (Lead,
Eesigned, &c.) .................. 151 4 0
--------------- 417 18 0
Audited and Certified,
JOHN G. BENSON & CO,
jN<;wcastle-upon-Tyne, Chartered
Accountants.--------------
3rd August, 1882.
£2,146 5 0
(xiii)
WITH SUBSCRIPTIONS, 1881-82. Ce.
----------- -------- _ > —
------------
PAID. UNPAID.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
By 514 Original Members paid ............ 1.079 8 0
By 57 Do. unpaid ............
119 14 0
By 6 Do. dead, unpaid.........
12 12 0
By 4 Do. resigned, unpaid ...
... 8 8 0
By 6 Do. gone, no address ...
... 12 12 0
By 7 Do. struck off .........
14 14 0
594
By 18 Ordinary Members paid ... ... ... ...
56 14 0
By 1 Do. ............ 2
2 0
By 2 Do. unpaid............
6 6 0
HI
By 64 Associate Members paid ... ... ...
... 134 8 0
By 8 Do. unpaid............
16 16 0
By 1 Do. dead, unpaid .........
2 2 0
By 2 Do. struck of .........
4 4 0
"75
By 97 Students paid................... 10117 o'
By 13 Do. unpaid ...............
13 13 0
By 1 Do. dead ...............
110
By 5 Do. gone, no address ... .., ...
... 550
By 3 Do. struck off ...............
3 3 0.
By 3 Do. resigned ...............
3 3 0
122 By 1 Do. paid as an Associate ... ...
... 220
By 13 Subscribing Collieries paid ... ... ...
65 2 0
By 3 New Ordinary Members paid ... ... ...
990
By 1 Do. unpaid ... ...
... 330
_i
By 8 New Associate Members paid ... ... ...
16 16 0
By 2 Do. unpaid ... ...
... 440
By 1 Do. Life Member ......
20 0 0
By 5 New Students paid ... ... ...
... 550
By 4 Do. unpaid...............
440
_9
1,493 3 0 235 4 0
By Members'Arrears.................. 14115 0 236 5 0
By Students' do................... 17 17 0 22 1
0
1,652 15 0 493 10 0 1,652 15 0
£2,146 5 0
(xiv) TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH THE NORTH OF ENGLAND
Db.
For the Year ending
£ s. d.
To Balance at Bankers........................1,029 13 10
To Dividend of 8 per cent, on 134 Shares of £20 each - £2,680 ...
321 12 0
To Rent of College Class Rooms, less Borough Rates ... ...
... 50 17 6
To Literary and Philosophical Society, Balance of Librarian's Salary ...
3 10 0
To Interest on Investment with River Tyne Commissioners ...
... 19 11 8
1,425 5 0
To Subscriptions for 1881-82from 514 Original Members ... £1,079 8 0
To Do. do. 18 Ordinary Members ...
56 14 0
To Do. do. 1 do.
... 2 2 0
To Do. do. 64 Associate Members ...
134 8 0
To Do. do. 97 Students ......... 101
17 0
To Do. do. 1 do. paid as Member...
220
To Do. do. 3 New Ordinary Members ...
990
To Do. do. 8 New Associate Members ...
16 16 0
To Do. do. 1 New Life Member...... 20
0 0
To Do. do. 5 New Students ......
5 5 0
To Subscribing Collieries: —
1,428 1 0
Ashington ............ £2 2 0
Haswell... ... ... ... ... 440
Hetton ... ............ 10 10 0
Lambton ......... ... 10 10 0
North Hetton............ 10 10 0
Londonderry ... ... ... ... 660
Ryhope ... ... ... ... ... 440
Seghill............... 2 2 0
South Hetton............ 4 4 0
Stella ............... 2 2 0
Throckley ............ 2 2 0
Wearmouth ... ... ... ... 440
Whitworth ............ 2 2 0
----------- 65 2 0
1,493 3 0 To Members' Ax-rears ... ... ... ...
141 15 0
To Students' do............. 17 17 0
------------ 159 12 0
--------------1,652 15 0
To Sale of Publications, per A. Reid............ 130 7 6
Less 10 per cent. Commission ... ... ... ...
1308
117 6 10
To Sale of Publications, per Secretary ... ... ...
10 16 10
--------------- 128 3 8
To Balance due Treasurer ... ... ... ...
... 34 16 5
£3,241 0 1
(XV)
INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
August, 1882.
CB.
£ s. d. £ s. d
By Balance due Treasurer ... ............
10 10 6
By Paid A. Reid, Publishing Account ......... 546 15 2
By Do. Covers for Parts and Stitching...... 30 16
0
By Do. Binding and Sewing Volumes ... ...
35 8 2
By Do. Postage ............... 50 11 3
By Do. Stationery and Circulars ... ...
... 76 8 6
By Do. Library ............... 69 17 8
By Do. Borings ............... 45 8 9
------------ 855 5 6
By other Printing and Stationery ... ... ... ...
117
By Secretary's Incidental Expenses and Postages ... ...
164 9 9
By Sundry Accounts ... ... ... ... ...
... 35 4 5
By TravellingExpensesandExpen.se of Meeting at Cleveland
10 7 5
By Secretary's Salary.................. 300 0
0
By Assistant's Do................... 75 0
0
By Reporter's Do................... 12 12
0
By Payments on Account of Furnishing ... ... ...
12 10 0
By Rent........................ 73 10 2
By Rates and Taxes .................. 13
8 7
By Fire Insurance ... ... ... ... ...
... 906
By Water, Coals, and Gas ...............
15 4 2
By Subscription to the Natural History Society ... ...
20 0 0
By Books for Library in addition to amount paid A. Reid...
66 9 6
By Awards for Papers ... ... ... ... ...
... 28 10 0
1,703 4 1 By Invested with River Tyne Commissioners ......
1,000 0 0
By Balance at Bankers... ... ... ... ...
... 537 16 0
------------1,537 16 0
Audited and Certified,
JOHN BENSON & CO.,
Chaetebed Accountants.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
---------------
3rd August, 1882.
£3,241 0 1
De. GENERAL STATEMENT, AUGUST,
1882. Ce.
giKmlttm. £ s. d.
None /.................... „ „ „
Capital ..........:..........9,864 19 7
Audited and Certified
(Share Certificates and Bond produced),
JOHN G. BENSON & CO.,
Chartered Accountants.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
---------------
3rd August, 1882. £9,864
19 7
Ssstfs. £ s. d.
Balance of Account at Bankers ... ... £537 16 0
Less Balance due Treasurer ... ... 34 16 5
------------ 502 19 7
134 Shares of £20 each in the Institute and Coal Trade
Chambers Company (Limited) ......... 2,680 0 0
Invested with River Tyne Commissioners ... ... 1,000 0
o
Arrears of Subscriptions ... ... ... ...
... 493 10 0
Value of 248 Bound Volumes of Transactions, @ lis. 6d. 142 12 0
Value of 3,876 Sewn Copies of Transactions, @ 9s. ... 1,744 4
0
Value of sundry Sheets and Plates belonging to Vol.
XXXL, unfinished at this date ......... 100 0 0 ^
Value of 37 Copies of Mr. T. F. Brown's Map of the
&
South Wales Coal-field, @ 5s. ......... 950
Value of 398 Copies of General Index, @ 3s....... 59 14 0
Value of 768 Copies of Fossil Illustrations, (a). 12s. 6d. ... 480 0
0
Value of 865 Copies of Fossil Catalogues, @ 5s.... ... 216 5
0
Value of 855 Copies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. I. @ 5s. 213 15 0
Value of 371 Copies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. II., @ 5s. 92 15
0
Value of 1,500 sheets of Borings and Sinkings ... ... 300 0
0
Value of sundry Sheets of Borings and Sinkings belonging
to Vol. III., unfinished at this date......... 30 0 O
Value of Furniture and Office Fittings ......... 300 0 0
Value of Books and Maps in Library ... ... ... 1,500
0 0
£9,864 19 7
intos.
His Grace the DUKE OP NORTHUMBERLAND.
His Grace the DUKE OP CLEVELAND.
The Most Noble the MARQUESS OP LONDONDERRY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OP LONSDALE.
The Right Honourable the EARL OP DURHAM.
The Right Honourable the EARL GREY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OP RAVENS WORTH.
The Right Honourable the LORD WHARNCLIPFE.
The Right Reverend the LORD BISHOP OP DURHAM.
The Very Reverend the DEAN AND CHAPTER OF DURHAM.
WENTWORTH B. BEAUMONT, Esq., M.P.
C
Woxiaxixx% Haw to.
______
Elected.
Oriq. Hon.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF RAVENS WORTH ...
1877
WILLIAM ALEXANDER, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow ...
1863
* JAMES P. BAKER, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Wolverhampton ... 1853 1866
JOSEPH DICKINSON, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Manchester ...
1853 THOMAS EVANS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Pen-y-Bryn, Duffield
Road, Derby ..................... 1855
* HENRY HALL, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Rainhill, Prescott ...
1876
* RALPH MOORE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow ......
1866
CHARLES MORTON, Esq., The Grange, St. Paul's, Southport ...
1853
* THOMAS E. WALES, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Swansea...... 1855
1866
* FRANK N. WARDELL, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Wath-on-Dearne,
near Rotherham .....................1864 1868
* JAMES WILLIS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 14, Portland Terrace,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ..................1857 1871
THOMAS WYNNE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Manor House, Gnosall,
Stafford ........................ 1853
WARINGTON W. SMYTH, Esq., 28, Jermyn Street, London ...
1869
The Very Ret. Dr. LAKE, Dean of Durham ......... 1872
* Prof. W. S. ALDIS, M.A., Principal of the Col. of Phys. Sc, N'castle
1872
* „ G. S. BRADY, M.D., F.L.S. do.
do. ... 1875
* „ A. S. HERSCHEL, M.A., F.R.A.S. do. do.
... 1872
* „ G. A. LEBOUR, M.A., F.G.S. do. do.
... 1873 1879 M. DE BOUREUILLE, Commandeur de la Legion
d'Honneur, Con-
seiller d'etat, Inspecteur General des Mines, Paris ... ...
1853
Dr. H. VON DECHEN, Berghauptmann, Ritter, etc., Bon-am-Rhine,
Prussia ........................ 1853
M. THEOPHILE GUIBAL, School of Mines, Mons, Belgium ...
1870
M. E. VUILLEMIN, Mines d'Aniche (Nord), France ......
1878
%xft ghmktx
Orig. Life.
C. W. BARTHOLOMEW, Esq., Blakesley Hall, near Towcester ...
1875 DAVID BURNS, Esq., C.E., Clydesdale Bank Buildings, Bank
Street, Carlisle ..................... 1877
E. B. COXE, Esq., Drifton, Jeddo, P.O., Luzerne Co., Penns., U.S.... 1873
1874
JAMES S. DIXON, Esq., 170, Hope Street, Glasgow ...... 1878
1880
ERNEST HAGUE, Esq., Castle Dyke, Sheffield ......... 1872 1876
G. C. HEWITT, Esq., Coalpit Heath Colliery, near Bristol...... 1871
1879
HENRY LAPORTE, Esq., M.E., 80, Rue Royale, Brussels......
1877
NATHAN MILLER, Esq., Kurhurballee Collieries, East Indian
Railway, Chord Line, Bengal ... ... ... ...
... 1878
H. J. MORTON, Esq., 4, Royal Crescent, Scarborough ...... 1856
1861
RUDOLPH NASSE, Konigl Bergwerks Director, Louisenthal,
Saarbriicken .....................1869 1880
W. A. POTTER, Esq., Cramlington House, Northumberland ... 1853
1874
R. CLIFFORD SMITH, Esq., Parkfield, Swinton, Manchester ...
1874 F. H. WARD, Esq., Manager, Kuldiha Colliery, Bengal Coal Co.,
Limited, Giridi, East Indian Railway, Bengal. India ... ...
1882
* Honorary Members during term of offioe^only.
OFFICERS, 1882-83.
GEORGE BAKER FORSTER, Esq., M.A., Backworth House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
WM. ARMSTRONG, Sen., Esq., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street. CUTHBERT BERKLEY,
Esq., Marley Hill, Gateshead. T. J. BEWICK, Esq., Haydon Bridge,
Northumberland. JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., Marsden, South Shields. THOMAS DOUGLAS,
Esq., West Lodge, Crook, Darlington. A. L. STEAVENSON Esq.. Durham.
Comtril.
T. W. BENSON, Esq., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
R. F. BOYD, Esq., Moor House, Fence Houses.
WM. BOYD, Esq., 74, Jesmond Road, Newcastle.
WM. COCHRANE, Esq., Grainger Street West, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
W. R. COLE, Esq., Broomneld, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
V. W. CORBETT, Esq., Chilton Moor, Fence Houses.
S. C. CRONE, Esq., Killingworth Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
R. FORSTER, Esq., South Hetton, Fence Houses.
W. GREEN, Jun., Esq., Thornelly House, Lintz Green.
W. H. HEDLEY, Esq., Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
THOS. HEPPELL, Esq., Leafield House, Chester-le-Street.
Prof. G. A. LEBOUR, M.A., F.G.S., College of Physical Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
JOHN MARLEY, Esq., Thornfleld, Darlington.
GEO. MAY, Esq., Harton Colliery Offices, Tyne Docks, South Shields.
A. M. POTTER, Esq., Shire Moor Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
W. A. POTTER, Esq., Cramlington House, Northumberland.
J. G. WEEKS, Esq., Bedlington Collieries, Bedlington.
JAMES WILLIS, Esq., 14, Portland Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
f Sir W. G. ARMSTRONG, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Jesmond,.
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
j
E. F. BOYD, Esq., Moor House, Fence Houses. /
Sir GEORGE ELLIOT, Bart., M.P., Houghton Hall, Fence ( Past
xioTiscs
I Presidents
Ex-officio { G. C. GREENWELL, Esq., F.G.S., Elm Tree Lodge, Duffield, I
Derby.
)
LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., Southill, Chester-le-Street. J
J. B. SIMPSON, Esq.. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne : Retiring
Vice-President.
Jtotfarg mtb %xvm\xtx>
THEO. WOOD BUNNING, Neville Hall. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
AUGUST, 1882. Marked (*) are Life Members.
ELECTED.
1 Adams, G. P., Guild Hall Chambers, Cardiff............Dec. 6,1873
2 Adams, W., Cambridge House, Park Place, Cardiff .........
1854
3 Adamson, Daniel, Engineering Works, Dukinfield, near Manchester Aug. 7,
1875
4 Aitkin, Heney, Falkirk, N.B...................Mar. 2,1865
5 Allison, T., Belmont Mines, Guisbro'...............Feb. 1, 1868
6 Andebson, C. W., Cleadon House, Harrogate............Aug. 21,1852
7 Andeeson, William, Rainton Colliery, Pence Houses ......Aug.
21, 1852
8 Andrews, Hugh, Felton Park, Felton, Northumberland ......Oct. 5,
1872
9 Appleby, C. E., Charing Cross Chambers, Duke St., Adelphi, London Aug.
1, 1861
10 Aechee, T., Dunston Engine Works, Gateshead .........July 2,
1872
11 Aemsteong, Sir W. G., C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Jesmond, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne ... ... (Past President, Member of Council) May 3,
1866
12 Aemstbong, Wm., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street (Vice-Peesident) Aug. 21,
1852
13 Abmstbong, W., Junior, Wingate, Co. Durham .........April 7,
1867
14 Aemsteong, W. L., Kettlebrook Colliery, Tarn worth.........Mar. 3,
1864
15 Abthub, Datid, M.E., Accrington, near Manchester ......Aug.
4, 1877
16 Ashwobth, James, Mapperley Colliery, West Hallam, Derby ...
Feb. 5, 1876
17 Ashwoeth, John, Hanover Chambers, King Street, Manchester ... Sept.
2, 1876
18 Asquith, T. W., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Northumberland......Feb. 2,
1867
19 Atkinson, J. B., Ridley Mill, Stocksfield-on-Tyne .........Mar.
5, 1870
20 Atkinson, W. N., Shincliffe Hall, Durham ............June 6,1868
21 Aubkey, R. C, Wigan Coal & Iron Co. Ld., Standish, near Wigan ... Feb.
5, 1870
22 Aitstine, John, Cadzow Coal Co., Glasgow ............Nov. 4, 1876
23 Aynsley, Wm., Brynkiiialt Collieries, Chirk, Ruabon.........Mar.
3,1873
24 Bailes, Geoege, Murton Colliery, Sunderland .........Feb.
3, 1877
25 Bailes, John, Wingate Colliery, Ferryhill ............Sept. 5,
1868
26 Bailes, T., 6, Collingwood Terrace, Jesmond Terrace, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7, 1858
27 Bailes, W., West Melton, Rotherham...... '.........April 7, 1877
28 Bailey, Samuel, Perry Barr, Birmingham ............June 2, 1859
29 Bain, R. Donald, Newport, Monmouthshire............Mar. 3, J873
30 Bainbeidge, E., Nunnery Colliery Offices, Sheffield.........Dec.
3,1863
31 Banks, Thomas, Leigh, near Manchester ............Aug. 4, 1877
(xxi)
ELECTKI).
32 Barclay, A., Caledonia Foundry, Kilmarnock ... ...
... Dec. 6, 1866
33 Baenes, T., Seaton Delaval Office, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Oct. 7,1871
34 Baeeat, A. J., Ruabon Coal Co., Ruabon ... ...
... ... Sept. 11, 1875
35 Baetholomew, C, Castle Hill House, Ealing, London, W....... Aug.
5,1853
36*Baetholomew, C. W., Blakesley Hall, near Towcester ...... Dec.
4, 1875
37 Bassett, A., Tredegar Mineral Estate Office, Cardiff.........
1854
38 Bates, Matthew, Bews Hill, Blaydon-on-Tyne .........Mar.
3,1873
39 Bates, W. J., Old Axwell, Whickham, Gateshead-on-Tyne......Mar.
3,1873
40 Bate?, John, Newbury Collieries, Colef'ord, Bath .........Dec.
5,1868
41 Beanlands, A., M.A., North Bailey, Durham............Mar. 7,1867
42 Beaumont, James, M.E., Nanaimo, Vancouver's Island ......Nov»
7, 1874
43 Bell, I. L., Rounton Grange, Northallerton ......
......July 6,1854
44 Bell, John, Messrs. Bell Brothers, Middlesbro'-on-Tees ...
... Oct. 1, 1857
45 Bell, T., Jun., Messrs. Bell Brothers, Middlesbro'-on-Tees ......Mar.
7, 1867
46 Benson, J. G., Accountant, 12, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ..
Nov. 7,1874
47 Benson, T. W., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle (Member of Council) Aug.
2,1866
48 Beekley, C, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead ... (Vice-Peesident) Aug.
21,1852
49 Bewick, T. J., M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland
(Vice-Peesident) April 5,1860
50 Biddee, B. P., c/o C. J. Ryland, 3, Small Street, Bristol
......May 2, 1867
51 Bigland, J., Bedford Lodge, Bishop Auckland ... ...
... June 4,1857
52 Binns, C, Claycross, Derbyshire ... ... ... ...
... ... July 6, 1854
53 Bibam, B., Peaseley Cross Collieries, St. Helen's, Lancashire
... 1856
54 Black, James, Jun., Portobello Foundry, Sunderland
......Sept. 2, 1871
55 Black, W., Hedworth Villa, South Shields ............April 2,
1870
56 Bolam, H. G., Little Ingestre, Stafford...............Mar. 6,1875
57 Bolton, H. H., Newchurch Collieries, near Manchester ...
... Dec. 5, 1868
58 Booth, R. L., Ashington Colliery, near Morpeth ... ...
... 1864
59 Bouene, Thos. W., Broseley, Salop ...............Sept. 11, 1875
60 Boyd, E. F., Moor House, Fence Houses (Past Pees., Mem. of Council) Aug.
21,1852
61 Boyd, R. P., Moor House, Fence Houses ... (Member of Council)
Nov. 6, 1869
62 Boyd, Wm., 74, Jesmond Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Mem. of Council) Feb.
2, 1867
63 Beadfoed, Geo., Etherley, Bishop Auckland............Oct. 11,1873
64 Beeckon, J. R., Park Place, Sunderland ............Sept. 3,
1864
65 Bbettell, T., Mine Agent, Dudley, Worcestershire.........Nov. 3, 1866
66 Beomilow, Wm., 18, Leicester Street, Southport, Lancashire ...
Sept. 2, 1876
67 Bbown, J ohn, The Hawthorns, 3, Lozell's Road, Birmingham ...
Oct. 5, 1854
68 Beown, J. N., 56, Union Passage, New Street, Birmingham ...
1861
69 Beown, Thos. Foestee, Guild Hall Chambers, Cardiff ......
1861
70 Bbowne, B. C, M.I.C.E., No. 2, Granville Road, Jesmond, Newcastle Oct.
1, 1870
71 Beuton, W., 37, College Street, Rotherham, Yorkshire ......Feb.
6,1869
72 Bbyham, William, Rosebridge Colliery, Wigan .........Aug. 1,
1861
73 Beyham, W., Jun., Douglas Bank Collieries, Wigan
......Aug. 3, 1865
74 Bunning, Theo. Wood, Neville Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Secretary and Treasurer) 1864
75*Burns, David, C.E., Clydesdale Bank Buildings, Bank St., Carlisle... May
5, 1877 76 Bueeows, J. S., Yew Tree House, Atherton, near Manchester
... Oct. 11, 1873
(xxii)
ELECTED.
77 Campbell, W. B., Consulting Engineer, Grey Street, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7, 1876
78 Cake, Wi. Cochran, South Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Dec.
3,1857
79 Chadborn, B. T., Pinxton Collieries, Alfreton, Derbyshire ......
1864
80 Chambers, A. M., Thorncliffe Iron Works, near Sheffield ......Mar.
6,1869
81 Chapman, M., Plashetts Colliery, Northumberland .........Aug.
1,1868
82 Cheesman, I., Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Feb.
1,1873
83 Cheesman, W. T., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Hartlepool ......Feb.
5,1876
34 Childe, Rowland, Wakefield, Yorkshire ............May 15, 1862
85 Clarence, Thomas, 10, Bentinck Crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Dec.
4, 1875
86 Clark, C. P., Garswood Coal and Iron Co., near Wigan ......Aug.
2, 1866
87 Clark, R. B., Marley Hill, near Gateshead ............May 3,
1873
88 Clark, W., M.E., The Grange, Teversall, near Mansfield ......April
7, 1866
89 Clarke, William, Victoria Engine Works, Gateshead ......Dec.
7,1867
90 Cochrane, B., Aldin Grange, Durham...............Dec. 6,1866
91 Cochrane, C„ The Grange, Stourbridge ............June 3, 1857
92 Cochrane, W., St. John's Chambers, Grainger Street West, Newcastle
(Member of Council) 1859
93 Cole, Richard, Walker Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne...... April
5,1873
94 Cole, Robert Heath, Scholar Green, Stoke-upbn-Trent ...... Feb.
5,1876
95 Cole, W. R., Broomfield, Jesmond, Newcastle (Member of Council) Oct.
1, 1857
96 Collis, W. B., Swinford House, Stourbridge, Worcestershire ...
June 6, 1861
97 Cook, J., Jun., Washington Iron Works, Gateshead......... May 8,
1869
98 Cooke, John, 3, Cross Street, Durham............... Nov. 1,1860
99 Cooksey, Joseph, West Bromwich, Staffordshire ......... Aug. 3,
1865
100 Cooper, P., Thornley Colliery Office, Ferryhill............Dec.
3,1857
101 Cooper, R. E., C.E., 1, Westminster Chambers, Victoria Street, London
Mar. 4, 1871
102 Cooper, T., Rosehill, Rotherham, Yorkshire ............April
2,1863
103 Cope, James, Port Vale, Longport, Staffordshire .........Oct.
5, 1872
104 Corbett, V. W., Chilton Moor, Fence Houses (Member of Council) Sept.
3, 1870
105 Corbitt, M., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead ...
... Dec. 4, 1875
106 Coulson, F., 10, Victoria Terrace, Durham ............Aug. 1,
1868
107 Coulson, W., 32, Crossgate, Durham...............Oct. 1, 1852
108 Cowen, Jos., M.P., Blaydon Burn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Oct.
5,1854
109 Cowey, John, Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ... ...
... Nov. 2, 1872
110 Cowlishaw, J., Thorncliffe, &c, Collieries, near Sheffield
......Mar. 7.1867
111 Cox, John H., 10, St. George's Square, Sunderland .........Feb.
6,1875
112*Coxe, E. B., Drifton, Jeddo, P. O. Luzerne Co., Penns., U.S.
... Feb. 1, 1873
113 Coxon, S. B., 23, Great George Street, Westminster, London
... June 5, 1856
114 Craig, W. Y., Palace Chambers, St. Stephen's, Westminster, London Nov.
3, 1866
115 Crawford, T., Littletown Colliery, near Durham ... ...
... Aug. 21, 1852
116 Crawford, T., 3, Grasmere Street, Gateshead-on-Tyne
......Sept. 3,1864
117 Crawford, T., Jun. Littletown Colliery, near Durham ...
... Aug. 7,1869
118 Crawshay, E., Gateshead-on-Tyne ...............Dec. 4, 1869
119 Crawshay, G., Gateshead-on-Tyne ...............Dec. 4, 1869
120 Crone, E. W., Killingworth Hall, near Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar.
5,1870
121 Crone, J. R., Tow Law, via Darlington ............Feb.
1,1868
122 Crone, S. C, Killingworth Colliery, Newcastle (Member of Council)
1853
(xxiii)
ELECTED.
123 Cross, John, 77, King Street, Manchester ......... ...
June 5, 1869
124 Croudace, C J., Bettisfield Colliery Co., Limited, Bagillt, N. Wales
Nov. 2, 1872
125 Crop/dace, John, West House, Haltwhistle ... .........June
7, 1873
126 Croudace, TnoMAS, Lambton Lodge, New South Wales ......
1862
127 Daglish, John, Marsden, South Shields ... (Vice-President)
Aug. 21,1852
128 Daglish, W. S., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne............July 2, 1872
129 Dakers, J., Chilton Colliery, Ferryhill...............April 11,1874
130 Dale, David, West Lodge, Darlington...............Feb. 5, 1870
131 D'Andrimont, T., Liege, Belgium ...............Sept. 3,1870
132 Daniel, W., Steam Plough Works, Leeds ............June 4,1870
133 Darling, Fenwick, South Durham Colliery, Darlington ......Nov.
6,1875
134 Darlington, James, Black Park Colliery Co. Limited, Ruabon ...
Nov. 7, 1874
135 Darlington, John, 2, Coleman Street Buildings, Moorgate Street,
Great Swan Alley, London ... ... ... ... ...
... April 1,1865
136 Davey, Henry, C.E., Leeds ..................Oct. 11,1873
137 Davis, David, Coal Owner, Maesyffynon, Aberdare .........Nov. 7,
1874
138 Day, W. H, Eversley Garth, So. Milford ............Mar. 6,
1869
139 Dees, R. R., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Oct.
7,1871
140 Dickinson, G. T., 14, Claremont Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne......July
2, 1872
141 Dickinson, R., Coal Owner, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham ......Mar.
4,1871
142 Dixon, D. W., Lumpsey Mines, Brotton, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ...
Nov. 2, 1872
143 Dixon, Nich., Dudley Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ...
... Sept. 1,1877
144 Dixon, R., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead ......June
5,1875
145 Dodd, B., Bearpark Colliery, near Durham ......... ... May
3,1866
146 Dodds, Joseph, M.P., Stockton-on-Tees ............Mar. 7,
1874
147 Douglas, C. P., Parliament Street, Consett, Co. Durham ......Mar.
6,1869
148 Douglas, T., Peases' West Collieries, Darlington (Vice-President) Aug.
21, 1852
149 Dove, G., Viewfield, Stanwix, Carlisle...............July 2,1872
150 Dowdeswell, H., Butterknowle Colliery, via Darlington ...
... April 5,1873
151 Dyson, George, Middlesborough ...............June 2,1866
152 Dyson, 0., Pooley Hall Colliery, near Tamworth .........Mar.
2, 1872
153 Easton, J., Nest House, Gateshead ...............
1853
154 Eddison, Robert W., Steam Plough Works, Leeds.........Mar. 4, 1876
155 Elliot, Sir George, Bart., M.P., Houghton Hall, Fence Houses
(Past President, Member of Council) Aug. 21, 1852
156 Elsdon, Robert, 76, Manor Road, Upper New Cross, London ... Nov.
4, 1876
157 Embleton, T. W., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds .........Sept.
6,1855
158 Embleton, T. W., Jun., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds.........Sept. 2,
1865
159 Eminson, J. B., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour ......Mar.
2, 1872
160 Everard, I. B., M.E., 6, Millstone Lane, Leicester .........Mar.
6, 1869
161 Farmer, A., South Durham Fitting Offices, West Hartlepool ...
Mar. 2, 1872
162 Farrar, James, Old Foundry, Barnsley ............ July
2,1872
.163 Favell, Thomas M., 14, Saville Street, North Shields ......
April 5, 1873
164 Fenwick, Barnabas, Team Colliery, Gateshead ......... Aug. 2,
1866
fxxiv) 166 1 mi0K, Th on ryne
...
¦>n, t E''Platt Lane Colliery WW t v. "*
- •• APnl 7, 1877
ST R c-5- Pi0'°" PI»^™ ' - - -¦*i: 1866
m;: r r^ ?? Edo-<»*•>• c°- d">- '" ¦¦¦ -• tj * wM
179 TCHER' H> Ladyshore Coll., Little Lever B.lf t '"
- AuS- 1, 1874
172 Fletcher, JA8., M r Co-operati™ r I, ^
1CaSlli,'° - A'^ 3, 1865
Newcastle, New South WaleT "' WaMmd' 1,ear
173 Fletcher, J., Kelton House, Dumfries " " - - -
** "> 1875
174 Flbtohbb, w>f Lausdowne ^ _ .
... .. July
175 Fog^n, W.,, North Bidd.ck Con w^^T^n ••• .- Feb. 4, Wl
176 Fobbbst, J., Assoc. Imt Witey Coi H», ' ^ ^^
Mar" 6' 1875
- —, a. b, m.a., B.W, Lr^r^t^ Mai" * 187°
18 oESTER, R., South H tie
Qct_ i8^
12 FosxBB, Gbobgb, Osmondthorpe Colliery near l3 ^ "^ ^ 5> 186«
84 I rA.ce, W., Lofthouge ^^ 3 ^ Ld S. Helen's, Lancashire
Sept. 1, i877
185 Franks, George, Victor;a Garesfiei(i ^*+£> ... ... ... ^
^ i867
• •¦ Feb. 6 1875 186GAMowATjR.L)%tonon^ne
i»7 Galloway, T. Lindsay, MA 28 p v"c '" "" -
-Dec. 6 187-?
Z !—* '«* ^2T Squ"c'GI^™ - - ¦* Urn
Z *uro'F-C, Mi<Ua„d Eoad, Derby '" "' " -
••"•*«. MOW
w ~^r swr** g~-'.' .:.' - or • js
Axe,L„d01,,E"C N,C0,S""' 6' J*V S1»«. St. «.,7 ' 3'1856
2m P™ t "' Johns> Wakefield
•• sept. 4, 1869
201 GEEEN, j. T>) Min; «..
... ... . A
«J 0EEE,, w., Ju,, TlLne^Z^L^1^^' ^^ ^ ^ 3' ^
203 GEEENEE, J0HK, General vXcor PiT t ^ ^MB^ Fek 4 1853
204 CEEENWElL) G. C) Elm ^ L ,ed1;^/^ N™ 8-tia... Feb. 6, 1875
-OB flmmu; G. C, Ju,,, Poynton; neM s . •¦ ...
... Aug. 21, 1852
206 GkETG,D., Leeds ... ... tOCkpoit -
••¦ ... Mar. 6,1869
••¦ A"Z- 2, 1866
(xxv)
ELKCTED.
207 Gbby, C. Or., 55, Parliament Street, London ............May
4,1872
208 Grieybs, D., Brancepeth Colliery, Willington, County Durham ...
Nov. 7,1874
209 Griffith, N. R., Wrexham ..................
1866
210 Gkiiishaw, E. J., 23, Hardshaw Street, St. Helen's, Lancashire ...
Sept. 5, 1868
211 Haggie, D. H., Wearmouth Patent Rope Works, Sunderland ...
Mar. 4,1876
212 Haggie, P., Gateshead ..................... 1854
213*Hagtje, Ernest, Castle Dyke, Sheffield ............Mar.
2,1872
214 Haines, J. Richard, Adderley Green Colliery, near Longton ...
Nov. 7,1874
215 Hales, C, Nerquis Cottage, Nerquis, near Mold, Flintshire ...
... 1865
216 Hali, F. W., 1, Eslington Terrace, Jesmond Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug.
7, 1869
217 Hail, M., Lof fchouse Station Collieries, near Wakefield
......Sept. 5, 1868
218 Hall, M. S., M.E., Leasingthorne Colliery, near Bishop Auckland ...
Feb. 14, 1874
219 Hall, W., Spring Hill Mines, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia ...
Sept. 13, 1873
220 Hail, War., East Hetton Colliery Office, Coxhoe, Co. Durham
...Dec. 4,1875
221 Hall, William F., Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.........May 13, 1858
222 Hann, Edmund, Aberaman, Aberdare ... ... ... ...
... Sept. 5, 1868
223 Habbottle, W. H., Orrell Colliery, near Wigan .........Dec.
4, 1875
224 Hardy, Jos., 106, Senhouse Street, Maryport............June 2,1877
225 Hargreaves, William, Rothwell Haigh, Leeds .........Sept. 5,
1868
226 Harle, Richard, Browney Colliery, Durham............April 7,1877
227 Harle, William, Pagebank Colliery, near Durham.........Oct. 7,1876
228 Harrison, R., Eastwood, near Nottingham ............
1861
229 Harrison, T., Great Western Colliery, Pontypridd, Glamorganshire Aug.
2, 1873
230 Harrison, T. E., C.E., Central Station, Newcastle-on-Tyne......May
6, 1853
231 Harrison, W. B., Brownhills Collieries, near Walsall
......April 6, 1867
232 Haswell, G. H., Messrs. Tangye Brothers, Birmingham ......Mar.
2,1872
233 Hay, J., Jun., Widdrington Colliery, Acklington .........Sept.
4, 1869
234 Heckels, Matthew, Castle Eden Colliery, Co. Durham ......April
11, 1874
235 Heckels, W. J., 29, Surtees Street, Bishop Auckland ......May
2,1868
236 Hedley, J. J., Consett Collieries, Leadgate, County Durham
... April 6, 1872
237 Hedley, J. L., Flooker's Brook, Chester ............Feb.
5,1870
238 Hedlby, T. F., Valuer, Sunderland ...............Mar. 4,1871
239 Hedley, W. H, Consett Collieries, Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Member of CouncilJ 1864
240 Henderson, H., Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street .........Feb.
14, 1874
241 Heppell, T., Leafield House, Birtley, Fence Houses (Mem. of CouncilJ
Aug. 6, 1863
242 Heppell, W., Western Hill, Durham...............Mar. 2,1872
243 Herdman, J., Park Crescent, Bridgend, Glamorganshire ......Oct.
4,1860
244 Heslop, C, Lingdale Mines, Marske-by-the-Sea .........Feb.
1,1868
245 Heslop, Grainger, Whitwell Colliery, Sunderland .........Oct.
5,1872
246 Heslop, J., Hucknall Torkard Colliery, near Nottingham ......Feb.
6,1864
247 Hetherington, D., Coxlodge Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne......
1859
248*Hewitt, G. C, Coal Pit Heath Colliery, near Bristol
......June 3, 1871
249 Hewlett, A., Haigh Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire .........Mar.
7,1861
250 Hick, G. W., 14, Blenheim Terrace, Leeds ... '.........May
4,1872
251 Htgson, Jacob, 94, Cross Street, Manchester ... ...
... ... 1861
d
(xxvij
ELECTED.
252 Hill, Leslie C, Bartholomew House, London, E.C..........Nov. 6, 1875
253 Hilton, J., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan ......Dec,
7,1867
254 Hilton, T. W., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan......Aug. 3,
1865
255 Hindmarsh, Thomas, Cowpen Lodge, Blyth, Northumberland ...
Sept. 2,1876
256 Hodgson, J. W., Dipton Colliery, via Lintz Green Station......Feb.
5,1870
257 Holliday, Martin, M.E., Peases' West Collieries, Crook ......May
1, 1875
258 Holmes, C, Grange Hill, near Bishop Auckland ... ...
... April 11, 1874
259 Homes, Charles J., Mining Engineer, Stoke-on-Trent ......Aug.
3,1865
260 Hood, A., 6, Bute Crescent, Cardiff ...............April 18,
1861
261 Hope, George, Newbottle Colliery, Fence Houses .........Feb. 3,
1877
262 Hoensby, H., Hamsteels Colliery, near Durham .........Aug.
1,1874
263 Hoesley, W., Whitehill Point, Percy Main ............Mar. 5,1857
264 Hoskold, H. D., C. and M.E., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., M. Soc. A., &c. ...
April 1, 1871
265 Howard, W. F., 13, Cavendish Street, Chesterfield .........Aug.
1, 1861
266 Hudson, James, Albion Mines, Pictou, Nova Scotia.........
1862
267 Hughes, H. E., The Hollies, Sedgley, near Dudley, Staffordshire ...
Nov. 6, 1869
268 Humble, John, West Pelton, Chester-le-Street .........Mar.
4,1871
269 Humble, Jos., Staveley Works, near Chesterfield .........June
2, 1866
270 Huntee, J., Silkstone and Worsbro' Park Collieries, near Barnsley ...
Mar. 6, 1869
271 Huntee, W., Monk Bretton Colliery, near Barnsley.........Oct. 3,
1861
272 Huntee, Wm., Ridley Hall, Bardon Mill, Northumberland......Aug. 21,
1852
273 Hunter, W. S., Moor Lodge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.........Feb. 1,1868
274 Hunting, Chaeles, Fence Houses ...............Dec. 6, 1866
275 Huest, T. G., F.G.S., Lauder Grange, Corbridge-on-Tyne ......Aug.
21, 1852
276 Jackson, C. G., Chamber Colliery Co., Limited, Hollinwood......June 4,
1870
277 Jackson, W., Cannock Chase Collieries, Walsall .........Feb.
14, 1874
278 Jackson, W. G., Loscoe Grange, Normanton, Yorkshire ......June
7, 1873
279 Jaeeatt, J., Broomside Colliery Office, Durham ... ...
... Nov. 2, 1867
280 Jeffcock, T. W., 18, Bank Street, Sheffield ............Sept. 4,
1869
281 Jenkins, W., M.E., Ocean S.C. Colls., Ystrad, nr. Pontypridd, So. Wales
Dec. 6, 1862
282 Jenkins, Wm., Consett Iron Works, Consett, Durham ......May
2,1874
283 Johnson, Heney, Dudley, Worcestershire ............Aug. 7,1869
284 Johnson, John, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., 21, Victoria Square, Newcastle
Aug. 21, 1852
285 Johnson, J., St. John's Colliery, Staveley, near Chesterfield......Mar.
7, 1874
286 Johnson, R. S., Sherburn Hall, Durham ............Aug. 21, 1852
287 Joicey, J. G., Forth Banks West Factory, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 10,1869
288 Joicey, W. J., Tanfield Lea Colliery, Burnopfield .........Mar.
6,1869
289 Joseph, D. Davis, Ty Draw, Pontypridd, South Wales ......April
6,1872
290 Joseph, T., Ty Draw, near Pontypridd, South Wales.........April 6,
1872
291 Kendall, John D., Roper Street, Whitehaven .........Oct.
3,1874
292 Kennedy, Myles, M.E., Hill Foot, Ulverstone .........June
6,1868
293 Kimpton, J. G, 40, St. Mary's Gate, Derby ......... ...
Oct. 5, 1872
294 Kiekby, J. W., Ashgrove, Windygates, Fife............Feb. 1,1873
295 Kiesopp, John, Team Colliery, Gateshead ............April 5, 1873
296 Knowlbs, A., High Bank, Pendlebury, Manchester.........Dec. 5,1856
(xxvii)
ELECTED.
297 Knowles, John, Westwood, Pendlebury, Manchester ......Dec.
5, 1856
298 Knowles, Thomas, Ince Hall, Wigan...............Aug. 1,1861
299 Kyeke, R. H. V., Westminster Chambers, Wrexham.........Feb. 5,1870
300 Lamb, R., Cleator Moor Colliery, near Whitehaven ...
......Sept. 2,1865
301 Lamb, R. O., The Lawn, Ryton-on-Tyne ............Aug. 2,1866
302 Lamb, Richard W., Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Nov. 2,1872
303 Lambert, M. W., 9, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......July
2, 1872
304 Lancaster, John, Bilton Grange, Rugby ............July 4, 1861
305 Lancaster, J., Jun., Anfield House, Willes Road, Leamington ...
Mar. 2, 1865
306 Lancaster, S., Nantyglo & Blaina Steam Coal Collieries, Blaina, Mon.
Aug. 3, 1865
307 Landale, A., Lochgelly Iron Works, Fifeshire, N.B..........Dec.
2,1858
308*Laporte, Heney, M.E., 80, Rue Royale, Brussels .........May 5,
1877
309 Laverick, Robt., West Rainton, Fence Houses .........Sept.
2, 1876
310 Lawrence, Henry, Grange Iron Works, Durham .........Aug. 1,1868
311 Laws, H., Grainger Street West, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Feb.
6,1869
312 Laws, John, Blyth, Northumberland............... 1854
313 Lawson, Rev. E., Longhirst Hall, Morpeth ............Dec. 3,1870
314 Lebour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., College of Physical Science, Newcastle
(Member of Council) Feb. 1, 1873
15 Lee, George, North Ormesby, Middlesbro' ......... ... June
4,1870
316 Leslie, Andrew, Hebburn, Gateshead-on-Tyne .........Sept.
7,1867
317 Lever, Ellis, Bowdon, Cheshire ...............
1861
318 Lewis, Henry, Annesley Colliery, near Nottingham ... ...
... Aug. 2, 1866
319 Lewis, W. H., 3, Bute Crescent, Cardiff ............Aug.
4,1877
320 Lewis, William Thomas, Mardy, Aberdare............ 1864
321 Liddell, G. H., Somerset House, Whitehaven .........Sept.
4, 1869
322 Lindop, James, Bloxwich, Walsall, Staffordshire .........Aug-
1,1861
323 Linsley, R., Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland ...
......July 2, 1872
324 Linsley, S. W., Whitburn Colliery, Sunderland ......... Sept.
4,1869
325 Lishman, T., Jun., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses ......... Nov.
5,1870
326 Lishman, Wm., Witton-le-Wear.................. 1857
327 Lishman, Wm., Bunker Hill, Fence Houses ............ Mar. 7,1861
328 Livesey, C, Bradford Colliery, near Manchester ...... ...
Aug. 3, 1865
329 Livesey, T., Bradford Colliery, Manchester ... .........
Nov. 7, 1874
330 Llewelyn, L., c/o W. P. James, Abersychan Iron Works, nr. Pontypool
May 4, 1872
331 Logan, William, Langley Park Colliery, Durham ......... Sept. 7,
1867
332 Longbotham, J., Norley Collieries, near Wigan .........May
2, 1868
333 Longridge, J. A., 15, Great George Street, Westminster, London, S.W.
Aug. 21,1852
334 Lupton, A., F.G.S., Crossgates. near Leeds ............Nov. 6,
1869
335 Maddison, Henry, The Lindens, Darlington............Nov. 6, 1875
336 Maling, C. T., Ford Pottery, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct.
5,1872'
337 Mammatt, J. E., C.E., St. Andrew's Chambers, Leeds ......
1864
338 Marley, John, 7, Bondgate, Darlington (Member of Council)
Aug. 21, 1852
339 Maeley, J. W., 7, Bondgate, Darlington ............Aug. 1,
1868
340 Marshall, F. C, Messrs. Hawthorn & Co., Newcastle ......Aug.
2,1866
(xxviii)
ELECTED.
341 Maeston, W. B., Leeswood Vale Oil Works, Mold .........Oct. 3,
1868
342 MABTEIT, E. B., C.E., Pedmore, near Stourbridge .........July
2, 1872
343 Matthews, R, F., Hard wicke, Sedgefield ............Mar.
5,1857
344 Maughan, J. A., Nerbudda Coal and Iron Co. Limited, Garrawarra,
Central Provinces, India ... ... ... ...
... ... Nov. 7, 1863
345 May, Geobge, Harton Colliery Offices, Tyne Docks, South Shields
(Member of Council) Mar. 6, 1862
346 McCreath, J., 95, Bath Street, Glasgow ............Mar.
5,1870
347 McCulloch, David, Beech Grove, Kilmarnock, N.B. ......Dec.
4, 1875
348 McCulloch, H. J., Horton House, 277, Camden Road, London, N.... Oct.
1, 1863
349 McCulloch, W., 178, Gresham House, Old Broad Street, London, B.C. Nov.
7, 1874
350 McGhie, T., Cannock, Staffordshire ...............Oct. 1,1857
351 McMuetrie, J., Radstock Colliery, Bath ............Nov. 7,
1863
352 Meik, Thomas, C.E., 6, York Place, Edinburgh .........June
4,1870
353 Meeivale, J. H., 2, Victoria Villas, Newcastle .........May
5, 1877
354 Miller, Robert, Beech Grove, Lock Park, Barnsley ......Mar.
2, 1865
355 Mills, M. H., Duckmanton Lodge, Chesterfield .........Feb.
4, 1871
356 Mitchell, Chas., Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........April
11,1874
357 Mitchell, Joseph, Bolton Hall, Rotherham ... ........Feb,
14,1874
358 Mitchinson, R., Jun., Pontop Coll., Lintz Green Station, Co. Durham
Feb. 4, 1865
359 Moffat, T., Montreal Iron Ore Works, Whitehaven ......Sept.
4, 1869
360 Monkhouse, Jos., 360, Gilcrux, Cockermouth .........June
4,1863
361 Mooe, T., Cambois Colliery, Blyth ...............Oct.
3,1868
362 Moor, Wm, Jun., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........July
2,1872
363 Mooee, R, W., Colliery Office, Whitehaven ............Nov.
5,1870
364 Moeison, D. P., 23, Ellison Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......
1861
365 Morris, W., Waldridge Colliery, Chester-le-Street, Fence Houses ...
1858 366*Moeton, H. J., 4, Royal Crescent, Scarborough
......... 1861
367 Moeton, H. T., Lambton, Fence Houses ............Aug. 21, 1852
368 Moses, Wm., Bannoor Colliery, Beal ...............Mar. 2,1872
369 Muckle, John, 11, Oxford Terrace, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......Mar.
7, 1861
370 Mulvany, W. T., Pempelfort, Dusseldorf-on-the-Rhine ......Dec.
3, 1857
371 Mundle, Aethur, 7, Collingwood Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
June 5, 1875
372 Mundle, W., Redesdale Mines, Bellingham ............Aug. 2, 1873
373*Nasse, Rudolph, Konigl Bergwerks Director, Louisenthal, Saar-
brucken, Prussia ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 1869
374 Nayloe, J. T., 10, West Clayton Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne......Dec.
6, 1866
375 Nelson, J., C.E., 20, Wentworth Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Oct. 4, 1866
376 Nevin, John, Mirfield, Yorkshire ...............May 2,1868
377 Newall, R. S., Ferndene, Gateshead ...............May 2, 1863
378 Nicholson, E., jun., Beamish Colliery, Chester-le-Street
......Aug. 7,1869
379 Nicholson, J. W. .....................Oct. 11,1873
380 Nicholson, Maeshall, Middleton Hall, Leeds .........Nov.
7,1863
381 Noble, Captain, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne .........Feb.
3,1866
382 Noeth, F. W., F.G.S., Rowley Hall Colliery, Dudley, Staffordshire ...
Oct, 6,1864
383 Nuttall, Thomas, Broad Street, Bury, Lancashire ... ...
... Sept. 11, 1875
(xxix)
EI.ECTE».
384 Ogden, John M., Solicitor, Sunderland...............Mar. 5,1857
385 Ogilvie, A. Geaeme, 4, Great George Street, Westminster, London Mar.
3,1877
386 Olivee, Robert, Charlaw Colliery, near Durham ...
......Nov. 6,1875
387 Pacey, T., Bishop Auckland..................April 10, 1869
388 Palmer, A. S., Wardley Hall, tiear Newcastle-on-Tyne ......July
2,1872
389 Palmer, C. M., M.P., Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne .........Nov.
5,1852
390 Pamely, C, Radstock Coal Works, near Bath............Sept. 5,1868
391 PAHTOK, F. S., Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland .........Oct,
5,1867
392 Pabkin, C, Hutton-le-Hole, Kirby Moorside, York..........June 5, 1875
393 Paekin, John, Hutton-le-Hole, Kirby Moorside, York. ......April
11, 1874
394 Paeeington, M. W., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ......Dec.
1, 1864
395 Paeton, T., F.G.S., Ash Cottage, Birmingham Road, West Bromwich Oct.
2, 1869
396 Pattison, John, Engineer, Naples ......... ......Nov.
7,1874
397 Peace, M. W„ Wigan, Lancashire ...............July 2,1872
398 Peacock, David, West Bromwich ...............Aug. 7, 1869
399 Peaece, F. H., Bowling Iron Works, Bradford .........Oct.
1,1857
400 Pease, Sir J. W., Bart., M.P., Hutton Hall, Guisbro', Yorkshire
... Mar. 5, 1857
401 Peel, John, Wharncliffe, Silkstone Collieries, near Barnsley
... Nov. 1,1860
402 Peel, John, Horsley Colliery, Wylam-on-Tyne .........Mar.
3,1877
403 Peile, William, Ashfield, Workington ............Oct.
1,1863
404 Penman, J. H., 2, Clarence Buildings, Booth Street, Manchester ...
Mar. 7, 1874
405 Pickup, P. W., Hishton, near Blackburn ............Feb. 6,
1875
406 Pinching, Archd. E., South Indian Mining Co., Glenock Estate,
Devala, Madras Residency, India ... ... ... ...
... May 5,1877
407 Pottee, Addison, C.B., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
6,1869
408 Pottee, A. M., Shiremoor Coll., Northumberland (Member of Council) Feb.
3, 1872
409 Potter, C. J., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct!
3,1874
410*Potter,W. A., Cramlington House,Northumberland (Mem. of Council)
1853
411 Pbice, John, Messrs. Palmer & Co., Limited, Jarrow-on-Tyne ...
Mar. 3, 1877
412 Price, J. R., Standisb, near Wigan ...............Aug. 7, 1869
413 Peiestman, Jon., Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Sept. 2,
1S71
414 Pringle, Edwaed, Choppington Colliei-y. Northumberland......Aug. 4,
1877
415 Ramsay, J. A., Westbrook, Darlington...............Mar. 6,1869
416 Ramsay, Wm., Tursdale Colliery, County Durham ......• ... Sept.
11, 1875
417 Reed, Robeet, Felling Colliery, Gateshead ............Dec. 3,
1863
418 Rees, Daniel, Glandare, Aberdare ...............
1862
419 Refeen, Wm., Teplitz, Bohemia..................Oct, 5,1872
420 Reid, Andrew, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............ ... April
2,1870
421 Richaeds, E. W., Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan, & Co., Middlesbro' ... Aug
5, 1876
422 Richaedson, H., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
2,1865
423 Richaedson, J. W., Iron Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Sept.
3, 1870
424 Ridley, G., Trinity Chambers, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Feb.
4,1865
425 Ridley, J. H., Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 6,1872
426 Ridyaed, J., Bridgewater Offices, Walkden, nr. Bolton-le-Moors, Lan.
Nov. 7, 1874
427 Rigby, John ........................Feb. 5,1876
(xxx)
BLKCTED.
428 Ritson, U. A., 6, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Oct.
7,1871
429 Ritson, W. A., Shilbottle Colliery, near Alnwick .........April
2, 1870
430 Robeetson, W., M.E., 123, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow ......Mar.
5, 1870
431 Robinson, G. C, Brereton and Hayes Colls., Rugeley, Staffordshire...
Nov. 5, 1870
432 Robinson, H., C.E., 7, Westminster Chambers, London ......Sept.
3,1870
433 Robinson, John, Hebburn Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Nov. 4,1876
434 Robinson, R., Howlish Hall, near Bishop Auckland.........Feb. 1,1868
435 Robson, E., Middlesbro'-on-Tees..................April 2,1870
436 Robson, J. S., Butterknowle Colliery, via Darlington.........
1853
437 Robson, J. T., Cambuslang, Glasgow ...............Sept. 4, 1869
438 Robson, Thomas, Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses .........Oct.
4,1860
439 Rogeeson, John, Croxdale Hall, Durham ............Mar. 6,1869
440 Roscamp, J., Rosedale Lodge, near Pickering, Yorkshire ......Feb.
2,1867
441 Ross, J. A. G., Consulting Engineer, 13, Belgrave Terrace, Newcastle
July 2, 1872
442 Rosser, W., Mineral Surveyor, Llanelly, Carmarthenshire ......
1856
443 Rothwell, R. P., 27, Park Place, New York, U.S..........Mar. 5, 1870
444 Roftledge, Jos., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland .........Sept. 11,
1875
445 Routledge, J. L., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland .........Oct.
7, 1876
446 Routledge, Wm., Sydney, Cape Breton ............Aug. 6,1857
447 Rowley, J. C., Shagpoint Colliery, Otago, New Zealand ......Dec.
4,1875
448 Rutheefobd, J., Halifax Coal Co., Ld., Albion Mines, Nova Scotia...
1852
449 Rtttherfoed, W., West Shield Row Colliery, via Chester-le-Street...
Oct. 3, 1874
450 Rutter, Thos., Blaydon Main Colliery, Blaydon-on-Tyne ......May
1, 1875
451 Rydee, W. J. H., Forth Street Brass Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Nov. 4, 1876
452 Saint, Geoege, Vauxhall Collieries, Ruabon, North Wales......April 11,
1874
453 Scaeth, W. T., Raby Castle, Darlington ............April
4,1868
454 Scott, Anbeew, Broomhill Colliery, Acklington .........Dec.
7,1867
455 Scott, C. F., Gateshead Fell Colliery, Gateshead-on-Tyne
......April 11, 1874
456 Scoular, G., Parkside, Frizington, Cumberland .........July
2,1872
457 Seddon, J. F., Great Harwood Collieries, near Accrington ......June
1,1867
458 Shallis, F. W., Pritchard & Sons, 9, Gracechurch Street, London ...
April 6, 1872
459 Shaw, W., Jun., Wolsingham, via Darlington............June 3,1871
460 Shiel, John, Framwellgate Colliery, County Durham ......May
6,1871
461 Shone, Isaac, Pentrefelin House, Wrexham ...... ......
1858
462 Shoeteede, T., Park House, Winstanley, Wigan .........April 3,
1856
463 Shute, C. A., Westoe, South Shields ...............April 11, 1874
464 Simpson, J., Heworth Colliery, near Gateshead-on-Tyne ......Dec.
6, 1866
465 Simpson, Jos., Springhill Mines, Cumberland Co., Nova Scotia ...
Mar. 3, 1873
466 Simpson, J. B., Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne (Mem. of Council)
Oct. 4, 1860
467 Simpson, J. C.........................April 7,1877
468 Simpson, R., Moor House, Ryton-on-Tyne ............Aug. 21, 1852
469 Simpson, Robt., Drummond Coll., Westville, Pictou, Nova Scotia ...
Dec. 4,1875
470 Slinn, T., 2, Choppington Street, Westmorland Road, Newcastle ...
July 2, 1872
471 Small, G., Duffield Road, Derby.................June 4,1870
472 Smith, G. F., Grovehurst, Tunbridge Wells ............Aug. 5, 1853
473 Smith, J., Bickershaw Colliery, Leigh, near Manchester
......Mar. 7,1874
(xxxi)
KLKCTKI).
474*Smith, R. Clifford, Parkfield, Swinton, Manchester ......Dec.
5,1874
475 SMiTn, T., Sen., M.E., Cinderford Villas, nr. Newnham, Gloucester...
May, 5,1877
476 Smith, T. E., Phoenix Foundry, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Dec. 5, 1874
477 Snowdon, T., jun., West Bitchburn Coll., nr. Tow Law, via Darlington
Sept, 4, 1869
478 Sop with, A., Cannock Chase Collieries, near Walsall.........Aug.
1,1868
479 Sopwith, Thos., 6, Great George St., Westminster, London, S.W. ...
Mar. 3, 1877
480 Southern, R., Burleigh House, The Parade, Tredegarville, Cardiff ...
Aug. 3, 1865
481 Southwoeth, Thos., Hindley Green Collieries, near Wigan......May
2,1874
482 Spence, James, Clifton and Melgramfitz Collieries, Workington ...
Nov. 7,1874
483 Spenceb, John, Westgate Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Sept. 4,1869
484 Spencer, M., Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Sept.
4,1869
485 Spencer, T., Ryton, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Dec.
6,1866
486 Spencer, W., 39, New Walk, Leicester ............Aug. 21,
1852
487 Steavenson, A. L., Durham .........(Vice-Pees ibent) Dec.
6,1855
488 Steele, Charles R., Alneburgh House, near Maryport ......Mar.
3, 1864
489 Stephenson, G. R., 9, Victoria Chambers, Westminster, London, S.W. Oct.
4, 1860
490 Stephenson, W. H., Elswick House, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
7,1867
491 Stevenson, R., Lochgelly Iron Works, Lochgelly, Fifeshire......Feb.
5,1876
492 Stobaet, W., Pepper Arden, Northallerton ............July 2,
1872
493 Stoeey, Thos. E., Clough Hall Iron Works, Kidsgrove, Staffordshire Feb.
5, 1876
494 Steakee, John, Stagshaw House, Corbridge-on-Tyne ......May
2, 1867
495 Steakee, J. H., Willington House, Co. Durham ...... ...
Oct. 3,1874
4% Steatton, T. H. M., Tredegar, South Wales............Dec. 3,1870
497 Swallow, J., Pontop Hall, Lintz Green ............May 2,
1S74
498 Swallow, R. T., Springwell, Gateshead ............
1862
499 Swan, H. F., Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne............Sept. 2,1871
500 Swan, J. G., Upsall Hall, near Middlesbro' ............Sept.
2,1871
501 Swann, C. G., Sec, General Mining Asso. Ld., 6, New Broad St., London
Aug. 7, 1875
502 Tate, Simon, Kimblesworth Colliery, Co. Durham .........Sept. 11,
1875
503 Tayloe, Hugh, King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Sept.
5,1856
504 Taylor, T., King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........July 2, 1872
505 Taylor-Smith, Thomas, Greencroft Park ............Aug. 2,1866
506 Thomas, A., Bilson House, near Newnham, Gloucestershire......Mar. 2,
1872
507 Thompson, John, Boughton Hall, Chester ............Sept. 2,1865
508 Thompson, R., Jun., Rodridge House, Wingate, Co. Durham ...
Sept. 7, 1867
509 Thompson, T. O, Milton Hall, Carlisle...............May 4,1854
510 Thomson, John, Eston Mines, by Middlesbro'............April 7, 1877
511 Thomson, Jos. F., Manvers Main Colliery, Rotherham ......Feb.
6,1875
512 Tinn, J., C.E., Ashton Iron Rolling Mills, Bower Ashton, Bristol ...
Sept. 7, 1867
513 Tylden-Weight, C, Shireoaks Colliery, Worksop, Notts ......
1862
514 TysoN, Wm. John, 15, Foxhouses Road, Whitehaven ......Mar.
3,1877
515 Tvzack, D., Birtley, Chester-le-Street, Durham .........Feb.
14, 1874
516 TYZACK, Wilfeed, Tanfield Lea Coll., Lintz Green Station, Newcastle
Oct. 7, 1876
517 Vivian, John, Diamond Boring Company, Whitehaven ......Mar.
3,1877
(xxxii)
518 Wadham, E., C. and M.E., Millwood, Dalton-in-Furness
... Dec. 7,1867
519 Walker, G. B., Wharncliffe Silkstone Collieries, Wortley, nr. Sheffield
Dec. 2, 1871
520 Walkeb, J. S., 15, Wallgate, Wigan, Lancashire .........Dec.
4,1869
521 Walker, W., Saltburn-by-the-Sca, ...............Mar. 5,1870
522 Wallace, Henby, Trench Hall, Gateshead ............Nov. 2,1872
523 Ward, H., Rodbaston Hall, near Peakridge, Stafford.........Mar.
6,1862
524 Wahvale, John D., M.E., Redhengh Engine Works, Gateshead ... May
1, 1875
525 Wabdeia, S. C, Doe Hill House, Alfreton ............April 1,
1865
526 Warrington, J.........................Oct. 6,1859
527 Watson, H, High Bridge Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
7, 1868
528 Watson, H. B., High Bridge Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
3, 1877
529 Watson, M., Flimby and Broughton Moor Collieries, near Maryport.. Mar.
7, 1868
530 Weeks, J. G., Bedlington Collieries, Bedlington (Member of Council)
Feb. 4, 1865
531 Westmacott, P. G. B., Elsvvick Iron Works, Newcastle ......June
2, 1866
532 Whately, W. L.........................Dec. 4,1875
533 White, H, Weardale Coal Company, Tow Law, near Darlington ...
1866
534 White, J. F., M.E., Wakefield..................July 2,1872
535 White, J. W. H., Woodlesford, near Leeds ............Sept. 2,
1876
536 Whitehead, James, Brindle Lodge, near Preston, Lancashire ...
Dec. 4,1875
537 Whiteiaw, John, 118, George Street, Edinburgh .........Feb.
5,1870
538 Whiteiaw, T., Shields and Dalzell Collieries, Motherwell
......April 6, 1872
539 WHITTEM, Thos. S., Wyken Colliery, near Coventry ... ...
... Dec. 5, 1874
540 Widdas, C, North Bitchburn Colliery, Howden, Darlington... ...
Dec. 5,1868
541 Wight, W. H, Cowpen Colliery, Blyth...............Feb. 3,1877
542 Wild, J. G., Hedley Hope Collieries, Tow Law, by Darlington ...
Oct. 5, 1867
543 Williams, E., Cleveland Lodge, Middlesbro'............Sept. 2, 1865
544 Williams, J. J., Pantgwyn House, Holywell, Flintshire ...
... Nov. 2, 1872
545 Williamson, John, Chemical Manufacturer, South Shields... ...
Sept. 2, 1871
546 Williamson, John, Cannock, &c, Collieries, Hednesford ... ...
Nov. 2,1872
547 Willis, J., 14, Portland Terrace, Newcastle (Member of Council)
Mar. 5, 1857
518 Wilson, J. B., Wiugfield Iron Works and Colliery, Alfreton...
... Nov. 5, 1852
519 Wixaour, Robert, Flimby Colliery, Maryport............Aug. 1, 1874
550 Wilson, W. B., Kippax and Allerton Collieries, Leeds ...
... Feb. 6, 1869
551 Winter, T. B., Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne...... ...Oct.
7,1871
552 Wood, C. L., Freeland, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire .........
1853
553 Wood, Lindsay, Southill, Chester-le-Street (Past President, Mem-
ber of Council) .....................Oct. 1,1857
554 Wood, Thomas, Rainton House, Fence Houses ... ...
... Sept. 3, 1870
555 Wood, W. H, West Hetfcon, Ferryliill............... 1856
556 Wood, W. 0., Trimdon Grange Colliery, Co. Durham.........Nov. 7,1863
557 Woolcock, Henry, St. Bees, Cumberland ............Mar. 3, 1873
558 Wright, G. H, 12, Trumpington Street, Cambridge.........July 2, 1872
559 Wrightson, T., Stockton-on-Tees ...............Sept. 13, 1873
560 Young, Philip, 81, Bucknall Old Road, Hanley .........Oct.
11,1873
(xxxiii)
©rbittarg $$kmta.
ELECTED.
1 Ackroyd, Wm., Jun., M.E., Morley Main Collieries, Morley, nr. Leeds Feb.
7, 1880
2 Bell, C. E., Park House, Durham ...............Dec. 3,1870
3 Bramall, Henry, M.I.C.E., St. Helen's, Lancashire ......Oct.
5,1878
4 Broja, Richard, Mining Engineer, Ostwall, Dortmund ......Nov.
6,1880
5 Butler, W. F., C.E., Cymman Hall, near Wrexham.........Feb. 7, 1880
6 Cranston, John Grey, 22, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Aug. 6, 1881
7 Dacres, Thomas, Dearham Colliery, via Carlisle .........May 4,
1878
8*Dixon, James S., 170, Hope Street, Glasgow............Aug. 3,1878
9 Ellis, W. R., F.G.S., Wigan ..................June 1,1878
10 Geddes, George H, 142 Princes Street, Edinburgh......... Oct. 1,
1881
11 Gilchrist, Thomas, Eltringham, Prudhoe-on-Tyne......... May 4,1878
12 Goudie, J. H, 13, Lowther Street, Whitehaven ......... Sept.
7,1878
13 Harbottle, John, Skelton Park Mines, Marske-by-the-Sea...... June 10,
1882
14 Kellett, William, Wigan ... ............... June 1,
1878
15 Lancaster, John, Auchinbeath, &c., Collieries, Lanarkshire ...
Sept. 7,1878
16 Laws, W. G., Civil Engineer, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......... Oct.
2,1880
17 Llewellin, Dayid Morgan, P.G.S., Glanwern Offices, Pontypool ... May
14, 1881
18 Martin, Tom Pattinson, Allhallows Colliery, Mealsgate, Carlisle ... Feb.
15, 1879
19 Potts, Jos., Jun., Architect, &c, North Cliff, Roker, Sunderland ...
Dec. 6,1879
20 Prior, Edward G., Victoria, British Columbia............Feb. 7, 1880
21 Rogers, William, M.E., 19, King Street, Wigan .........Nov. 2,
1878
22 Russell, Robert, M.E., Coltness Iron Works, Newmains, N.B. ... Aug.
3, 1878
23 Spencer, John W., Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ......May
4,1878
24 Topping, Walter, Messrs. Cross, Tetley, & Co., Piatt Bridge, Wigan Mar.
2, 1878
25 Walker, William Edward, Lowther Street, Whitehaven.......Nov. 19,1881
26 Winstanley, Robt., M.E., 32, St. Ann's Street, Manchester......Sept.
7,1878
1 Arnold, Thos., Mineral Surveyor, Castle Hill, Greenfields, Llanelly
Oct. 2,1880
2 Audus, T., Mineral Traffic Manager, N.E. Railway, Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug.
7,1880
3 Bailes, E. T., Wingate, Ferryhill ...............June 7,1879
4 Barnes, A. W., Grassmore Colliery, near Chesterfield ......Oct.
5, 1872
5 Barrett, Charles Rollo, New Seaham, Seaham Harbour......Nov. 7, 1874
6 Berkley, R. W., Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead .........Feb. 14,
1874
7 Bewick, T. B., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland .........Mar. 7,1874
8 Bird, W. J., Wingate Colliery, Durham ............Nov. 6,1875
9 Bowlker, T. J., Heddon Vicarage, Wylam-on-Tyne.........May 5, 1877
10 Brough, Thomas, Seaham Colliery, Seaham Harbour ......Feb.
1,1873
11 Beown, M. W., 7, Elswick Park, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ......Oct.
7,1871
12 Brown, W. B., Springfield, Wavertree, Liverpool .........Mar.
2,1878
13 Bruce, John, Cannock Chase Colliery, near Walsall ......Feb.
14, 1874
e
(xxxiv)
BLXCTED.
14 Bulman, H. F., West Rainton, Pence Houses............May 2, 1874
15 Bunning, C. Z., 49 and 50, Parliament Street, London, S.W. ...
Dec. 6,1873
16 Burnley, C. E., Aybrigg Farm, near Wakefield .........April 11,
1874
17 Cabrera, Fidel, c/o H. Kendall & Son, 12,Gt. Winchester St., London
Oct. 6,1877
18 Charlton, W. A., Tangye Bros., 25, Lincoln St., Gateshead-on-Tyne Nov.
6, 1880
19 Clark, Robt., So. Medomsley Coll., Dipton, Lintz Green, nr. Newcastle
Sept. 11. 1875
20 Clough, James, Bedlington Collieries, near Morpeth.........April 5,1873
21 Cobbold, C. H., Mineral Office, Elsecar, near Barnsley ......May
3,1873
22 Cochrane Ralph D., Hetton Colliery Offices, Fence Houses ...
June 1,1878
23 Cockson, Charles, Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan ...
April22, 1882
24 Cooper, R. W., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne............Sept. 4,1880
25 Dalziel, W. G., 2, Pembroke Terrace, Cardiff .........Sept.
7, 1878
26 Dodd, M., Jun., Walbottle, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Dec.
4,1875
27 Douglas, John, Sen., Seghill Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ...
April 22, 1882
28 Douglas, John, Jun., Seghill Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ...
April 22, 1882
29 Douglas, M. H., Marsden Colliery, South Shields .........Aug.
2,1879
30 Doyle, Patrick, C.E., F.M.S., F.L.S., M.R.A.S., Municipal Chambers,
Charters Towers, via Townsville, Queensland, Australia ... ... Mar.
1,1879
31 Eden, C. H., Etherley House, Darlington ............Sept. 13,
1873
32 Edge, J. C, Ince Hall Coal and Cannel Co., Limited, Wigan ...
Dec. 5, 1874
33 Edge, John H., Coalport Wire Rope and Chain Works, Shifnal, Salop Sept.
7, 1878
34 Fairley, James, Craghead and Holmside Collieries, Chester-le-Street Aug.
7, 1880
35 Farrow, Joseph, Brotton Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ......Feb.
11,1882
36 Fryar, Mark, Denby Colliery, Derby...............Oct. 7,1876
37 Gerrard, James, Ince Hall Coal and Cannel Company, Wigan ... Mar.
3, 1873
38 Greener, T. Y., Rainford Collieries, St. Helen's, Lancashire......July
2,1872
39 Greener, W. J., Pemberton Colliery, Wigan............Mar. 2, 1878
40 Gresley, W. S., Overseale, Ashby-de-la-Zouch .........Oct.
5, 1878
41 Hamilton, E., Rig Wood, Saltburn-by-the-Sea .........Nov.
1,1873
42 Harris, W. S., Andrews House, near Gateshead .........Feb.
14,1874
43 Harrison, J. W., M.E., Gildersome, near Leeds .........Aug.
3,1878
44 Hedley, E., Rainham Lodge, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent ... Dec.
2, 1871
45 Henry, Geo. J., Stowmarket Gun Cotton Co., Stowmarket......Nov. 19, 1881
46 Humble, Stephen, Uttoxeter Road, Derby ............Oct. 6,1877
47 Jepson, H., 54, Old Elvet, Durham ...............July 2,1872
48 Johnson, W., Abram Colliery, Wigan...............Feb. 14,1874
49 Jordan, J. J., Mina de S. Domingos, Mertola, Portugal ......Mar.
3, 1873
50 Leach, C. O, Bedlington Collieries, Bedlington ...... ...
Mar. 7,1874
51 Liddell, J. M., 10, Claremont Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
6, 1875
52 Lisle, J., Washington Colliery, County Durham .........July
2,1872
(xxxv)
ELECTED.
53 Maccabe, H. O., Russell Vale, Wollongong, New South Wales ...
Sept. 7,1878
54 MacDonald, John G. A., Warora Colliery, Central Provinces, India April
22, 1882
55 Maddison, Thos. R,, Thornhill Collieries, near Dewsbury ......Mar.
3, 1877
56 Makepeace, H. It.,Bog & Home Farm Colls., Larkhall, Hamilton, N.B. Mar.
3,1877
57 Markham, G. E., Howlish Offices, Bishop Auckland.........Dec. 4, 1875
58 Melly, E. F., Griff Collieries, Nuneaton ............Oct.
5,1878
59 Merivale, W., C.E......................Mar. 5,1881
60 Miller, D. S., Neston Collieries, Cheshire ............Nov.
7,1874
61*MiLLER,N.,KurhurballeeColl.,EastIndiaRailway,ChordLine,Bengal Oct. 5,
1878
62 Moore, William, Upleatham Mines, Marske-by-the-Sea ......Nov. 19,
1881
63 Moreing, C. A., 34, Clement's Lane, London, E.C....... ...Nov.
7,1874
64 Morison, John, Newbattle Collieries, Dalkeith, N.B. ......Dec.
4, 1880
65 Prichard, W., Nav. and Deep Duffryn Colls., Mountain Ash, So. Wales Dec.
7, 1878
66 Pringle, Jos. Manager, Coxlodge Colliery, So. Gosforth, Newcastle Mar.
5, 1881
67 Rathbone, Edgar P., 2, Great George Street, Westminster, London Mar.
7, 1874
68 Saise, W., D. Sc, Giridi, E.I.R., Chord Line, via Muddapore, Bengal Nov.
3,1877
69 Sawyer, A. R., Ass. R.S.M., Basford, Stoke-upon-Trent ......Dec.
6, 1873
70 Smith, J. Bagnold, The Laurels, Chesterfield............Nov. 2,1878
71 Smith, Thos. Reader, M.E., Thorncliffe Collieries, near Sheffield ...
Feb. 5, 1881
72 Stobart, F., Blue House, Washington, Co. Durham.........Aug. 2. 1873
73 Stobbs, Frank, 1, Queen Street, Newcastle ......... ... Oct.
1,1881
74 Stones, T. H.. Wigan Coal & Iron Co., Westleigh, nr. Leigh, Lancashire
Nov. 7,1874
75 Tait, James, Estate Agent, Garmondsway Moor, Coxhoe ......May
14,1881
76 Teleord, W. H., Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland ......Oct.
3, 1874
77 Turnbull, George, Seaham Colliery, Seaham Harbour ......Oct.
4,1879
78 Vitanoee, Geo. N., Messrs. Hawks, Crawshay, & Sons, Gateshead ... April
22,1882
79 Walters, Hargrave, Coton Park and Linton Coll., Burton-on-Trent June 4,
1881
80 Walton, J. Coulthard, South Benwell Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne Nov.
7,1874 81*Ward, T. H., Manager, Kuldiha Colliery, Bengal Coal Co., Limited,
Giridi, East Indian Railway, Bengal, India ... ... ...
Aug. 7, 1882
82 Wardle, Edward, M.E., Craghead Colliery, Chester-le-Street ...
Feb. 5,1881
83 Weeks, R. L., Willington, Co. Durham ............June 10, 1882
1 Atkinson, A. A., 4, Belle Vue Crescent, Sunderland.........Aug. 3, 1878
2 Atkinson, E. E., Westbourne House, Long Benton ... ...
... Nov. 4,1876
3 Atkinson, Fred., Maryport ..................Feb. 14,1874
4 Ayton, E. F., Heddon Colliery, Wylam-on-Tyne .........Feb. 5,
1876
5 Ayton, Henry, Seaton Delaval Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ... Mar.
6, 1875
(xxxvi)
ELECTED.
•6 Baumgartner, W. O., East Hetton Coll. Office, Coxhoe, Co. Durham Sept.
6, 1879
7 Bell, Geo. Fred., 25, Old Elvet, Durham ............Sept. 6,1879
8 Bird, Harry, Fawler Iron Mines, Charlbury............April 7, 1877
9 Biackett, W. C, Jun., 6, Old Elvet, Durham............Nov. 4, 1876
10 Blakeley, A. B., Hollyroyd, Dewsbury ............Feb. 15, 1879
11 Bramwell, Hugh, 20, Beverley Terrace, Cullercoats ......Oct.
4, 1879
12 Brown, C. Gilpin, Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........Nov. 4,
1876
13 Buckham, R.........................Oct. 5,1878
14 Candler, T. E., East Lodge, Crook, Darlington .........May
1,1875
15 Chandley, Charles, Atherton Collieries, near Manchester...... Nov. 6,
1880
16 Chapman, Alf. C, Mining Offices, Marsden, South Shields...... Oct.
4,1879
17 Child, H............................ Feb. 15, 1879
18 Cox, L. Clifford, Ravenstone, near Ashby-de-la-Zouch ...... April
1,1876
19 Crawford, T. W., Peases' West Collieries, Crook, by Darlington ...
Dec. 4, 1875
20 Crone, F. E., Killingworth House, near Newcastle ......... Sept.
2,1876
21 Curry, W. Thos., Wardley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...... Sept.
4,1880
22 Daytdson, C. C, Ore Bank House, Bigrigg, via Carnforth, Cumberland Nov.
4, 1876
23 Davis, Kenneth M., Towneley and Stella Collieries, Ryton-on-Tyne April
5, 1879
24 Depledge, M. P., Eston, Middlesbrough ............April 7, 1877
25 Donkin, Wm., Usworth Colliery, Washington Station, Co. Durham ... Sept.
2, 1876
26 Douglas, Arthur Stanley, Croxdale Colliery, near Durham ... June
1,1878
27 Dowson, W. C, Belle Vue House, Escomb, near Bishop Auckland ... Mar.
2, 1878
28 Dunn, A. F., Poynton, Stockport, Cheshire ............June 2,
1877
29 Durnford, H. St. John, Low Stublin Colliery, near Rotherham ... June
2, 1877
30 Eyans, Dayid L., Messrs. Dalziel & Evans, Cardiff.........May 4,1878
31 Ferens, Frederick J., 220, Gilesgate, Durham .........Dec.
4,1880
32 Fletcher, John E., Ellesmere Park, Eccles, near Manchester ...
Dec. 1,1877
33 Forster, C. W., Backworth House, Newcastle .........June 10,
1882
34 Forster, Thomas E., Backworth, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Oct.
7,1876
35 Fowler, Robert, Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.........Dec. 2, 1876
36 Gallwey, Arthur P., c/o J. W. Harriman, Porte of Spain, Trinidad Oct.
2, 1880
37 Gilchrist, J. R., Newbottle Colliery Offices, Fence Houses......Feb.
3, 1877
38 Gordon, Chas., St. Chads, Lichfield ...............May 5,1877
39 Gould, Alex., Cowpen Colliery, Blyth......... ......Dec.
1,1877
40 Green, Francis W., Harton Colliery Offices, South Shields ...
April22, 1882
41 Greig, J., Browney Colliery, Durham...............Feb. 5,1881
42 Guthrie, James Kenneth, Ryton-on-Tyne............Mar. 1,1879
43 Haddock, W. T., Jun., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland.........Oct. 7,
1876
44 Dallas, G. H., Hindley Green Colliery, near Wigan.........Oct. 7,1876
45 Hare, Samuel, Gladstone Street, Crook ............Aug. 2,1879
46 Harrison, Robert J., Backworth Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne May
1, 1875
47 Harrison, R. W.. Public Wharf, Leicester ............Mar. 3,1877
(xxxvii)
BLKCTFI>,
48 Hedley, Sept. H., Wardley, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Feb. 15,
1879
49 Hendy, J. C. B., Wear Terrace, Bishop Auckland .........Sept. 2,
1876
50 Heslop, Septimus, Urpeth, Chester-le-Street............Dec. 4,1880
51 Heslop, Thomas, Storey Lodge Colliery, Cockfield, via Darlington... Oct.
2,1880
52 Hill, Leonard, Normanby Mines, near Middlesbrough .....Oct. 6,
1877
53 Hooper, Edward, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland...... .. June
4,1881
54 Howard, Walter, 13, Cavendish Street, Chesterfield ......April
13,1878
55 Hudson, Joseph G. S., Albion Mines, Pictou County, Nova Scotia... Mar.
2, 1878
56 Humble, Joicey, 17, Westmorland Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Mar.
3,1877
57 Humble, Robert, 17, Westmorland Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Sept.
2, 1876
58 Hunter, John P., Backworth Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Oct. 6, 1877
59 Jobling, Thos. E., Coxlodge Colliery, by Kenton, Newcastle-on-Tyne Oct.
7, 1876
60 Kayll, A. C, Felling Colliery, Gateshead ............Oct.
7,1876
61 Kirkhouse, E. G., Medomsley, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Aug.
3,1878
62 Kirkup, Philip, Esh Colliery, near Durham............Mar. 2,1878
63 Kirton, Hugh, Browney Colliery, Durham ............April 7,1877
64 Lindsay, Clarence S., Marsden, South Shields .........Mar. 4,
1876
65 Liveing, E. H., 52, Queen Anne Street, Cavendish Square, London
Sept. 1,1877
66 Locke, Ernest G. .....................Dec. 2,1876
67 Longbotham, R. H., Ormskirk Road, Newton, Wigan ......Sept. 2,
1876
68 Mackinlay, Thos. B., West Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street ...
Nov. 1, 1879
69 Marston, Frank, Bromfield Hall, Mold ............Aug. 7,1882
70 Mundle, Robert, Clayton Park Square, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Mar. 6,1875
71 Murray, W. C, Weed Park, Dipton, via Lintz Green Station ... Oct.
4, 1879
72 Murton, Charles J., Jesmond Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar. 6,
1880
73 Nicholson, Jos. C, Wear Steel and File Works, Sunderland .,.
Feb. 3, 1877
74 Nicholson, J. H., Cambois Colliery, Blyth, Northumberland ...
Oct. 1, 1881
75 Noble, J. C, Usworth Hall, near Washington Station, Co. Durham... May
5, 1877
76 Ornsby, R. E., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland .,
Mar. 6,1875
77 Palmer, Henry, East Howie Colliery, near Ferryhill ......Nov.
2,1878
78 Pattison, Jos. W., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour.......Feb. 15,
1879
79 Peake, Charles Ed wd., Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland ......Nov.
3,1877
80 Peak e, R. C, Harton Colliery Offices, South Shields.........Feb.
7,1880
81 Peart, A. W., Powell Duffryn Collieries, Aberdare .........Nov.
4,1876
82 Pike, Arnold, Cwmaman Colliery, near Aberdare, Wales ... ...
Feb. 5, 1881
83 Potter, E. A., Cramlington House, Northumberland.........Feb. 6,1875
* 84 Prest, J. J., St. Helen's Colliery, Bishop Auckland.........May 1,
1875
85 Pkice, S. R., Houghton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire ...
Nov. 3, 1877
86 Pringle, H. A., Lofthouse Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ......Oct.
2, 1880
87 Pringle, Hy. Geo., Tanfield Lea Coll., Lintz Green Station, Newcastle
Dec. 4, 1880
88 Proctor, C. P., Shibden Hall Collieries, near Halifax, Yorkshire ...
Oct, 7, 1876
(xxxviii)
ELECTED.
89 Reed, R., North Seaton Colliery, Morpeth ............Feb. 3,
1877
90 Richardson-, R. W. P., Office of General Manager, Cedral Mining
and Smelting Co.'s Mines, Villa de Musquiz Coalmila, Mexico ... Mar. 4,
1876
91 Robinson, Frank, Ackhurst Hall, Wigan ............Sept. 2, 1876
92 Robinson, Geo., Hebburn Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne......Nov. 4,
1876
93 Robson, Harry N, 3, North Bailey, Durham............Dec. 4, 1875
94 Robson, Thos. 0., Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne......... Sept. 11, 1875
95 Routledge, W. H., Staveley Coal and Iron Co. Limited, Chesterfield Oct.
7, 1876
96 Scautb:, R W.r Stanghow House, Stanghow, via Marske-by-the-Sea Dec.
4, 1875
97 Scott, Jossps Samfez, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe ......Nov.
19, 1881
98 Scott, Walter, Cornsay Colliery, Lanchester............Sept. 6, 1879
99 Scott, Wm., Brandon Colliery Offices, near Durham.........Mar. 4,1876
100 Smith, Thos., Leadgate, Co. Durham...............Feb. 15,1879
101 Smith, T. F., Jim., Cinderford Villas, near Newnham, Gloucestershire
May 5, 1877
102 Southern, E. O., 5, Fenwick Terrace, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne Dec.
5, 1874
103 Southern, Thomas, North Biddick Colliery, Washington Station ... Dec.
17, 1881
104 Spence, R. F., Cramlington ..................Nov. 2,1878
105 Stobart, Henry Temple, Eton Villa, Saltburn-by-the- Sea......Oct.
2,1880
106 Stoker, Arthur P., Birtley, near Chester-le-Street.........Oct.
6,1877
107 Todd, John T., Hetton-le-Hole, Fence Houses............Nov. 4,1876
108 Todnee, W. J. S., 33, Beaumont Street, Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept.
6, 1879
109 Topham, Edward C, Marsden, South Shields .........Nov.
3,1877
110 Turnbull, H. B., Framwellgate Colliery, near Durham ......Nov.
19, 1881
111 Walker, F. W., Aldbro', Darlington...............Sept. 2,1876
112 Waugh, Charles L., The Burroughes, Cockermouth, Cumberland... Nov. 19,
1881
113 White, C. E., Hebburn Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Nov.
4,1876
114 Wilson, A. P., 8, Powis Villas, Clifton Hill, Brighton
......Oct. 1,1881
115 Wilson, J. D., 8, Walker Terrace, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......Sept.
11, 1875
1 Ashington Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.
3 Hetton Collieries, Fence Houses.
4 Lambton Collieries, Fence Houses.
5 Londonderry Collieries.
6 North Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
7 Ryhope Colliery, near Sunderland.
8 Seghill Colliery, Northumberland.
9 South Hetton and Murton Collieries.
10 Stella Colliery, Hedgefield, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
11 Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
12 Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
13 Whitworth Colliery, Ferryhill.
CHARTER
OF
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND
insiitale jof |pmii$[ mtir ^ttljmxml (ftngmtm.
FOUNDED 1852. INCORPORATED NOVEMBER 28th, 1876.
Uid0riHt by tne Grace of God> of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, to all to whom these Presents shall
come, Greeting :
Whereas it has been represented to us that Nicholas Wood, of Hetton, in the
County of Durham, Esquire (since deceased); Thomas Emerson Forster, of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Esquire (since deceased); Sir George Elliot, Baronet
(then George Elliot, Esquire), of Houghton Hall, in the said County of
Durham, and Edward Fenwick Boyd, of Moor House, in the said County of
Durham, Esquire, and others of our loving subjects, did, in the year one
thousand eight hundred and fifty-two, form themselves into a Society, which
is known by the name of The North of England Institute op Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, having for its objects the Prevention of Accidents in
Mines and the Advancement of the Sciences of Mining and Engineering
generally, of which Society Lindsay Wood, of Southill, Chester-le-Street, in
the County of Durham, Esquire, is the present President. And whereas it has
been further represented to us that the Society was not constituted for
gain, and that neither its projectors nor Members derive nor have derived
pecuniary profit from its prosperity; that it has during its existence of a
period of nearly a quarter of a century steadily devoted itself to the
preservation of human life and the safer development of mineral property;
that it has contributed substantially and beneficially to the prosperity of
the country and the welfare and happiness of the working members of the
community; that the Society has since its establishment diligently pursued
its aforesaid objects, and in so doing has made costly experiments
/
(xlii)
and researches with a view to the saving of life by improvements in the
ventilation of mines, by ascertaining the conditions under which the safety
lamp may be relied on for security; that the experiments conducted by the
Society have related to accidents in mines of every description, and have
not been limited to those proceeding from explosions; that the various modes
of getting coal, whether by mechanical appliances or otherwise, have
received careful and continuous attention, while the improvements in the
mode of working and hauling belowground, the machinery employed for
preventing the disastrous falls of roof underground, and the prevention of
spontaneous combustion in seams of coal as well as in cargoes, and the
providing additional security for the miners in ascending and descending the
pits, the improvements in the cages used for this purpose, and in the
safeguards against what is technically known as "overwinding," have been
most successful in lessening the dangers of mining, and in preserving human
life ; that the Society has held meetings at stated periods, at which the
results of the said experiments and researches have been considered and
discussed, and has published a series of Transactions filling many volumes,
and forming in itself a highly valuable Library of scientific reference, by
which the same have been made known to the public, and has formed a Library
of Scientific Works and Collections of Models and Apparatus, and that
distinguished persons in foreign countries have availed themselves of the
facilities afforded by the Society for communicating important scientific
and practical discoveries, and thus a useful interchange of valuable
information has been effected; that in particular, with regard to
ventilation, the experiments and researches of the Society, which have
involved much pecuniary outlay and personal labour, and the details of which
are recorded in the successive volumes of the Society's Transactions, have
led to large and important advances in the practical knowledge of that
subject, and that the Society's researches have tended largely to increase
the security of life; that the Members of the Society exceed 800 in number,
and include a large proportion of the leading Mining Engineers in the United
Kingdom. And whereas in order to secure the property of the Society, and to
extend its useful operations, and to give it a more permanent establishment
among the Scientific Institutions of our Kingdom, we have been besought to
grant to the said Lindsay Wood, and other the present Members of the
Society, and to those who shall hereafter become Members thereof, our Royal
Charter of Incorporation. Now know ye that we, being desirous of encouraging
a design so laudable and salutary of our special grace, certain knowledge,
and mere motion, have willed granted, and declared, and
(xliii)
do, by these presents, for us, our heirs, and successors, will, grant, and
declare, that the said Lindsay Wood, and such others of our loving subjects
as are now Members of the said Society, and such others as shall from time
to time hereafter become Members thereof, according to such Bye-laws as
shall be made as hereinafter mentioned, and their successors, shall for ever
hereafter be, by virtue of these presents, oms body, politic and corporate,
by the name of "The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers," and by the name aforesaid shall have perpetual succession and a
Common Seal, with full power and authority to alter, vary, break, and renew
the same at their discretion, and by the same name to sue and be sued,
implead and be impleaded, answer and be answered unto, in every Court of us,
our heirs and successors, and be for ever able and capable in the law to
purchase, acquire, receive, possess, hold, and enjoy to them and their
successors any goods and chattels whatsoever, and also be able and capable
in the law (notwithstanding the statutes and mortmain) to purchase, acquire,
possess, hold and enjoy to them and their successors a hall or house, and
any such other lands, tenements, or hereditaments whatsoever, as they may
deem requisite for the purposes of the Society, the yearly value of which,
including the site of the said hall or house, shall not exceed in the whole
the sum of three thousand pounds, computing the same respectfully at the
rack rent which might have been had or gotten for the same respectfully at
the time of the purchase or acquisition thereof. And we do hereby grant
our especial licence and authority unto all and every person and persons and
bodies politic and corporate, otherwise competent, to grant, sell, alien,
convey or devise in mortmain unto and to the use of the said Society and
their successors, any lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding with
the lands, tenements or hereditaments so purchased or previously acquired
such annual value as aforesaid, and also any moneys, stocks, securities, and
other personal estate to be laid out and disposed of in the purchase of any
lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding the like annual value.
And we further will, grant, and declare, that the said Society shall have
full power and authority, from time to time, to sell, grant, demise,
exchange and dispose of absolutely, or by way of mortgage, or otherwise, any
of the lands, tenements, hereditaments and possessions, wherein they have
any estate or interest, or which they shaU acquire as aforesaid, but that no
sale, mortgage, or other disposition of any lands, tenements, or
hereditaments of the Society shall be made, except with the approbation and
concurrence of a General Meeting. And our will and pleasure is, and we
further grant and declare that for the better rule
(xliv)
and government of the Society, and the direction and management of the
concerns thereof, there shall be a Council of the Society, to be appointed
from among the Members thereof, and to include the President and the
Vice-Presidents, and such other office-bearers or past office-bearers as may
be directed by such Bye-laws as hereinafter mentioned, but so that the
Council, including all ex-officio Members thereof, shall consist of not more
than forty or less than twelve Members, and that the Vice-Presidents shall
be not more than six or less than two in number. And we do hereby further
will and declare that the said Lindsay Wood shall be the first President of
the Society, and the persons now being the Vice-Presidents, and the
Treasurer and Secretary, shall be the first Vice-Presidents, and the first
Treasurer and Secretary, and the persons now being the Members of the
Council shall be the first Members of the Council of the Society, and that
they respectfully shall continue such until the first election shall be made
at a General Meeting in pursuance of these presents. And we do hereby
further will and declare that, subject to the powers by these presents
vested in the General Meetings of the Society, the Council shall have the
management of the Society, and of the income and property thereof, including
the appointment of officers and servants, the definition of their duties,
and the removal of any of such officers and servants, and generally may do
all such acts and deeds as they shall deem necessary or fitting to be done,
in order to carry into full operation and effect the objects and purposes of
the Society, but so always that the same be not inconsistent with, or
repugnant to, any of the provisions of this our Charter, or the Laws of our
Bealm, or any Bye-law of the Society in force for the time being. And we
do further will and declare that at any General Meeting of the Society, it
shall be lawful for the Society, subject as hereinafter mentioned, to make
such Bye-laws as to them shall seem necessary or proper for the regulation
and good government of the Society, and of the Members and affairs thereof,
and generally for carrying the objects of the Society into full and complete
effect, and particularly (and without its being intended hereby to prejudice
the foregoing generality), to make Bye-laws for all or any of the purposes
hereinafter mentioned, that is to say: for fixing the number of
Vice-Presidents, and the number of Members of which the Council shall
consist, and the manner of electing the President and Vice-Presidents, and
other Members of the Council, and the period of their continuance in office,
and the manner and time of supplying any vacancy therein; and for regulating
the times at which General Meetings of the Society and Meetings of the
Council shall be held, and for convening the same and regulating the
proceedings thereat, and
(xlv;
for regulating the manner of admitting persons to be Members of the Society,
and of removing or expelling Members from the Society, and for imposing
reasonable fines or penalties for non-performance of any such Bye-laws, or
for disobedience thereto, and from time to time to annul, alter, or change
any such Bye-laws so always that all Bye-laws to be made as aforesaid be not
repugnant to these presents, or to any of the laws of our Eealm. And we do
further will and declare that the present Eules and Regulations of the
Society, so far as they are not inconsistent with these presents, shall
continue in force, and be deemed the Bye-laws of the Society until the same
shall be altered by a General Meeting, provided always that the present
Eules and Eegu-lations of the Society and any future Bye-laws of the Society
so to be made as aforesaid shall have no force or effect whatsoever until
the same shall have been approved in writing by our Secretary of State for
the Home Department. In witness whereof we have caused these our Letters to
be made Patent.
Witness Ourself at our Palace, at Westminster, this 28th day of November, in
the fortieth year of our reign.
By Her Majesty's Command.
CAEDEW.
THE NOfiTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. BYE-LAWS
PASSED AT A GENERAL MEETING ON THE 16th JUNE. 1877.
1.—The members of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers shall consist of four classes, viz.:—Original Members, Ordinary
Members, Associate Members, and Honorary Members, with a class of Students
attached.
2.—Original Members shall be those who were Ordinary Members on the 1st of
August, 1877.
3.—Ordinary Members.—Every candidate for admission into the class of
Ordinary Members, or for transfer into that class, shall come within the
following conditions :—He shall be more than twenty-eight years of age, have
been regularly educated as a Mining or Mechanical Engineer, or in some other
recognised branch of Engineering, according to the usual routine of
pupilage, and have had subsequent employment for at least five years in some
responsible situation as an Engineer, or if he has not undergone the usual
routine of pupilage, he must have practised on his own account in the
profession of an Engineer for at least five years, and have acquired a
considerable degree of eminence in the same.
4.—Associate Members shall be persons practising as Mining or Mechanical
Engineers, or in some other recognised branch of Engineering, and other
persons connected with or interested in Mining or Engineering.
5.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
6.—Students shall be persons who are qualifying themselves for the
profession of Mining or Mechanical Engineering, or some other of the
recognised branches of Engineering, and such persons may continue Students
until they attain the age of twenty-three years.
(xlviii)
7.—The annual subscription of each Original Member, and of each Ordinary
Member who was a Student on the 1st of August, 1877, shall be £2 2s., of
each Ordinary Member (except as last mentioned) £3 3s., of each Associate
Member £2 2s., and of each Student £1 Is., payable in advance, and shall be
considered due on election, and afterwards on the first Saturday in August
of each year.
8.—Any Member may, at any time, compound for all future subscriptions by a
payment of £25, where the annual subscription is £3 3s., and by a payment of
£20 where the annual subscription is £2 2s. All persons so compounding shall
be Original, Ordinary, or Associate Members for life, as the case may be ;
but any Associate Member for life who may afterwards desire to become an
Ordinary Member for life, may do so, after being elected in the manner
described in Bye-law 13, and on payment of the further sum of £5.
9.—Owners of Collieries, Engineers, Manufacturers, and Employers of labour
generally, may subscribe annually to the funds of the Institute, and each
such subscriber of £2 2s. annually shall be entitled to a ticket to admit
two persons to the rooms, library, meetings, lectures, and public
proceedings of the Society; and for every additional £2 2s., subscribed
annually, two other persons shall be admissible up to the number of ten
persons ; and each such Subscriber shall also be entitled for each £2 2s.
subscription to have a copy of the Proceedings of the Institute sent to him.
10.—In case any Member, who has been long distinguished in his professional
career, becomes unable, from ill-health, advanced age, or other sufficient
cause, to carry on a lucrative practice, the Council may, on the report of a
Sub-Committee appointed for that purpose, if they find good reason for the
remission of the annual subscription, so remit it. They may also remit any
arrears which are due from a member, or they may accept from him a
collection of books, or drawings, or models, or other contributions, in lieu
of the composition mentioned in Bye-law 8, and may thereupon constitute him
a Life Member, or permit him to resume his former rank in the Institute.
11.—Persons desirous of becoming Ordinary Members shall be proposed and
recommended, according to the Form A in the Appendix, in which form the
name, usual residence, and qualifications of the candidate shall be
distinctly specified. This form must be signed by the proposer and at least
five other Members certifying a personal knowledge of the candidate. The
proposal so made being delivered to the Secretary, shall be submitted to the
Council, who on approving the qualifications shall determine if the
candidate is to be presented for ballot, and if it is so deter-
(xlix)
mined, the Chairman of the Council shall sign such approbation. The same
shall be read at the next Ordinary General Meeting, and afterwards be placed
in some conspicuous situation until the following Ordinary General Meeting,
when the candidate shall be balloted for.
12.—Persons desirous of being admitted into the Institute as Associate
Members, or Students, shall be proposed by three Members; Honorary Members
shall be proposed by at least five Members, and shall in addition be
recommended by the Council, who shall also have the power of defining the
time during which, and the circumstances under which, they shall be Honorary
Members. The nomination shall be in writing, and signed by the proposers
(according to the Form B in the Appendix), and shall be submitted to the
first Ordinary General Meeting after the date thereof. The name of the
person proposed shall be exhibited in the Society's room until the next
Ordinary General Meeting, when the candidate shall be balloted for.
13.—Associate Members or Students, desirous of becoming Ordinary Members,
shall be proposed and recommended according to the Form C in the Appendix,
in which form the name, usual residence, and qualifications of the candidate
shall be distinctly specified. This form must certify a personal knowledge
of the candidate, and be signed by the proposer and at least two other
Members, and the proposal shall then be treated in the manner described in
Bye-law 11. Students may become Associate Members at any time after
attaining the age of twenty-three on payment of an Associate Member's
subscription.
14.—The balloting shall be conducted in the following manner:— Each Member
attending the Meeting at which a ballot is to take place shall be supplied
(on demand) with a list of the names of the persons to be balloted for,
according to the Form D in the Appendix, and shall strike out the names of
such candidates as he desires shall not be elected, and return the list to
the scrutineers appointed by the presiding Chairman for the purpose, and
such scrutineers shall examine the lists so returned, and inform the meeting
what elections have been made. No candidate shall be elected unless he
secures the votes of two-thirds of the Members voting.
15.—Xotice of election shall be sent to every person within one week after
his election, according to the Form E in the Appendix, enclosing at the same
time a copy of Form F, which shall be returned by the person elected,
signed, and accompanied with the amount of his annual subscription, or life
composition, within two months from the date of such election, which
otherwise should become void.
9
(1)
16.—Every Ordinary Member elected having signed a declaration in the Form F,
and having likewise made the proper payment, shall receive certificate of
his election.
17.—Any person whose subscription is two years in anear shall be reported to
the Council, who shall direct application to be made for it, according to
the Form G- in the Appendix, and in the event of its continuing one month in
arrear after such application, the Council shall have the power, after
remonstrance by letter, according to the Form H in the Appendix, of
declaring that the defaulter has ceased to be a member.
18.—In case the expulsion of any person shall be judged expedient by ten or
more Members, and they think fit to draw up and sign a proposal requiring
such expulsion, the same being delivered to the Secretary, shall be by him
laid before the Council for consideration. If the Council, after due
inquiry, do not find reason to concur in the proposal, no entry thereof
shall be made in any minutes, nor shall any public discussion thereon be
permitted, unless by requisition signed by one-half the Members of the
Institute ; but if the Council do find good reason for the proposed
expulsion, they shall direct the Secretary to address a letter, according to
the Form I in the Appendix, to the person proposed to be expelled, advising
him to withdraw from the Institute. If that advice be followed, no entry on
the minutes nor any public discussion on the subjecf shall be permitted ;
but if that advice be not followed, nor an explanation given which is
satisfactory to the Council, they shall call a General Meeting for the
purpose of deciding on the question of expulsion ; and if a majority of the
persons present at such Meeting (provided the number so present be not less
than forty) vote that such person be expelled, the Chairman of that Meeting
shall declare the same accordingly, and the Secretary shall communicate the
same to the person, according to the Form J in the Appendix.
19.—The Officers of the Institute, other than the Treasurei and the
Secretary, shall be elected from the Original, Ordinary and Associate
Members, and shall consist of a President, six Vice-Presidents, and
eighteen Councillors, who, with the Treasurer and the Secretary (if Members
of the Institute) shall constitute the Council. The President,
Vice-Presidents, and Councillors shall be elected at the Annual Meeting in
August (except in cases of vacancies) and shall be eligible for re-election,
with the exception of any President or Vice-President who may have held
office for the three immediately preceding years, and such six Councillors
as may have attended the fewest Council Meetings during the past
CM)
year; but such Members shall be eligible for re-election after being one
year out of office.
20.—The Treasurer and the Secretary shall be appointed by the Council, and
shall be removable by the Council, subject to appeal to a General Meeting.
One and the same person may hold both these offices.
21.—Each Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member shall be at liberty to
nominate in writing, and send to the Secretary not less than eight days
prior to the Ordinary General Meeting in June, a list, duly signed, of
Members suitable to fill the offices of President, Vice-Presidents, and
Members of Council, for the ensuing year. The Council shall prepare a list
of the persons so nominated, together with the names of the Officers for the
current year eligible for re-election, and of such other Members as they
deem suitable for the various offices. Such list shall comprise the names of
not less than thirty. The list so prepared by the Council shall be submitted
to the General Meeting in June, and shall be the balloting list for the
annual election in August. (See Form K in the Appendix.) A copy of this fist
shall be posted at' least seven days previous to the Annual Meeting, to
every Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member; who may erase any name or
names from the list,* and substitute the name or names of any other person
or persons eligible for each respective office; but the number of persons on
the list, after such erasure or substitution, must not exceed the number to
be elected to the respective offices. Papers which do not accord with these
directions shall be rejected by the scrutineers. The Votes for any Members
who may not be elected President or Vice-Presidents shall count for them as
Members of the Council. The Chairman shall appoint four scrutineers, who
shall receive the balloting papers, and, after making the necessary
scrutiny, destroy the same, and sign and hand to the Chairman a list of the
elected Officers. The balloting papers may be returned through the post,
addressed to the Secretary, or be handed to him, or to the Chairman of the
Meeting, so as to be received before the appointment of the scrutineers for
the election of Officers.
22.—In case of the decease or resignation of any Officer or Officers, the
Council, if they deem it requisite that the vacancy shall be filled up,
shall present to the next Ordinary General Meeting a list of persons whom
they nominate as suitable for the vacant offices, and a new Officer or
Officers shall be elected at the succeeding Ordinary General Meeting.
23.—The President shall take the chair at all meetings of the Institute,
the Council, and Committees, at which he is present (he being ex-officio a
member of all), and shall regulate and keep order in the proceedings.
(lii)
24.—In the absence of the President, it shall be the duty of the senior
Vice-President present to preside at the meetings of the Institute, to keep
order, and to regulate the proceedings. In case of the absence of the
President and of all the Vice-Presidents, the meeting may elect any Member
of Council, or in case of their absence, any Member present, to take the
chair at the meeting.
25.—The Council may appoint Committees for the purpose of transacting any
particular business, or of investigating specific subjects connected with
the objects of the Institute. Such Committees shall report to the Council,
who shall act thereon as they see occasion.
26.—The Treasurer and the Secretary shall act under the direction and
control of the Council, by which body their duties shall from time to time
be defined.
27.—The Funds of the Society shall be deposited in the hands of the
Treasurer, and shall be disbursed or invested by him according to the
direction of the Council.
28.—The Copyright of all papers communicated to, and accepted for printing
by the Council, and printed within twelve months, shall become vested in the
Institute, and such communications shall not be published for sale or
otherwise, without the written permission of the Council.
29.—An Ordinary General Meeting shall be held on the first Saturday of every
month (except January and July) at two o'clock, unless otherwise determined
by the Council; and the Ordinary General Meeting in the month of August
shall be the Annual Meeting, at which a report of the proceedings, and an
abstract of the accounts of the previous year, shall be presented by the
Council. A Special General Meeting shall be called whenever the Council may
think fit, and also on a requisition to the Council, signed by ten or more
Members. The business of a Special Meeting shall be confined to that
specified in the notice convening it.
30.—At meetings of the Council, five shall be a quorum. The minutes of the
Council's proceedings shall be at all times open to the inspection of the
Members.
81.—All Past-Presidents shall be ex-officio Members of the Council so long
as they continue Members of the Institute, and Vice-Presidents who have not
been re-elected or have become ineligible from having held office for three
consecutive years, shall be ex-officio Members of the Council for the
following year.
32.—Every question, not otherwise provided for, which shall come before any
Meeting, shall oe decided by the votes of the majority of the Original,
Ordinary, and Associate Members then present.
(liii)
33.—All papers shall be sent for the approval of the Council at leasi twelve
days before a General Meeting, and after approval, shall be read before the
Institute. The Council shall also direct whether any paper read before the
Institute shall be printed in the Transactions, and notice shall be given to
the writer within one month after it has been read, whether it is to be
printed or not.
34.—All proofs of reports of discussions, forwarded to Members for
correction, must be returned to the Secretary within seven days from the
date of their receipt, otherwise they will be considered correct and be
printed off.
35.—The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the statements and
opinions advanced in the papers which may be read, nor in the discussions
which may take place at the meetings of the Institute.
86.—Twelve copies of each paper printed by the Institute shall be presented
to the author for private use.
37.—Members elected at any meeting between the Annual Meetings shall be
entitled to all papers issued in that year, so soon as they have signed and
returned Form F, and paid their subscriptions.
88.—The Transactions of the Institute shall not be forwarded to Members
whose subscriptions are more than one year in arrear.
39.—No duplicate copies of any portion of the Transactions shall be issued
to any of the Members unless by written order from the Council.
40.—Invitations shall be forwarded to any person whose presence at the
discussions the Council may think advisable, and strangers so invited shall
be permitted to take part in the proceedings but not to vote. Any Member of
the Institute shall also have power to introduce two strangers (see Form L)
to any General Meeting, but they shall not take part in the proceedings
except by permission of the Meeting.
41.—No alteration shall be made in the Bye-laws of the Institute, except at
the Annual Meeting, or at a Special Meeting for that purpose, and the
particulars of every such alteration shall be announced at a previous
Ordinary Meeting, and inserted in its minutes, and shall be exhibited in the
room of the Institute fourteen days previous to such Annual or Special
Meeting, and such Meeting shall have power to adopt any modification of such
proposed alteration of the Bye-laws.
Approved,
R, ASSHETON CROSS.
Whitehall,
2nd July, 1877.
(liv)
APPENDIX TO THE BYE-LAWS.
[FORM A.]
A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in full], being
upwards of twenty-eight years of age, and desirous of being elected an
Ordinary Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, I recommend him from personal knowledge as a person in every
respect worthy of that distinction, because—
[Here specify distinctly the qualifications of the Candidate, according to
the spirit
of Bye-law 3.]
On the above grounds, I beg leave to propose him to the Council as a proper
person to be admitted an Ordinary Member.
Signed___________________________Member.
Dated this day of 18
We, the undersigned, concur in the above recommendation, being convinced
that A. B. is in every respect a proper person to be admitted an ordinary
Member.
TBOM PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE.
iFive Members.
[To be filled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as a of the North of England Institute
of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed_____________________Chairman.
Dated this day of 18
(lv)
[FORM B.]
A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in full], being
desirous of admission into the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, we, the undersigned, propose and recommend that he
shall become [an Honorary Member, or an Associate Member, or a Student]
thereof.
! Three* Members.
* If an Honorary Member, five signatures are necessary, and the following
Form must be filled in by the Council.
Dated this day of 18
[To he filled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as an Honorary Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed-----------------------------------Chairman.
Dated day of 18
[FORM C]
A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in full], being at
present a of the North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers, and upwards of twenty-eight years of age, and
being desirous of becoming an Ordinary Member of the said Institute, I
recommend him, from personal knowledge, as a person in every respect worthy
of that distinction, because—
[Here specify distinctly the Qualifications of the Candidate according to
the spirit
of Bye-law 3.]
On the above grounds, I beg leave to propose him to the Council as a proper
person to be admitted an Ordinary Member.
Signed____________________Member.
Dated this day of 18
We, the uncbrsigned, concur in the above recommendation, being
(lvi)
convinced that A. B. is in every respect a proper person to be admitted an
Ordinary Member.
FKOM PEESOITAl KNOWLEDGE.
----------------------------------------_l Two
j Members.
[To be filled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as an Ordinary Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed-----------------------------------Chairman.
Dated day of 18
[FORM D.]
List of the names of persons to be balloted for at the Meeting on , the
day of 18
Ordinary Members:—
Associate Members:— Honorary Members:—
Students :—
Strike out the names of such persons as you desire should not be elected,
and hand the list to the Chairman.
[FORM E.]
gIE>—I beg leave to inform you that on the day of
you were elected a of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, but in conformity with its Rules your
election cannot be confirmed until the enclosed form be returned to me
(Mi)
with your signature, and until your first annual subscription be paid, the
amount of which is £ , or, at your option, the
life-composition
of £
If the subscription is not received within two months from the present date,
the election will become void under Bye-law 15. I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary. Dated 18
[FORM P.]
I, the undersigned, being elected a of the
North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, do hereby agree
that I will be governed by the Charter and Bye-laws of the said Institute
for the time being; and that 1 will advance the objects of the institute as
far as shall be in my power, and will not aid in any unauthorised
publication of the proceedings, and will attend the meetings thereof as
often as I conveniently can; provided that whenever I shall signify in
writing to the Secretary that I am desirous of withdrawing my name
therefrom, I shall (after the payment of any arrears which may be due by me
at that period) cease to be a Member.
Witness my hand this day of 18
[FORM G.]
Sir,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to draw your attention to Bye-law 17, and to
remind you that the sum of £ of your annua. subscriptions
to the funds of the Institute remains unpaid, and that you are in
consequence in arrear of subscription. I am also directed to request that
you will cause the same to be paid without further delay, otherwise the
Council will be under the necessity of exercising their discretion as to
using the power vested in them by the Article above referred to.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
h
(lviii)
[FORM H.]
Sib,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to inform you, that in consequence of
non-payment of your arrears of subscription, and in pursuance of Eye-law 17,
the Council have determined that unless payment of the amount £
is made previous to the day of
next, they will proceed to declare that you have ceased to be a Member of
the Institute.
But, notwithstanding this declaration, you will remain liable for payment of
the arrears due from you.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FORM I.]
Sir,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to inform you that, upon mature
consideration of a proposal which has been laid before them relative to you,
they feel it their duty to advise you to withdraw from the Institute, or
otherwise they will be obliged to act in accordance with Bye-law 18.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary. Dated 18 •
[FORM J.]
Sir,—It is my duty to inform you that, under a resolution passed at a
Special General Meeting of the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, held on the
day of
18 , according to the provisions of Bye-law 18 you have ceased to be a
Member of the Institute.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary. Dated 18
(iix)
[FORM &'] BALLOTING LIST.
Ballot to take place at the Meeting of 18 at Two
o'Clock.
President—One Name only to be returned, or the vote will be lost. ----------
President for the current year eligible for re-election.
~~ [ New Nominations.
¦$ --------------)
^o
Vice-Peesidents—Sis Names only to be returned, or the vote
j§
will be lost.
±»
The Votes for any Members who may not be elected as
§
President or Vice-Presidents will count for them as other Members
g*
a %
of the Council.
2 S
<o a
Vice-Presidents for the current year eligible for re- |
election.
Jz; J
o > -------------(
Q to o
> New Nominations.
a |j g 13
S g g *
-------' I g s g
1
CO Y\ pq pf H
Council—Eighteen Names only to be returned, or the vote £ g »
R b
be Q P-i cS
will be lost. ea g
h * c
rt s o w '_
>
r^H W S pq W
------- "g I a
| s
________
g O 02 W C
________
a
s
"S E
------------(^Members of the Council for the current year eligible for S
Jg
------------' re-election.
-g ©
.--------
S j
--------------
JJ
o __________
a>
J
*s?
________-\
u
--------------
pa
%
__________________________i
_ }• New Nominations.
Extract from Bye-law 21.
Each Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member shall be at liberty to
nominate in writing, and send to the Secretary not less than eight days
prior to the Ordinary General Meeting in June, a list, duly signed, of
Members suitable to fill the Offices of President, Vice-Presidents, and
Members of Council, for the ensuing year. The Council shall prepare a list
of the persons so nominated, together with the names of the Officers for the
current year eligible for re-election, and of such other Members as they
deem suitable for the various offices. Such list shall comprise the names of
not less than thirty. The list so prepared by the Council shall be submitted
to the General Meeting in June, and shall be the balloting list for the
annual election in August. (See Vurm K in the Appendix.) A copy of this
list shall be posted at least seven days
•4
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5
a c?
_ <o
a '£
e8 a
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CO »"2
a ¥
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a t ° ^ a | a §
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Ox)
previous to the Annual Meeting, to every Original, Ordinary, and Associate
Member; who may erase any name or names from the list, and substitute the
name or names of any other person or persons eligible for each respective
oflice; but the number of persons on the list, after such erasure or
substitution, must not exceed the number to be elected to the respective
offices. Papers which do not accord with these directions shall be rejected
by the Scrutineers. The votes for any Members who may not bo elected
President or Vice-Presidents shall count for them as Members of the Council.
The Chairman shall appoint four Scrutineers, who shall receive the balloting
papers, and after making the necessary scrutiny destroy the same, and sign
and hand to the Chairman a list of the elected Officers. The balloting
papers may be returned through the post, addressed to the Secretary, or be
handed to him, or to the Chairman of the Meeting, so as to be received
before the appointment of the Scrutineers for the election of Officers.
Names substituted for any of the above are to be written in the blank spaces
opposite those they are intended to supersede.
The following Members are ineligible from causes specified in Bye-law 19 :—
AS PRESIDENT_________________________________________________________.
As Vice-President______________________,_______________
As Councilioes________________________________________
[FORM L.]
Admit
of
to the Meeting on Saturday, the
(Signature of Member or Student)
The Chair to be taken at Two o'Olock. I undertake to abide by the
Regulations of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, and not to aid in any unauthorised publication of the
Proceedings.
(Signature of Visitor) Not transferable.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 16th, 1881.
MEETING IN CLEVELAND.
At the invitation of Messrs. Bell Brothers, conveyed through Mr. A. L.
Steavenson, about one hundred members of the Institute visited the Skelton
Park Ironstone Mine and the Sinking operations at Lumpsey, on Friday, the
16th September, the North-Eastern Railway Company kindly providing special
accommodation for the excursion.
As the arrangement was more particularly made to allow those who had not
previously had any opportunity of witnessing sinking operations to become
acquainted with the nature of the process, a large number of students took
advantage of the occasion, and availed themselves of Messrs. Bell's kindness
by descending the shaft and examining all the details of
the operation.
The company afterwards dined at the " Zetland" Hotel, Saltburn, Mr. William
Cochrane in the chair, when votes of thanks were unanimously passed to
Messrs. Bell Brothers and Mr. A. L. Steavenson for their kindness.
It is the intention of Mr. Steavenson to read a paper at an early date,
describing the machinery that was inspected, and giving some details of the
mine and neighbourhood.
VOL. XXXI.—1831.
«
PROCEEDINGS, 8
PROCEEDINGS.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, OCTOBER 1st, 1881, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL
HALL, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
GEO. B. FORSTER, Esq., Peesidbnt, in the Chaie.
The Secketaky read the minutes of the general meeting held on August 6th,
and reported the proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Ordinary Member— Mr. George H. Geddes, Mining Engineer, 142, Princes Street,
Edinburgh.
Associate Member— Mr. Frank Stobbs (Manager, Messrs. Thomas and William
Smith), 1, Queen Street, Quay, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Students— Mr. Arthur P. Wilson, Brancepeth, near Durham. Mr. J. H.
Nicholson, Cambois Colliery, Blyth, Northumberland.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Ordinary Member—¦ Mr. William E. Walker, M.E., Lowther Street, Whitehaven.
Associate Members—¦ Mr. William Moore, Upleatham Mines, Marske-by-the-Sea.
Mr. George J. Henry, Stowmarket Gun-Cotton Works, Stowmarket.
Students— Mr. Charles L. Waugh, The Burroughs, Cockermouth. Mr. Joseph
Samuel Scott, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe. Mr. Henry B. Turnbull,
Framwellgate Colliery, near Durham.
The following notes upon Messrs. Pernolet and Aguillon's " Report upon the
Working and Regulation of Fiery Mines in England," were read by Mr. A. L.
Steavenson:—
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 5
REPORT UPON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND BY MESSRS.
PERNOLET AND AGUILLON.*
Keviewed by A. L. STEAVENSON.
Having, through the courtesy of H.M. Inspector of Mines for the Durham and
Cleveland district, received a copy of this Report, the reviewer found, as
his previous knowledge of M. Pernolet, one of the Commissioners, led him to
expect, that it was a most interesting and useful review of all the laws,
facts, and customs appertaining to the subject under consideration, given
with the minute detail characteristic of the technical education possessed
by French mining engineers, but that it often asserted opinions which seemed
to require refutation.
The report, primarily divided into nine chapters, is subdivided into
numerous sections. The nine leading divisions are devoted to the following
subjects, the enumeration of which will at once convey an idea of the large
area over which the report extends:—
1.—General observations on the regulations for the discipline and working of
fiery mines in England, and the mode of applying such regulations.
2.—Observations on the conditions under which gas is found in the collieries
visited, and the accidents which its presence has produced. 8.—The general
arrangement and organisation of the workings
with regard to their ventilation. 4.—The mode of producing ventilation, its
distribution, and
the means of ensuring its efficiency. 5.—Working arrangements and
supervision of the workmen. (I.—Lighting of the underground workings. 7.—The
use of powder. 8.—Dust. 9.—Safety apparatus.
The Representatives of the French Commission instructed to report on the
Best Means to Prevent Explosions of Gas in Collieries.
0 NOTES ON THE WOKKING AND BEGULATION OF
There is also an Appendix, containing extracts from the Inspectors' I
Reports, the Special Rules of some districts, together with a table of I
explosions which have occurred since 1850 where more than six lives I were
lost.
The chapters are again divided and re-divided in a most bewildering I way;
for instance, Chapter III. is divided first into four sections :—
1.—Primary arrangements, with regard to the geological structure of the
district and the local conditions attached to the leasing of the coal.
2.—Choice of site and extent and nature of surface plant. 3.—General mode of
laying out the underground workings. 4.—Methods of working underground. This
fourth section is further divided under five heads:— 1.—Working by board and
pillar. 2.—Working by pillar and long-wall, &c. 3.—Long-wall. 4.—Working
thick coal. 5.—General considerations thereon. And these are again divided
into numerous paragraphs, such as " Prin- I ciple of the method," " Working
with pillars abandoned," &c, the last subject being treated under five
different conditions, a minuteness of arrangement the translator has found
somewhat tedious.
The entire report occupies 333 pages, rather less in size than the yearly
Proceedings of the Institute. The first 40 pages are devoted to the English
law and Government inspection.
The history of the various circumstances which led to the regulation of
mines by the Legislature is an excellent summary of the question, beginning
with the period before the passing of any Act, viz., before and up to 1842,
the proceedings of che Association at Sunderland, the first trial I of
Safety-lamps, the first Commission on Mines in 1835, Lord Ashley's
Commission on the employment of women and children in 1840, and the various
Commissions and Acts of Parliament up to the last Act of 1872, and the
present Royal Commission.
This is merely a matter of history and admits of no discussion; not so when
the Commissioners go on to the application of the present law, where, under
the head of " Extent of the Inspected Districts," and " The Powers I and
modes of procedure of the Inspectors," their observations are open to much
criticism. For instance they are very much mistaken when they say in page 29
that "it would seem to be admitted in practice that every mode of working is
permissible which is not positively and formally
FIEBY MINES IN ENGLAND. 7
prohibited by the law or the Special Rules, and the Inspectors, to use
stereotyped expression, are without power to interfere. Thus, we have found
an Inspector admitting that he would be without power to interfere even
should he find the air returns in a mine full of gas, because the first
General Rule only requires that an adequate amount of ventilation shall le
constantly produced in every mine, to dilute and render harmless noxious
gases only in the workings of such mine, and the travelling roads to and
from such working places, and says nothing about the air returns where there
is no one passing."
Referring to complaints by workmen and their powers to inspect, the
Commissioners say, in page 33, " this is a distinctive trait of the English
system," and " may more or less remedy the insufficiency in numbers of the
Inspectors."
After a short review of the subject of Special Rules and their difference in
each district, although admitting that the law is by no means a dead letter,
yet it is stated, in page 37, " that perhaps in many cases it would be found
that there is a greater anxiety shown to comply with the letter
of the law than to satisfy its spirit.....All the reports the
law requires are kept; but," they say, "one may be permitted to entertain a
doubt as to the value of the entries so made." This, of course, is a most
unwarranted assertion, based upon a perfectly gratuitous assumption, for
surely a responsible official would not sign a report that all is safe
unless he was perfectly convinced that ic was so. Moreover, where are the
facts which warrant this assertion ?
Again, speaking of the difficulty of classifying mines, they say in page
38," we ought not to quit this subject without making an observation on a
point to which, in France, a certain importance has been attached. The
difficulty encountered in defining a fiery mine in the text of any
regulations, and in classifying mines according to the abundance as therein
existing, is well known, and the provisions of the English law of 1872 have
been cited, where, in three of the sections of General Rule 51, certain
distinctions are made between mines where gas has or has not been found
within twelve months {see sections N"os. 2 and 3), or within three months
(section 8, sub-section/); but from all that we have seen and heard, we are
convinced that these distinctions made in the law are purely theoretical,
and that in reality no notice is taken of them in practice. The amount of
inspection and the use of powder are settled once for all to suit the
conditions and system peculiar to the mine, and in conformity with the
General Rules ; and as these rules are the same for a whole district,
notwithstanding that
8 NOTES OX THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
each particular mine may be more or less fiery, this distinction made by the
I law generally disappears. At the best, in some districts, there mightbea
dispute in the law courts after an accident, whether or not a contravention
I of the rules could be proved, and in consequence, criminal responsibility
established. In conclusion, we think it would, under all circumstances, be I
taking a false step to appeal to the example of the English law, in any I
discussion upon this subject." These remarks are surely quite unfounded. I
With a few comparative results given in table A, as to diminution of I
accidents for the years 1851 to 1878, the first chapter is brought to a
close,
TABLE A.
1851-1860, 1861-1870, 1873-1878, 10 years. 10 years. 6 years.
Total number of explosions causing death ... ... 82
56 41
Total number of deaths ............ 244 226
263
Average deaths per accident ... ... ... ... 2'92
4"01 6"41
Total number of men employed (below and above) ) qaao ^ fi^O
19f>1'7 per explosion causing death ... ... ) '
'
Total number of men employed (below and above) ) , n„„ -. ,n„
„ q„.. per death ... ... ... ... ...
) ' '
Chapter II. gives the views of the Commissioners on the conditions in which
gas is met with in certain English mines, and the causes of some | of the
accidents, which will meet with considerable dissent in this
country.
They state " that the coal basins of South Wales, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and
Durham are the most fiery, and are those in which the most numerous and the
most deadly explosions occur. The basin of East Scotland and that of North
Staffordshire might be added to this list, although it is pretty generally
admitted that the reports of the Inspector indicate that the accidents which
have occurred in the last-mentioned basin are more due to a vicious
organisation of the workings than to the quantity of gas." So much for North
Staffordshire. No wonder the Commissioners go on to state, " that for this
reason we abstained from visiting North
Staffordshire."
Again, they state in page 44 that " the most fatal accidents have generally
been limited to particular districts where seams have been worked under the
same given conditions, although in the same basin the same seam may be more
or less fiery in proportion to the depth at
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 9
which it is worked. In Lancashire (page 45) it is especially remarked that
" the abundance of gas in the same seam depends essentially upon the depth
of the workings." This may be true; but when it is stated in the same
page " that the only gassy pits in the North of England are those of great
depth, such as from 180 to 300 fathoms," and that " the fiery nature of the
mines depends on the depth of the workings," their remarks are open to grave
criticism, since there are pits working at depths not exceeding 100 fathoms
with equally as much gas, and often far more, than is met with in those
worked at greater depths; besides, the dee}) pits in Northumberland are
comparatively free from gas, so that depth is most decidedly not the
governing factor in the case.
With regard to the characteristics of fiery seams in England, they ite in
page 46 that "an examination even rapid as our own of the various fiery
districts in England gives strong reasons for thinking that the beds
reputed to be most fiery have simply, what has happily q termed by the
Belgian Gas Commission, a normal discharge of gas relatively feeble, ....
excepting, perhaps, the Wigan 9 feet, the Aberdare 4 feet, the Barnsley
and Silkstone, and the Black Yein in Monmouthshire." By this it is implied
that a ventilation relatively feeble is sufficient to dilute the gas in the
working places; but whilst comparing the ventilation with that of Belgium,
they add (page 47):—"We do not e sight of the fact in this comparison, that
the average thickness of the Belgian seams is 23*6 to 27'5 inches, whilst in
England it is very nearly, if not above, 59 '1 inches, and in consequence
the volume of air at equal velocities is double that in Belgium. Still
there is no doubt that the English coal formations do in the fiery districts
contain masses of gas, relatively considerable and abundant, which may come
off in different ways while the seam is being worked, either from the seam
if without being brought in by the air current or from other sources. These
outflows of gas may result from natural causes or from the method
of working adopted."
Reference is then made to gas proceeding from seams outside of those
being worked, and numerous instances are given.
EXCEPTIONAL OUTBURSTS.
Under this head the Commissioners remark (page 48) that "the
English seem often to confound blowers with sudden outbursts," and
add, "but the phenomena which they designate sudden outbursts, have
not the essential characteristics of those which are now classed in
igium, under the appellation deyagements instantanes, these latter
vol. xxxi.—iwi.
B
10 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
proceed from the virgin coal towards the open space left by the workings, .
. . but the former always come from behind the face, generally from the
thill and sometimes from the roof."
This appears to be hardly supported in fact; take for instance the outburst
at Pelton, where 47,000 cubic feet of gas issued from the coal at a pressure
of 912 pounds to the square inch (see Vol. III., pages 41 and 42* of the
Transactions) in opposition to the statement. They then state " that
although we have searched diligently we have never been able clearly to
establish in England a case of true Belgian degagements instantane's"
In speaking of blowers and comparing them with what is called soufflards in
France, they say these present no great difference from what is usually
known under this name, except that they are sometimes unusually powerful;
for instance, at Outwood, in West Lancashire, at a depth of 984 feet in a
stone drift, a blower was encountered of such magnitude as to suspend
operations, and the gas was dammed off and taken to bank in pipes 2 inches
diameter, where it burnt twelve months, with a flame 3 feet 6 inches high.
They add also (page 51), " that it is frequently found that when a blower
comes from a well-defined crack or fissure, large quantities of water are
also met with," and then state that, "our view of the blower (soufflard) is,
that the fracture through which it is discharged, whether a simple fissure
or a fault, pre-existed, and the gas is discharged when the drifts reach it;
whilst in the sudden outburst there is no pre-existing fracture, but one
which takes place suddenly, and produces the discharge. The sudden
outbursts from the roof and from the thill are very different, and have a
distinctive character which is very remarkable."
SUDDEN OUTBURSTS FROM THE THILL.
" It is in the Barnsley and Silkstone seams in Yorkshire that these
outbursts predominate in intensity and frequency" (page 52). "At a given
moment, and with no warning, the top of a jud breaks, the thill immediately
after rises, following a line of fracture more or less clear and parallel to
the face of the place for a greater or less distance, and often extending to
the workings adjacent."
For instance, "in 1876, at the New Oaks, to the dip of the Oaks, where the
accident of 1866 occurred, an outburst took place in a rise long-wall in the
Barnsley seam, ventilated by a current of 5 cubic metres
* The insertion of the decimal point after the 7 and the preceding numbers
in page 42, Vol. III., is a misprint; the addition should read 47,044,
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 11
per sec. (or 10,000 cubic feet per minute) ; and the returns were so loaded,
that Mueseler lamps at the bottom of the upcast were extinguished in a
current of 66 cubic metres per sec. (or 140,000 cubic feet per minute)."
" These outbursts may very well explain many of the accidents that occur,
and it is no wonder that they are, under every circumstance, invoked by one
side at the inquiries held before coroners, and more or
less systematically denied by the other side.....No one can
deny the possibility of their occurrence ; only it remains yet to be proved
that any given accident is attributable to them."
" The engineers in Yorkshire and South Wales, the former especially, have
often discussed what can be done to guard against these outbursts, which
appear with every mode of working; they think that no amount of ventilation
could dilute such masses of gas, and appear to have decided that they must
submit and live with such an enemy, using only Mueseler and Stephenson's
lamps, which go out in gas, abstaining as far as possible from using powder,
and in enforcing a rigid dicipline."
They conclude with the following very severe remark (page 54):— " It does
not appear to us, however, altogether proved, that the method of working and
the general disposition of the pit, go for nothing in the question."
The Commissioners go on to state (page 54) that "we must at once point out
that the fracture which gives passage to these outbursts is a consequence of
the mode of working—in fact whatever method is employed, long-wall or pillar
and stall pure or modified, the principal of all English methods is, with
rare exceptions, not to pack the space of the goaf or gob formed behind the
face of the jud, unless in a very incomplete way, and to allow the falling
of the roof to take care of itself."
"Then if, as in Yorkshire, the thill is very stiff, a complete removal of
the coal so effected inevitably determines the production of irregular
weighing upon the thill, the effect of which must be to cause fracture along
the face of the coal, which will be more severe and important, on the one
side, as the thill is more stiff, and on the other as the roof breaks more
irregularly. That this effect will be augmented by the pressure of the gas
contained below is possible, . . . but if they worked on a system which does
not excite the fracture of the thill, it might be hoped that the imprisoned
gas below would not force itself out, and it may be asked whether, supposing
a complete system of effective pack walling, carefully made with rubble
brought from bank, and with the face (etages) methodically stepped at
moderate distances, were
12 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
adopted—it would not regulate the pressure and effectually combat the
breaking up of the thill ? The question has never been examined from this
point of view in England, where the working by packing with material brought
down from the surface is at present altogether unknown."
The writer of this review thinks that for several reasons it will remain
unknown:—1.—Because it is desirable that all imprisoned gas should get away
as fast as possible instead of being kept at an intense pressure until some
fault or fall causes it to break out in ungovernable quantities. 2.—Because
the experience of all good pitmen goes to prove the absolute necessity of
getting good clean falls which take all pressure off the face and close the
goaf up solidly behind. Strange to say, the Commissioners in the very next
page (56) of the report, praise the manager of the Wigan Coal Company for
good practice in having sunk a bore-hole some 70 feet in the Silkstone seam,
and so having successfully drained off a magazine of gas. (For full
description of this, see page 23, Vol. XXV., of the Transactions.)
The Commissioners next say, in page 56, that sudden " outbursts from the
roof are nothing else than quantities of gas which follow the falling in of
the roof, or which escape from fissures in the roof without a fall, and do
not present such marked features as the outburst from the thill. They occur
behind the face in the goaf, or between the face and the goaf, and are
facilitated by the nature of the roof and the numerous fractures, caused by
the incomplete method of packing." To this it may be replied that if the gas
is kept shut up in one place it will inevitably break out at some other.
They state under the head of
ERUPTION OF GAS FROM OLD WORKINGS,
That " the discharge of gas from the goaf appears, from the tables annexed,
to have been admitted after serious inquiry to have been the principal cause
of accidents during the last ten years," and " the fear of gas from it is
universal, and as far as we can judge is more pronounced where the packing
(remblai) is most incomplete or is but tardily executed." This exactly
proves that the sooner a good fall occurs the better. They go on to state
that " there is always an important distinction to be made. The gas in the
old workings may come from the normal discharge of the seam being worked,
but it can also come from adjacent seams." The reviewer sees no reason why
the former may not be effectually carried off as readily in England as in
France. The Commissioners proceed to say (page 59), " However, we should
remark that a number of English mines present circumstances much less
favourable than
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 13
the bulk of those on the Continent for the carrying away of gas from the old
workings. These workings in flat seams of a medium thickness, mined by pits
in close contiguity and extending thousands of yards in every direction
around them, such pits forming the only communication with the surface,
evidently do not present conditions favourable to the ready escape of gas."
To this it may be answered that in the Durham coal-field, to which these
remarks particularly apply, only one accident is recorded since 1870, in a
Table of accidents given in Appendix 7, page 312, and that the immense
volumes of air distributed, amounting, according to the Inspectors' Returns,
to 250 cubic feet per person employed, fully compensate for the size of the
workings; as to the contiguity of the shafts, so long as the gas is
thoroughly diluted, how can it matter whether it passes through one mile of
returns or two 'i
ACCIDENTS FROM GAS IN ENGLAND.
Under this head the Commissioners remark (page 60) that " if certain
accidents in England have had terrible proportions ... it cannot be
attributed exclusively to the relatively large number of men who may be
employed in a mine, i.e. to what we call a concentration of work, but in
part also to the conditions under which, and the mode by which, the workings
are effected. Thus, as we shall hereafter have occasion to repeat, the
districts into which it is necessary to divide the workings in a level seam
ventilated by two contiguous pits to assure a sufficient current of air, are
not so far independent of each other with respect to ventilation as that
when an accident occurs in one it is without influence on the other. On the
contrary, it is a chance, if an accident of any importance occurs in one
district, that the air-crossings and stoppings are not blown out, and stop
or upset all ventilation, not only in that district, but even in the
neighbouring districts. Few men are burnt perhaps, but a large number are
asphyxiated."
This, of course, is a large and serious question, which English viewers
would do well to estimate at its full value; that shafts at each end of a
Royalty will afford more chances of outlet than both in one place is clear;
but, if the shafts were apart, a time will come when in working the pillars
the connection between them must be cut off, and it is rarely that an
explosion sufficient to affect the shafts leaves a chance for any one to
escape; moreover, if the shafts were made much further apart, the already
long period required to open out collieries on a large scale would be very
seriously lengthened.
14 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
MANAGEMENT AND WORKING.
Under this head there is discussed:—" Coal-fields visited," " Inclina-1
tion and thickness of coal beds/' " Characteristics of the coal in situ,"
" Nature of adjacent rocks," " Geological accidents affecting the coal I
formations," "Concessions and mode of taking or leasing coal," "Extent I
of royalties," and " Kents," none of which subjects require notice; but
under the head of " Consequences of the temporary concession," i.e. by
lease, I
the Commissioners state in page 67 that "the multiplicity of landlords, I
and the obligation of paying a certain minimum fixed rent, increases I
in a disadvantageous manner the number of pits sunk in a given space, I
as we have seen at Blantyre; and the transitory character of the holding I
leads the mine owner to reduce to the lowest limit his first expenditure," I
and (page 68) " leads him only to work the cheapest and best seams," I
leaving others " which serve as magazines of gas, and which any accident I
such as a fall of roof, might any moment place in communication with I
the works," and " this is one incontestable cause of the importance of I
explosions which occur in England."
But who is to decide whether a seam should be worked or not? Clearly
Government should not have the power to insist on working a I ruinous mine.
Again, the Commissioners say, in page 69, "the position of the shafts I in
the royalty, owing to the easy inclination and the regularity of the I coal
formation, is almost a matter of indifference, as the same facilities I for
working the coal may be found in any part of the royalty, and the I English
thus constantly use mechanical haulage and pumping machinery I
at very great distances to the dip for both coal and water.....I
Everything is thus made subservient to convenience on the surface, which
has undoubtedly its importance, but which should not make I managers forget
considerations affecting the interior workings, especially
those having an influence on personal security.....Hence the
immense development of wagonways and ventilation, which is one of the
characteristics of English mines."
CAUSES OF THE LARGE EXTENSION OP UNDERGROUND WORKS COMPRISED BY EACH
WINNING. Under this head the Commissioners go on to state (page 71) " This
I mode of holding mineral property (by lease) tends to make a colliery
owner only a passing tenant.....He thus reduces as far as
possible all permanent erections which belong to the freehold, and, instead
of sinking more pits, employs more underground machinery, which remains the
property of the lessee."
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 15
English engineers will see here much to dispute. No doubt there are
sometimes cases where the position of the pit affects the " residential
interests" of the landlord, but with that exception shafts are always placed
where the coal can be worked to the greatest advantage in all cts. The
disadvantages of having the shafts both in one place—of the long air ways
and weak points of air crossings are again alluded to; but after referring
to places arranged and ventilated on the principles they so strongly
advocate, the Commissioners are obliged to admit that these have not been
more free from accidents than the others.
Next follow discussions on arrangements to facilitate the inlet and outlet
of the air :—Furnace pits, surface arrangements at upcast pits, pits with
ventilators, shapes and sizes of shafts, shaft guides, stone drifts, etc.,
finishing on page 95 with the statement that Government Inspectors do not
consider it their duty to interfere in the general arrangements and laying
out of pits.
INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS.
This division treats of working several seams, average depth of pits, annual
average, increase of depth, various methods of ventilation, arrange-
nts at pit bottoms, stoppings, separation doors "which are never guarded,"
regulators, brattice cloth, air crossings, none of which require attention
except, perhaps, the Barrel Crossing at Llwynpia, in South Wales, and that
at Celynen (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2), made entirely above the seam, with
such a mass of rock or masonry intervening as to make them secure against
any explosion; general arrangements of work; and some particulars relating
to the Lundhill workings, with the mode of working long-wall pillars
(massifs longs).
Next, the plan of Eppleton workings is described, including both board and
pillar and long-wall. The Commissioners add (page 123) : This plan shows in
a striking manner how capriciously the old goafs are distributed and what
traps they are. Then they discuss winning drifts, general distribution of
air at each mouthing (etage) ordinary drifts, and space for air in workings,
where they observe (page 127) that "generally we may say that in the
arrangement of drifts which distribute the air the section of the air
courses is superior to that in those on the Continent," but owing to the
absence of stone packing the air is not carried forward so well, which
reduces the air at the face very much.
METHODS OF WORKING.
The methods of working by board and pillar, pillar and stall (Lancashire),
double stall (South Wales), and long-wall (longues tallies) are next
16 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
described. Of the general modes of pillar workings given it is not I
necessary to say much except that they seem to have been very unhappy I in
the examples taken; for instance, that of Allanshaw, in Scotland, I
illustrated in Plate II., Fig. 2. It is quite clear that in order to get |
No. 2 in the pillar when the lift No. 1 in the upper pillar is worked off I
below they will have to skirt through the goaf edge, and have their men
daily getting into a more dangerous position from the goaf following I them.
VENTILATION OF THE BROKEN.
This is explained by the sketches given; take, for instance, that of I
Haswell, Plate III., Fig. 1, where they say (page 146): "The air is I
carried up the bottom of the first jud by the drifts made in the first I
working place well enough, but on leaving this it is either lost in the I
goaf, or it passes as directly as possible to the air returns, arriving in I
very small quantities in the face of the jud, whence it passes with great!
difficulty to the following jud, because there is no proper packing
(remblai) to reserve for it a passage along the coal side, although there I
is generally a row of props, 12 to 18 inches from the side, to keep up I the
top." Plate IV. shows the mode of working and ventilation at I Eppleton,
also the propping and packing. The Commissioners adding I (page 148), that
in "working the broken the air goes much as it likes." I Under the head of
SEPARATION OF BROKEN DISTRICTS, It is further stated that : " The omission
of regular packing causes I each district of broken to become a vast
reservoir, in which the roof, I irregularly fallen, remains hanging over
great spaces. To reduce as I much as possible the dangers from a fall of
stone which might drive out I the gas from these vacant spaces, the English
attempt to isolate the goaf by stone stoppings."
Then follows a description of working in pillar and stall (page 149). I
MODE OF SETTING OUT THE FACE.
" This consists in driving two drifts from the main wagonway I horizontally
7 to 10 feet wide, separated by pillars 12 to 40 yards | thick, according as
it is intended to use the pillars only to protect I the road or to form the
first pillar in the long-wall. Sometimes, as at Pe.ndlebury, the pillars are
only 80 yards wide; the working is by single I drifts ventilated with brick
brattice, connected by cross galleries whenever ( the ventilation requires
it. When the galleries have reached the limit I
FIERY MINES IN. ENGLAND. 17
intended, two cross-headings are made, separated by a pillar 33 to 45 yards
wide, intended to serve for the working of the upper pillar, and after the
ventilation has been assured by this they commence, working the broken."
" This broken working is made in several ways—by successive contiguous
rising juds sometimes cutting up the large pillars by drifts
parallel to the exploring drifts.....Generally these juds are
arranged in steps, with the highest one nearer the main wagonway than that
below."
"Sometimes, as at Lundhill, where they have a seam about 7 feet thick, with
a regular inclination of 30 inches to the yard, all the pillars, in a block
{massif), three to five according to its size, are worked at the same time,
and then the juds," as shown in Plate III., Fig. 2. " At other times, as at
Pendlebury Doe Mines, in a seam 5 feet thick, with an inclination of 10
inches to the yard, they reduce the width of the blocks to 80 yards. They
are then cut up in returning to the main wagonway by successive contiguous
rising juds," as shown in Plate V., Fig. 1.
Plate V., Fig. 2, shows the mode of working in the "Ram's Mine" Seam,
Pendlebury, by contiguous blocks simultaneously rising in steps, each jud
having the way laid through the goaf and supported by stone packing.
Plate VI., Fig. 1, shows the broken workings at Lundhill, with the propping
and packing most common in England.
VENTILATION OF LONG-WALL IN COURSE OF WORKING.
Under this head the Commissioners remark (page 156) that "the mode of
ventilating the broken workings is sufficiently shown by arrows upon the
plates. We think it right to state that very often the ventilation is not
better than in the broken of the board and pillar system— first, because in
the long-wall system a great quantity of air is lost by the doors, brattice,
and stoppings, fixed or movable, which are multiplied to infinity; and also
because the air, when it arrives at the extremity of the drift, is very
insufficiently conducted to the face. The packing in most sea is simply
produced by the fall of the roof, which is left to itself, allowing the air
every opportunity of escaping by the shortest route."
The system of working blocks by following juds separated by an abandoned
pillar, or the Wicket System of North Wales, Plate VII., is then described
(page 159): " This is applied to seams from G to 10 feet thick, but little
inclined, and only slightly fiery. The ventilation of the jud is made good
only by a very incomplete packing up the middle, made from the
VOL. XXXI,—1891.
Q
18 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OE
impurities of the seam and small coal. These juds form, in fact, culs-de-m I
with regard to the air, and may be said to be only ventilated by diffusion;
I this causes the Inspectors often to report collieries in their districts
which I are insufficiently ventilated."
Plate VI., Fig. 2, shows a mode of working by Single Stall, by following
juds separated by pillars of the same width, which are removed on I
returning towards the exploring drifts. Sometimes, when the top is I
good, there is a double arrangement of exploring drifts, with the juds I on
both sides, as shown, and the ventilation is of the same character.
With regard to Double Stall, the Commissioners remark (page 164) I that " in
all these systems it may happen that the ventilation is very I poor, because
the packing being very incomplete there is no assured cir- I culation of air
in the face where the air return is neither maintained nor I watched, and to
remedy this in all well-conducted mines they have I substituted the double
for the single stall. This modification consists in I giving to the jud a
double width, and in maintaining two tramway I roads laid up both sides,
kept up by careful timbering separated by I packing of a very incomplete
character made of small coal, the air passing
up one wagonway and down the other.....When the jud, I
from 12 to 24 yards wide, has got half-way up to the cross drifts, the I
hewers divide into two parties, and each brings back half the width I of the
coal left between the two juds." See Plate VIII. and Plate IX,, I Figs. 1
and 2.
The Commissioners add in page 166 that "In Yorkshire, in what is called the
Bank System, the pillars are 200 yards wide and 1,100 I long. The first
working consists of double drifts, and the juds are I worked back to the
main wagonway by double lifts 18 yards wide, with I pillars between of the
same width, won, worked, and ventilated exactly I the same as double stalls
in South Wales; the only difference in the I working places is that they
always systematically pass a little air over I the goaf by making a small
opening in the pack wall which conducts the I air to the face of the jud."
VENTILATION OF SINGLE OR DOUBLE STALL.
In page 167 they add "Whatever precautions are taken to ventilate
either single or double stall in the different varieties of pillar and stall
I
working that we have seen, this method of working the broken by I
separate juds, separated by big pillars, has, from a ventilation point of I
view, the inconvenience of forming in the juds at each side of the I
exploring drifts culs-de-sac, in which the ventilation is always uncertain,
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 19
notwithstanding the doors, brattices, and stoppings, the multiplicity of
which is shown by the preceding plates."
The translator of these remarks entirely endorses them, and further thinks
that the small detached goaf prevents that steady uniform breaking down of
the top, which is one of the firsc objects in good broken working, and leads
to a great waste of coal.
THE LONG-WALL SYSTEM.
This is divided generally as " working outwards," and "working home," and
the examples are confined to a few special systems.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Working outwards (Plate X., Fig. 1).—The Commissioners state that this is
chiefly developed in Yorkshire, Nottingham, and the Midlands, and is
conducted without previous winning out, starting from the double main
wagonways.
These faces are driven forward, removing the whole of the coal with drifts
kept open through the goaf for travelling and ventilation by pack walls.
This method requires either that there should be sufficient refuse from the
seam or suitable stone from the falls of the top to supply materia] for pack
wralls.
Working home (Plate X., Fig. 2) is the reverse of this system, and is
adopted where suitable packing is not met with; drifts are then made
enclosing suitable areas, and the walls work backward, without having to
maintain any goaf roads.
The length of each jud face varies from 5 yards to 30 yards, as also does
the entire length of wall. In Nottinghamshire they are about 5,000 yards
lung; in Lancashire, at the Wigan Coal Company's collieries, they are about
2,700 yards; and in Yorkshire from 900 yards to 1,200 yards : they
rally parallel or perpendicular to the cleavage, and when the tram
da have gone as far as to be troublesome to maintain, they are cut off
by cross-roads, supported by packing or dry walling. Generally the top
is supported by two or three ranges of props, 20 inches or 3 feet apart,
>nling to the nature of the roof, and leaving a space of from 4 to 5^ feet
ar from the face. The back range is then moved forward to the front,
allowing the top to fall, constituting a goaf, more or less perfect, accord-
g as it falls more or less completely ; and when the roof is hard these
props are substituted by chocks (Plate XL, Fig. 2). Seepages 169 and 179.
u At Wain Lynd, in Wales, where they work the three-quarter
ai about 3 feet 4 inches thick, with an inclination of 2 inches to the
20 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
yard, the air goes to the face by a main road at the low end of each group
of headways, follows the face for from 250 to 300 yards almost in a straight
line, and comes back to the return by a drift specially driven in a seam
about 20 feet above that working. . . . But in whatever mode these long
walls are conducted, we may say that, in a general way, they are better
ventilated than the board and pillar places," pages 182 and 185; and in page
185 they add that "The only drawback to this system is that when the stone
does not fall freely so as to give plenty of packing, the goaf leaves spaces
for gas to collect, as dangerous as in other methods, and leaves the
ventilation defective." In order to counteract and " maintain the
incontestable superiority of long-wall, packing should be brought from the
outside; and this the great competition in English collieries does not
permit, as a few pence more or less in the cost of working would absorb all
the profit they can make, and increase the loss many are even now
experiencing."
WORKING THE THICK COAL IN SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE.
The description of this system of mining, though very ably given, is not I
of sufficient general interest to warrant the lengthy notice which would be
necessary to make it intelligible; but of the ventilation we learn in page
193 that, "whilst it is very good in the principal galleries, it is almost
nothing (presque nul) in the winning out drifts where the air simply
penetrates by diffusion." They finish up by stating that, by this method of
working, one-half of the coal is completely got, the other half is got badly
enough; abandoning juds 8 yards square in each of the 18 yard square juds at
the sides, of which one-third is generally lost.
The Commissioners then proceed to make
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE METHODS OF WORKING IN ENGLAND,
and state (page 194 and following pages) what they consider to be the
essential characteristics of the English systems.
1st.—"The great extent of workings in each seam—which always constitute
distinct flats or levels (etages), only communicating with the surface by
the two pits alone."
The reply to these remarks is briefly, that they are unreal and imaginary.
Some of them have just so much foundation in fact as to prevent it being
said that they are in every sense untrue. The expression " two pits alone,"
seems to imply that it is not only a characteristic of, but a fault in the
English system.
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 21
2nd.—" The arrangement of working places in each seam in distinct districts
scattered in every sense, and constituting so many culs-de-sac, in which the
air enters and leaves by two parallel drifts always very together."
In this sense every mine in the world is a cul-de-sac.
3rd.—" In whatever order the districts are arranged, Ave find them always
subordinate to the rapidity of coal getting and the quantity of the output,
an arrangement which, very often, causes the construction of the two main
intake and return airways, which pass great distances between or through old
workings, beyond which there exist districts in full work, which form at the
extremity of the main roads culs-de-sac, whidh the least disturbance
affecting these roads insulates completely."
It may be admitted that it is desirable to avoid detached goaves, but in the
long-wall system, so highly spoken of by these same gentlemen, the essential
principal is to have the roads entirely through goaves.
4.—" The absence of a sufficient quantity of packing, carefully placed in
suitable situations to lessen the dangers presented by these old workings,
which the general fracture of the rocks or any other cause may constantly
supply with gas. These magazines of gas, which occasionally occupy a space
of nearly 600 acres, may, by the slightest accident, be put in communication
with main roads which traverse them and carry into the working face
quantities of gas, which, even if not in themselves very considerable, might
suddenly render a current of air explosive, that might have been before
considered as sufficiently free from gas to be applied to keep up the
combustion of the furnace."
If this refers to board and pillar collieries the answer is that the roads
are always protected by two or more solid pillars of coal with brick
stoppings stowed close, infinitely better than any pack-walls however built,
and no fracture of the rocks can drive gas into the intakes; although it
might be driven into the returns where it could do no harm.
5th.—" The very rapid working of seams of moderate thickness, which tends to
cause sudden dislocations of the adjacent rocks, such dislocations being
often accompanied by considerable discharges of gas."
Rapidity of working is a comparative term; if the supply of air and
other conditions are commensurate with the rapidity of the workings, it
is no greater source of danger than is that of speed in express trains as
ared with slow ones.
6th.—"Hewing, often effected with powder without much pre-
ion."
22 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
This certainly does not apply to the North of England where the regulations
with regard to the use of powder are carried out in the strictest manner.
7th.—" The almost invariable practice of allowing horses to go into the
face, a custom which exposes the numerous doors used in England to be badly
closed and necessitates the employment below of two or three hundred horses
in large mines."
If horses were not so largely used, manual labour would be very greatly
increased, and the risk to human life would be much greater than at present.
8th.—" The support (soutenement) of the workings, always of a temporary
character, which in all systems, except in long-wall, is often insufficient
to ensure the passage of the air from one place to another."
Timbering as practised here needs no justification. The deputies have as
much timber as they or the overman consider necessary; the managers see that
it is used properly, and the passage of air is sufficient to ensure that no
gas is visible where men are working; there exists a constant pressure of
air from one end of the pillar workings to the other, which Messrs. Pernolet
and Aquillon seem unable practically to appreciate.
9th.— "The multiplicity of brattice-cloths, doors, stoppings, and crossings
of air, joined Avith the absence of continuous packing to guide the air to
the face, causes a great loss through leakage of incoming air, so that, in
spite of the enormous quantities entering, it often arrives at the face in
smaller quantities than in Belgium, where there is an entry of only 84,000
cubic feet of air per minute in the largest collieries."
There is no doubt a great surplus of air entering a mine over what goes
actually round the face, but which, if forced round the face, would render
the places quite unfit and impossible to work in. Hewers cannot and will not
work with air blowing cold upon them.
With regard to the intervention of Government in the organisation' and
arrangement of underground workings, the Commissioners state in page 198
that
"Although all Inspectors consider the method which is adopted for laying out
and conducting the mine as an essential feature with regard to the security
of the workmen, and although some of them have told us that they find it
safer to work with open lamps and use powder in a seam worked under a good
method than with safety-lamps and no powder in a seam badly managed, all
Inspectors consider that so long as any
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 28
m has not caused accidents, they have no advice to submit on the subject,
and have even said that they believe in such a case they have no right to
interfere."
"The Inspectors consider they must allow colliery owners (exploitants)
to arrange their works as they see fit, and, in fact, do not interfere in
ions in many respects so delicate."
Inspectors have full power to prevent any dangerous practice, but
Englishmen do not consult Government as an authority from wdiom they
are to be instructed in the full details of the management of their work.
VENTILATION AND VENTILATING APPLIANCES.
Under this head there is not much calling for special notice. The various
systems of creating ventilation by furnace and the different types of fans
are briefly noticed.
Useful drawings of the large furnaces at Lundhill and Eppleton are . en, and
the reasons for the preference still shown for furnaces in deep - arc
carefully explained.
Of the ventilators, the Guibal receives the highest approval, although the
Commissioners admit the ease and cheapness with which the Schiele can be
applied, and give tables of experiments in which this fan has lied all
others in useful effect.
The remarks on depression effected (or water-gauge) in relation to id of
periphery in rotatory machines are interesting, but this relation-ip, which
has long been known and treated by the Institute, is spoken of as quite a
new idea.
They say in a note at the bottom of page 208, that " although the notion of
the rmdement manometrique of a ventilator is well known to re of the
excellent work of M. Murgue, it is as well to reproduce it here." M. Murgue
showed that for every ventilator, the effect of which is to create a
depression, " there is a certain ' theoretical depression' which a
ventilator of that diameter turning at the same speed can only
produce, if perfect in the absolute sense of the word. This is H=—,
u being the speed of the periphery. The depression h which is given by a
machine can then never be more than a fraction of H, viz., K H of the
theoretical depression, this fraction K being the useful effect of the
apparatus {rmdement manometrique)."
The actual results of several typical ventilators is then reviewed and d by
the standard of the rendement manometrique theorique.
24 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
Referring to the G-uibal, the fact that in England we have some mud I larger
than on the Continent, viz., 45 feet (14-02 M.), is deprived of I
considerable importance, because (at Abram, in West Lancashire, for i
instance), the normal speed is 46 revolutions, " but it might certainly > go
at much higher speeds."
This the translator thinks is wrong; the great drawback to the large I
ventilators is that they cannot, and never do, go at a greater speed than I
that mentioned. An interesting table of the results of 29 ventilators is
given, in which it is only necessary to draw attention to the column I
called " Equivalent Orifice," of which the following explanation is given I
(page 220) :—
"At any given mine, in producing a depression H, at the mouth of I the
upcast, it is not possible to pass more than a given volume of air V. I The
mine in question, considered with regard to the resistance which it I
opposes to the passage of air, can be assimilated to an orifice a in a thin
I partition, through which would pass the volume of air V. If the I
difference of the pressures at the two sides of the orifice were precisely I
equal to H, a will be the "orifice, equivalent" of the mine under con- I
sideration. It will be at once seen that the section of this orifice in the
\ vena contractu is the measure of the resistance offered by the mine given
I in a very simple manner."
The translator finds the formula given, a = — -, is not quite accurate,
since it is based upon the weight of air being 1*20 kil. per cubic metre. I
But by taking air as 820 times lighter than water the following | adaptation
to English measurements will give the area of equivalent I orifice in square
feet:—
_ j2_v
V H
The result of this test enables them to show that, as a rule, English mines
I .are large, and some very large.
VOLUMES OF AIE IN MINES.
Enormous volumes, such as 360,000 cubic feet per minute, are the result of
the large " equivalent orifice" and heavy water-gauge, but this, although
three or four times greater than any met with on the Continent, loses much
of its importance "when we go to the bottom of things."
Thus, "taking 18 mines, we find an average of 400 cubic feet per minute per
hewer per shift employed (ouvrier du poste); and an average of 210 cubic
feet per ton worked in 24 mines" (page 224).
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 25
These figures are practically the same as those relating to Belgium in
ctof tons, but double as to workmen. But the Commissioners say
25), "We must not lose sight of the fact that the useful effect of
miner is also double. Therefore, the figures are relatively comparable
with those on the Continent; and there remains to England only the
lit of concentration rendered easy by the division of air currents, which
iture of the stratification permits, but which is obtained, perhaps,
at the cost of security."
SUB-DIVISION OF AIE.
" The superiority of England disappears still further when we look into
the way these enormous volumes are divided and applied to dilute gas."
From the daily registers we learn that in many pits, from 25 to 50 per cent.
ihe air goes down one pit and up the other without penetrating the
workings, being used for stables, boilers, etc., when not lost by simple
3 in doors, stoppings, and crossings, and such air as does go in-bye
a losses of its own, often caused by the intakes and returns running
rallel to each other for many thousands of yards, only separated by
¦ppages of a very doubtful tightness." As an example of this they cite
the
DIVISION OF AIR AT EPPLETON,
Where the tables given show that 54 per cent, only of the total air
supply is used in the workings, the remaining 46 per cent, being used in
various requirements about the pit bottom, and the general conclusion
is that " although at the shaft bottoms they have in England enormous
volumes of air, that really and in fact there is rather less, than more,
fully applied in the working places than is found in Belgium and
nice, and that the circulation of air in the workings is conducted
under circumstances much less favourable to the removal of gas than in
those countries." (See page 229.)
The same views are repeated in the next chapter on the
DISTRIBUTION OF AIR,
Where the insecurity arising from air crossings, doors, etc., and the
cul-de-sac nature of the systems is still further illustrated by short
references to the various figures; but as all show the same determination to
see nothing right, it is needless to repeat them.
INFLUENCE OF BAROMETRIC VARIATION. There is here another instance of the
perverse way in which everything done in England is looked at. With
reference to extra precautions
VOL XXXL-1881.
j)
26 NOTES ON THE WORKING AND REGULATION OF
when the barometer falls, they say :—" "We were nowhere told of such special
precautions/' and " if anyone did sometimes speak of pushing the fires and
the speed of the ventilators, it was in such terms that it was very
problematical if any such precautions were ever really taken."
Again, there is a glaring instance of what really amounts to unfairness I in
their treatment of facts, when in speaking of the daily records of the I
various officers, it is stated, in pages 239 and 240 :—"It may be permitted
I to us to doubt the value of the observations thus made, the more so as I
most of the instruments employed are of the most simple and elementary I
description. They appear to have been used rather to satisfy the law than I
to attain any immediate object." And this same disregard of facts is I
repeated several times in the next chapter, on
WORKING ARRANGEMENTS AND SUPERINTENDENCE.
Where, in speaking of these same reports, it is stated that:—"They simply
satisfy the literal requirements of the law." The remainder of this chapter
is descriptive of the various officials.
UNDERGROUND LIGHTING.
This division mostly treats of the various types of lamps; and it is stated
that (page 266) "for the rest, much as they have learnt by experience in
England of the defects of certain lamps, they give little apparent thought
in practice (up to the present time at least) as to the best kind of lamp to
be systematically adopted."
WORK WITH POWDER.
The recital of conditions and customs in respect to the use of powder does
not require notice beyond the manner in which it is spoken of generally. "
We may say that in England, as a matter of principle, they restrict very
slightly the use of powder in the working of fiery mines."
As to precautionary measures in the use of powder, they say, in page I 276,
that:—"In this, as in many other cases, the Inspectors leave owners I and
managers to act on their own responsibility within very wide limits, and
they always apply the law with a very free interpretation."
But speaking of an instance in which an Inspector having insisted on the
disuse of powder and got a verdict by an umpire in his favour, it is I
satisfactory to find the following admission (page 278) :—"The Inspectors
may also evidently appeal to this power whenever anything appears to them to
threaten or tend to threaten the safety of persons employed in a mine."
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 27
DUST. Under this head there is, in the first place, a short reference to the
experiments made on this subject in England, and a good sketch of the
arrangements made by Mr. Galloway, to carry out his experiments. The
Commissioners add (page 285) that " the dust question remains in dispute as
in France. The general and most common opinion is that dust may in certain
cases add its effect to that of gas, but its additive effect has hitherto
been in proportion to the determining cause, which is always and exclusively
gas. This reduces in a marked manner the importance of dust." They add that,
" the dust question has attracted much attention on the
occasion of the late accident at Seaham.....The mine being
very dry, gassy, and hot, and the coal very inflammable, we endeavoured to
see whether there had been any burning of dust. In no part, however,
have we seen any incrustation of coke, but in many parts the timber and were
covered with soot, notably at one point where the wood,
moreover, presented traces of burning."
"These were indeed appearances which, according to the theory of
Mr. Galloway, sufficed to affirm the action of dust. However, while
the No. 3 district in the Maudlin is still closed, all the questions raised
by this accident will remain very doubtful."
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST DUST.
"With the opinions which still prevail on this subject, we can understand
that few people think it necessary to have recourse to watering. .... We
have only seen it practised in the Dinas and Llwynpia mines. The former
managed by Mr. W. Galloway himself," where they have framed a set of rules
which define what is to be done.
This completes the Eeport, with the exception of a few pages of ics of
accidents and copies of Special Rules. It now remains for the mining
engineers of this country carefully to consider the same and glean from it
all the information that it is capable of affording.
The President said, they were very much indebted to Mr. Steavenson for
bringing this matter so fully before them. It was often said that much good
arose from sometimes " seeing ourselves as others see us," and he hoped that
this would be the case now, and that good would result from the not over
flattering remarks of these French gentlemen. But in lering this report a
variety of things must be taken into consideration
28 DISCUSSION—NOTES ON THE WORKING OF
and more especially must they remember how differently things were conducted
by the two nations. It was still probable that there were points in
connection with the strictures contained in the report, on which the
judgment and observations of independent parties, coming from a different
country, and entirely unaffected by local prejudices, might be of service to
Englishmen; and, if this enabled Englishmen to pick out a weak point in
their system, they would have reason to be thankful for this report,
although the French Commissioners might be too severe upon them. The paper
would be printed and issued, and it would not be necessary to discuss it
fully at this meeting.
Mr. D. P. Morison hoped the discussion would be adjourned. He thought that
some of the remarks upon ventilation were founded on error, and he hoped
some member who had given attention to this subject I would point out these
inconsistencies and errors at the next meeting. I With regard to the
question of ventilation, as between the long-wall and I pillar and stall
systems, the whole of the experiments he had made tended I conclusively to
prove that the friction upon ventilation by the long-wall I was between
three and four times as great as it was in the board and I pillar system of
the North of England.
Mr. J. Willis said, it seemed to him that the whole report was got up on the
principle of showing the superiority of mining in France to what it was in
England, rather than, as its title would indicate, a Report upon Mines in
England. The Commissioners had made many remarks about the inspection of
mines which seemed to prove that however diligently they might have observed
while here, they had not had time to master the subject thoroughly. If the
discussion of this report was left over till a future meeting he hoped it
would be then temperately dealt with, and not have attached to it that
importance which, to his mind, it did not deserve.
Mr. J. Daglish said, that in discussing a question of this kind, especially
in relation to the duties of the Inspectors, it should be borne in mind that
the minerals in other countries of Europe belonged to the governments, and
therefore that the inspection is specially directed to the working of the
coal to the greatest possible commercial benefit of the Government, whereas
this did not form any part of the duty of Inspectors in England. In
reference to the working of upper seams first, it would hardly do for the
proprietors in England not to be allowed to work their own coal in the way
they thought best. It was impossible that any gentlemen, however able,
could, in passing through a large country and visiting a few mines, arrive
at even a very general idea of the details of practice followed in
FIERY MINES IN ENGLAND. 29
various districts. The use of powder in mines in this country received the
greatest consideration, and every possible care is taken against accident;
and with regard to dust, the greatest precautions are taken to water the
ways, &c, and stringent regulations issued; but, because these French
gentlemen did not hear of them, they reported that these things were not
cared about in England.
Mr. A.L. Steavenson said, that the report of the two French gentlemen might
be called a State document, being the report presented to the French
Government by a Commission similar to a Eoyal Commission in this country,
and it was desirable, therefore, that attention should be called to it; but
in all other respects, there was nothing in it to which they should attach
much importance.
Mr. E. F. Boyd said, it seemed to him that the question was of importance to
the members of the Institute, inasmuch as they ought not to allow a report
so prejudicial to the state of things in England to go forth without
contravening the portions which were incorrect.
On the motion of the President, seconded by Mr. E. F. Boyd, a unanimous vote
of thanks was awarded to Mr. Steavenson for his communication, and the
meeting separated with the understanding that an early meeting should be
fixed for its discussion.
PROCEEDINGS. 31
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 19th, 1881, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
G. BAKER FORSTER, Esq., Peesident, in the Chaib.
The Assistant-Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting.
The President said, that at a Council meeting held to-day, there had been
under consideration some proposed alterations as to the days of meeting, and
other matters. These alterations would be made known to the members by
circular and submitted to the next meeting for approval.
The following gentlemen were then elected, having been previously nominated
:—
Obdinaey Membee— Mr. William E. Walkeb, M.E., Lowtker Street, Whitehaven.
Associate Membbes— Mr. William Mooeb, Upleatham Mines, Marske-by-the-Sea.
Mr. Geoege J. Heney, Stowmarket Gun-Cotton Works, Stowmarket.
Students— Mr. Cuaeles L. Waugh, The Burroughs, Cockermouth. Mr. Josn. Samuel
Scott, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe. Mr. Heney B. Tuenbuil, Framwellgate
Colliery, near Durham.
The following was nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Student— Mr. Thomas Southeen, North Biddick Colliery, Washington Station,
County Durham.
Mr. Thomas E. Candler read the following " Description of a Method of
Surveying with the Loose Needle among Kails and other Ferruginous
Substances:"—
METHOD OF SURVEYING- WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE. 88
SRTPTION OF A METHOD OF SURVEYING WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE, AMONG RAILS AND
OTHER FERRUGINOUS SUBSTANCES.
By THOMAS E. CANDLER.
The writer of this paper, in bringing ifc before the Institute, would ask
for the co-operation of the members in forming a true conclusion as to the
merits or defects of the particular mode of surveying about to be ribed.
It was first brought under the notice of the writer by James i. Esq.,
C.E., Truro, who stated that it was the only method ited by him in an
underground survey of an important nature. The writer has been unable to
gather any knowledge as to whether the id of surveying with the loose needle
for important surveys is at all in the North of England; probably, if he
had, this paper would not I - en written, but so far as he has been able to
learn, such a method s unknown; if, therefore, any member of the Institute
has a practical knowledge of such method, it is trusted that he will give
his experience, „ for the sake of the younger members of the profession.
It is, in the writer's opinion, a matter of regret that, in all the books
and
¦a devoted to the subject of underground surveying, the magnetic
has in all of them been decried as unsafe and useless in all surveys of
Magnitude or importance; now this might have been correct if it had
at the same time been stated that the inaccuracy only occurred when the
s were read as an angle of divergence either from the north or
nth points of the needle; this way of reading, however, is immaterial,
and it would, in the writer's opinion, be very much better, nay, even
nt many mistakes, if the N.S.E. and West points of the compass
'tally ignored in all surveys, and the bearings only read from the
the compass, numbering from left to right 360°.
It might be said, How then could the north line be ascertained and
- 'ii the plan ? This indeed would be an exceedingly simple matter,
vided a true bearing had been obtained, it would be easy to reduce
ogle that had been read off from the face of the compass to a
E
34 METHOD OF SURVEYING WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE.
bearing, as the West point would be numbered 90°, South 180°, and East 270°;
and as the quadrants are numbered from 0° to 90° from the I right and left
of the north and south ends, a subtraction sum would at I once give the
correct bearing; this also applies to any of the bearings read, without
referring to the four points of the compass, provided such I bearing was not
influenced by any attraction.
The methods usually adopted for underground surveying, discarding the
needle, except for taking a magnetic bearing to connect the under- I ground
and surface surveys, or for the connection of two distinct surveys, are
either the "rack" or the "fast needle."
In the first of these two methods it is necessary that, at some point of I
the survey (though it is always best at the beginning), a true bearing
should be read with the needle for the purpose of a north line. The needle
may be then entirely dispensed with, and, by the rack motion, the angle of
divergence is read from the last sight. In many cases the vernier is put
back to zero and the angle read off from the back I sight; these angles have
to be reduced in the book afterwards. A better i process is, making the
base line for the measurement of the next angle I equal to the angle of the
last sight. This is done by clamping the upper and lower plates of the
instrument together, the plotting angle being then obtained without the
trouble of reducing it.
The "fast needle" method is perhaps even better than the "rack," as by this
method the instrument must be placed where there is no attraction, and a
base line marked out, equal to the north and south points of the compass,
from which point the survey is carried on with the rack, reading the
bearings either by the four points of the compass or by the method
previously recommended in this paper. One good feature in this method is
that in any part of the survey the needle (if the survey is correct) should
point to the north and south ends of the plate of the compass, when the
sights are directed to either the back or fore drafts, and that the bearings
have not to be reduced, in order to compute the survey by trigonometry.
The writer has briefly described these two methods of surveying, inasmuch as
by so doing he may be able better to point out what, in his opinion, are the
inherent defects in them.
In the "rack" method, unless the instrument is very perfect, there is a fear
that, after the instrument has been fixed on to the back sight, (which has
to be the base line for the measurement of the next angle), it may be moved
slightly off when clamping the lower plate on to the legs; and again, unless
the rack has a very free motion, any slight strain is sure
METHOD OF SURVEYING WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE. 35
¦:accuracies; in fact it has come under the writer's observation, : 11 many
of these screws are constantly getting out of repair, that in id the hand
has been utilized in their place by some who, being only learners, do not
appreciate the error resulting from doing so.
an error is made in any sight, even of a very slight character, this : ied
on to the next sight until it becomes very serious in its nature, The "fast
needle" method has the same objection, viz.:—Any slight is carried on to the
next sight and there multiplied, and, having also damped on to the legs and
worked by a rack motion, it has the objections as have been just stated. v,
the writer considers that any method that will do away with objections and
at the same time ensure accuracy is worthy of -i deration.
haps it may not be out of place here to refer to what Mr. Beanlands yarding
the "Magnetic Needle," in a paper read before the Insti-in the year 1871
(Vol. XX., p. 98):— The magnetic compass, as a surveying instrument, is
attended with three serious
Is:— 1.—Owing to the nature of the instrument, the magnetic bearing of a
line can only be observed approximately; that is, within a small fraction of
a degree. The amount of this fraction cannot he precisely specified, and
must be regarded partly as a matter of opinion. It depends, no doubt, on
the perfection of the instrument, as well as on the care and skill of the
observer. Some writers have stated this fraction at i°, or even as much
as £°. This is probably an exaggeration, but the most skilful
surveyors have rarely professed to read the magnetic bearing within less
than \° or T\j°. 2.—The needle is subject to a small daily variation of a
periodical character, that is, recurring with some degree of regularity
every twenty-four hours. This variation, however, occasionally takes
place in a sudden and irregular manner; the changes being much more rapid,
and of larger amount, than usual. Thus, variations of 10', 15', or even
20' have occasionally been observed to take place within about a quarter of
an hour; and alterations of 30' within a few hours are not very unusual.
There is also a progressive variation, which is more steady and uniform in
its character; the needle gradually approximating to the true meridian, at
the rate of 1° in seven or eight years.
3.—The needle is liable to be much disturbed by the presence, or proximity,
of iron,
especially when occurring in large quantities. It is also sometimes
sensibly
affected by mineral substances, having some proportion of this metal in
their
composition.
Owing to these peculiarities, together with the large quantities of iron now
gene-
nl in coal mines, the compass is, in most cases, unfitted for use in
important
36 METHOD OP SURVEYING WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE.
Now these objections are true in reference to an ordinary magnetic survey,
but not one of them holds good in the method about to be desci
It seems to have become a fixed principle that the "magnetic needy j is only
useful for taking the bearing or course of any line from ti.: magnetic
meridian. It will, however, be shown that with the addil a vernier fixed
and balanced on to the north end of the needle i ordinary dial, the angular
bearing of the place can be measured with a much accuracy as with an angular
instrument.
Now, in conducting a survey over iron with the loose needle, it i necessary
that there should be a vernier fitted on the north end of the needle,
otherwise the angular bearing cannot be read with accuracy.
The survey is then commenced in the same manner as in an ordinal rack
survey, using three pairs of legs.
Assume, as shown in Table I., that a true bearing can be taken wfl the
needle at the first draft, this is all that is required, as the compaa
bearings of the back and fore sights (even though the presence of iron is
all round), deducted from one another gives the angular course of the j
place, and this added or deducted, as the case may be, from the nen true
tearing, gives the true bearing of each future set.
It will thus be seen that the compass bearing of the fore sight of one set,
and the compass bearing of the back sight of the succeeding set, being in
the same survey line, should be equal, provided there was no local
attraction, and that also the reduced true bearings, which are reduced from
the true bearing taken in the pit, should also be equal to the fore sight of
such set, and any difference shows the error that would have been made if
this had been read as an ordinary magnetic bearing from the meridian.
This agreeing of the sets in cases of no attraction is exceedingly use- |
ful as a check to the survey, as when a great difference is found the cause
for such difference must be looked for; thus, as shown at D, Table I., these
sometimes vary considerably, and this was noted at the time of the survey
and booked.
In this method of surveying, therefore, the true difference in the bearing
of each set, is really read by the magnetic needle with as great a I degree
of correctness as with the best rack instrument.
The trouble of clamping the lower part of the instrument on to the legs, and
the working of the rack itself is avoided, and there is no anxiety as to
whether the compass plate reads correctly and has not moved before it has
been made the base line of the next set.
The only extra work necessitated is in the booking of the sights.
METHOD OF SURVEYING WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE. 37
ble II. shows the method applied, where it is only possible to get a // at
some point in the middle of the draft; it will be seen by ¦rring to this
Table, that the reducing of the sets to true hearings must nmence at this
point.
do III. shows the method when a true bearing can only be got at nd of the
draft.
ble IV. shows a survey made by the writer, and he submits that, h the
calculations made and shown in Table V., the distance of the g and holing,
from A to B is as accurate as could be made by st angular instrument fitted
in the most improved manner.
TABLE I.
¦ Page of a Dialling Book, where the Needle is used over Iron, except in
the first draft.
Compass Bearings.
___,________________ True
"Rporinaa Links. Remarks.
Back Sight. Fore Sight. tarings.
From l.m. at crossing of 3 feet Seam.
O / 0 / O
/
29 42 *23 21 92£ 0'24 east of A. a board
north.
29 42 46 0 39 39 101i
C 47 21 33 15 25 33 83£
I) 32 17 36 0 29 16 61f At
D a board south.
32 102 0 66 44 63 End of level.
Note.—A large
mass of iron at D and E.
* True bearing taken in Pit.
TABLE II.
vo True Bearing can be obtained except in the Middle of the Drafts.
Compass Bearings.
-------------------- True Links.
Remarks.
i Sight. Fore Sight. Bearings.
i P.P. line 0-2 W. of centre of shaft.
0 / O / O
/
A ... 40 30 46 0 84
H 46 0 27 03 *27 03 42
27 03 34 20 34 20 320£
D 46 0 90 55 79 15 270i
102 0 108 0 85 15 108 End.
* True hearing taken in pit.
/-38 METHOD OF SURVEYING WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE.
TABLE III.
Where the Tktje Bearing is only to be met with at End of Suryey.
Compass Bearings.
--------------------------------------- Belrings. Links-
Remarks-
Back Sight, Fore Sight.
From former L.M. (See July 10) in Main Coal Seam.
o / o / o /
A ... 269 42 269 32 39£
B 269 42 241 20 241 10 86i End of B
at top of staple.
[C2 242 0 179 50 179 0 42
Inclination, 37° 22'. Base
to be calculated. C 179 50 284 50 284 0
38J
D 281 0 269 0 *272 0 46 End.
* True bearing taken in pit.
Note.—The difference between compass bearings in the fore sight and the
reduced true bearings shows
the amount of attraction.
TABLE IV.
Dialling from Centre of Shaft, Bowden Close Pit.
Compass Bearings. __________________________ True
Links. Remarks.
Back Sight. Pore Sight. BearmSs-o / o
/ o /
A ... 267 24 263 48 59|
B 267 24 250 27 246 51 48 B at cross cut,
south.
[C2 246 30 206 30 206 51 104£ [C2 in do.
C 206 30 251 48 252 09 85*
D 250 45 253 33 254 57 101
E 256 0 252 42 251 39 69f E at cross cut,
south.
[F2 252 12 212 0 211 27 47 [F2 in do.
F 212 0 253 21 252 48 89i
G 252 54 256 0 255 54 143| G at crossing
of north drift
[H2 253 0 322 03 324 57 44i [H2 in do.
H 322 03 238 51 *241 45 96 End.
* True bearing taken in Pit.
Note.—The difference between true bearings and fore sight shows the amount
of attraction. The true bearings are "cast up" from the true bearing taken
in the pit.
METHOD OF SURVEYING WITH THE LOOSE NEEDLE. 39
TABLE V.
Calculation to find Departure and Latitude of Suryey.
By Natural Sines. N. S. E. W.
Links. Links.
A 6 12 S.of W. ... 6 45 ... 59 40
B 23 9 do. ... 18 86 ... 44 13
C 17 51 do. ... 26 21 ... 81 38
D 15 03 do. ... 26 23 ... 97 54
E 18 21 do. ... 21 96 ... 66 20
F 17 12 do. ... 26 39 ... 85 26
G 14 06 do. ... 34 70 ... 139 18 Bearing
252° 35' or
_H 2815 do"_____-_ 4544___•»____84 56 ir 23, SQuth Qf wegt<
............ 206 24 ... 657 65
To find hearings by logarithms—
As 657-65............ 2-817926
• 206"24 ••• ......... 2-314200
:*. Radius............ 10-000000
To tangent of < opposite 206-24 9-496274 = 17° 25' south of west.
To find distance by logarithms—
As Radius............ 10-000000
: Secant of < 17° 25'...... 10-020381
.' 657-65............ 2-817926
To hypothesis ......... 2-838307 = 689-27 Links.
40 DISCUSSION—DIAMOND ROCK BORING.
The following woodcut shows the geometrical principle by which these
measurements are obtained :—
o / o /
o
Bearing of A to B 17*25, South of West or S 72-35 W, or in a left-hand
compass 252-35. Do. B to A 72-35, East of North or N 72-35 E,
do. 72'35.
Scale—2 chains to an inch.
The President said, all questions relating to underground surveys were of
the utmost importance to the mining interests of the country, and any
information tending to help them in any way would be well received. They
must thank Mr. Candler for his paper, which would be printed in the
Transactions in due course.
Mr. T. J. Bewick's paper on "Diamond Rock Boring" was then discussed, and
Mr. William Coulson stated, in writing, that boring being an important
branch of his profession, he fully recognised the great commercial value of
being able to give a correct statement of the various strata passed through,
and to this end he had minutely studied all the the various modes of boring
which from time to time had been invented, and he was quite convinced that
for proving ironstone, limestone, or other hard minerals, no system was
equal to that employed by the Diamond Rock Boring Company, notwithstanding
its great cost.
Notwithstanding the accuracy to be obtained by the Diamond Borer in hard
rock, and even in some kinds of coal, yet for proving coal seams in general,
especially where they happen to be thin or traversed with thin bands, there
was no system that he had yet seen equal to the percussion motion with rigid
rods, since it then becomes of the utmost importance to have each inch of
coal thoroughly proved.
_____________________________________________________________A
B ^'^
|
DISCUSSION—DIAMOND ROCK BORING. 41
Owing to unskilful men being employed, and the sides of the holes not being
properly secured, a large amount of money has been expended over boring,
with very unsatisfactory results; but with practical men . who keep the hole
properly clean, in nine cases out of ten any change in the nature of the
strata can be felt the moment the chisel touches it, for there is a peculiar
feel about coal known to borers, which is different to that experienced when
any other kind of rock is being pierced, and as the rods are drawn at each
change in the strata, and are never allowed to go more than twelve inches
without being drawn and the hole cleaned, it is not possible to get far
wrong in dealing"with the coal.
There have been several ingenious instruments invented during the last four
years for boring through coal seams, whereby in almost every case as far as
90 to 95 per cent, of the thickness of the seam is obtained.
Mr. Coulson further stated that he had proved coal in several holes, where,
with the old instruments, no sample could have been got owing to large
blowers of gas and water flying out; yet, with improved means, and boring
only 2 to 2£ inches at a time when taking samples, he could obtain quite 90
per cent, of the seam; for although the process was slow, it was very
correct, and was also the cheapest mode of proving coal seams.
In many cases these borings have been proved by sinkings to be correct to
within half-an-inch.
The samples of coal obtained by this process are pieces from one-eighth to
half-an-inch cube and sometimes larger.
Mr. T. J. Bewick said that, in resuming the discussion of the question of
Rock Boring, he did not think he could add much, for, so far as he was
concerned, the subject appeared to be exhausted. At the last meeting, when
this question was under consideration, doubts were thrown upon the accuracy
of Diamond Boring, and it was, in some measure, owing to this that the
discussion was postponed. He was sorry that Mr. Simpson, the gentleman who
more particularly criticised the Diamond Borer, was ill, and that neither he
nor Mr. Coulson could be present. Immediately after the meeting referred to,
he put himself in communication with Colonel Beaumont and others mentioned
in his paper, to ascertain, if possible, the facts bearing upon the points
which had been raised at the meeting. He found that it was rather unusual
for pits to be put down on the very site of the boreholes, and, hence, he
believed there were few cases on record which could prove the absolute
accuracy of the hole. One particular case, however, had occurred, he
thought, in the neighbourhood of Manchester, and Mr. Vivian, managing
partner of the North of England Diamond Boring Company, of Whitehaven, would
be able to
VOL. XXXI.—1881.
p
42 DISCUSSION—DIAMOND ROCK BORING.
explain it in detail. He had received a letter from Colonel Beaumont
regretting his inability to attend this meeting, but also stating that he
was not aware that he could add anything to the discussion. He had hoped
that Mr. Kendall, who took considerable interest in the subject on the last
occasion, would have been present, but he (Mr. Kendall) had written to him
stating that, owing to business engagements, he was unable to attend. Since
the meeting at which this subject was discussed, the Port Clarence boring,
which had been previously mentioned, had, he understood, been successfully
completed. He did not know whether Mr. Wild, who had charge of this boring,
was present; but at the last meeting, when the matter was discussed, Mr.
Wild promised to furnish some details. He had hoped that Mr. Simpson might
have enlightened them upon cases in which the Diamond Borer had not been
successful; or, in other words, shewn that it had been more inaccurate than
the old-fashioned boring. He (Mr. Bewick) could not but say that, as a
supporter of the Diamond Rock Borer, he felt gratified at the remarks made
by Mr. Coulson, who candidly informed them that, except for coal, no other
system was equal to that of the Diamond. With reference to coal he was
prepared to question the point with Mr. Coulson. He (Mr. Bewick) thought it
must be clear to any one that the system of getting up cores, or getting
through the softest coal, could not possibly be better done than by the
Diamond Borer; and this view he believed Mr. Yivian would corroborate. In
his notes Mr. Coulson stated that he bored only from 2 to 2^ inches at a
time to take a sample, and the process, although slow, was very accurate.
Gentlemen acquainted with deep boring know that to bore only 2 or 2^ inches,
and then have to draw the rods each time, must indeed be slow; and he could
scarcely conceive how they would do with that system in borings reaching
2,000 to 3,000 or 4,000 feet, as had been done by the Diamond Borer. Mr. T.
W. Benson on the last occasion favoured them with some remarks, and he
believed that" gentleman was now prepared to show them the cores actually
obtained from a hole in the Hexham district. Within the last few days he had
met a gentleman from London who lately spent some time on the banks of Lake
Superior, and who told him that the Diamond Borer was being very extensively
used there in explorations which were being made for copper. He (Mr. Bewick)
never thought that the Diamond or any other system of borer was adapted for
metalliferous mining; but the gentleman assured him that it was done. The
veins in the Lake Superior district are not vertical, but at an angle
perhaps of from 45 to 60 degrees from the horizon; and the boring is done at
an inclination approximating that of a right angle, to the vein.
DISCUSSION—DIAMOND ROCK BORING. 43
Mr. John Vivian said, he had been very pleased to hear Mr. Coulson's notes,
and it would have given him greater pleasure if Mr. Coulson had entered more
fully into the subject. What mining engineers were desirous of getting was
the best, quickest, and cheapest system of boring; but, whilst desiring to
do the work cheaply, of course the greatest point was accuracy. Many people
spoke of the Diamond Borer without knowledge of it ; and, on proper
information being given, those who had been opponents had been converted
into the very strongest supporters. He did not want by such remarks to
prejudice them in his favour; he could substantiate what he stated by
letters which he held in his hands. Unfortunately in the early days of
Diamond boring there was such a great pressure and demand for the appliance
that it was frequently sent out with unskilled and inexperienced men, and no
doubt accidents happened and difficulties arose; but of late years—and he
could speak personally of this—all the work they had done had been so
satisfactory that he thought their clients returned to them very frequently.
He could mention several cases, and he had no doubt that the President could
state his opinion of the Diamond boring system, which had come under his
notice. Mr. Coulson stated that the Diamond boring system was very good, and
that nothing could be better for hard rock. He was glad to hear this from
such a high authority as Mr. Coulson; but he rather differed from that
gentleman when he spoke of coal as being beyond the capability of the
Diamond Borer; because with it coal had been proved at very great depths. He
had bored coal near Manchester to a depth of 1,050 yards, and since that the
pit had been sunk to a depth of 950 yards, and coal was being won there.
He had received the following letter from the Engineer :—
Ashton Moss Colliery Co., Audenshaw, near Manchester, 1st April, 1881.
Dear Sir,—With reference to your enquiry as to the accuracy of your borings,
as proved by actual sinking, I am happy to say the difference in measurement
has been very slight. The principal seam of coal was given by your men, thus
:—Coal, 6' 4"; shale, V 2' ; coal, 10" ; shale, 1' 5"; coal, 7". By sinking
we proved the thick bed to contain two small bands of dirt—one \", and the
other 2" thick, but with that exception, all was correct.
Believe me, yours faithfully,
John Greenwood, Jun.
From that thick seam of coal there were brought up solid cores 5 inches
diameter, and 6 or 7 inches long, and some of them longer ; and some small
lumps and dust were also brought up. These cores were taken by the engineer,
put into a tube, and tested for coking purposes immediately after coming up
from the borehole. As the specimens obtained from the boring were valuable
to the persons for whom the boring was
44 DISCUSSION—DIAMOND ROCK BOEING.
effected, he could not get many of them, but he had two which he would be
happy to show the meeting; they came from a depth of from 600 to 900 feet,
but he would not mention the name of the place they came from. In boring
soft measures they frequently bored in a hole where there was a very serious
run; that is, a soft bed of shale with water in it, and they had continued
their boring from 150 to 200 feet below that run. The hole at Audenshaw was
commenced with a diameter of 9 inches, and was finished with a diameter of
4^ inches, 1,050 yards down. He thought if Mr. Coulson had seen the Diamond
boring system he would have been able to understand that, with it, they
could bore in softer measures better than he imagined. As to coal seams,
they obtained with the Diamond Borer 50 to 70 per cent, of core, and in
addition to that they had got small lumps and dust. He had several letters
which any member who desired could read. He had received the following,
dated May 4th, 1881, from Piatt Brothers and Co., Limited, Hartford Works,
Oldham :—
We duly received your note of the 30th ultimo, and heg to confirm our
telegram of this morning, wherein we advised you that the boring has struck
the Big mine coal, and that we are so satisfied upon the point, it is
unnecessary to continue the hole any further. The cores brought out have
been so satisfactory, and correspond so fully with the strata in our pit
shaft on the other side of the large fault, that for some weeks we have
known exactly the position of the seams, and were somewhat inclined to
discontinue the prospecting sooner.
In his notes Mr. Coulson spoke of the peculiar feel when coal was touched.
Of course there was a peculiar feel, and this, to some members who did not
understand boring operations, might seem rather ridiculous to speak of; but
it was so. If a man had hold of the brace-head he felt the coal immediately,
unless the hole was dirty, and there was shale or clay in the hole. In the
Diamond boring system the man watching the machine could tell immediately it
got to the top of the coal; there was a peculiar action of the machine by
which a trained man could both feel and see that it had got to coal. It
required a trained man, and this would explain how, in the early operations
of the Diamond Boring Company, some little accidents may have happened. Some
people may have gone into a district which they thought was a coal-field,
and because, on boring, they did not find coal, they may have blamed the
system. He did not say that was the case. If the persons proved afterwards,
by sinking, that there was coal, then he must confess it was the fault of
the system; but still, unless there had been a sinking, it was open to doubt
that coal existed there. Of course coal was broken off sometimes by faults,
or it might thin out occasionally. Mr. Bewick had spoken of explorations
with the Diamond Borer in Canada by boring at an angle. The same thing
had been adopted in Australia in ex-
ploring for gold; they bored vertically, and then at an angle, right and
left, with the machine in the same position but angled, and by that means
felt where the vein was. He would be happy to answer any questions.
Professor Lebour said, he would like to ask Mr. Yivian a question, which
would be of more interest to the pure geologist than to those who looked
upon geology as a means and not as an end. In the neighbourhood of London
lately there had been borings by the Diamond system, and cores had been
brought up from the paleozoic rocks beneath the Secondary and Tertiary beds
of the Thames basin, and certain theories based upon the dip shown by such
cores. He wished to ask Mr. Vivian whether he thought that the evidence of
the dip brought in a core from a great depth was good evidence, and whether
the cores were brought up with so little motion that the direction of the
dip could be told, and, if so, how. Mr. Bewick mentioned a point which was
of considerable interest geologically, and that was that sinkings were very
seldom carried out exactly in the same place as where the borings were made.
He had no doubt a great number of the discrepancies they read about were due
to that, and to the non-consideration of one of the commonest facts, that,
especially in Coal Measures, there was a constant thickening and thinning of
the intermediate beds between the coal seams. Although the coal seams were,
on the whole, constant, some of the beds between them were very inconstant;
and it was often owing to this, he thought, that there were such great
discrepancies between borings and sinkings.
Mr. Vivian said, there was a dimcuity in nxmg a aip or any seam passed
through by the Diamond boring method except in one way, which was to bore
three holes. Of course every adventurer when seeking
minerals wished to have it done in the cheapest way; thus, generally, in
boring they were not allowed to put down two or three holes. He had,
however, a method of his own, which was shown in the annexed woodcut. This
was simply to bore a small hole (b) in the centre of the hole, and then to
adjust a compass (a) in a wooden plug, and lower it down till it was fixed
firmly in
b; a groove (c) was then bored round it and the core brought out wit: the
compass attached.
46 DISCUSSION—DIAMOND ROCK BOEING.
A discussion then arose as to the difficulty of fixing the needle when the
compass was attached to the strata in situ, which it is unnecessary to
record, as a description of a mode of placing the compass in a bore rod with
clock-work attached so as to fasten the needle after any given lapse of time
will be found in Vol. XXIX., page 64, of the Transactions. The compass with
the clock-work could, therefore, be lowered down and attached to the hole by
means of a plug, as Mr. Vivian had proposed, and at the end of twenty
minutes or so, when the needle had got quite steady, the clock-work would
fix it, and the core could be brought up with the actual bearing it had
before it was separated from the earth.
Mr. T.W. Benson said, he did not know that he had anything to add to what he
stated a few months ago. He had brought with him the samples that were
supplied by the Diamond Eock Boring Company just as they came out of the
hole. So far as regarded boring through small bands in a coal seam, he
thought that the cores he now showed would bear out what the Diamond Boring
Company stated—that the Diamond borer was better than the old system. The
cores of band brought up were about one inch thick, and were brought up in a
perfectly good condition. Since the time the hole was put down, seven years
ago, the size of boreholes had been much increased. In boring through a coal
seam a better result was obtained with a hole of 5-inch diameter than with
one of \\ inch diameter. The perfect accuracy of the boring of the hole had
not been proved^by an actual sinking; unfortunately, or rather fortunately,
the result was not of such a nature as to tempt the explorers. Had they got
a good result at that time it might have induced them to spend a large sum
of money, which would have been unproductive in the bad times which have
since existed.
Mr. D. P. Morison asked Mr. Vivian whether the Diamond boring system could
be applied to horizontal boring in drifts as well as in vertical sinking ?
Mr. Vivian said it had been applied to drifting, but it was found expensive.
The President said, the discussion had been an interesting one. They were
much obliged to Mr. Vivian for attending the meeting and explaining the
subject so ably as he had done. It appeared, after all, that there was a
necessary training, both for hand boring and for a person managing the
Diamond Borer: one depended upon the touch or feel with the hand on the
brace-head, and the other on the eye which looked at the different motions
of the machine. It was a question whether a man was more likely to forget
what he had to look at with the eye, or what he touched with his hand.
DISCUSSION—IRON ORES OF ANTRIM. 47
He had had experience of Diamond and hand boring. A very experienced borer,
by the touch of the hand, which when once acquired was something exceedingly
delicate, could bore so that the results might be thoroughly depended upon;
and he did not think an experienced borer would pass a half or even a
quarter of an inch of band. "With respect to the discrepancies which had
been mentioned, he almost went further than Professor Lebour, because he had
found that many of the smaller seams were not constant, and he (the
President) did not think any one could fairly say that the strata passed
through by a borehole had not been correctly stated unless a sinking had
been made on the identical spot where the boring had been made.
The discussion upon Mr. J. D. Kendall's paper on " The Iron Ores of Antrim"
was adjourned, as Mr. Kendall was not present.
Mr. Bewick said, that at the February meeting, when Mr. Kendall's paper was
read, he (Mr. Bewick) was in the chair, and neglected to submit a vote of
thanks to Mr. Kendall. He now wished to rectify the omission, and proposed
that Mr. Kendall be thanked for his paper.
Professor Lebour seconded the vote of thanks, which was unanimously agreed
to.
Mr. Bewick then exhibited a specimen of hematite iron ore which had been
kindly sent by Mr. Kendall, on which was a well-defined fossil bivalve,
believed to be the only one of the kind yet met with in the Whitehaven
district.
Professor Lebour said, that the specimen was especially interesting, as
being perhaps the best evidence in favour of Mr. Kendall's replacement
theory that could be brought forward. It was evidently a piece of limestone,
semi—or more than semi—converted into hematite. How that took place he did
not know; he did not think it had been explained yet.
The meeting then concluded.
PROCEEDINGS. 49
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 17th, 1881, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
G. B. FORSTER, Esq., President, m the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The Secretary stated that Mr. May had presented to the Institute a very old
book, by John Curr, of Sheffield, called " The Coal Viewer and Engine
Builder's Practical Companion."
On the motion of Mr. Simpson, seconded by Mr. Bewick, a vote of thanks was
passed to Mr. May for the book.
The President said, that a series of resolutions adopted by the Council,
with regard to future meetings of the Institute, were read at the last
meeting, and he then promised that the resolutions would be printed and
circulated. He believed a copy had been sent to every member, and he would
be glad to hear observations upon them. Members would see from the circular
calling the meeting the nature of the changes the Council had proposed to
make in the number of meetings and other matters. They were as follows :—
That the present number of General Meetings each year be reduced from ten to
six, to be held at intervals of about two months.
That each year there shall be one meeting held in some place other than
Newcastle, such place to be fixed by the Council.
That the Council shall meet every month in addition to their meeting on the
days of the General Meetings.
That the present day of the week and hour of meeting remain unaltered.
That there shall be a dinner every year, not to exceed 7s. 6d. each, without
wine.
That these alterations be tried for twelve months as an experiment.
VOL. XXXI.—1881.
„
50 PROCEEDINGS.
He need not add that these changes had been proposed, with a view of adding
to the interest of the meetings and forwarding the interests of the
Institute, and he invited the fullest possible discussion on the subject.
The resolutions were passed nemine contradkmte, after which the following
gentleman was elected, having been previously nominated :—
Student— Mr. Thomas Southern, North Biddick Colliery, Washington Station,
Co. Durham.
Mr. Charles Parkin read the following paper on " Jet Mining :"—
JET MINING. 51
ON JET MINING.
BY CHARLES PARKIN.
It may appear at first that such a purely ornamental material as jet is
hardly a suitable subject to bring before the notice of the members of this
Institute, but the fact that it is sought for and wrought at considerable
personal risk to the miner, and that the mining for it is subject to the
Coal Mines Regulation Act, suggests the idea that a few remarks on the
question may not be, after all, inappropriate; and although this mineral has
been worked for many years, yet so little is known of the method of
obtaining it—except to those closely interested in the trade— that the
writer hopes a brief description of its geological position and the mode of
working it will not be out of place in the Transactions of the Institute.
GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION.
In Dr. Page's Handbook of Geological Terms it is stated that the word " jet"
is derived from Jayet, or Gagites, terms in their turn derived from Gaga,
the name of a river in Asia Minor, and that he considers jet to be more of
the nature of amber than of coal, stating that in Prussia it is known as "
black amber."
Young and Bird in their survey relate that in front of the cliff north of
Haiburn Wyke, near Whitby, was found the petrified stump of a tree in an
erect position, three feet high, and fifteen inches across, having the
root—consisting of coaly jet—in a bed of shale, whilst the trunk in the
sandstone was partly of petrified and partly of decayed sooty wood.
Phillips, in his Geology of Yorkshire, states that "jet is simply a
coniferous wood, and in thin sections clearly shows the characteristic
structure, frequently resinous masses of oval figure enveloping larger
tissue than occurs elsewhere appear under the microscope," and also "that
impressions of ammonites and other fossils appear on surfaces of jet,
proving that it has passed through a condition of softness."
The best jet is usually found in the largest quantities towards the base of
the upper lias or alum shale stratum, and this portion is generally known as
the jet rock ; a softer jet is obtained also throughout the shales above, in
52 JET MINING.
the oolite series, but in less quantity. The jet rock is about 18 feet
thick, lying a few fathoms above the Cleveland main bed of ironstone, but
below the top seam, which is worked in the Kosedale Abbey and Grosmont
district known as the oolite ironstone. The shale is bituminous, and a thin
piece when lighted will burn by itself; on being exposed to the atmosphere
it sometimes takes fire, when it assumes a reddish hue, due no doubt to the
iron which it contains ; water flowing through this shale leaves it
impregnated with alum, and destroys vegetation. An instance of this may be
seen at the Slapewath old Alum Works, near Guisbro'. The jet deposits vary
in size, and although when found are termed seams by the miners, yet this
term is not a correct one, the jet lying irregularly through the whole depth
of the shale, ranging from a wafer to 5 or 6 inches in thickness; and in
length up to several feet, the breadth of the deposit being only a few
inches.
Mr. Matthew Snowdon, of Whitby, in a letter to the writer, remarks : —"We
have often got large quantities of jet down here in working the oolite
ironstone seam, and in one instance, at Port Mulgrave, we found a deposit
for which I had £700 offered. We came across it between the oolite ironstone
seam and the freestone." The shape of the deposit was like that shown in the
woodcut.
MODE OP WORKING. The number of men actually employed in jet mining would be
somewhat difficult to arrive at, for no accurate record is kept (to the
writer's knowledge) either of the men employed or the quantity of material
worked per annum. Slight accidents have been of frequent occurrence; and in
1873, a jet miner was reported to have been killed by a fall of shale, owing
no doubt to the careless way in which the operations were carried on.
The search is always commenced at the outcrop of the alum shale, two or four
men forming a company. Shafts are not sunk, either to win or to work it. A
drift 6 feet high by 8 or 4 feet wide is driven in from the outcrop, when
these drifts are advanced a few yards; side excavations are made, and the
systematic search for jet commenced. The shale over the roof of the side
drifts is hewn or wedged down, serving as a platform to work on, and the
whole thickness of the shale is then explored in a fashion somewhat
resembling a combination of longwall in coal work, and of stopeing in lead
and other metalliferous mines. While the preparatory drifts are being
driven, the shale has to be conveyed outside, but in the
JET MINING. 53
regular course of working most of it is tossed back, and as little taken out
of the mines as possible, horses or lads hardly ever being required. When a
discovery is made, the deposit is carefully followed up and excavated in as
large pieces as possible; sometimes weeks will elapse and no jet be found,
while occasionally exceptional luck is met with, and a great quantity got in
a few days. On such occasions the so-called seam is very seldom left until
all is extracted, and the miners work night and day. The reason for this
caution is obvious, for should it become known that a good deposit has been
met with, if the mine was left, the jet might be stolen and carried away
during the night.
The workings seldom extend beyond a hundred yards at the most from the drift
mouth, the shale becoming much more difficult to work as operations are
extended from the outcrop.
MEANS OP VENTILATION.
If when a drift is driven in for some distance the prospect is found to be
cheering, another drift is commenced running parallel with, and at a
distance of about five yards from the main one, and the two connected in
order to secure ventilation, but the plan more generally adopted at the
present time is that of allowing the roof to fall away to the surface when
explorations are being made near the top of the jet rock.
An explosion of gas is reported to have taken place some years ago in a jet
mine, which was probably due to the oily vapours exuding from the shale; and
in the ironstone mines of the district explosions have occurred probably
from the same cause. The writer would here acknowledge his indebtedness to a
letter which appeared in the Mining Journal for this fact and some other
particulars contained in this paper.
TIMBERING AND BLASTING.
Very little timber is required in these drifts, as the jet-bearing rock is
of a very tough character, and no gunpowder or other explosive is necessary
in working the shale, the nature of it being opposed to successful blasting,
which would moreover injure any jet lying near.
ROYALTY CHARGES, YEARLY PRODUCTION, AND COMMERCIAL
VALUE.
Owing to the uncertain character of the speculation it is a very difficult
matter to fix upon an equitable and reasonable royalty charge, and in most
leases or agreements granted for the working of ironstone and other
minerals, when jet is included, the terms for working it are embodied in
54 JET MINING.
the unsatisfactory words of " a rent to be agreed upon, or, failing
agreement, to be determined by arbitration." But it is customary to arrange
the matter by a payment varying from 2s. 6d. up to 3s. 6d. per week for each
miner employed.
The quantity of English jet used per annum at present only amounts to three
or four tons, its value varying from £300 to £1,300 per ton, whilst the
quantity imported from France and Spain is over 100 tons per year, the
foreign supply being so much cheaper, that from France costing the
manufacturers only about £30 per ton, and the Spanish from £60 to £140 per
ton. The English jet, however, is superior to that obtained from abroad,
which is much more liable to fall to pieces on sudden exposure to the sun or
other sources of heat.
LOCALITY OF MINES. The Yorkshire jet mines are situated in the North Riding,
and are to be found principally within a few miles of Stokesley, at Swainby,
Bilsdale, Rosedale Abbey, and neighbouring district. Jet is also wrought
from the sea cliffs, in open quarries in the neighbourhood of Whitby, the
supplies from Kettleness having been very large. The Eston range of hills
has also yielded a good deal of jet in years past. Operations are at the
present time going on at Swainby and Bilsdale, where Mr. Hall, of Whitby, is
working; and on the west side of Bosedale, on Gillbank Farm, where the
results are turning out very encouraging; and it is anticipated that other
parts of the dale will be explored, the jet from Gillbank having proved to
be of superior quality.
MANUFACTUEE.
That jet manufacture is of ancient date is evident from the fact of it being
on record that from the Sands-End cliffs it was procured and used in making
ornaments by the Romans at their station of " Dinum Sinus" (Dunsley Bay).
The writer has himself seen a fourteenth century jet ornament.
" Whitby Jet" is a term which seems now to be accepted as a guarantee of the
good and genuine quality of the articles manufactured out of this mineral,
and the town is justly famed for this branch of industry, for considerable
ability and ingenuity is shown in the bracelets, necklaces, ear-rings,
brooches, watch-chains, and other fancy articles made. Upwards of 400 men
and boys are employed in the Whitby manufacturing trade, who work nine hours
per day. The men are paid about 25s. per week, and the lads from 6s. to 10s.
per week.
Mr. Thomas Boyan, one of the principal manufacturers in Whitby, has
jet mining. 55
been kind enough to allow an inspection of his works, which enables the
writer to briefly describe the process through which this mineral has to go.
The first process in the manufacture is stripping the skin off the jet (this
skin is of a blue colour in that obtained from the alum rock in the cliffs
near Whitby, and of a brown colour in that obtained from the jet rock proper
in the mines further inland); this operation is done by workmen chipping off
the outside with a short chisel; the substance is then passed on to be sawn
into various thicknesses and sizes. In this process the greatest economy is
observed, and the apparently useless fragments are made up into beads and
small ornaments according to their size and shape. The cut pieces are then
put into the hands of workers, who with foot-treadle grindstones take off
all the sharp edges and bring them into oval, circular, or other geometrical
shapes required. In the next stage it passes into the hands of the carvers
and turners, the former with knives, chisels, and gouges, bringing the
pieces into beautiful designs, Avith a degree of accuracy and rapidity that
could hardly be credited. From the carving department the work is
transferred to the polishers, who first treat the rough work on polishing
boards having a surface of rotten stone and oil, and after this treatment
comes the finishing polish, or, as it is termed, "rougeing," which is
accomplished by holding the article against a quickly revolving wheel
covered with walrus hide for the broad surfaces, and strips of list fixed on
end for the indented or carved portions, or against a revolving brush wheel,
all of which are covered with rouge. This rouge consists of a red oxide of
iron powder and water. It then only remains to fix the article into its
setting to become ready for sale.
Ammonites (molusca shells), commonly known as snake stones, are richly
polished and inserted into many of the ornamental articles, and these are
obtained in great abundance in the alum shale, and on the seashore scar at
Whitby.
There are reasons to believe that the trade will receive a great impetus
from the introduction of jet into the enamelling art. Mr. Charles Armfield,
Diocesan Surveyor, York, writes to the Builder to call attention to a new
means of decoration. It is the invention of Mr. Godfrey Hirst, of Whitby,
and consists of a combination of enamel with jet. Mr. Armfield states that,
from specimens of the work he has seen, he believes it will form a very
valuable artistic addition to the legitimate means of decorating furniture,
pulpits, reredoses, etc. It is well known that jet is capable of a very high
and endurable polish, and he (Mr. Armfield) has seen a thirteenth-century
jet cross, found buried on the site of Grosmont Priory, near Whitby, which
is still in a perfect state of polish. It may not be
56 JET MINING-.
generally known that it possesses, in a unique degree, the power of
absorbing the radiations of adjacent colours, so that when used with any
other colour than yellow, it produces a wonderfully soft effect, and gives a
richness of tone which no other black material is capable of producing. That
gentleman further states that he has used jet instead of crystals or sham
pearls for jewelling embroidered altar frontals, and was astonished on his
first essay with the materials to find that the jet bosses, worked on a deep
crimson ground, at ten yards distance, looked like carbuncles. At first he
thought it was the result of reflection upon the rounded surface of the
boss, but a little more thought soon made it apparent that this was not the
case, and an experiment with a flat disc of jet, on a similar ground, gave a
clue to the real cause. This valuable quality of radiation absorption showed
itself very strong on the blue, but less on the red, grounds.
In connection with this subject, it seems worthy of consideration that, if
the shale excavated from the mines could be utilized—and, it must be
remembered that it contains both alum and oil—this, in conjunction with the
working of jet, might make it a subject more worthy the attention of
capitalists.
Phillips says : " The petroleum generally sought for is usually found in
most quantity above the jet rock. It is found in the joints of the rocks, in
the cells of ammonites, and in other situations which seems on the whole
suggestive of a process of distillation from carboniferous compounds in the
shales above ;" and in many of the Cleveland mines the smell of it is very
perceptible.
It is asserted that Sir Thomas Chaloner established the first Alum Works in
England, at Bellman Bank, near G-uisbro', in the year 1600; these were
vigorously worked until the year 1792, and in 1852, they were re-opened
after having laid idle for sixty years. The Guisbro' works proving so
successful, other speculators were induced to embark in these undertakings,
and about the year 1615, works were opened at Lofthouse, Boulby, Kettleness,
Sandsend, and Saltwick, near Whitby, all of which were supplied from the
Sea-cliff quarries of alum rock, within ten miles north, to about seven
miles south of Whitby. The Lofthouse and Boulby Works, were the most
extensive in the kingdom, and the New Boulby Works belonging to a Mr. Baker,
in the year 1858, employed about 100 hands. The alum trade, doubtless, laid
the foundation of the future importance of Whitby. The number of inhabitants
of the town in 1610, was 1500, whilst in 1650, the number had increased to
2500, due entirely, it is said, to the introduction of the alum trade to the
district. The
DISCUSSION—JET MINING. 57
shipments from all the works were made here, and exported to France,
Holland, and other Continental places, but after some time the demand from
abroad began to fall off, until the trade gradually became confined to the
home market, supplied through the ports of London and Hull, and of late
years nothing has been done at these works, most of which have been
permanently closed for some time past.
It is very evident, however, that a large business has been carried on for
more than two centuries, which points to the conclusion that the speculation
proved to be a remunerative one, and the writer is led to consider it a
question worthy of investigation, as to how far it would be practicable to
combine jet mining, with the working and manufacture of alum or shale oil.
With regard to the resources of alum shale now available, they may be
considered as practically inexhaustible.
The President said, Mr. Parkin need not have apologized for his paper, which
all would consider a very interesting one, whether looked at in regard to
jet itself, or in regard to alum works. He was afraid alum works were among
the dead industries of the country. He had been connected with them, but the
market for alum was gone, and that substance was superseded by other
chemical substances.
Professor Lebour exhibited a few specimens, which he thought might
illustrate some of Mr. Parkin's remarks. There were, he said, specimens of
Whitby jet, and among the others were the chief varieties of asphalt and
mineral bitumen found elsewhere ; and they would see that there was some
connexion between all of the specimens. As to the word " jet," Mr. Parkin
quoted a derivation from the river Jayet. The same derivation was given for
agate. Those substances were not the same things, and yet the same
derivation was given for each. One must be wrong. Jet was found in the upper
and middle lias of England, also in the Kimmeridgian beds on both sides of
the Pyrenees, but chiefly on the south or Spanish side. It was of the same
character as the English jet, but was not of such good value for commercial
purposes. The optical character of jet mentioned by Mr. Parkin was quite new
to him ; that, he thought, was the most important part of the paper; and, in
addition to being a subject of interest to capitalists, it was also a
subject of interest to physicists. Mr. Parkin had quoted Professor Phillips'
description of jet as showing in microscopical sections distinct signs of
tissue, so that he looked upon jet as simply altered wood. He (Professor
Lebour) had no doubt that Professor Phillips was right as to the sections
which he happened to observe, but Professor Phillips' day was not the
VOL. XXXI.^1881.
jj
58 DISCUSSION—JET MIXING.
day of microscopic sections. He (Professor Lebour) had no hesitation in
saying that in many sections of jet no tissues of that kind would be
observed.
Mr. Paeein said, he had seen on the surface of jet the impression of
something like a fern, but he had not the specimen to show to the members.
Professor Lebour—That was extremely likely. Anything like jet or asphalt,
when in a soft condition, would be just the matter to retain the impression
of vegetable matter in perfection.
Mr. Boyd said, it might be reasonable to conclude that the impressions of
fossils on jet would be the remains from inland waters, and not from sea
deposits.
Professor Lebour—Yes, unless they are drifted.
The President moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Parkin, which was seconded by
Professor Lebour, and unanimously carried, and the discussion was adjourned.
Professor Lebour, M.A., F.G.S., read the following paper on " The Present
State of our Knowledge of Underground Temperature, with special reference to
the Nature of the Experiments still required in order to improve that
Knowledge :"—
underground temperature. 59
ON THE PRESENT STATE OE OUR KNOWLEDGE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE NATURE OE THE EXPERIMENTS STILL REQUIRED IN ORDER
TO IMPROVE THAT KNOWLEDGE.
By a. A. LEBOUR, M.A., P.G.S.,
Professor op Geology in the' University of Durham College of Physical
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
The principal object of the writer in presenting this paper to the Institute
is to enlist the co-operation of mining engineers in carrying out some of
the experimental researches which appear to be still wanted in order to
place on a firmer basis our knowledge of the rate at which the temperature
of the earth increases in going downwards. Without such co-operation the
present state of knowledge on the subject could never have been attained,
confessedly imperfect though it be, and without more aid of the same kind it
is not likely to be much increased.
The writer will first give a brief and condensed account of the experimental
results already arrived at ; he will then enumerate the chief sources of
error which must be taken into account in estimating the relative value of
such results; and he will conclude by suggesting a few lines of inquiry and
observation, in which the help of practical engineers would be of the utmost
value.
In the following tabular statement will be found a list of some sixty sets
of observations of underground temperature arranged according to the average
rate of increase of temperature in depth :—
60 PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE
TABLE I.
Depth from Surface increase of 1« F
PLACE. (in feet) of Deepest
nerpoot
Observation. perjooi.
1. Anzin, in the north of France, Shaft 3 ... 473
281
2. Do. do. do. Shaft 4 ...
443 28"4
3. Weardale, Slitt Hill Shaft ...... 660
335
4. Cornish Mines, mean ......... 552
34'8
5. Anzin, Shaft 2 ........... 607
377
6. Allenheads, High Underground Engine
Shaft ............... 807 40
7. Cornwall and Devon, mean of 415 obser-
vations ............... 672 40-8
8. South Balgray, west of Glasgow... ... 525
41
9. St. Petersburg ............ 656
44" 1
10. Oolitic Coal Mines of Virginia, U.S. ... 600
45
11. Anzin, Shaft 1 ............ 656
47'2
12. Boldon Colliery, Durham......... 1,514
49
13. Blythswood, near Glasgow, Bore 1 ... 347
50
14. Mouillelonge Mine (Saone-et-Loire) ... 2,676
51
15. Sperenberg, near Berlin ... ... ... 3,390
5L5
16. Sich's Brewery, Chiswick,near London ... 395
52 (?)
17. Yakutsk, Siberia............ 540 52
18. Kentish Town, London ......... 1,100
52"4
19. Do. do.......... 1,100
52-9
20. Blythswood, Bore 2 ......... 354 .
535
21. Kentish Town, London ......... 1,100
54
22. Rosebridge Colliery, near Wigan ... 2,445
54'3
23. Oolitic Coal Mines of Virginia, U.S. ... 780
54"6
24. Neue Salzwerk, Westphalia ...... 2,281
54-68
25. Near Geneva ............ (?)
55
26. Torcy Mine (Sa6ne-et-Loire) ...... 1,951
552
27. Military School, Paris ......... 568
56"25
28. St. Andre's Well, 50 miles west of Paris 830
56"4
29. Grenelle, Paris ............ 1,794"6
56"9
30. Mendorff, Luxemburg ......... 2,394
57
31. South Hetton Colliery, Durham...... 1,936
57'5
32. Monkwearmouth Colliery, Durham ... 1,499
60
33. Channel Islands (Sark and Herm) ... 222
60
34. Swinderby, west of Lincoln ... ... 1,500
62-5
35. Fowler's Colliery, Pontypridd, S. Wales 846
62"7
36. Allenheads, Gin Hill Shaft ...... 440
66-6
37. Kingswood Colliery, near Bristol... ... 1,769
68
38. Manegaon, India ... ... ... ...
310 68
39. Saint Louis, North America ...... 3,837
68-5
40. Swinderby, west of Lincoln ... ... 2,000
69
41. La Chapelle, St. Denis, near Paris ... 2,065
72'8
42. Crawriggs, Kirkintilloch, near Glasgow... 350
75 43 to 47. Schemnitz, in Hungary, 5 places ... 1,358
75"5
48. Astley Pit, Dukinneld ......... 2,055
80
49. Irish Mines (Wicklow, Waterford, Cork,
and Kerry), mean ... ... ... 342
84"6
50. Seraing, near Liege, Belgium ... ... 1,657
90
51. Mont Cenis Tunnel ......... 5,280
93
52. La Chapelle, St. Denis, near Paris ... 2,065
94"3
V
53. Przibram Mines, Bohemia ...... 1,100
107
&£. Cfusmraffifo Mings, Cfiiste, mean......j &?<? j
l£&&
55. Booth Waterworks, Liverpool ...... 560
131
56. Przibram Mines, Bohemia ... ... 1,832
135
57. Minas Geraes Mines, Brazil, mean ... 318
157-2
OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 61
The average rate deducible from all the results given in the above table is
1 deg. Fahr. per 64*28 feet of descent; but all the observations recorded
are by no means of equal value, as will be readily understood when the
various modes adopted by the different observers, and the specially
favourable or unfavourable conditions of time, place, or surroundings, come
to be considered. Moreover, the rates shown in the Table are taken from the
reading at the deepest point to which no accidental error seems to attach,
and from the assumed mean annual temperature at the surface in each
locality. In almost every case many intermediate readings could be given
which would materially alter the average. Of these intermediate readings
some are very abnormal, and evidently due to accidents of various kinds,
some of which can be explained away and some not. The full readings can,
most of them, be found in the Eeports of the British Association Committee
on Underground Temperature, where they are discussed by Professor J. D.
Everett, F.R.S., the able Secretary to the Committee.*
In estimating the relative value to be attached to the rates of increase
given in the Table, perhaps the most important point to be considered is the
method pursued in obtaining the thermometric readings from which they are
deduced.
All the observations were taken either in water or in air.
Those taken in water may be divided under two heads, viz., where the water
was in wells or shafts and other workings in mines, and where the water
filled boreholes.
Where the water was in shafts and other workings of mines, some of the
observations were taken where the water was stagnant, others where the water
was running, i.e. of the nature of a feeder.
* See British Association Ileports from 1867 to the present time. When it
first entered upon its labours the Committee consisted of the following
members :—Sir William Thomson, F.R.S.; E. W. Binney, F.R.S.; Principal
Forbes, F.R.S.; A. Geikie, F.R.S.; James Glaisher, F.R.S.; Rev. Dr. Graham;
Professor Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.; Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S.;
Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.; G. Maw; Professor J. Phillips, F.R.S.;
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.; Professor Ramsay, F.R.S.; Professor Balfour Stewart,
F.R.S.; G. J. Symons; Professor James Thomson; Professor J. Young; and
Professor J. 1). Everett, Secretary. In 1881 the Committee consists of:—Sir
William Thomson, F.R.S.; G. J. Symons, F.R.S.; Sir A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.;
"Proiessor A."oeiiiie, i.'fvTS.; Barnes xiiuisuer, xT.7iRt>~; vV.'^engeirj,
"i^iSfcv-, irto&'ssoi" E. Hull, F.R.S.; Professor Prestwicb, F.R.S; Dr. C.
Le Neve Forster; Professor A. S. Herschel; Professor G. A. Lebour; A. B.
Wynne; W. Galloway; Joseph Dickinson; E. Wethered; and Professor J. D.
Everett, F.R.S., Secretary.
62 PRESENT STATE OF OUft KNOWLEDGE
The object of the investigation in all cases being to find the temperature
of the rock at certain depths, it becomes important to know how far that of
water stagnant within walls of rock, wide apart as in mines, or narrow as in
boreholes, or issuing from the rock in form of springs, can be regarded as
corresponding with it. As to this the most diverse opinions have been held
by high authorities. Sir William Thomson says:—"All sound naturalists agree
that we cannot derive accurate knowledge of underground temperature from
mines; but every bore that is made for the purpose of testing minerals gives
an opportunity of observation."* The late Professor Phillips said:—" It is
in the solid rock that the best observations, and those most suited to the
purpose of philosophical reasoning, are to be obtained."f On the other hand,
Fox and Hen wood, to whom is owed more actual work on the subject than to
any other savants, thought differently, the former saying, " I am disposed
to attach most importance to observations on springs of water not coming
from the roofs of galleries, or evidently proceeding from higher parts of
the mines ;"| whilst Mr. Jory Henwood, who may be said to have tried all
methods, concludes:—" After most careful consideration of the subject, and
consultation with others who have also been engaged in this inquiry, it has
been thought best to confine the observations as much as possible to the
temperature of the streams of water immediately issuing from the unbroken
portions of the rocks and veins. "§ As Mr. Henwood proceeds to show, the
temperature of the air of mines is affected by a number of factors which
tend to render it very different from that of the rock, and that water
flowing through or standing in pools in the levels is exposed to the same
modifying causes.
The modifying causes alluded to—the presence of workmen, combustion of
candles or lamps, ventilation currents, etc.—do not affect boreholes where
convection of the water filling them, and the possible ingress of abnormally
warm or cold springs, are the chief vitiating agents. Accordingly, among the
observations taken in water, it would appear that those in bore-holes may a
-priori be presumed to yield the most trustworthy results.
But although it is probably right to view observations of temperature in the
ordinary air of open mines with considerable suspicion, the case is much
altered when they are taken in holes, even of shallow depth, driven
* Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow, Vol. III., Part 1, sec.
29. f Reports of the British Association, Vol. V., page 292 (1836). X
Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Vol. III., page
320. § Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Vol. V..
page 387.
OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. f>."»
from the walls or roofs of mines; and carefully plugged off from the
workings. Indeed, such observations are amongst the best that have been
recorded.
It does not come within the limited scope of this paper to detail all the
observations mentioned in the preceding list, but in three cases this will
be done, each being selected as typical of a method of procedure, and for
having been carried on at a considerable depth with exceptional care by
excellent observers.
The first case is typical of the wet-boring process pure and simple.
The second is typical of the wet-boring process with special appliances for
reducing or doing away with the effects of convection.
The third is the best example of observations in dry short borings from mine
workings.
The details given will, moreover, illustrate very clearly some of the
difficulties met with in investigations of this kind.
The first case is that numbered 31 in the Table. The observations were made
in 1872, at the writer's request, by Mr. J. B. Atkinson, for the British
Association Committee, in a bore two and a half inches in diameter sunk from
the bottom of South Hetton Colliery, Durham. A protected Negretti
thermometer was used. The following figures are quoted from the Fifth Report
of the Committee, British Association Report for 1872, page 133 :—
TABLE II.
Depth from Depth from observed during
Temperatures
Bottom of Shaft. Surface of Ground. Boring in April, ,„
a^h ioto
jggg in April, lo//.
Feet. Feet. Deg. Fahr. Deg. Fahr.
100 1,166 ...
66
200 1,266 ...
68|
288 1,354 72
300 1,366 ...
70
400 1,466 ...
72
500 1,566 ...
74^
582 1,648 82
600 1,666 ...
76i
644* 1,710 ...
75 f
670 1,736 ...
77i
858 1,924 96
* The hole below this point was full of sludge, but the next recorded depth
was reached by the thermometer by attaching a spike to its metal case.
t When repeated, at a later period, this reading was found to have been
accidental, being probably caused by insufficient time having been allowed
to the thermometer. A normal reading between 77 and 76 deg. should be
substituted. See Sixth Report, 1873, page 254.
64 PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE
Still quoting Professor Everett's Report (page 133):—" The following are the
rates of increase deduced from Mr. Atkinson's observations, omitting the
temperature 75 deg. at the depth of 644 feet:—
Depth in Feet. Increase in Degrees. Feet per Degree.
100 to 200 ... 2| ... 36
200 to 300 ... li ... 80
300 to 400 ... 2 ... 50
400 to 500 ... 2i ... 40
500 to 670 ... 1| ... 62
600 to 670 ... 1 ... 70
100 to 670 ... 11J ... 51-2
" The average increase between the depths of 100 feet and 670 feet is 1 deg.
in 51"2 feet. These depths are reckoned from the top of the borehole, which
is 1,066 feet below the surface of the ground. Mr. Lebour assumes that the
temperature at the depth of 60 feet from the surface of the ground is 48
deg. Accepting this estimate, we have a difference of 29£ deg. in 1,676 feet
(1,066 + 670 — 60 = 1,676), which is at the rate of 1 deg. in 57*5 feet."
The rocks were of the ordinary coal-measure kind ; repeated alternations of
sandstone, shales, coals, and fire-clays.
The second example chosen, number 15 in the list, is one which has created a
large amount of interest on account of the great depth of the bore, the
unusual pains which had been taken with the observations, and the apparently
abnormal character of the results. This is the recent case of the celebrated
boring at Sperenberg, near Berlin, which reached a depth of 4,172 feet. The
writer had prepared a resume of the temperature observations at Sperenberg
based upon the British Association Report for 1876 ; but since the reading
of the present paper a work of the highest interest has been published by
the Bev. 0. Fisher, F.G.S., in which the figures in question are given in
what appears a still clearer form.*
* See " Physics of the Earth's Crust," by the Rev. Osmond Fisher, M.A.,
F.G.S., 8vo, London, 1881 (December), page 10.
OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 65
The writer, therefore, has no hesitation in substituting this Table for his
own:—
TABLE III.
Temperature in Water shut Su^^,t_!bm" ¦Rei™ Bt
_ . . _
p De^reei off perature, Being at
Being at the rate of
Twtv, -ue^rees. »"¦ 71s deg.
the rate of Absolute
• Mi ------------------------- awS Absolute PR. per
Increase at ^-.^_a_—-^
^'eration Increase at Numberof Depths. ^ \^T^
Water Water not in Tern- each Depth Feet.
P It. per 1° F. per
shut off. shut off. perature. jn Col. 2.
Foot Foot-
15 9'40 10-35 -0-95 ... ...
... ......
30 9-56 10-20 -0-64
50 9-86 10-40 -0-54 ... ...
... ......
100 1016 12-30 -214 2"98 33
300 14-60 13-52 + 1-08 4-44 45
400 14-80 14-30 + 0-50 0'20 500
500 15-16 14-68 + 048 0-36 277
700 1706 16-08 +0-98 1-90 105
... ......
900 18-50 17-18 + 1-32 0"44 455
1,100 19-90 19-08 + 0-82 T40 143
11-72 94 42
1,300 21-10 20-38 + 072 T20 166
... ......
1,500 22-80 22-08 + 072 170 118
1,700 24T0 22-90 + 1-20 1-30 154
1,900 25-90 24-80 + 1*10 T80 111
... ......
2,100 27-70 26-80 + 0-90 ... Ill
780 128 57
2,300 28-50 28-10 + 0-40 1-80 250
... ......
2,500 2970 29-50 + O20 T20 166
... ......
2,700 30-50 30-30 + 0-20 0'80 250
2"80 214 95
2,900 ... 31-60
3,100 ... 3270 ... ...
... ... ...... ,
3,300 ... 33-60
3,390 3615 34-10 + 2"05 5"65 122
... ......
3,500 ... 3470
3,700 ... 35-80
3,900 ... 36-60 ... ...
... ... ......
4,042 38-25 38-10 + 0'15 2'10 310
775 , 212 95
In this Table the feet are Prussian feet, the difference between them and
English being so small as to be immaterial.
The facts given in this Table are very remarkable, and a full discussion of
them will be found in the British Association Report, already referred to,
where Professor Everett, after making every correction for pressure, etc.,
arrives at 1 deg. Fahr. per 51 "5 English feet as the mean rate of increase
to 3,390 feet. In his book Mr. Fisher gives good reasons for regarding the
actual rate of increase as rather higher.* For the purposes of this paper,
however, the chief interest of the Sperenberg results lies in the fact that
an apparatus was in this case successfully used to isolate the thermometer
in the bore full of water, and (to a great extent) to stop or impede the
action of convection. An inspection of columns 2, 3, and 4 will show how
great and how varied, and consequently how difficult to allow for, is the
influence of this action in experiments of this kind.
* Op. jam cit., page 16.
VOL. XXXI.—'891.
j
60 PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE
The third selected example consists of observations taken for the Committee,
at the writer's request, at Boldon Colliery, near Sunderland, in 1875, by
Mr. Matthew Heckels, then manager of the colliery.
In this case special vertical bores some ten feet in length were made from
the roof of a quiet part of the workings, and the thermometer was thrust up
these holes attached to a stick, the holes being carefully plugged up, and
the instruments left for several days, and only taken down to be read from
time to time.
The observations were taken at 1,365 and 1,514 feet from the surface. The
temperature at the former depth was 75 degs. Fahr., at the latter 79 degs.
This would give 4 degs. increase for 149 feet; but reckoning from surface
mean temperature, which here may be assumed as being 48 degs. Fahr., a much
more normal rate is obtained, viz., 1 deg. Fahr. in 49 feet.
Indeed, nothing is more striking than the fact that, in by far the greater
number of good sets of observations, the mean rates of increase cluster
about the numbers 1 deg. Fahr. per 50 or 60 feet.
Professor Everett seems to give the preference to 1 deg. per 56 feet;* the
Coal Commission of 1870, with considerably less data than are now available,
accepted 1 deg. per 60 feet; and Mr. Fisher takes 1 deg. per 50 to 60 feet
as the average.
That practically is the result arrived at by most of the observations which
do not appear to be vitiated by untoward conditions. The chief amongst the
latter will be now briefly considered.
First, as regards observations in water. In shafts, stagnant water is liable
to variations of temperature according to the seasons even at a considerable
depth, and after rainfall or drought. This is well shown in the observations
taken by Mr. David Burns, F.G-.S., in some of the ' Allenheads mines (Nos.
3, 6, 36 in Table I.) Discrepancies of this kind were also met with in the
upper or " well" portion of the Kentish Town hole, as shown by Mr. Symons'
results (Nos. 18, 19, 21 in the same Table). But the chief objection is the
wholesale convection which is inseparable from such wide columns of water.
In boreholes of considerable depth the effects of changes in surface
temperatures are practically nil. Convection is here, however, still a
constant source of error. However narrow the bore, convection takes place,
and, as a result, thermometric observations taken in them give, not the
temperature of the rock at certain depths, but that of the moving water at
those depths. Now, if the rock in which the hole is bored is of the same
* See Proceedings of the Belfast Natural Histoi'y and Philosophical Society
for 1873-74.
OV UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 67
kind from top to bottom, it might be assumed that the convection currents
set up by the heat below are uniform, and some correction of sufficiently
general application might be used to convert the readings into true rock
temperatures. But, as a rule, a bore passes through very numerous beds of
rock of various kinds. Each kind has a special rate of heat-conduction of
its own, and the changing conductivities become disturbing elements as
regards the convection of the water. Knowing the absolute conductivity for
heat of the various kinds of rock, it might be possible to discover the
exact amount of effect produced at each horizon upon the convection
currents, but the necessary calculations have not yet been made.
A more practical way of lessening the errors due to convection is that of
plugging the hole both above and below the thermometer used. In the
Sperenberg observations above recorded a very elaborate form of plug was
used, which gave very satisfactory results; but its expense, and the amount
of trouble required to work it, would preclude ics use in most cases, more
especially as bore-rods are necessary for its application. Besides, the
Sperenberg bore, being for nearly 4,000 feet entirely in rock salt—i.e.
enclosed in walls of homogeneous conductivity for heat— comes under the head
of exceptional cases. Sand bags have been used as plugs, and so have
India-rubber discs arranged along the wire supporting the thermometer in a
considerable number of series. An umbrella-shaped plug, collapsing and
expanding by means of a double wire, was devised by the writer for this
purpose, and another, also by him, necessitating but a single wire, and
acting on the same principle as a safety-cage, viz., falling freely so long
as the wire remains taut, expanding and gripping the sides as soon as the
wire is let go. To all these appliances there are objections in practice,
and so far, the Sperenberg observations remain the only really successful
ones with plugs for stopping or checking convection.
Springs or feeders of water at various horizons in a bore are a source of
error, which must be of very usual occurrence, and which it is almost
impossible to guard against. In some districts such springs may have, as Mr.
Henwood held, practically the same temperature as the bed of rock from which
they issue, and the error due to them may be correspondingly small, but
often the feeders may be of much higher temperature, and must vitiate all
readings taken in their vicinity. In the case of Mr. Henwood's Cornish
observations, all of which were taken in springs issuing at various depths
in mines, their great number, and the care and judgment with which they were
selected and carried out, give great
68 PRESENT STATE OF OUlt KNOWLEDGE
weight to the means deduced from them. Thus No. 7 in Table I. is the mean of
415 observations of this kind. They were distributed as follows among the
principal mining districts of Cornwall and Devon :*—
TABLE IV.
Mean T)enth in Mean Tempera-Districts. Mean
i)eptn m ture Fahr in
*eet- Degrees.
Saint Just ......... 570 57-84
Saint Ives ......... 774 63-56
Marazion ......... 456 63-87
Gwinear, etc. ... ... ... 606 63-4
Helston ......... 804 6666
Camborne, etc. ... ... 588 62-13
Redruth, etc.......... 792 7137
Saint Agnes......... 594 65-91
Saint Austell......... 816 70-62
Tavistock, etc....... 432 59"07
It is, of course, very necessary to be able to know exactly at what depth
the thermometer employed in taking borehole temperatures is standing. This
would seem at first sight to be a very easy matter; but in practice much
annoyance is caused by the lengthening—unequal lengthening the writer has
more than once found it to be—of the wires used to suspend the instrument. A
drum coupled with a mechanical counter is the most useful form of apparatus
for lowering and raising thermometers in bores, the best wire for the
purpose being pianoforte wire, which is much less liable to changes of
length than the copper wire generally employed. (A drum of this kind,
designed by Mr. Lindsay Galloway for the use of the British Association
Committee, was exhibited to the meeting.)
Formerly, self-registering thermometers were commonly used, but the shaking,
which it is all but impossible to avoid in raising them from any great depth
in narrow bores, was so apt to displace the index that they are now given
up. The instruments now recommended are of the type of Negretti and Zambra's
so-called " mining thermometer," where the bulb is surrounded by a
non-conducting substance, usually paraffin. Very slow action is thus
ensured, and, after being left a sufficient time at any particular depth to
mark the degree of temperature at that horizon, the mercury will remain
practically stationary during the short time necessary to haul up the
instrument.
Attention has already been called to the conductivity for heat of various
rocks, as affecting the convection currents in the water filling
* See Cornwall Geological Transactions, Vol. V., page 402.
OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 69
boreholes. The actual rate of increase of temperature in going downwards
depends upon this same conductivity, such increase being more rapid as the
index of conductivity is lower, slower as the rocks are better conductors.
But it has been found that the index of conductivity of a rock when dry is
very different from that exhibited by the same rock when wet; the latter
offering far less resistance to the passage of heat than the former. This
makes another source of error pertaining to observations in wet bores which
should not be lost sight of.
The conductivity for heat of fissile or laminated rocks also varies
according to the position of the lamina? with regard to that of the source
of heat. Rocks of this kind, when vertical, conduct heat more rapidly than
when horizontal, when dipping than when flat. Here there is another source
of error due to conductivity. This one, like the last, can probably be
fairly corrected, so far as shallow depths are concerned, now that the
absolute conductivities of so many rocks are known, thanks to the arduous
labours of Prof. A. S. Herschel,* only recently completed. But at great
depths the rocks are no longer at ordinary temperature, and it is not to be
assumed that at very high temperatures the index of conductivity for heat of
any substance will be the same as at comparatively low ones. For errors
possibly due to this cause there is as yet no correction, experiments on
this portion of the subject being still a desideratum.
Connected with the general low conductivity for heat of most rocks is the
extraordinary time required before the heat due to boring operations is lost
in bores of considerable depth, be they wet or dry. Many most carefully
conducted observations have been rendered valueless from being made too soon
after the boring tools have been removed. There are few exact data on this
subject at present, but Mr. W. Galloway is now investigating it for the
British Association Committee. It is, however, proved by many sets of
readings (e.g. Nos. 31, 41, 52 in Table I.) that, under certain conditions,
months may elapse before the water or air at the bottom of a deep bore
regains a temperature at all representing that of the surrounding rock. This
is a point on which persons practically acquainted with boring might give
exceedingly valuable information. Even in the short hand-bores used in
dry-air observations of the Boldon Colliery type a certain amount of time
must be allowed to elapse before readings are taken.
The form of the surface should be considered in estimating the value of
temperature observations taken even at great depths below it. A point in the
ground vertically under a steep crest is more exposed to the
* See Reports of the British Association on Rock Conductivities, 1874 to
1882.
70 PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE
cooling influence of the air than a point at the same depth beneath a plain.
The decrease of temperature upwards is about three and a half times more
rapid in the air than in the rock, and the curves of the planes of equal
temperature below ground will therefore necessarily be affected by the
greater or less degree of convexity in the great surface features of the
ground above. This is a point which must chiefly be kept in view in
discussing observations taken in mountainous regions, such as those in short
dry bores in the Mont Cenis, St. Gothard, and Hoosac Tunnels, in all of
which very elaborate series of experiments on subterranean temperature have
been and are being made (No. 51 in Table I.)
Many years ago Reich called attention to a belief held by the miners in
Saxony that tin mines were colder than others.* In mines containing much
pyrites the reverse is the case. In the mines on the Great Corn-stock lode,
as every one knows, temperatures abnormally high are found —so abnormal
indeed that they have been omitted from the Table in the present paper as
being useless for comparisons with ordinary readings. Temperatures, not so
unusually great as those of the Comstock lode, were found in the Schemnitz
mines, in Hungary (43 to 47 in Table I.); others, also very irregular, in
some bores in the immediate neighbourhood of lead veins in North Wales,
taken recently with great care by Mr. Strahan of H.M. Geological Survey.
Examples of this sort might be multiplied, showing that in connexion with
mineral veins a normal or regular rate of increase of temperature is not to
be counted on. What this may be due to it is not always easy to say, but
with the facts before us it seems fair to conclude that chemical action is
at the root of the matter. The decomposition of the metallic sulphides,
which form the greater part of the mineral contents of most metalliferous
veins, give rise to great heat. Some hot mineral springs are traceable to
this cause. Other chemical decompositions may cause a lowering of the
temperature at certain points within the interior of the earth's crust. To
be on the safe side, therefore, it is necessary to exclude, or at any rate
receive only with diffidence, all observations taken in the neighbourhood of
mineral veins, when such observations are abnormal in character. When, as in
the case of Mr. Henwood's remarkable series of experiments mentioned above,
the results show no violent difference from those in regularly-bedded and
unfaulted districts, it may be accepted then as a proof that chemical
decomposition is working there but on a very small scale.
Again, there is no reason to assume that movements of the earth's crust
* Beobaclitmigen ueber die Temperatur cles Gesteins in verschiedenen Tiefen
in den Gruben des Sachsisclien Erzgebhges. p. 87.
OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 71
are now dead. Upheaval, sinking, and lateral squeezing of the rocks are
still, no doubt, slowly going on now as formerly, and where such mechanical
action exists there also will abnormal heat be evolved, and there will
thermometric observations, as in the case of metalliferous districts, be
vitiated by the fact that the heat registered may not be that of the great
central hot kernel of the globe (to the existence of which every geological
phenomenon points), but may be merely due to the fact that some of the many
minor local foci of heat are being approached which chemistry and physics
demonstrate must be found where certain chemical and mechanical actions are
taking place.
As to what remains to be done in order to improve the present knowledge of
the rate of increase of underground temperature, observations in coal mines
under the sea have been pointed out by Professor Everett as likely to yield
important results, and the assistance of members of the Institute is asked
in this direction, as well as in any other which may be suggested to them by
their practical knowledge of mines and mechanical appliances. The chief
desiderata have been enumerated one by one as each chief source of error has
come under notice.
In conclusion, the writer begs to disclaim any pretensions to originality in
the present paper, nothing in which is new but its arrangement, and perhaps
some of the views as to the worthlessness of certain observations.
The President said, the members would join with him in passing a vote of
thanks to Professor Lebour for the paper he had read. The heat of
underground strata was a subject which affected deep mining very much
indeed, and, of course, as years went on, and the upper beds of coal were
worked off, this subject would affect them much more. He was sure that the
members of the Institute would be glad to co-operate with Mr. Lebour in
obtaining such information as he desired. So far as he was concerned, he
could promise the Professor a series of observations under the sea.
Mr. Bewick hoped that Mr. Lebour would, in the tabular statements embodied
in his paper, give the geological formation in which the observations were
taken. Allusion had been made to the temperature in some observations made
at Allenheads, but the results would depend upon the period of the week at
which they were taken. A large number of men and some horses were employed,
and powder was exploded; all which would tend to cause some variation
according to the time at which the
72 DISCUSSION—UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.
observations were made. Then, again, the proximity of veins would be an
interesting matter to consider. There were a great many veins of different
characters, containing lead, zinc, and copper ores, pyrites, and other
matters j these and even the direction of the wind might affect the
observations taken at Allcnheads.
Professor Lebour said, he would give the geological formations in which the
observations were taken when they were known ; some of those who had taken
the other observations had been careless. He believed the observations at
Allenheads were taken in shafts under water. The shafts were the High
Underground Engine Shaft and the Grin Hill Shaft; and he mentioned these
observations to show the difference after a drought and after rain. The
observations in the shafts at Allenheads were taken by Mr. D. Burns, F.G.S.,
in water in 1871. Otherwise he thought these observations in shafts were
almost worthless.
Mr. Bewick—Both the shafts mentioned are working shafts, and the
observations must have been taken in the sump-hole.
Mr. Boyd said, one circumstance had struck him forcibly, namely, whether the
increased temperature was entirely due to the superincumbent strata, or
whether the sea level had any influence upon it. For instance, in piercing
the Mont Cenis tunnel a temperature of 90 degs. was observed, which was
considerably more than that obtained at depths very much nearer to the
centre of the earth.
Mr. Cooke asked Professor Lebour whether the increased temperature might be
due to heat being rendered sensible which had been latent on account of the
compression in great depths, either in water, or air, or solid rock, that
is, in fact, whether the pressure has anything to do with the increasing
heat? He reminded them of the popular lecturer setting fire to tinder by the
sudden compression of air in a cylinder, and of the • necessity of cooling
appliances, where air-compressing engines are used.
Professor Lebour said, pressure by itself could not develop heat. It was
only where motion was destroyed as motion that it was converted into heat.
Therefore, there was no reason for imagining that increase of temperature as
descent was made below the earth's surface could be due to the pressure of
the overlying rocks, or " cover."
Mr. Bird asked Professor Lebour if there were not instances of variation in
the same borehole. If there was a borehole 3,000 feet deep, was not the rate
of increase different at the first thousand, and at the second thousand, and
at the third thousand ?
Professor Lebour said, Mr. Bird had touched upon a point which was the very
pith of the whole matter. These differences in the increase
DISCUSSION—UNDERGROUND TEMRERATURK. 73
of temperature were among the difficulties of the observations. He did not
know of any observations where they did not get differences of this kind. If
they took two or three cases where there were observations every 50 or 100
feet, and took the difference between the temperature at 100 feet, and the
temperature at the lowest depth (unless an abnormal one), they would find
that the mean was something like 1 in 56 in most instances. Between those
two they found great variations of all kinds in the rate: they sometimes
found even decrease, and not increase. He cast aside all minor matters
because they interfered with the general results which seemed to be
generally established. If anyone would study the minor matters, and give the
result of his observations, he would do great service to science. It was
almost impossible for anyone not acquainted with localities to explain
carefully the discrepancies in each case. If people connected with a
locality would attend to the facts of that locality, they would do great
service.
Mr. Bird understood Mr. Lebour to mean that if these matters were eliminated
the rate of increase would be found to be uniform in one place, with a few
exceptions.
Professor Lebour said that was so.
Mr. Boyd proposed, and Mr. Bird seconded, a vote of thanks to Mr. Lebour for
his most interesting paper, which was unanimously carried, and the
discussion was adjourned.
PROCEEDINGS 75
PEOCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 11th, 1882, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
G. B. FORSTER, Esq., Pkesident, in the Chub.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
ABSTRACTS OF FOREIGN PAPERS.
The following report by the Secretary was read:—
Having been asked to report generally as to the mode by which extracts from
American and other foreign publications can be abridged, translated, and
printed in the Transactions of the Institute, I respectfully submit the
following suggestions for your consideration.
That a space, to be determined by the Council, of the Transactions, printed
in small type, be devoted to such extracts.
That the extracts shall not be continuous extracts or translations of the
articles noticed, but simply terse abstracts of the principal points of the
paper.
That each such extract shall on no account exceed three pages.
The remuneration for the extracts not to exceed 12s. 6d. per page; fractions
of a page in proportion.
For the present the extracts shall be limited to three classes, namely,
Mining and Mining Appliances, Geology, and Machinery.
That the selection of the works to be abstracted shall be left with three
members, each conversant with the subject allotted to him, to be elected
from time to time.
That these three gentlemen shall be authorised to employ such . assistance
as they may think necessary.
VOL. XX*I.-1868,
¦£•
7G PROCEEDINGS.
That they shall send to the Secretary from time to time every year, all such
abstracts as they wish to appear in the Transactions, together with the
names of the actual abstractors.
These abstracts to be edited by the Secretary, and published in the
Transactions with the initials of the translator or abstractor. .
No plates to be allowed, and no extracts to be printed after a lapse of
eighteen months from the date of the publication of the original article.
The President said that, in accordance with that report, which had been
passed by the Council, Professor Merivale, Professor Lebour, and Mr. Newall
had been kind enough to undertake to select the articles to be abstracted,
and appoint suitable abstractors, and he thought the abstracts would be of
great service to the members of the Institute.
The following gentleman was then elected:—
Associate— Mr. Joseph Fabeow, Brotton Mines, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
The following- were nominated for election at the next meeting:— Associate—
Mr. Geoege N. Vitanoff, Messrs. Hawks, Crawshay, & Sous, Gateshead.
Student— Mr. Feancis W. Gbeen, Harton Colliery Offices, South Shields.
Mr. W. J. Bird read the following paper "On the Comparative Efficiency of
Non-conducting Coverings for Steam-pipes:"—
NON-CONDUCTING COVERINGS FOR STEAM PIPES. 77
THE COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF NON-CONDUCTING COVERINGS FOR STEAM PIPES.
Br Me. W. J. BIRD.
In September, 1879, the writer had the honour of reading before this
Institute a paper on " Condensation in Steam Pipes," showing how this was
effected by the use of a non-conducting covering. Since that period, further
experiments have been made to test the efficiency of non-conducting
coverings, and it is to compare the results of these that this paper has
been drawn up.
It will, perhaps, be best to commence with a description of the various
non-conducting materials which were subjected to experiment.*
Silicate cotton, or slag wool, as it is sometimes termed, is made from blast
furnace slag by forcing steam or air through it when in a molten condition.
It is free from organic matter and quite incombustible. In its normal
condition one cubic foot weighs about 12 lbs., and the cost of the material
as applied to steam pipes is stated to be 2d. per square foot for each inch
in thickness of covering.
1. It was tried enclosed within wood lagging or canvas, and also in
external tubes made of strawboard or sheet iron.
2. When made into mattresses which are sewed closely together over the
surface to be protected. A coating of tar or paint over all is recommended.
3. Applied in the form of a cement, which is made by mixing up the silicate
cotton with a thick clay wash. In this state, however, it is not such a good
non-conductor. In the experiments, silicate cotton was tested without any
covering, being merely placed on the pipe and wrapped round with cord.
4. Toopes' patent covering is composed of an inner circle of asbestos,
backed with compressed paper and two outer circles of the same material.
Hair felt is interspersed between these layers, and the outside of all is
black-varnished. It is made about three-quarters of an inch in thickness,
and shows extremely good results; its cost is high, tenpence-halfpenny
* Samples of these materials were laid upon the table for the inspection of
members.
78 THE COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF
per square foot, but it requires little labour to attach it to the pipes. It
stands very well in a dry situation, but soon suffers from wet. An outside
coating of tar would be an advantage in these cases.
5. A patent composition of a plastic and fibrous nature. It is first mixed
with water and then plastered on to the steam-pipe to the desired thickness.
It soon dries, and remains firmly attached to the pipe. It should be coated
with tar on the outside, and it is advantageous to encase it in iron wire
netting. Its cost is £2 15s. per ton, and at the thickness of 1^.inches the
cost per square foot is about threepence-farthing.
6. Hair felt was also tested. A sheet three-quarters of an inch in
thickness was applied to the steam pipe. The cost may be taken at
threepence-halfpenny per square foot.
The steam-pipes on which the experiments were made were of two sizes—2|
inches and lOf inches external diameter each. On the small pipe silicate
cotton, silicate cotton mattress, and silicate cotton cement were applied
three-quarters of an inch thick. On the large steam-pipe silicate cotton and
the patent composition were applied l£ inches thick, while Toopes' patent
covering and hair felt were put on only three-quarters of an inch thick.
Observations were made of the temperature of the outside of these coverings.
On'the bulb and as much as possible of the tube of the thermometer a screen
of felt was placed to cut off the cooling effect of the wind. The
temperature of the air was observed by a second thermometer, and the
temperature of the uncovered pipe was deduced from the steam-pressure with a
small correction for the thickness of iron in the pipe. The observations
were as follows :—
TABLE I. Small Pipe (2'5 Inch). Large Pipe (10 6 Inch).
Name oe Material. $ Temp, in Deg. Fahr. g
Temp, in Deg. Fahr.
8 a
g Pipe. Air. Diff. g Pipe. Air.
Diff.
— Uncovered pipe ......... 252 42 212 ...
251 67 184
1. Silicate cotton ...... f 134 42 92 1|
126 67 59
2. Silicate cotton mattress ... f 108 42 66 ...
.........
3. Silicate cotton cement ... f 165 41 124 ...
.........
4. Toopes'patent covering ... f 85 42 43 |
111 67 44
5. Composition............ ...... ... 1^ 124
67 57
6. Hair felt .................... f 142 68 74
HON-CONHUCTINU COVERINGS FOR STEAM PIPES. 79
The heat loss of these steam pipes is due partly to radiation, to
surrounding objects, and partly to contact with colder air. The loss is
estimated in units of heat, one unit being the amount necessary to raise one
pound of water 1 deg. Fahr.
In ascertaining the loss by radiation it must be observed that the radiating
power of bodies depends on the nature of their surface. This power has been
ascertained by experiment on many substances. Suppose R to be the radiating
power in units of heat emitted per square foot per hour when the radiating
body has an excess of temperature of 1 deg. Fahr., then, for ordinary
atmospheric temperatures, and for small excesses of temperature in the
radiating body, it may be assumed that the heat loss is simply proportional
to the difference, but for considerable excesses of temperature the heat
loss is much greater; that is, the heat loss increases in a greater ratio
than the excess of temperature increases. This ratio has been investigated
by Dulong and determined by him for various temperatures. Now let R be the
heat units emitted per square foot per hour for an excess temperature of 1
deg. Fahr.; D the excess of temperature in deg. Fahr. of the radiating body
over the absorbent; and r the ratio in which the heat loss increases with
the increase of D; then R x D x r is equal to the loss of heat by radiation
in heat units per square foot per hour.
The loss of heat by contact of air is independent of the nature of the
surface, but depends on its shape. It differs, as the heated surface is a
plane, a sphere, or a cylinder. Suppose A to represent the heat units lost
per square foot per hour for an excess temperature of one deg. Fahr.; this
quantity has been experimentally determined for cylindrical bodies, such as
pipes, and it differs with their diameter, A being less in a large pipe than
in a small one. For small excesses of temperature the heat loss is simply
proportional to that excess, but with large excesses of temperature Dulong
has shown that the heat loss increases in a higher ratio; and he has
determined this ratio for various temperatures. Thus, let A be the heat
units lost per square foot per hour for an excess temperature of one degree
Fahr.; D the. excess of temperature of the pipes over the surrounding air;
and r' the ratio of increase of loss; then A * D * r' is the total heat loss
per square foot surface per hour from contact of air.
Thus R x D x r is the heat loss per square foot per hour from radiation, and
A x D * r1 is the heat loss per square foot per hour by air-contact; and if
these quantities are added together, the total heat loss in heat units per
square foot surface per hour will be arrived at. As the dimensions of the
steam pipes are known, it is easy to calculate the heat loss per foot length
of pipe per hour. By comparing the heat
80 THE COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF
loss of the covered pipe with that of the uncovered pipe, the percentage of
heat retained by the covering may be found, and this expresses the
comparative efficiency of the non-conducting coverings tested.
TABLE II.
Small Pipe • Large Pipe.
„,„„„,., . Heat Loss Units Per
j Heat Loss Units Per
MATERIAL. g per Hour Cent
„ per Hour_ Cent.
a a
____
a---------------------------------------------------
m----------------------------------¦— -------------
o .2
3 Per Square Per Foot Effi- g Per Square Per Foot Fffi-
^ Foot. Length, ciency. ^ Foot. Length,
ciency.
— Uncovered pipe......... 514-3 336"6 ...... 3577
990'8
1. Silicate cotton......f 1571 164-5 61-11$ 89'9
320-0 67"7
2. Silicate cotton mattress | 1Q7*7 112-8 66-5......
......
3. Silicate cotton cement ... | 248*6 260-3 22'7......
......
4. Toopes' patent covering | 65-2 68-3 797 f
66-4 208-5 78"9
5. Composition ............ ...... lj 85-7
305-1 692
6. Hair felt ......... ...... j ... !
118-5 372"0 62-3
The percentage of efficiency is calculated from the heat loss per foot
length of pipe. It would be erroneous to calculate it from the heat loss per
square foot, as the surface is of course larger on the covered than on the
uncovered pipe. It will be observed that Toopes' patent covering was applied
to both pipes in the same thickness, and the percentage of efficiency is
nearly the same, 79'7 and 78-9. Again, the silicate cotton is applied in two
thicknesses, f-inch and l-|-inch. The f-inch cover retains 51'1 per cent, of
the heat, while the l^-inch retains 67'7 per cent. Thus a double thickness,
at a more than double cost, only gains 17 per cent, more heat. The silicate
cotton in both cases appears to some disadvantage, as it was not enclosed in
wood lagging, or canvas, strawboard, or iron tubing, as is recommended.
Toopes' patent covering shows really extraordinary results for such a small
thickness, and it is only its great cost that hinders its more extensive
use. The patent composition ranks between silicate cotton mattress and
silicate cotton for efficiency. An enumeration of the materials in their
order of merit would stand thus:— (1) Toopes' patent covering, (2) Silicate
cotton mattress, (3) Hair felt, (4) Composition, (5) Silicate cotton, (6)
Silicate cotton cement.
Having now compared the efficiency of these materials in heat retention, it
will be advisable to state the absolute saving effected in each case, and
the cost at which it is obtained. Let it be supposed that an engine
NON-CONDUCTING COVERINGS FOR STEAM PIPES. 81
plane underground at a distance of 1,000 feet from the boilers at bank has
to be dealt with. The steam pipes are 1,000 feet in length and 10'6 inches
external diameter, as in Table II. Under the same conditions of temperature,
the heat loss on the 1,000 feet would be 1,000 times the loss on one foot.
It is true that the pipes in the shaft would lose less heat than the same
length in a horizontal position; but that may be considered balanced by the
increase of cooling surface in flanges and bolts. Then, to obtain the loss
in heat units per hour for the 1,000 feet range, it remains only to multiply
the loss per foot length by 1,000. Let it be assumed that one cubic foot of
water in the boiler at 60 degrees evaporated to steam at any pressure is
equal to one nominal horse-power; then 69,674 heat units is equal to one
horse-power (nominal). The loss of horse-power in each case will then be
arrived at.
Another column shows the cost of material employed in coating the 1,000 feet
length of pipes, and then the cost per horse-power saved is stated. The
saving in fuel is also shown. Here it is assumed that each horse-power will
require two cwts. of coal per 24 hours, which is perhaps a rather better
result than is generally obtained in colliery boilers. The value of the fuel
is taken at four shillings per ton.
TABLE III.
Steam Pipes, 10'6 Inches External Diameter, 1,000 Feet Length.
Material.
Thickness. Horse-power. Cost of Material. Fuel.
Applied. Loss. Saving. Total. *•«¦ ^per
£ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Uncovered pipe ...
...... 14'22 ... ......
Toopes'patent covering ... finch 299 1123 137 9 11 12 15 9
8119 7
Composition ...... 1$ „ 4-38 9-84 48 4 2
418 O 71 16 8
Silicate cotton ...... H „ 4"59 9-63 44 10 O
412 5 70 6 0
Hair felt ......... f „ 534 888 45 16 3 5 32
64 16 6
In looking at Table III. it will be seen how very large a saving is effected
by the use of non-conducting coverings. If a comparison of the coverings is
made, according to the cost at which one horse-power is saved, they stand in
the following order:—(1) Silicate cotton, (2) Composition, (3) Hair felt,
(4) Toopes' patent covering. The writer will now briefly review the
performances of non-conducting coverings, as applied to the range of steam
pipes 1,000 feet long and 10-6 inches in diameter.
82 THE COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF
Toopes' patent covering applied at a thickness of three-quarters of an inch
reduces the heat loss from 14*22 horse-power to 2*99 horse-power—a saving of
11-28 horse-power. At 10|d. per square foot the cost of material for
covering the pipes would be £137 9s. lid., or £12 5s. 9d. for each
horse-power saved. Its efficiency is 78*9 per cent. The fuel saved per annum
under continuous working of the engine will amount to £8119s. 7d., which is
an annual return of 59*6 per cent, on the capital (cost of materials)
expended. Toopes' covering ranks first in efficiency, but fourth, in
absolute cost, and fourth also in cost per horse-power saved.
The composition, applied to the thickness of l£ inches, reduces the heat
loss from 14*22 to 4*38 horse-power, a saving of 9*84. At 3|d. per square
foot the cost of material comes to £48 4s. 2d., or £4 18s. Od. for each
horse-power saved. Its efficiency is 69*2 per cent. The fuel saved per annum
amounts to £71 16s. 8d., equal to an annual return of 149 per cent, on the
cost incurred. The composition ranks second in efficiency, third in cost of
material, and second in cost per horse-power saved.
Silicate cotton, l£ inches thick, reduces the heat loss from 14*22 to 4*59
horse-power, a saving of 9*63. At 3d. per square foot the cost of covering
amounts to £44 10s. Od., or £4 12s. 5d. for each horse-power saved. Its
efficiency is 67*7 per cent. (The efficiency, at a thickness of f of an inch
is 51 per cent.; in the mattress variety, 66^ per cent.,- and in the cement
variety 22*7 per cent. At 1^ inches thickness the efficiency of the mattress
will be 88 per cent., and of the cement 30 per cent.) The fuel saved per
annum comes to £70 6s. Od., an annual return of 158 per cent, on the capital
cost of covering. Silicate cotton ranks third as to efficiency, first as to
cost of material, and first as to cost per horse-power saved.
Hair felt, in a thickness of f of an inch, reduces the heat loss from 14-22
to 5'34 horse-power, a saving of 8*88. At 3|d. per square foot the cost of
covering is £45 16s. 3d., or £5 3s. 2d. for each horse-power saved. The
efficiency is 62-3 per cent. The fuel saved amounts to £64 16s. 6d., an
annual return of 141*5 per cent, on the capital expended. Hair felt ranks
fourth in efficiency, second in cost of covering, and third in cost per
horse-power saved.
The writer thinks he has now arrived at a complete and impartial comparison
of these non-conducting coverings. No one of them combines all desirable
points, and each of them can only be recommended on the balance of its
advantages. They all show what may be called good results, and the worst of
them is very much belter than none. It has
NON-CONDUCTING COVERINGS FOR STEAM PIPES. 83
been shown that in a range of steam pipes of any considerable length a very
great economy can be obtained at a comparatively small expense, and an
uncovered steam pipe should be a very rare sight.
In conclusion the writer would say that he is conscious of many other
non-conducting materials left unexamined, but those selected for comparison
are well-known substances in extensive use. He will at all times be very
glad to receive accounts of further experiments from members interested in
the subject.
The President said the subject referred to by Mr. Bird was a very important
item in the economical working of collieries, and deserved great attention.
.Mr. Ross said the results shown by Mr. Bird as to silicate cotton were
somewhat different to the results obtained at the Paris Exhibition, given in
the Engineer of March 12th, 1880, page 200. There an asbestos covering of a
thickness of 3*15 inches gave a condensation of 0*31 lbs. of water per hour
per square foot, whilst a thickness of 2*36 inches of silicate cotton gave a
condensation of only *27 lbs. He thought that Mr. Bird had not conducted his
experiments with respect to silicate cotton under the conditions in which it
was used. Silicate cotton, being a material something like cotton in
appearance, required to have a protecting covering so as to make it
effective. The great principle which gave efficiency to the use of silicate
cotton, was that it contained air— and air was one of the best
non-conductors known. Mr. Bird, by wrapping the silicate cotton round with
twine, almost destroyed the advantage obtained by this property, and he
thought it would be desirable that experiments should be made with silicate
cotton under the circumstances in which the material could be used most
advantageously. A small increase in thickness would make a great difference,
and the discrepancy between the results now made known and those obtained at
Paris might easily be referred to the fact that Mr. Bird experimented with
the silicate cotton 1-^ inches thick, whereas at the Paris Exhibition the
thickness used was 3^- inches. He had tried some experiments by placing
pieces of wood against hot pipes protected with this non-conducting
material, which proved very clearly the effect of a small increase of
thickness of such material. In one case, with 500 degrees of heat, the wood
was charred with about 2 inches of material; but when the thickness was
increased another inch, the pipe could be heated to 700 degrees,
VOL. XXXI.—1862
t
84 DISCUSSION—THE COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF
without the wood being charred. It was true that, with a solid substance, it
might fairly be inferred that the benefit arising from an increase of
thickness, would not be so great as in a substance like the silicate, which
was of a loose nature containing much air between its finely divided fibres;
and he thought Mr. Bird might make further observations with advantage. At
all events he had made it very clear that there was a very great loss
incurred by not covering pipes and boilers.
Mr. Cochrane said Mr. Bird stated that "It is true that the pipes in the
shaft would lose less heat than the same length in a horizontal position;
but this may be considered balanced by the increase of cooling surface in
flanges and bolts." This he (Mr. Cochrane) could not understand under any
circumstances, but especially under the ordinary conditions in which the
steam pipe was placed in the up-cast shaft, where the greater velocity of
the air would cause a more rapid loss of heat than would take place in a
horizontal pipe in a mine.
Professor Lebour said that Mr. Bird noticed that silicate cotton was "also
applied in the form of a cement, which is made by mixing up the silicate
cotton with a thick clay wash; in this state, however, it is not such a good
non-conductor." That was only what they had found to be' . the case with
rocks. The experiments which Professor Herschel and himself had carried on
as to rock conductivity, all pointed to the conclusion, that generally the
more porous the stone the greater the resistance to the passage of heat;
moreover, a substance when wet conducted heat better than when dry. He
recommended Mr. Bird to give the absolute conductivities resulting from his
experiments. It struck him that one point to be considered in the commercial
value of these different substances was the length of time they lasted, and
that did not seem to have been taken into account. If the covering had to be
renewed very often, that must be taken into account in estimating its
advantages.
Mr. Bird said Mr. Ross had remarked that his (Mr. Bird's) experiments did
not show identical results to those obtained at the Paris Exhibition. The
thickness of the silicate cotton applied in the Exhibition was considerably
greater than he used in his experiments. He altogether disputed the fact
that adding thickness increased the efficiency of fibrous more than of solid
substances. During last week he had made experiments and had tried all these
four substances with double the former thickness, and the average result was
an increase of efficiency of only 12 per cent. If he had done any injustice
to silicate cotton by not surrounding it with an outside covering, this had
been more than compensated for by the proportionate lowness of cost, which
had of course been very much reduced
non-conducting coverings for steam pipes. 85
in consequence. Mr. Cochrane had drawn attention to a remark about vertical
and horizontal cylinders. It was a fact that under the same circumstances of
temperature and condition of the air, a vertical cylinder did lose less heat
than a horizontal cylinder, on account of the heated air from the lower
portion of the cylinder ascending and enveloping the upper portion, and
thereby reducing the difference in temperature between the pipe and the air
immediately contiguous to it. Mr. Cochrane thought the great velocity of the
air in the up-cast shaft would cool the pipes; but that would be generally
counterbalanced by the higher temperature of the air in the up-cast shaft,
even where mechanical ventilation was employed. He would, however, continue
his inquiries and give the . absolute conductivity of these substances, all
of which were of satisfactory durability.
Mr. Eoss said he would like to refer to one discrepancy in Mr. Bird's last
remark—that all these substances were of satisfactory durability. In the
paper, Mr. Bird set forth that Toopes' material was very much injured by
wet—by moisture. That which would not resist wet and heat was not suitable
for a boiler covering. They knew that silicate cotton, being composed of
blast furnace slag—really a form of glass—was in itself a non-conductor,
and, at the same time, impervious to moisture. If a substance was not
impervious to moisture, it could not be useful for covering boilers, where
there was both heat and moisture.
Mr. Bird said he did remark that Toopes' covering was subject to
deterioration in wet situations : but he added that a coating of tar, which
was not very expensive, would remedy the evil. Mr. Ross referred to boiler
covering. The paper related to coverings for steam pipes.
The President—Have you any absolute data as to how long the coverings will
last ? That is a very important point.
Mr. Bird said the composition had been exposed for twelve months at the
exhaust pipe of a 20-inch cylinder engine, running the better part of the
day, in an underground drift, with very little deterioration. Toopes'
covering has been used for about the same time, in a dry situation, and
stood very well.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Bird for his paper, which was
seconded by Mr. Cochrane, and carried unanimously.
Professor J. H. Merivale read " An Abstract of an Analysis, by Dr. Chance,
of Fire-damp Explosions in the Anthracite Coal Mines of Pennsylvania, U.S."
FIttE-DAMP EXPLOSIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 87
AN ABSTRACT OF AN ANALYSIS, BY DR. CHANCE,* OF FIRE-DAMP EXPLOSIONS IN THE
ANTHRACITE COAL MINES OF PENNSYLVANIA, U.S., FROM 1870-80.
By Pkofessob J. H. MERIVALE.
The following paper may be of some interest to the members as exhibiting
data on a most important subject, gleaned from mining experience in America.
" The table, which forms the subject-matter of this paper, is compiled from
the reports of the Inspectors of Mines for the years from 1870 to 1879
inclusive. In it are included all recorded explosions, whether resulting in
serious or trivial casualties:—
"EXPLOSIONS OF FIRE-DAMP.
1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Total.
January ... 083223572 4 36
February ... 244253641 5 36
March ... 026333450 8 34
April ... 4 7 14 6 5 2
7 8 2 10 65
May ... 3 10 8 9 8 1 11
9 2 18 79
June ... 1 6 7 13 12 5
4 6 4 3 61
July ... 3 11 5 4 7 7
2 7 4 6 56
August ... 3 10 13 10 5 3 2
3 6 9 64
September ... 4 9 6 10 9 12 4
2 0 10 66
October ... 8 7 10 6 8 6 8
7 2 10 72
November ... 6 3 2 7 9 5 4
7 2 7 52
December ... 6 6 3 2 4 9 8
6 4 10 58
Total ... 40 83 81 74 77 59 65 71
29 100 679
* Read before tbe American Philosophical Society, May 6th, 1881.
88 FIEE-DAMP EXPLOSIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA.
" The table is arranged to show the number of explosions occurring in each
month of the year for ten years, and the right-hand column the number for
each month of the whole period.
" An inspection of the latter column shows at once that from April to
October the number of explosions is far greater than that of the remaining
months of the year. In these seven months 463 explosions are recorded, an
average of sixty-six for each month; but for the remaining five months we
find but 216 explosions, an average of but forty-three for each of these
months.
" Temporary or partial suspension of mining during some part of these months
in certain years may partly account for this difference, but is inadequate
to explain so marked a contrast between the groups of warm and cold months.
" The maximum rate in May, and the next in rank, October, are just five
months apart. Are these months subject to greater and more sudden and
frequent barometric changes than others in this part of the United States ?
" A list of the most serious colliery disasters in Great Britain, from 1778
to 1866 inclusive, develops the interesting fact that, out of forty-five
explosions, ten occurred in June and eight in December, periods just six
months apart.
" The table is as follows:—
Month.
No. of Explosions.
January ... ... ... ... ... ...
2
February ... ... ... ... ...
... 1
March..................... 4
April..................... 0
May ..................... 4
June ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 10
August ... ... ... ... ... ...
3
September ... ... ... ... ... ...
2
October ... ... ... ... ... ...
4
November ... ... ... ... ... ...
3
December ... ... ... ... ... ...
8
Total ............... 45
" This list embraces only the explosions resulting in a loss of life of
twenty and upwards.
"The occurrence of three of these on June 2nd, 1862, and of two on December
the 12th and 13th, 1866, certainly point to atmospheric dis-
FIRE-DAMP EXPLOSIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 89
turbance as the immediate cause. The occurrence of a large percentage of
these disasters at semi-annual periods, June and December, seems to indicate
the occurrence in Great Britain during these months of unusually high
barometer, followed by a decided fall, as the probable cause of these great
outbursts of gas.
" But the problem I have been considering is somewhat different, for the
table embraces all the explosions, whether large or small, occurring during
the ten years. It shows a decidedly larger number for the warm than for the
cold months, and, therefore, points primarily rather to impairment of
ventilation from high temperature than to barometric changes as the true
cause of the difference; but the occurrence of two maximum periods, May and
October, seems to indicate that barometric changes have also "exercised an
important influence on the relative efflux of gas.
" The amount of rise and fall does not seem to have a perceptible effect,
for the monthly barometric range is greatest daring the cold months, whereas
fire-damp explosions are most frequent during the warm months. Frequent and
abrupt changes from high to relatively low barometric pressure are the
probable cause of many explosions, though the movement of the mercury may
not amount to more than one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch. An unusually
high barometric column is always an intimation of coming danger."
On the other hand, the Belgian Commissioners, in their Report on Colliery
Explosions, published in 1880, a copy of which has been kindly lent to the
writer by Mr. Walton Brown, do not find that the summer months are more
dangerous than the winter. The following table, extracted from their Report
(page 218), speaks for itself:—
FROM 1821 TO 1879.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May. June. July. Aug Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Total.
Hainault......17 21 28 25 24 20 28 27 24 11
17 26 268
Namur ...... 10 1110 12 10 2 2 12
Liege ......11 9 21 19 12 8 10 8 6 13 11 4 132
Total of Country... 29 30 50 45 37 28 39 37 31 24 30 32 412
This gives an average per month of 34'2 for the five winter months, and
34'43 for the seven summer months.
90 DISCUSSION—FIRE-DAMP EXPLOSIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA.
The list of explosions appears to include all those that have caused
accidents to the workmen, fatal and non-fatal. It will be observed that the
table extends over a great many years.
It is impossible to draw up a table precisely similar to that of Dr. Chance
from the data collected in the reports of the British Inspectors of Mines,
because no notice, except in rare cases, is taken of explosions of gas that
have not caused loss of life ; but an inspection of these for the the years
1.870-79 shows an average of 33 per month for the five cold months, and 39
per month for the seven warm months. It is unnecessary to enter into any
details, as the fatal explosions are already collected, tabulated, and
published at the end of each volume of the Proceedings.
Mr. Dickinson, in his report for the Manchester district, has, for the
twelve years 1869-80, given a list of all the explosions reported to him. On
tabulating these an average per month is obtained of 20'2 for the winter
months, and 20"7 for the summer.
An examination of the report book of one of the most fiery of the North of
England coal mines for the years 1880-81 gives a very different result. Gas
was reported 64 times per month during the seven warm months, and 89 times
per month during the five cold. Two years is, of course, too short a period
to get results of any value, and the writer would like to take this
opportunity of asking the managers of fiery mines if they find gas more
frequently present during one period of the year than another.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson said it appeared to him that the general result of the
statistics was that no particular month or season of the year was more free
than another from the chance of accident from gas. The question as to how
far barometric changes affected explosions was, to him, a doubtful point. He
thought much more depended upon the state of the pit and the management of
the ventilation, than upon barometric changes. During the soft muggy days of
November he had found ventilation rather short; and before fans were
applied, the dull months at the end of the autumn gave some trouble, but
that was all.
Mr. Cochrane said that in the earlier part of the paper it was stated that
"it shows a decidedly larger number for the warm than for the cold months;"
and in the last clause of the paper it was stated that "gas
DISCUSSION—FIRE-DAMP EXPLOSIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 91
was reported 64 times per month during the seven warm months, and 89 times
per month during the five cold." This appeared anomalous. Generally, he
agreed with Mr. Steavenson.
Professor Lebour said that the first part of the paper was by the American
author, and the last part by Professor Merivale. He imagined the chief
object of the paper was to show that the report of Dr. Chance gave no
general law of any sort.* The moment they looked at the statistics in
England they got totally different results. He thought Mr. Steavenson's
opinion was the opinion of the majority.
Mr. Cochrane asked Professor Lebour whether he knew the system of
ventilation adopted in Pennsylvania,* and whether they depended upon natural
ventilation ? He could quite understand that, in such case, in the summer,
if gas was given off, there would be greater liability of the air being
fouled than in the winter.
The President said this was a subject which would amply repay any
discussion. He agreed with Mr. Steavenson that the best course was to keep
the pit in good order. He believed the rise and fall of the barometer did
exercise an influence on the giving off of gas from old goafs, which acted
as gasometers, as it were, and naturally the gas came out when the air was
lighter. He did not think it had much effect upon the emission of gas from
the bed of coal; and he thought Mr. Lindsay Wood's experiments proved that.
He proposed a vote of thanks to Professor Merivale, which was seconded by
Mr. Boyd, and passed unanimously.
* It has been ascertained since the meeting that no system of artificial
ventilation was generally adopted in the Pennsylvanian Coal-fields.
The following " Description of a New Ventilating Fan," by Mr. T. J. Bowlker,
was taken as read :—
VOL. XXXI.—1882.
^j
ACCOUNT OP A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 93
AN ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
By T. J. BOWLKER.
The writer wishes to draw the attention of the members of the Institute to
an improved fan of the centrifugal type, for which it is claimed that it
gives 10 to 15 per cent, more useful effect than the Gruibal. Your Committee
on Ventilators were applied to about a year and a half ago to experiment on
this fan ; but, unfortunately, when it was too late for them to do so.
Plate XII., Figs. 1, 2, and 3, show the general arrangement of the fan. a is
the upcast shaft; b I drifts leading to the fan ; c is the axle ; cl a cast
iron diaphragm keyed on to the shaft, and so shaped as to cause the air to
be drawn into the fan with the smallest possible loss; e, e are the curved
vanes; and o1, d1, oz are the three evase openings. In the specification the
outer portions (x to y) of these openings are described as hinged at x, so
that the openings, y may be varied at will, in order to ascertain what
position it should be in, to give the best results.
It will, perhaps, serve best to show the principles upon which the fan is
constructed, and to point out the merits that are claimed for it, to begin
by stating the circumstances which led to its construction. The writer will,
therefore, adopt this course.
Being located at Rockingham Colliery when a G-uibal fan was started, and for
some time subsequently, the writer had the opportunity of seeing and
assisting in the trying of numerous experiments with that fan The useful
effect obtained at the ordinary working speed varied from 40 to 50 per cent.
As these results were considerably below what was given as the useful effect
in many published experiments, and also below what the theory of the
Gruibal, as then made known, would lead persons to expect, the writer
determined to try and find out whether the great loss of power was a defect
arising from some special cause in that particular machine, or was a defect
inherent in Guibal fans in general.
94 ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
In attempting to solve this problem the first thing to be done was to
account for the disposal of as much of the horse-power exerted as could be
calculated from known data.
In doing this the result of the most satisfactory experiment that had yet
been tried was taken. The separation doors being open, at 33 revolutions
165,400 cubic feet of air were obtained with a water-gauge at fan centre of
T90 inches. The indicated horse-power of engine being 87^. The fan was 45
feet diameter and 12 feet wide, and the cylinder 36 inches diameter.
From calculations it was estimated that the power was distributed as
follows:—
Horse-power. Work expended on friction of fan journals, and that arising
from the
weight of moving parts of engine (hereafter called weight friction)
11 Work expended on slide valves, eccentrics, and extra friction, due to
steam pressure in the cylinder ... ... ... ...
. 9
Work expended in ventilation ... ... ... ...
... ... 49|
Total......... 69£
Leaving about 18 horse-power, or 20 per cent, of the whole power as loss
unaccounted for.
It was at once evident that some of this loss would arise from the friction
of the air against the sides of the fan casing, as the air was being turned
round and round by the fan; but it was not at first anticipated that this
air friction would account for most of this loss.
On first attempting to make a rough calculation of what the air friction
would amount to, the writer was not possessed of any other determinations of
the co-efficient of friction than those given in Atkinson's "Treatise on
Ventilation." That given as determined by Peclet for air rubbing against
burnt earth is "0217 lbs. per square foot of rubbing surface, for a velocity
of 1,000 feet per minute.
Using "02 as the co-efficient for this rough calculation, and assuming that
the air friction would be the same as if the fan were closed up all round,
and merely carrying the air round and round with the vanes, it was found
that the air friction would come to the enormous amount of 149 horse-power
(see note at end of paper).
Two things were evident from this :—
1.—That the co-efficient used was at any rate eight times too great. 2.—That
the 20 per cent, was probably lost almost entirely in air friction.
ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 95
Having advanced thus far by theory, it was necessary to test the conclusions
by experiment. Mr. Watson and the writer, therefore, tried experiments in
order to ascertain what power was required to turn the fan round with the
shutter lowered down as far as it would go, and the small aperture still
left, sealed up. This was on April 13th, 1878.
The following are the results of those experiments :—
^Revolutions. Indicated
Horse-power.
10 ••• ...............4-65
20..................1276
40..................54-50
From these experiments then it could be ascertained, and, the writer
believes with tolerable accuracy, how much power was spent on this air
friction; for it is a universally accepted fact, that the power spent on air
friction varies as the cube of the velocity of the air.
Making use of this fact, the work done in the three experiments was able to
be divided as follows :—
10 Revolutions—
Horse-power
Weight friction..................... 338
Friction on slide-valve, etc., and that due to pressure on piston
"69
Air friction... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... '53
4-60 Error—add........................ -05
4-65
20 Revolutions—
Horse-power.
Weight friction, 3-38 x 2 ............... 676
Friction on slide-valve, etc., and that due to pressure on piston
1*84 Air friction,-533 x (f§)3 ............... 4"26
12-86 Error—deduct ... ... ... ... ...
... ... -10
12-76
40 Revolutions—
Horse-power.
Weight friction, 3-38 x 4 ............... 13-52
Friction on slide-valve, etc., and that due to pressure on piston
6'87 Air friction,-533 x (Ag)a ............... 34-11
54-50
96 ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
In the above experiments what is put down as air friction, would probably
not be quite all due to simple air friction, but a small portion would be
spent in dashing air against the step, left where the opening of the shutter
end was sealed up, and in air slipping round the tips of vanes. Supposing
this to be put down as 3-11 horse-power in the third experiment, then 3T0
horse-power would be left as spent purely on air friction. This gives asathe
co-efficient of friction "0019 lbs. per square foot of rubbing surface for a
velocity of 1,000 feet per minute.
To confirm the results of these experiments, through the kindness of H.
Richardson, Esq., the writer was allowed to try similar experiments on the
40 feet x 12 feet Guibal fan at Backworth Colliery.
With the shutter lowered down, and outlet closed up, in a similar manner as
in previous experiments, the following results were obtained :—
Revolutions. Horse-power
expended.
10..................3-11
30 ....... ......... ... 21-30
451..................59-02
The power in the above experiments was calculated to be distributed as
follows:—
10 REVOLUTIONS—
Horse-power.
Weight friction ... '............... ... 2-02
Friction on slide-valve, etc., and that due to pressure on piston
-65
Air friction, -437..................... "44
3-11
30 Revolutions—
Horse-power.
Weight friction, 2-02 x 3 ............... 6-06
Friction on slide-valve, etc., and that due to pressure on piston
3-45 Air friction, -437 x (fg)3 ............... 11-79
21-30
45£ Revolutions—
Horse-power.
Weight friction, 2-02 x 4-55 ............... 919
Friction on slide-valve, etc., and that due to pressure on piston 7'15
Air friction,-437 x (jjj*)3 ............... 41-13
57-47 Error—add ..................... 1*55
59-02
Put down 4-13 horse-power of the air friction in this last experiment, as
due to dashing of air against step, etc., there is a remainder of
ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 97
37 horse-power; which gives as the co-efficient of friction about -0025.
This is greater than that obtained from the Rockingham fan 3 the difference
being probably due to the fact that the casing of the Rockingham fan was
coated with a fine dry impalpable coal powder, whereas the casing of the
other was not so coated, and the surface was moist.
The average of these two co-efficients -0022 lbs., or '028 feet of air
column of the same density as the flowing air, being smaller than what is
generally considered to be the co-efficient of friction of air against
brickwork, it is probable that if there be any error in it, it is on the
side of making it too small rather than too large.
Returning again to the experiments with the Rockingham fan, it was there
seen that 31 horse-power was spent on air friction; it will be seen from the
note at the end of the paper, that
f\ of this, or 17'8 horse-power, is due to friction on circumference. f-J of
this, or 13'2 horse-power, is due to friction on sides.
Now, when the fan is discharging air, the friction against the sides will be
approximately the same, and that on two-thirds of the circumference will be
the same as before, but the friction on the remaining one-third of the
circumference through which the fan is discharging its air will be very
small.
When the fan is discharging, then the air friction will stand as follows:—
Horse-power. Friction against sides ,.. ... ...
... ... ... 13-2
Do. do. two-thirds circumference ... ...
... 11#8
Do. do. remaining one-third circumference (say) ...
"6
Total......... 25-6
This 25'6 horse-power represents the work lost in air friction in a 45 feet
Gruibal fan when discharging air, and making forty revolutions per minute.
On the same day that these experiments were tried, experiments were also
tried in order to ascertain the maximum useful effect that could be obtained
from the fan when working to the greatest advantage.
The shutter being almost fully open, the separation doors in one of the
seams were gradually opened until the water-gauge in porch doors began to
fall, in this position the doors were fixed and the experiments taken.
Before giving the results of these experiments, it would perhaps be as well
to state the method adopted in making the experiments which are giver in
this paper.
98 ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
A pendulum, with vibrations corresponding to the number of strokes at which
the engine was desired to go, was fixed to swing with small vibrations near
to one end of the piston rod. When the beats of this pendulum and the
strokes of the piston rod were found to be exactly synchronous the indicator
diagram was taken and the water-gauge simultaneously observed. (In timing
with a watch there is a liability to error because the engine may be going
slower than the required speed at the beginning of the timing and faster at
the end, and yet make the requisite number of strokes in the minute during
which it is being timed.)
The number of strokes that the engine made during the time that the
measurement of the air took place were counted, and the volume of air
obtained reduced to the quantity it would be at the n^ = number of strokes
at which the indicator diagram Avas taken; the rule that the quantity of air
varies as the speed of the engine being assumed to be correct for the small
difference in the two speeds.
The drift was divided into sections of equal area, and time was called every
half minute, the anemometer was moved from section to section each half
minute so that there was no stoppage during the measurement, and the
measuring occupied as little time as possible.
The anemometers used were of the type commonly called Casella, and were
corrected by testing.
The following are the results of the experiments with the Rockingham fan:—
Guibal Fan, 45 feet diameter and 12 feet wide. Diameter op Inlet, 15
feet. Effective area of Piston, 1,000 square inches. Area of drift, 198
square feet.
w Average
§ . Indicated speed of
Quantity
3 d Average horse- fan Quantity as
when Water- Horse- Percent.
_0,g pressure power during measured by reduced to
gauge in power of useful
g"g r'^pv °^ measur- anemometer, speed in
first drift. in air. effect.
3 cylinder. engine. ing of
column.
" air.
Cubic feet. Cubic feet. 20 6-10 22-18 20£
82,332 80,982 '65 8-31 37'4
30 9-88 53-89 30 £ 119,773 117,810 1*44
26-78 497
40 15-79 114-84 39| 159,889 163,152 2-56
65*94 57'4
The writer thinks that these experiments show the maximum useful effect that
can be obtained at those speeds from that fan when working under the most
favourable conditions. They give the highest useful effect obtained out of
more than 30 experiments, tried by different persons at various times,
including experiments by Mr. D. P. Morison.
ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 99
It has been shown that at 40 revolutions the air friction was 25*6
horse-power; therefore, taking the last experiment, the air friction
absorbed 22 per cent, of the whole power employed. Thus, it was evident that
if a fan could be constructed which, while retaining those features that had
made the Guibal superior to other fans, did not waste so much of its energy
in air friction, it would give a higher percentage of useful effect than the
Guibal. Now, the only feasible way of reducing this friction was by reducing
the size of the fan; and in order to reduce the size of the fan, it was
necessary that it should discharge all round the circumference. If, when the
whole circumference discharged into one outlet tube there was a diminution
in the vacuum produced; then, to cause the same quantity of air to
circulate, the fan would have to be run at a greater speed; but as the work
spent on air friction increases as the cube of the speed, the saving through
reduction in the size of the fan would soon be lost on account of the extra
speed at which the fan would have to be run to get the same vacuum as the
large fan. With three outlets, however, as good a vacuum was got as by a
Guibal; five outlets were tried, but the increase in water-gauge over three
outlets, was hardly appreciable.
As the diameter of the fan was reduced, it became necessary to admit the air
through both sides of the fan casing, and a fan so constructed, with three
evase outlets, was found able to do the same work as a Guibal of double the
diameter; therefore, if the Guibal wastes 22 per cent, of the whole power
employed in air friction, a fan of the improved type will only waste 5^ per
cent., showing a saving of 16^ per cent, of the power; for the work spent on
air friction varies as the square of the radius of the fan, if the width and
radius of the fan are reduced in the same ratio.
For let p be the radius of the inlet opening to the fan, and E the radius to
tips of vanes in any fan, and let p bear always the same ratio to E; then,
if the distance between p and E be divided into any constant n.° = number of
rings, in every case the area of each ring will vary as E2; consequently,
the pressure required to overcome the friction of sides will vary as E2. So
if the width of the periphery bears always the same proportion to E, the
pressure required to overcome the friction of the periphery will vary as E2.
The following table compares the working of the two types of fans in
practice, at about the same periphery speed, and shows the distribution of
the work done.
N
VOL. XXXI.—1882.
"
100 ACCOUNT OP A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
Guibalfan, Eowlker and Watson's
Work spent on 45 feet by 12 feet,
8 feet 6 inohe'g by 3 feet
M revolutions. 150 revoluti0ns.
Horse-power. Per cent. Horse-power. Per cent.
Engine and fan journal friction ... 16'23 30-3
175 26"8
Ventilation (useful effect) ... 2678 497
419 64"0
Air friction and other loss ... 1078 20'0
"60 9-2
5379 100-0 654 100-0
The experiment on the C-uibal is the same as was brought forward earlier in
the paper. That on the other fan is one of a series of experiments tried in
January of this year, on one of Bowlker and Watson's fans, erected in June,
1881, at the Byron Colliery, near Haltwhistle.
The experiments were tried under the ordinary conditions of ventilation, and
are given below :—
Bowlker and Watson's fan, 8 feet 6 inches diameter, driven by one of
Marshall's portable
engines, with two 8i inch cylinders. Effective piston area 56 x 2 square
inches. Stroke 1 foot.
Barometer 28'60. Thermometer in drift 58.
Strokes of
Revolu- Quantity engine Quantity
Indicated Water v>PT
tionsof Revolu- of air as during reduced to Average
horse gauge Horse- ^F f
engine tionsof measured time of air speed in pressure in t,ower of
on power .^pi.Ji
per fan. by ane- measure- first
cylinders. %;„„.•„_ porch in air. °i~r
minute. mometer. ment column.
engine. doors, eneot. 4J minutes.
Cubic feet. Cubic feet. Lbs. i$sq in
Inches.
60 150 19,883 272 19737 16-06 6'54
1-35 4-19 64"0
80 200 25,252 365 24,906 2639 14-33
2-30 9'03 62-9
90 225 30,798 405 30,798 3571 23-81
2-85 13-83 63"4
The following were with the engine alone, the belt being taken off:—
Revolutions Average Pressure t„^-»„4.„j
of in Cylinders. Indicated
Engine Lbs. per Horse-power
per Minute. Square Inch. ot Jinglne'
20 -89 -12
40 1-22 -33
60 1-65 -67
90 2-08 1-27 '
ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 101
There are other minor features in this fan which help to increase its useful
effect. The vanes are curved in such a manner as to lose as little power as
possible through concussion of air. There is also a curved cast iron
diaphragm on the fan shaft. This it may be remarked is not a new-idea,
though it is wanting in most types of fans. It has been adopted in this one
in order to save as much of the kinetic energy of the entering air as
possible, whilst at the same time it materially adds to the rigidity of the
structure.
The writer would ask in conclusion, whether the experiments that have been
brought forward, and the facts that have been adduced do not go to prove
that a fan of the type herein named must, as was claimed at the beginning of
the paper, give from 10 to 15 per cent, more useful effect than the Guibal ?
The writer begs to thank Professor Aldis for his kindness in examining into
the correctness of the writer's investigation as to formula for air
friction; and also Mr. Henry Eichardson for affording facilities for trying
experiments with his fan; and Mr. Croudace, Mr. T. Croudaoe, and others who
have assisted in trying experiments. He must also acknowledge the help
derived from a perusal of the valuable papers communicated to the Institute
by Mr. W. Cochrane.
Note 1.—FRICTION OF AIR IN FANS. Let 0 be the axis of the fan; let OB be the
radius to the inner ends of vanes, and OC the radius to the outer ends, so
that the annulus of air between B and C is moved round by the fan vanes and
rubs against the sides of the fan casing, and also against the
circumference; and assume that there is no churning action, but that the
path of each particle of air is a circle, and the particle of air moves
along this circle with uniform velocity.
Let OB = P feet, OC = E feet.
Let the annulus be divided into an infinite number of concentric rings. Then
the area of any ring whose radius is r will be 2 tt r dr. Let 7c represent
the co-efficient of friction (in pounds), or the pressure required to
overcome the friction of the air on one square foot of rubbing surface for a
velocity in the air of 1,000 feet per minute.
Let w be the angular velocity of the fan per minute; then the velocity of
ring of radius r = w r feet per minute; then pressure required to overcome
friction on any ring
= 2 7T r dr x 7c x ( -^~ ) lbs. V 1,000/
3 02 ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING PAN.
The worlc done per minute in overcoming friction on each rino-
-{•*'** *x(p55J,}"'*-i|».
__ 2 7r r dr x fc x a3 r3 f, « 1,000,000 '
Therefore, total work done on one side of fan
2 7T W3 JC I ? - 9-„, 3Z.
Let B be the breadth of the fan at circumference, then work done on
circumference
= 2*11 xBx hx (~|)2x « E ft. lbs.
2 7t BR4 w 3h a „
= -I^oo^r ft-lbs-
Using these formulas we find in the case of a Guibal fan, in which R « 22-5
ft., and P = 7*5 ft., B = 12 ft.
Let to — 80 7r
Work spent per minute on friction of circumference—
w = 24**Ry ft. ibs.
1,000,000 Work on each side—
Work on both sides—
V' = Smm {«>™^03-23,780 } ft. lbs.
= PoWo (6'742>773>lbs-
Total work spent on air friction—
= j^L6j | 512000x97-41 J h ft. lbs.
= 535905245 h ft. lbs.
flow, from experiment it was found that this was equal to 31 h.p. .*. 31 x
33000 = 535905245 k Jc— 1023000 535905245 = -0019
ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING: FAN. 103
Note 2.—THE MODE OF CALCULATING THE FRICTION IN THE EXPERIMENTS.—FRICTION IN
BYRON FAN ENGINE.
The area of piston being 56 square inches, the friction per lb., per stroke,
may be estimated as follows—
Slide Blocks—
Pressure on slide = 56 x TV = 5"6 lbs.
Take co-efficient of friction (which call /t) = "1
Force required = 5 "6 x "1 — "56 lbs.
Work per stroke = -56 X 2 ft. = 1-12 ft. lbs.
Crank Pin—10 in. round.
Pressure on pin, say 60 lbs.
Take fi = -04
Force required = 60 x '04 = 2*4 lbs.
Work per stroke = 2-4 x -if ft. = 2 ft. lbs.
Crank Shaft Journals—10 in. round. Pressure 56 lbs. Take /i = -04
Force required = 56 x '04 — 2*24 lbs. moved through \% of a foot =
1*8 ft. lbs.
Crosshead— say -1 ft. lbs.
Total 1-1 + 2 + 1-8 + -1 = 5 ft. lbs. for each cylinder
or 10 ft. lbs. for the two cylinders. Thus the friction due to pressure on
piston is 10 ft. lbs. per stroke, per lb. pressure in cylinder.
Slide Valve—Area 34 sq. in., stroke 2\ in. Take p, = '2
Force required =34 x *2 = 6*8 lbs. Work per stroke = 6'8 x -& ft. = 2'8 ft.
lbs.
Eccentric—2\ ft. round. Take ^ = "05 Pressure = 6*8 lbs. Force required =
6'8 x "05 = "34 lbs.
moved through 2\ ft. = #76 ft. lbs. Total for slide valve and eccentric 3*56
ft. lbs. Total for the two do. 7" 12 ft. lbs.
and thus 7'12 lbs. is the friction per stroke, per lb. pressure on the slide
valve.
104 ACCOUNT OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
The above calculations are of course only approximate, as it is impossible
to ascertain what the exact co-efficient of friction is in any engine. The
weight and momentum of the moving parts also interfere more or less with the
pressures assumed.
From the above data the amount of friction in engine is thus found.
60 .Revolutions—Engine alone. Average pressure in cylinder T65 lbs. Ft.
lbs. of work 22,176
Ft. lbs.
Friction as pressure on piston 10 X 1*65 x 60 = 990 Friction as pressure
on valve 7*1 x 3*3 X 60 = 1,405
------ 2,395
Remainder—called "weight friction" (and con-^
sidered to be due simply to the weight and > 19,781 momentum of
moving parts.) J
The feiction at 60 Revolutions with Fan going then is—
Ft. lbs.
Weight friction...............19,781
As pressure on piston 10 x 16*06 x 60 ... 9,636 As pressure on
valve 7'1 x 21*0 x 60 ... 8,946
Due to belt friction and tension ...... 1,400
Fan journals (take jx = '03, weight = 4000 lbs.) 1 (ft. lbs. per rev. = 4000
x '03 = 120) 120 x 150 j '
57,763 or 1-75 H.P.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson read the following "Remarks on the Machinery at the
Skelton Park and Lumpsey Mines;"—
SKELTON PARK AKD LUMPSEY MINES. 105
REMARKS ON THE POINTS OF INTEREST AT THE SKELTON PARK AND LUMPSEY MINES, ON
THE OCCASION OF THE VISIT OF THE INSTITUTE, SEPTEMBER 16th, 1881.
By A. L. STEAVENSON.
--------- *
At the first or Skelton Park Mine especially noticeable is the system of
mechanical drilling of the shot holes, and the haulage by endless rope on
the underground main roads—in both cases by compressed air.
The air compressor, which is placed on the surface, has air and steam
cylinders, both of 22 inches diameter and 6 feet stroke. The air, usually
compressed to 45 or 50 lbs. per square inch, is taken down the shaft 60
fathoms, and 450 yards in-bye, in 9-inch pipes and distributed, by smaller
ones, to three districts, in each of which there is a drilling machine to
every eight or nine working places.
The total cubic capacity of the receiver and pipes is at present 2,041 feet,
and the displacement of the air cylinder 31*2 cubic feet per revolution.
As the use of compressed air has never hitherto gone much beyond the mere
description of machinery in the Transactions, it may be well to look into
the practical and theoretical considerations which are incident to its use.
Notwithstanding that the engineers on the Continent have for many years
recognised the great loss of useful effect which follows compression without
adequate cooling appliances in the shape of jets of water spray, such as are
here applied in the cylinder, few English compressors will be found having
anything better than the ordinary water bath; so serious is this that at 75
lbs. effective pressure the excess of work to be developed amounts to 25 per
cent., and even at the more usual pressure of 45 lbs. per square inch it
equals very nearly 20 per cent. To remedy this, all that is required is to
inject into the cylinder about 1 gallon of water per 100 cubic feet of air
compressed. The temperature due to this pressure is about 350 degrees
Fahrenheit, but by the spray it is maintained steadily at not more than 80
degrees.
-
106 REMARKS ON THE POINTS OF INTEREST AT THE
Still, when these matters are carefully attended to, compressed air, if used
without expansion, leads to a great loss of power. The work given out soon
reaches a limit which cannot be exceeded, whatever may be the pressure of
the air or the energy expended.
The great error made in using high pressure where it can possibly be
avoided, was clearly shown some time ago by Mons. Trasenter, of Liege. He
puts it this way :—
" The maximum of work given out (increasing the compression indefinitely and
without taking into consideration the elevation of temperature due to this
compression) cannot exceed the energy given out hy the volume of air acted
on by the piston of the blowing cylinder, working with an effective pressure
of one atmosphere. This law is easily demonstrated—
Let p = the pressure of the atmosphere—10,333 kilograms per square metre. P
— do. do. compressed air. V and v = their corresponding
volumes. Then P = n p, or V = n v. The work which this air is able to give
out theoretically is (P — p) v = P v — p v and, as P v = p V, it follows
that
P v — p v =p (V— v) = p V (1-----).
Therefore, a cubic metre of air compressed to no matter what pressure can
only give out a power equal to
p x 1 or 10,333 kilogrammetres
when — = 0, or when n is infinite, whilst the same cube compressed only to
two
atmospheres gives out
T = 10,333 (1 = i) = 10,333 x | kilogrammetres.
The quantity of power which a cubic metre of air compressed to a million
atmospheres is capable of yielding, without taking the rise of temperature
into consideration, can never become double that which the same quantity of
air compressed to two atmospheres is capable of yielding.
Air compressed to four atmospheres will give out a power proportional to (1
— |) or f, whereas to obtain a power equal to 1, a compression infinitely
great is necessary.
In another form the work given out may be expressed by the following
logarithmic formula—
T = p V log. nap, n — that is to say that it increases as the powers of n.
The following formula then expresses the ratio of the work done to the power
expended—
^(l-l 1-1
T7T _ n I _ _______ji____
p V 2-303 log. n ~ 2-303 log. » by writing nx instead of n we obtain
2-303 x log. n
SKELTON PARK AND LUMPSEY MINES. 107
The power expended increases as the powers of n while the work done can
never attain unity, but may be represented by an asymtotic curve, or
hyperbola.
By giving to x values ranging from 1 to 6, and to n the value 2, it will be
found that— E = 0-72 for 2 atmospheres when x = 1 0'54 „ 4 ,,
,, x = 2
0-42 „ 8 „ „ x = 3
0 34 „ 16 x = 4
0'28 „ 32 x = 5
0-23 „ 64 x = 6
As a matter of engineering interest it may be mentioned that at present, in
order to conduct the air from the compressor down the shaft to the hauling
engine and drills in three different districts, there are—
1,101 yards of ............ 9 inch pipes.
640 „ ... 6
WO » ............ 2 „
6?° n ............ 11 „
And to test the amount of leakage, when the pressure is raised to 55 lbs.,
it falls back
1 atmosphere in ............ 50 minutes.
2 „ „ ......... 2 hours 6 „
3 „ „ ......... 3 ,. 35 „
3| or total pressure......... 6 „
This seems a great loss, but with such a large number of small pipes and
having above 1,000 joints, such a drawback to the system seems inevitable,
and can be only met by frequent tests and strict attention to details.
MECHANICAL DRILLING:.
The ordinary mode in Cleveland is by hand drilling, holes varying from 3 to
5 feet in depth, triangular in form, and 1$ inches on each side. A good man
can drill 6 feet per hour, but not continuously throughout his shift.
From statistics the writer got when preparing some evidence, he found that
29 hand-drilled holes were equal to 94 feet in length, that they were
charged with 684 ounces of powder, which occupied 33 feet, the stemming
filling up the remainder—roughly, the powder equals ^ of the length of the
hole, which is equal to 20f ounces of powder per foot or 7*27 ounces per
foot drilled.
Then, as other statistics show, each ton of ironstone requires 6 ounces
of powder, —r = 114 tons of stone; 94 feet of hole = 114 tons or 1*21 b
tons per foot drilled.
A miner averages 5| tons of stone per day, which gives 4'55 feet
drilled per man per day; this latter amount of 6 ounces per ton of iron-
VOL XXXI.—1883.
O
108 REMARKS ON THE POINTS OP INTEREST AT THE
stone is the average of the district, but in this mine it is nearly 8
ounces, making 6 feet of drilling per day per man, the remainder of his work
consisting in breaking up the stone and filling it into wagons.
With a view of ascertaining whether any saving could be effected in the
amount of labour required by such a large amount of drilling, Messrs. Bell
Brothers, after having experimented upon a variety of other drills,
eventually adopted those now in use, in the year 1876, which are the
invention and patent of Mr. W. Walker, of Saltburn-by-the-Sea. They were
designed solely for the Cleveland ironstone, and were the first kind of
mechanical drills practically and successfully proved to achieve the object
sought. They were first used at Staughon Mines, where Mr. Walker worked them
himself: Messrs. Bell Brothers commencing to use them afterwards. Messrs.
Pease, and Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan, and Co. afterwards introduced, and have
since continued the use of, the percussive machines.
Mr. Walker has recently made some modification in his machines, and has some
of the altered designs working at the Boosbeck Mines, where he is getting
over 80 tons per shift from one machine. The stone is very hard at this
place, and requires as much powder as at the Park, or neighbouring mines.
In Plate XIII., which shows the altered form of the machine, a: * is a
strong bogy, which has a hollow upright a attached, of a height suitable to
the seam; on each side of this upright is a slot y y. Closely fitting this
upright are two circular tables z z, provided with feathers fitting in the
slots or grooves y y; these tables are attached to two bars w, Fig. 2,
provided with two bosses 11, in which work the two screws v v, so that when
the screws are caused to turn round they move the tables z z up or down as
may be required; the motion is given to the screws by means of bevelled
gearing and the handle c, which can be applied to either screw by affixing
it either to the spindle r or s.
Above the tables z z are two wrought iron frames b b, which also embrace the
upright a, so that they can be moved round in any direction, and are secured
to z z by means of the bolts and hooks mm; to these frames arms q q are
attached by the bolts o o, and to these again the two drilling machines, by
means of the screws p p and the clamps h h. By these arrangements it will be
seen that the drilling machines can be moved up or down, or in any other
direction that may be required.
The drilling machine is a very simple and pretty contrivance. It consists of
a casting in which are the two air cylinders 5| inches diameter and 2%
inches stroke at a b, which however are not shown, being hidden by
SKELTON PARK AND LUMPSEY MINES. 109
the frame; the air is carried to them by the cock m. These cylinders work a
crank axle n, which is geared by means of a pinion into a wheel f which
drives a sleeve d, provided with feathers working in grooves cut in the
screwed spindle i, in the ratio of 1-75 to 1. The axle is also geared on the
other side by means of a pinion and wheel e in a ratio of 2-4 to 1; this
wheel e is attached to a nut which works over the screw i, which has four
threads to one inch; this nut is kept in its place by the bearing c, and
either remains stationary or not as the clutch h may happen to be
disconnected or in gear. When disconnected the nut is stationary, and the
drill advances 1 foot for every 4 x 12 x 1/75 = 84 revolutions of the
engine. When, however, the wheel e is in gear, the nut advances in the same
direction, and checks the advance of the drill at the rate of
84
stt = 35 x \ = 8*75 inches; the difference, 3*25 inches, been the actual
advance. When the drill enters the rock, this clutch is put in gear, and is
taken out when the drill is withdrawn. The drill g is fixed to the driving
screw i by means of a universal joint, so that it may alter its direction
with any difference that may arise in the nature of the rock to impede its
progress, a' V are the exhaust holes, I is a wheel which serves as a
starting gear, and lc' is a counterbalance weight.
A machine of this description is now being made for Messrs. Bell Brothers;
whilst others are also to be applied by Messrs. Palmer & Co., at the Port
Mulgrave and Grinkle Mines.
With a pressure of 40 lbs., holes are drilled at the rate of 2 feet per
minute 2 inches in diameter, which allow the powder to get well to the
bottom of the hole and they act as efficiently as the triangular holes made
by the miners.
Each drill is in charge of one skilled miner who has with him an assistant,
and in a shift of 8 hours they put in about 20 holes, averaging from 4 to 5
feet in depth. After they leave the place they are followed by a skilled
miner who charges and fires the shots; labourers then break up and fill the
ironstone, so that two skilled men do the work usually requiring nine.
Seven or eight working places are set apart for each machine; at the present
time three are at work, and as they each work two shifts per day, the total
production somewhat exceeds 300 tons.
The tons per hole were found over a long period to average 2 98 and the cost
for powder 2*03d. The drill consists of a twisted augur-shaped tool, made
from an oval bar of steel specially manufactured for the purpose, the result
being such that it is intended to increase the use of them.
110 EEMARKS ON THE POINTS OF INTEREST AT THE
At the mines of the other owners previously mentioned, they have adopted
drills with a percussion action, such as the Burleigh and Ingersoll, but the
nature of the ironstone is such that unless water at a high pressure is
injected into the hole it quickly forms a pasty mass which chokes it and
stops the operation, so that they have the double trouble and expense of
conveying water as well as air throughout the workings. HAULAGE BY ENDLESS
ROPE.
The system of endless rope working has been described in the well-known
report on "Underground Haulage" (Volume XVII.)
Its great value consists in the slow continuous movement, in the almost
total absence of friction, in the movement of the rope, and in the
advantages obtained from any part of the road having a gradient in favour of
the load instead of great lengths of the rope being dragged at high speeds
varying from 10 to 20 miles per hour over rollers, the whole length and
weight is carried by the wagons. Its advantage had been well tested by the
writer at Pagebank Colliery, where the rope is carried on the top of the
tubs; but in this district the wagons are so heavily loaded that the stone
projects 15 inches above them, and it was therefore necessary to design an
attachment underneath. This has been very successfully done by means of an
arrangement shown in Plates XIV. and XV.
The cylinder of the engine which drives the rope, is only 12 inches diameter
by 18 inches stroke, and is connected by bevel gearing to an upright shaft,
which carries a 6-foot clip sheave, and this, with an indicated power of 7
horses, is sufficient on a level road to bring out 750 tons per day a
distance of 800 yards. Each wagon carries about 35 cwts., and its resistance
is about 40 pounds per ton.
The writer acknowledges that compressed air does not afford a high, useful
effect; but, in mines, steam engines and boilers are the indirect cause of
much greater expense, often coupled with danger.
Plate XIV. shows the self-acting attaching apparatus, which consists of a
bent lever a, working between a split rail x; this lever is keyed on a
socket sliding on the shaft b, which it turns by means of feathers, on which
are also keyed two other levers c and d; the lever c has a roller which
lifts the rope when a is depressed by the tub running over it when the lever
d with its roller e rubbing against the bevelled upright / draws the shaft b
and the lever c with the rope towards the hook h into which it falls after
the wagon has passed.
When it is decided not to attach the tubs to the ropes the lever a can be
withdrawn from between the split rail by the handle g. In order that the
hook h may be always in the position to receive the rope a piece of
SKELTON PARK AND LUMPSEY MINES. Ill
angle iron h, working on a pivot y and kept in position by a weight and
pulley o w, is placed in a slanting position between the rails; this catches
the hook in whatever position it may be in when the tub comes up and turns
it round till it is in the position shown at Fig. 3.
The detaching apparatus, Plate XV., is much more simple, and consists of the
lever a working between split rails and actuated by the passing tub. This
turns the shaft d, raises the lever b, and lifts the rope out of the hook
7c. During the time a slight divergence made in the line of rail causes the
hook to move aside from the rope which then drops when released by the lever
b.
LUMPSEY SHAFTS.
The number of shafts sunk in the northern districts has been of late years
so very small that it was chiefly to give the younger members of this
Institution an opportunity of visiting sinking pits that the invitation was
offered.
The strata of the district is of course much milder in its character than in
the coal-field. Mr. John Marley, in his Paper, Vol. V., page 1C5, on the "
Cleveland Ironstone," gives all the necessary geological description of it;
but it is in the porous soft nature of the strata that the great difficulty
in sinking pits consists, as so little suitable rock for making crib beds is
met with.
The sinking of two 15 feet pits commenced on the 26th April, 1880, and the
ironstone, at a depth of 94 fathoms, was reached 3rd November, 1881.
During this time feeders of water, amounting to 1,700 gallons per minute,
were passed through, and nearly 60 fathoms of tubbing put in.
is it was always intended to tub off the water, a temporary pumping engine
only was erected, consisting of two 24 inch cylinders by 4 feet stroke,
geared 3 to 1, with 45 pounds steam pressure.
The pumps, one 20 inch set and one 18 inch set, both worked in the bottom.
1.—At 6 fathoms 3 feet ... The walling and ring crib ... Figs. 1
and 2, Plate XVI. 2.— ,, 16 „ 2 „ ... Single crib, 20" x
6", laid but
failed to hold the water, 400
gallons per minute ... ... „ 3 „ 4. „
3.— ,, 27 „ 3 ., ... Single crib, 20" x 6", held the
water. „ 3 „ 4,
4.— ,, 34 „ 3 „ ... „ „ „ „ proved
bad... „ 3 „ 4, „ 5.— „ 37 „ 0 „ ... 4th
double crib laid, this stopped
200 gallons ......... „ 5 „
6.— ,, 51 „ 5 „ ... 5th double crib laid, 22" x 6"
and 20" x 6"......... „ 5 „
7.— ,, 55 „ 0 „ ... 6th double crib laid, 22" x 6"
5
and 22" x 6"......... „ 2
112 REMARKS ON THE POINTS OF INTEREST AT THE
Below this the alum shale or upper lias and the jet rock, being of a soft
impervious nature, contained no water, but in the lower part much
inflammable gas.
The cribbing is shown in detail in Plate XVI. The ring crib, Fig. 1, is
about 4 feet 7^- inches across the inner arc, and has a ring or gutter a to
collect any water that may run down the walls of the shaft; it is 1-| inches
thick all over. Figs. 3 and 4 show the three single cribs, Fig. 4 being a
section through A B, Fig. 3; these cribs are also 1^- inches thick. The
three bottom double cribs are shown in Fig. 5, the top one being 22 inches
wide, and the bottom one 20 inches, the plan being the same for all, as
shown in Fig. 3. Both the single and the double cribs have escape valves c,
Figs. 3 and 5, to release the air as it escapes from the back of the
tubbing; where the double cribbing is used, the top crib has simply a hole
cast in it to allow the projecting part of the bottom to pass through. The
tubbing is shown in Plate XYIL, Figs. 1 and 2. The tubbing of the first
twenty fathoms was made f inch thick; the second twenty, f inch thick, and
the last twenty, 1 inch thick. Every segment of tubbing has a hole x in its
centre, fitted with a wooden plug, which can be bored out when it is desired
to tap the tubbing.
When a suitable place is found to lay the various cribs, the diameter of the
shaft is widened out and the bed carefully levelled all round; the segments
are then placed in position on the stone; between each segment a piece of \
inch deal sheeting is placed, and behind, pieces of deal are carefully
packed. As soon as the whole is laid it is wedged tight by driving in wooden
wedges both behind and in the joint. The tubbing is wedged in, in a similar
manner. Fig. 2, Plate XX., shows how the tubbing is finished off at the
bottom where it rests upon the last double crib. The last row but one of
tubbing a is widened out at its bottom flange, the last row b has both top
and bottom flanges as wide as the bottom flange of a, and in suitable places
has pockets cast in it to carry the ends of the wrought girders a, Fig. 1,
which support the cistern and the whole weight of the pumps which are placed
within them. This row of tubbing again rests on the double cribs c d.
Dynamite, on account of its efficiency under water, was almost entirely
used; in the pumping shaft 2,029 shots were fired and a great number of
shifts were worked by sinkers, including all work at the tubbing and
pumps.
The mine,when fully opened, is intended to produce 1,500 tons in 8 hours.
The winding engines, built by John Fowler and Co., will consist of a pair of
42 inch cylinders with 6 feet stroke, with a conical drum increasing from 17
feet to 21 feet.
SKELTON PARK AND LUMPSEY MINES. 113
Number of coils on the spiral, 10.
Tons. Cwts.
Weight of eage and chains ... ... 3 0
Two empty tubs ... ... ... 1 4
Two tubs of ironstone ... ... ... 3 8
Rope from pullies ... ... ... 1 0
Gross load ...... 8 12
Time in drawing, 30 sees.; time in changing, 25 sees. Distance of drum to
centre of pit shaft, 115 feet;—and the whole placed upon a concrete pillar,
composed of 12 parts of freestone to 1 of cement.
It will be observed that one or two of the cribs failed to hold the water.
This was not so much from the character of the stone as from the shaft
having been sunk on a fault.
Plate XVIII. shows the general arrangement of the sinking machinery at the
surface; a is the main jack engine-house used for raising the men, stone,
rubbish, &c.j b is the pumping engine-house. The engine has two cylinders 24
inches diameter by 4 feet stroke, it is geared 3 to 1, and is worked with
steam at 45 lbs. pressure, c is the crab engine-house— this engine has two
14 inch cylinders with 2 feet stroke, and they work the crab by means of a
screw and worm, wheel.
Plate XIX. shows the mode of hanging the sets by means of ground blocks, and
tackle a b, and Plate XX. shows the mode in which the pumps and cisterns are
supported by the tubbing.
The strata passed through is given in the following table :—
LUMPSEY STRATA ACCOUNT.
Fs. Ft. In. Fs. Ft. In.
Soil.................. 4 0
Gravel ............... 1 5 0 ... 2 3 0
Soft yellow friable freestone ...... 100... 3 30
Yellow freestone ............ 3 0 1 ... 6 3 1
Soft blue metal ............ 3 5 0 ... 10 2 1
Grey freestone, with a little water ... 5 6 ...
11 1 7
Soft blue metal ............ 5 0 ... 12 0 7
Small band of coal............ 6 ... 12 1 1
Soft blue metal, with a little water ... 3 1 3 ...
15 2 4
Grey freestone, water on the increase ... 3 3 5 ... 18
5 9
Dark brown freestone, with water ... 5 8 ...
19 5 5
Soft grey shale ............ 119 ... 21 1 2
Freestone, with a little water ...... 3 2 9 ... 24
311
Soft metal............... 2 0 6 ... 26 4 5
Grey post............... 3 0 ... 27 1 5
Grey shale............... 1 0 ... 27 2 5
Grey shale............... 4 0 ... 28 0 5
.4 REMARKS ON THE POINTS OF INTEREST AT THE
Fa. Ft. In. Fs. Ft. In.
Strong grey post, with water ... ... 2 0 ...
28 2 5
Dark grey shale ............ 4 0 ... 29 0 5
Grey post, with shale partings ... ... 5 1 ...
29 5 6
Soft dark shale, with jet veins ... ... 1 1 11 ...
31 1 5
Grey post, with water from it ... ... 1 3 6 ...
32 4 11
Soft hlue metal ............ 5 6 ... 33 4 5
Grey post, or bastard ironstone ... ... 1 3 ...
33 5 8
Dark metal............... 2 0 ... 34 1 8
Dark shale............... 1 0 ... 34 2 8
Grey metal............... 13 7 ... 36 0 3
Mild grey post, with water...... 1 8 ... 36 1 11
Dark grey metal do. ... ... 3 4
... 36 5 3
Mild grey post, shale partings, water,
320 gallons per minute ...... 1 4 6J ... 38 3
94
*Hard strong grey post, with partings and
water............... 2 0 0 ... 40 3 9J
fGreypost............... 1 3 5i ... 42 1 3
Fine-grained white freestone ... ... 239... 44 50
Grey post, with partings ... ... • ... 1 0 6
... 45 5 6
Dark grey metal, with soft grey partings 3 4 5 ... 49
311 Grey metal, with post girdle, very much
convulsed ............ 12 0 ... 50 5 11
Dark seggar ... ... ... ... 2
0 ... 51 1 11
Dark grey metal ... ... ... ... 2 5 6...
54 15
Bastard limestone ... ... ... «... 6
... 54 1 11
Alum shale............... 8 0 10 ... 62 2 9
Shale or dogger rock ......... 14 5 3 ... 77 2
0
Jet shale, with dogger balls ...... 606... 83 26
Strong grey shale............ 1 8 ... 83 4 2
Jet shale, with cement balls ...... 4 2 10 ... 88
1 0
Dark grey shale ............ 4 16 ... 92 2 6
Grey shale, stronger and lighter coloured 2 0 ... 92
4 6
Grey shale, darker coloured ... ... 5 10 ...
93 4 4
Dogger ............... 2 0 ... 94 0 4
Ironstone (Main Seam) ......... 13 6 ... .95 3 10
Black hard............... 5 6 ... 96 3 4
Peclenband............... 1 2 ... 96 4 6
Dark grey shale ............ 10 0... 97 4 6
Ironstone (Bottom Seam)......... 3 0 ... 98 1 6
Dark grey shale ............ 2 2 6 ...100 4 0
Gannister ............... 6 ... 100 4 6
Strong grey shale............ 3 6 ...101 2 0
* 360—1,000 gallons per minute. t 1,000—1,500 gallons per minute.
SKELTON PAEK AND LUMPSEY MIXES. 115
The President was sure that every gentleman who, like himself, enjoyed the
delightful visit to Cleveland, which was arranged by Mr. Steavenson, would
be very glad to hear these interesting particulars of what they saw on that
day. He proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Steavenson for his paper.
Mr. E. F. Boyd seconded the motion, which was unanimously agreed to.
The President said Mr. J. W. Swan, who was announced to exhibit and describe
his portable electric mining lamp, was unable to attend on account of
illness, which they all regretted; but his assistant, Mr. Payne, was
present, and would explain the lamp in the Chemical Lecture Room of the
College of Physical Science.
Mr. J. Buxton Payne read the following paper, written by Mr. J. W. Swan:—
VOL. XXXI.-1882
P
ELECTRIC
SAFETY-LAMP.
117
ON AN ELECTRIC SAFETY-LAMP, WITH PORTABLE SECONDARY BATTERY.
By J. W. SWAN.
At a previous meeting of the Institute the writer showed an electric
safety-lamp, which was the first attempt ever made, he believed, to adopt
the incandescent form of electric light to the purposes of mine
illumination. Since then, modifications in the form of the lantern
containing the lamp have been proposed by Mr. Crompton, by Messrs. Graham,
and by Mr. Jamieson. The lamp which is exhibited to-day is a still further
development of the idea. Both lamp and lantern are much smaller than the
original lamp shown to the Institute, in fact than any other of the same
class.
The lamp, for the construction of which, in the present diminutive form, he
was indebted to the skill of Mr. Gimmingham, is calculated to give the light
of two or three candles. It is so attached to the conducting wires that good
contact is made with them, and the renewal of the lamp can be effected with
great ease.
As to the lantern, it is compact and light: it consists of but few parts,
and these are of a simple and inexpensive character. It has a ring a (Plate
XXI.) at each end for suspension in either an upward or a downward position;
and there is a screw central contact ~b, to connect the lantern with the
cable containing the conducting wires in communication with the apparatus
generating the electric current.
In connection with the lamp there is the striking novelty of a portable
electricity-generating apparatus in the nature of a secondary battery,
contained in a small wooden box, which renders the safety-lamp independent
of the main wires conveying the current from a distant dynamo-electric
machine.
The dynamo-electric machine wrould, however, still be required, even with
the portable cells .- for what is contemplated is that the portable
secondary cells contained in the box should be taken to the dynamo to be
charged by its action, and that, after being so charged, these portable
stores of energy should be sent into the pit workings on trucks, there to be
connected with the lamps
118 DISCUSSION—ELECTRIC SAFETY-LAMP.
Such a set of cells as that now exhibited will keep the lamp lighted for
over one hour; probably, a set weighing about 20lbs. would keep it lighted
for eight hours. When the energy of the cell has become exhausted, it can be
restored an indefinite number of times by being put in communication with
the dynamo-electric machine before mentioned, which may be supposed to be in
a central and safe position in the pit.
The actual cost of supplying the current and keeping the lamp lighted would
be very small—probably less than the cost of oil for producing an equal
amount of light by means of the ordinary pit lamps. The most serious cost
would be for the plant for the dynamo and engine, for the boxes of cells,
and for labour in transporting them to and from the place where they were
used. The writer is sorry he cannot give even an idea of this part of the
cost of applying the system. It is very possible—it is even very
prohalle—that the store cells may be improved, so as to render them less
bulky and heavy and less costly: so much so that the writer has preferred to
wait a short time before submitting drawings of them to the Institute for
publication until the improvements suggested by experience have been made.
The weight of the lamp is l^lbs., and the weight of the box 9^1bs.
The lamp, it is hoped, will be considered much improved since the first one
was shown, and be found to have reached a very practical and satisfactory
form.
As regards the source of electric power, the writer realizes, almost as
strongly as anyone, that the details of that porti on of the scheme require
farther development; and one of the objects in view in exhibiting this
imperfect apparatus to the members of the Institute to-day is the advantage
of obtaining criticism and advice, guided, as it will be, by that practical
knowledge which only miners can possess, and which is looked to as likely to
be of assistance in producing a still more complete solution to an
interesting and important problem.
Mr. Payne, in reply to questions, could hardly say with certainty whether,
if the lantern was accidently broken in a fiery mine, it would explode gas;
breaking the wire connecting the lamp to the source of power certainly
would. He understood that some experiments had been made with the lamp in
the neighbourhood of Nottingham which went to prove that the breakage of the
lamp would fire gas; but Mr. Lindsay Wood's information did not seem to
confirm this.
DISCUSSION—ELECTRIC SAFETY-LAMP. 119
Mr. Ross said the lamp would be made safer by covering it with wire gauze.
If the lamp was broken in its present condition the carbon would be in a
white heat for a moment, and, in a suitable atmosphere, an explosion could
not be avoided. If there was gauze round the lamp the flame would not pass
out.
Mr. Cochrane suggested that a request be made to Mr. Swan to allow a lamp to
be broken in an explosive mixture, and then they would see whether an
explosion took place or not. It could be done at the expense of the
Institute, and a few pounds would be well spent.
The President—One experiment would hardly prove anything unless it caused
the gas to fire. It would require a great many to prove that an explosion
would not occur if the glass were broken.
Professor Herschel asked whether the lamp could not be fixed permanently to
the box, so that the use of wires could be avoided, and one source of danger
be thus removed.
Mr. Payne said that two or three weeks ago Mr. Swan prepared a sketch, with
the lamp placed on the top of the box, which would do away with wires
altogether.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Swan for his kindness in
sending the lamp and preparing the description. They regretted that Mr. Swan
had not been able to attend, but he had been well represented by Mr. Payne.
He thought this was one step towards the practical solution of the
difficulties attending electric lighting underground; and hoped it would be
carried further, and that, in the end, they might have a perfect lamp, not
only to afford an excellent light underground, but also to make themselves
perfectly safe with it. He saw one difficulty, and that was that they would
not know what sort of atmosphere they were working in until they felt the
effects on their breath.
Mr. Lindsay Wood seconded the vote of thanks, and it ^as unanimously passed.
The meeting then separated.
PROCEEDINGS. 121
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, APRIL 22nd, 1882, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
G. BAKER FORSTER, Esq., President, in the Chair.
The Assistant-Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported
the proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Associates— Mr. George N. Vitanoff, Messrs. Hawks, Crawshay, & Sons,
Gateshead. Mr. John Douglas, Sen., Seghill Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland.
Mr. John Douglas, Jun., do. do. do.
Mr. John G. A. Macdonald, Warora Colliery, Central Provinces, India. Mr.
Charles Cockson, Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan.
Student— Mr. Francis W. Green, Harton Colliery Offices, South Shields.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Ordinary Member— Mr. John Harbottle, Manager, Skelton Park Mines,
Marske-by-the-Sea.
Associate— Mr. Richard L. Weeks, Willington, Co. Durham.
Student—¦ Mr. Charles Forster, Backworth House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
The President then read the following address:—
VOL. XXXI.—1882.
^
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 123
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
Gentlemen,—In addressing you to-day, my first duty is to return you my
sincere thanks for the honour you have done me in electing me to the
position of President of your Institution. I could have wished that your
choice had fallen on some one more competent to discharge the duties of this
responsible post; but I will use my best efforts to follow in the footsteps
of those who have preceded me, and I trust that the members of the Institute
will assist me as much as possible in my efforts to ensure its prosperity
and to carry out the objects for which it was founded.
I need not say that one of the principal of these objects was the attainment
of a greater degree of safety in the working of our mines; and I propose,
therefore, in the first place to glance at what has been done in this
direction within the last few years.
The terrible and overwhelming calamities which, notwithstanding all the
scientific appliances and improvements of the present day, have continued to
overtake our collieries, induced the Government to issue, in 1879, a Royal
Commission to enquire into accidents in mines, and the possible means of
preventing their occurrence or limiting their disastrous consequences.
The names of the Commissioners are a sufficient guarantee that the enquiry
will be most complete and exhaustive; indeed the list of subjects on which
the Commissioners required information, and the fact that they are
personally making various investigations and experiments, show that their
report will embrace all that is known on the subject or can be devised to
attain the object in view.
Naturally, we are all anxiously expecting this report, but the work is
evidently such that much time will be required, and it is satisfactory to
know that the Commissioners are determined to carry on their researches
until they have thoroughly investigated all points bearing on the subject.
They have, however, issued a preliminary report, with a summary of the
evidence taken, the heads of which show the great range of their enquiry and
the pains they have taken to elicit the opinions and experience of men of
all classes connected with coal mining.
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
123
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
Gentlemen,—In addressing you to-day, my first duty is to return you my
sincere thanks for the honour you have done me in electing me to the
position of President of your Institution. I could have wished that your
choice had fallen on some one more competent to discharge the duties of this
responsible post; but I will use my best efforts to follow in the footsteps
of those who have preceded me, and I trust that the members of the Institute
will assist me as much as possible in my efforts to ensure its prosperity
and to carry out the objects for which it was founded.
I need not say that one of the principal of these objects was the attainment
of a greater degree of safety in the working of our mines; and I propose,
therefore, in the first place to glance at what has been done in this
direction within the last few years.
The terrible and overwhelming calamities which, notwithstanding all the
scientific appliances and improvements of the present day, have continued to
overtake our collieries, induced the Government to issue, in 1879, a Eoyal
Commission to enquire into accidents in mines, and the possible means of
preventing their occurrence or limiting their disastrous consequences.
The names of the Commissioners are a sufficient guarantee that the enquiry
will be most complete and exhaustive; indeed the list of subjects on which
the Commissioners required information, and the fact that they are
personally making various investigations and experiments, show that their
report will embrace all that is known on the subject or can be devised to
attain the object in view.
Naturally, we are all anxiously expecting this report, but the work is
evidently such that much time will be required, and it is satisfactory to
know that the Commissioners are determined to carry on their researches
until they have thoroughly investigated all points bearing on the subject.
They have, however, issued a preliminary report, with a summary of the
evidence taken, the heads of which show the great range of their enquiry and
the pains they have taken to elicit the opinions and experience of men of
all classes connected with coal mining.
124 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
Before leaving this subject, I would wish to point out that the
Commissioners, in alluding to the annual number of deaths caused by
accidents in coal mines, observe that whilst the total number of deaths
remains almost the same, the number of persons employed has nearly doubled
during the last thirty years; so that, as compared with the numbers of the
persons employed, the loss of life has been reduced by one half.
The Commissioners express a strong opinion that this beneficial result is to
be attributed to the action of legislation and the spirit of enquiry and
emulation fostered by local scientific Institutes of Mining Engineers.
We cannot but consider this to be a very high tribute to the efficiency of
your Institute, which was the first of such societies, and it should
encourage us to give our most earnest attention to all subjects which bear
on the increased safety of our mines and their proper development and
working.
In considering this question of safety, an efficient ventilation, or
quantity of air, though by no means the only requirement, is certainly one
of the most necessary, if not the most important; and, naturally, the first
thing to consider is the best means of producing a sufficient current of air
in our pits.
In the early years of the existence of the Institute, the chief discussions
on this point were as to what was the best means of attaining this end, and
the power to be applied for this purpose, whether furnace, fan, or steam
jet.
I think we may now consider that the fan occupies the first position, except
perhaps for very deep mines, where the furnace still holds its own; and the
chief point of discussion during late years has been as to the best form of
ventilating fan, whether it should be one acting by centrifugal force or by
direct displacement of the air; whether open running, discharging direct
into the atmosphere, or running in a case with a confined outlet; and
whether the required velocity of the periphery is to be attained by a large
diameter of fan, or by using a small fan at a high velocity.
Various papers have been read and discussed before your Institute showing
the merits of the different forms of fan now in use, but it was felt that a
satisfactory comparison could not be made, owing to the experiments, the
results of which were given, having been carried out by different observers
on different bases, and to some extent under varying conditions.
In consequence of this, a committee was appointed by your Institute to
experiment on ventilating fans of several descriptions.
Under the auspices of this committee many fans were carefully and
systematically tested. The results of these experiments were given in the
report presented last year.
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 125
Though the committee, following the custom of the Institute in such cases,
did not express any opinion as to which is the best of the fans experimented
on, they have given full particulars of the working and powers of each,
which will enable any one to select the form most suitable for his purpose.
It is satisfactory to observe that the difference is mainly in the economy
of working, and the useful effect which in several cases was found to exceed
50 per cent.; and it may be observed that these maximum effects are obtained
when the respective fans are doing the larger work. Unfortunately, in
several cases, the work done was not sufficient fairly to test the actual
merits of these respective ventilating machines.
Having secured an efficient ventilating power however, we have only taken
the first step towards the desired end; we have, as it were, secured the raw
elements of an army which it is necessary to drill and organise if it is to
be of any use to us.
The first thing to be done is to get the air into the face of the workings,
where it is required to combat our great enemy—gas, and to preserve the
salubrity of the mine.
This very important point merits the greatest attention and care, and if not
sufficiently attended to, through a deficiency in stoppings, leakages at
doors, crossings, etc., will soon reduce a powerful ventilation to an
insignificant current before it reaches the face, where its work is really
to to be done.
The proper distribution of the air in the workings is the next point to be
arrived at, and it has been carefully elaborated by general practice until
it has reached the system in use at the present day.
According to the evidence of the late Mr. Buddie given before the Select
Committee of the House of Lords, in 1835, the only system of ventilation
known in the coal trade up to about the year 1760, was to carry the air in
one current round the face of the workings, thus ventilating the extremities
of the mine but leaving the centre or waste entirely unventilated.
At that time, Mr. Spedding, of Whitehaven, introduced the system of coursing
the air, which, as you all know, consists in taking the air up and down the
several sheths of workings, so that no particular passage or working was
left without ventilation.
This was undoubtedly a very great improvement; but still the air was much
impeded by the great distance it had to travel (sometimes, in Mr. Buddie's
experience, upwards of 30 miles), and it was also open to the objection that
in fiery mines the air became much contaminated with gas before it had
completed its work, so much so that it was often in an inflammable condition
when it reached the furnace.
126 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
This system continued in force till about the year 1807, when Mr. Buddie
devised the method of splitting the air into two currents and conducting any
explosive current to the up-cast without allowing it to pass over the
furnace.
By this means the friction of the air arising from the great length of the
air courses was considerably reduced, the air was brought into the face in a
purer condition, and all danger of the explosive current firing at the
furnace was obviated. These were the radical improvements in the ventilation
of collieries, and they were followed by the adoption of the further
splitting of the air, so that each district should have its own current, the
different districts being at first only separated by stoppings, but
afterwards in many cases by solid barriers of coal, thus isolating them from
each other except at the outlet and inlet, and therefore making them more
likely, though unfortunately not certain, to escape the general destruction
which usually attended an explosion in workings which were all connected
indiscriminately. It has been urged that in England we do not pay sufficient
attention to ascensional ventilation, that is, the arrangement of the shafts
and air courses so that the intake air is conducted downwards and the return
rises towards the upcast, thus taking advantage of the increased temperature
of the return. I think this apparent neglect arises from the comparatively
level nature of the seams in this district, which does not, in fact, admit
of any great advantage being taken of the application of this natural law.
However good the ventilation may be, it is evident that it cannot always
ensure safety when sudden outbursts of gas take place; indeed in some cases
the large supply of atmospheric air may lead to a quicker production of the
explosive mixture which is often so fatal in its consequences.
Before the invention of the safety-lamp, ventilation (if we except the flint
and steel mill), was the only safeguard in fiery mines, and there may be
some who think that no mine should ever be allowed to be in such a state as
to require a closed lamp. However true this may be as an abstract rule,
every one conversant with mining knows that it is practically impossible,
and that in all mines producing gas, sudden outbursts and accumulations must
be guarded against.
The Davy, Stephenson, and Clanny lamps were at first considered quite safe,
probably the air currents of that day were not sufficiently strong to
interfere with this sense of security.
Experience has, however, shown that all these lamps will, under certain
circumstances, allow the flame to pass through the protecting gauze.
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 127
It would appear that the lamps of the Mueseler type are free from this
defect, as they go out at once in an explosive atmosphere, but they have the
disadvantage of depending on the glass, and are also liable to go out if not
carefully handled.
This subject has been thoroughly treated in your Transactions, and I only
allude to it now with the view of expressing a hope that the labours and
experiments of the Royal Commission will give us a standard lamp, absolutely
safe, and of such a construction that it will be satisfactorily received by
all who need to use it.
Various forms of safety-lamp have been invented, some of which to a certain
extent fulfil the required conditions, though there is a difficulty in some
of them in admitting sufficient air to support combustion, and, at the same
time avoiding the danger of forcing the flame through the gauze by allowing
a direct current through the lamp.
No form of lamp appears to me to be so simple and efficacious as that now
largely used in the County of Durham. I allude to what is commonly called
the " Tin Can" safety-lamp, which consists of an ordinary Davy lamp encased
in a tin cylinder perforated at the bottom for the admission of air, and
open at the top. By means of a second lock the case is firmly attached to
the lamp, which gives additional security; whilst a glass, either square in
the form of a single pane, or circular, allows the light of the lamp to
shine through. This I consider a beautifully simple contrivance, and if the
holes for the admission of the air are properly placed, it will stand the
most severe tests—in fact, I believe it has never yet been exploded.
I may here remark on the importance of ascertaining that the lamp is in a
safe condition before it goes into the mine, as the best lamp is, of course,
useless if the slightest flaw exists in it. In addition to the usual way of
examining carefully by the eye, a gas test is adopted in many mines where it
is practicable, and is of great use. The simplest application of this
appears to be that introduced by Mr. Embleton, of Leeds, which consists of a
ring of gas pipe, in the inner side of which are bored a number of small
holes. The lamp having been lighted is drawn up through the ring, and, if
perfect, will not ignite the gas, but if there is any imperfection the gas
is lighted at once.
Unfortunately, gas is not our only enemy in a coal mine. The effect of coal
dust as an adjunct to an explosion has been for some time before us, having
in fact been mentioned by Messrs. Lyell and Faraday in their Report on the
Haswell explosion in 1844, but does not appear to have attracted much notice
till 1876, when it was the subject of a carefully
128 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
prepared paper, read by Mr. Galloway before the Royal Society. Since this
time it has received considerable attention, and during the last few years,
Mr. Galloway, as well as the late Professor Marreco and Mr. D. P. Morison,
have continued their investigations demonstrating its dangerous properties,
and after the explosion at Seaham, Professor Abel was requested by the Home
Office to investigate the subject.
The results of these experiments appear to show that coal dust in mines not
only promotes and extends explosions, but that it may itself be brought into
operation as a fiercely burning agent, and when mixed with a very small
proportion of fire-damp, it will operate even as an exploding agent.
Professor Abel further found that dust in coal mines, quite apart from any
inflammability it may possess, can operate as a finely-divided solid in
determining the ignition of mixtures of only small proportions of firedamp
and air.
This is an additional source of danger in dry coal seams, and involves extra
precautions.
Mr. Galloway advises a frequent watering of the roads where the dust
accumulates, and this, though a troublesome operation, appears to be a
remedy that can be applied in most cases.
Sometimes, however, the nature of the floor is such that the water causes it
to heave and give much trouble.
Mr. Robert Stevenson recommends the use of salt to lay the dust, and it is
said that even in very dusty mines a sprinkling of salt once a week for the
first month, and once a month afterwards, will effectually subdue the dust
and cause it to "lie like damp sand."
This beneficial effect in laying dust is also very noticeable at Tynemouth,
where the streets are now watered with salt water.
The detection of the presence of fire-damp is a question of much importance
in mining. The rough method of judging the proportion of fire-damp by its
effect on the flame of a lamp, though the only one yet practically in use,
is not generally considered sufficiently delicate when the gas is present
only in small quantities. To improve on this method various instruments have
been suggested and tried. In addition to those of Mr. Ansell (so frequently
described) and others, new instruments have been brought under your notice
by Professor Forbes and Mr. Liveing. The former depends on the principle in
acoustics that sounds produced by the vibration of a tuning fork, placed
over a column of air confined in a tube, become more audible when this
column is of the length suited to the pitch of the note produced by the
fork, and that the length of this
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDIi KSS. 129
column is influenced by the specific gravity and nature of the various gases
contained in the tube; and the latter on the different degree of brilliancy
shown by two platinum wires when raised to a red heat by a current of
electricity, the one enclosed by glass in a mixture of atmospheric air and
the other in a mixture of air and gas.
These instruments are all very ingenious, and in the laboratory appear to
give very good results, though there may be some doubt as to their
efficiency in actual practice in the mine. A paper was read by Mr.
Steaven-son before your Institute, in which he shows that by using a dark
blue glass the elongation of the flame can be much more readily observed and
noted.
Messrs. Mallard and Le Chatellier, who have lately made some experiments as
to the best means of indicating the presence of fire-damp, appear to have
arrived at the conclusion that this can be most surely attained by a
combination of observations on the action of the gas in lengthening the
flame of a safety-lamp, properly constructed for the purpose, and the height
and intensity of the flame cap. They state that, after some practice, even
one-half per cent, of gas can be detected.
The question of the pressure at which gas in given off in a coal seam has
been recently brought under our notice by the very interesting and careful
experiments made by Mr. Lindsay Wood, and published in your Transactions,
Yol. XXX. By boring holes in the solid face of the coal, and fixing in each
a tube to which a pressure gauge was attached, Mr. Wood tested the pressure
of gas as given off in the borehole. It was found that in one case the
pressure was 461 lbs., and in another the flow of gas was 15*72 cubic feet
per hour.
The results do not appear to show that the pressure of the gas has any
connection with that due to a column of water of the depth of the borehole
from the surface; indeed they are very much less; in one case only 8f per
cent. It does seem, however, that the pressure varies for different depths
of borehole, and approximately as the square root of this depth; and
therefore as the gas must escape through the solid coal, it is possible that
the difference in pressure may be due to such escape, and that if we could
bore holes of a sufficient length, the pressure due to the column of water
might be reached.
Considerable attention has of late been called to the suggested official
issue of " Colliery Warnings," and it is contended that these should be sent
out as occasion may require by the Meteorological office.
Without at all intending to disparage such warnings, or the good intentions
of their advocates, I would observe that it is still doubtful whether
VOL. XXXI.—1883.
R
130 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
there is really any practical connection between barometric pressures and
colliery explosions, as any one may observe by comparing the recorded
variations of the barometer with the dates of such accidents. I admit that a
sudden decrease in the pressure of the atmosphere will probably affect old
workings and goaves charged with gas, but it has yet to be proved that it
has any appreciable effect on the issue of gas from the coal itself, -or
that it is in any way connected with those sudden outbursts which produce
such disastrous results.
What I would wish to impress on those who are in charge of coal mines is,
therefore, that they should not depend on or wait for these warnings, but
should themselves closely watch the barometer and note its changes, and
above all, should have their mines in such a state of efficiency and
discipline as to be ready, so far as their powers will allow, for any
emergency which may arise, no matter in what form it comes.
Depend upon it no precaution should be neglected or deferred, because the
danger does not appear imminent, and he who does so will most surely, at
some time or other, be in the position of a general who neglects his
outposts because he thinks the enemy is still at a distance. Every one
should dispose his plans so that as far as possible they may meet any
contingency which may arise, and never rely on the improbability of anything
happening—it is often " the most unexpected which does occur."
In our consideration of questions of safety in mining, the use of gunpowder
should not be overlooked.
Gunpowder, like fire, is a good servant but a bad master, and is blamed for
many accidents, sometimes perhaps more than it deserves.
My view is that it should not be indiscriminately forbidden. I am fully
alive to the fact that in some mines which are very fiery, its general use
may be attended with risk, and in these it may be a question wmether it
should not be either abandoned or at all events only used on important
occasions and under very stringent rules.
But surely there are many degrees of difference between the danger of our
most fiery mines and those which practically produce no inflammable gas. It
must be evident that in many cases there is really no danger in using powder
with proper care and precaution, and I see no reason why in these it should
not be continued, whilst there can be no doubt that there are many such
mines, which, as far as our knowledge at present goes, could not be carried
on without it.
Blown-out shots, though not very frequent in this district, are no doubt a
source of danger if in the vicinity of any explosive mixture.
In reference to this subject, Mr. Galloway's experiments show that the
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 131
sound wave produced by the explosion of a charge of gunpowder is sufficient
to force the flame through the gauze of a Davy or Clanny, though not through
that of a Mueseler lamp. It is satisfactory, however, to know that this only
occurs when the charge of powder is exactly the quantity required; an
overcharge puts out the flame, and an undercharge does not pass it through
the gauze of the lamp.
Many suggestions have been made with the view of minimising as far as
possible any danger which may arise from firing shots, amongst which perhaps
water-cartridges are the most ingenious. In these a charge of powder is
surrounded by a casing containing water, which, on the shot being fired, is
burst, and the water thus liberated is said not only to prevent all flame
but also to increase the effect of the shot. This, however, is doubtful.
A system of using compressed lime instead of gunpowder has lately been made
public by Mr. Sebastian Smith, of Shipley Colliery. In this, lime in a
caustic state is employed. It is ground to a fine powder, and consolidated
by a pressure of about 30 tons into the form of cartridges 2-g-inches in
diameter, having a groove along the side. "When the shot-hole has been
drilled, the lime cartridge is introduced, together with a small tube
through which, after the usual tamping, water is pumped.
It is said that the water thus supplied at the far end of the shot-hole
causes the lime to expand and brings down the shot in about two minutes. In
some experiments made in Derbyshire and recently published, this system is
said to save above 30 per cent, of labour as compared with the getting of
coal by wedging.
If this system should turn out a general success, I need not say it would be
a great boon to all who are working fiery mines.
It may be asked why mechanical means have not been introduced as a
substitute for the explosive gunpowder—and indeed these have not been
neglected. There are many machines which have been brought out to meet this
difficulty. Amongst others may be mentioned those of Messrs. Bidder and
Chubb, the ingenuity of which deserves very great credit. I regret, however,
that they do not appear sufficiently simple to have as yet come into general
use. I think this is a subject deserving our great attention, and I should
rejoice very much if, by further'improve-ments in such machinery, the
difficulty of shot-firing could be overcome.
The question of the proper area of coal to be worked to one pair of shafts
has occupied considerable attention of late years.
In the early days of mining, the work was naturally commenced at the
outcrop, and even when pits were necessary they were so shallow that
132 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
another could be economically sunk before the workings had reached any-great
distance from the first, it being then easier to sink a shaft than to convey
the coals a long distance underground. But as the coal near the outcrop
became more and more exhausted, it was naturally found that, to meet the
increased cost of sinking and plant, it was necessary that a constantly
extending area of coal must be won and worked by one establishment, until,
through the improved means of underground haulage and ventilation, we have
at the present day workings extending to such distances from the shaft as
would in former times have been considered quite impossible.
It is not contended that any danger arises from the mere increase of the
distance to which the works extend, for I am not aware that any casualty can
be ascribed to such distance, and in fact we know that some of the most
severe explosions have occurred in pits only opened out to a very moderate
extent, whilst other collieries have been worked to exceptional distances
without any such misfortune, and there does not appear to be any reason why
they should be more unsafe than others; in fact, the extending ramification
of the workings, increasing in all directions, seems to drain off the gas.
That there can be no engineering difficulty in working mines to distances
even much greater than those as yet attained must, I think, be admitted by
all conversant with the subject, and the fact that two companies are
proposing to commence to form a tunnel under the Channel to connect England
and France, a distance of at least ten miles to mid-channel, fully shows
that the most experienced engineers of the day have no doubt of it.
The only tenable objection is, that the system of working large areas
entails a corresponding increase in the number of men employed, and
consequently in some cases a greater loss of life when any severe explosion
unfortunately occurs.
This is, I need not say, our necessity rather than our choice; it is plain
that we would not employ such a method if the old one was still practicable,
but it is not, and I have no hesitation in saying that any restriction in
this sense would seriously affect many important undertakings.
The tendency of the age is in the direction of large results, and to limit
this development of mining enterprise would be, in my opinion, on a par with
requiring our present magnificent ocean-going steamers to be replaced by the
small craft of former days, or that stage coaches should again take the
place of express trains.
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 133
One of the most distressing effects of a heavy underground explosion is,
that in many cases, the explorers are unable to proceed in consequence of
the presence of large quantities of gas.
Many valuable hours, and even days, are thus lost to those who are
endeavouring to succour their comrades. Mr. Fleuss's inventions promise to
assist us very much in these cases. This apparatus consists of a mouthpiece,
or mask, connected by flexible tubes with a strong sheet copper cylinder,
carried on the back of the explorer, in the form of a knapsack.
The cylinder contains four cubic feet of oxygen, compressed to sixteen
atmospheres, and above it is a square metal box, containing the carbonic
acid filter, which consists of layers of caustic potass, by passing through
which the exhaled breath is freed of carbonic acid. An india-rubber bag is
fastened in front of the wearer, and is connected by a pipe to the outlet of
the filter, being also in communication with the reservoir of oxygen, the
supply of which to it is regulated by a valve under the control of the
wearer.
The mask, which fits air-tight to the face, has two flexible valve pipes,
the one being in communication with the inlet of the filter, and the other
(for inhaling) with the air bag.
The exhaled breath having passed through the filter, enters the bag-in a
purified state, and being there supplied with oxygen, is fit to be breathed
again.
In this way, the explorer can continue his advance quite independent of the
condition of the air surrounding- him. The plan has been severely tested,
both experimentally and in practice, and is found to be quite safe. It was
used at Seaham, during the re-opening of the Maudlin Seam, after the
explosion of 1880. The greatest care was here necessary, owing to the coal
having been on fire, and the consequent danger attending the carrying in of
fresh air.
The men using the apparatus were able to penetrate to a distance of •400
yards in advance of the air, and were, in fact, in an atmosphere of
carburetted hydrogen for all that distance.
Since this was written it has also been used at the recent accident at
Killingworth, and was there found to be of great service.
In connection with this, Mr. Fleuss has also a lamp constructed on similar
principles, which it is necessary to use when exploring with this apparatus,
for, of course, no ordinary lamp could be of any service in such a case. It
is a modification of the lime light, spirits of wine being used instead of
hydrogen.
Attached to the lamp is a strong copper sphere, charged with oxygen,
134 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
at a pressure of 16 to 20 atmospheres. A minute stream of oxygen, regulated
by an adjusting valve, is allowed to pass between the two wicks of the
spirit lamp, carrying the flame against a cylinder of lime.
The lamp being entirely cut off from the surrounding atmosphere by the
double copper casing, with water between the inner and outer services,
throws its light through discs of plain glass inserted in the casings, and
is, of course, absolutely safe. It will burn four hours, equally well in
carbonic acid gas or in fire damp.
This lamp was found to be of great service in the Seaham exploring. Its
light is so powerful that a newspaper can be read at a distance of 40 or 50
yards.
It has also the advantage that it will act equally well under water, but
unfortunately its size and bulk prevent its being used for ordinary purposes
in the workings.
It is not solely to the large explosions of gas that we owe the accidents
which attend our course in mining.
Minor accidents, sometimes fatal, and, if not so, often involving serious
bodily injury, must always occur in a greater or less degree, though it is
confidently hoped that every year the care and discipline, both of managers
and workmen, will tend to diminish the number.
There is one thing bearing on this which I would wish to point out to you.
It is this—that these accidents generally occur at some distance from the
shaft, and necessarily a considerable time must elapse before the injured
person can be brought to the surface and receive medical assistance.
Fortunately there is a very simple remedy for this difficulty. It is the
formation at each colliery or works of ambulance classes. This has been done
in several places with great success, under the auspices of the St. John's
Ambulance Association. It is a good work, and I would commend the system
most earnestly to all colliery managers and workmen.
It is astonishing how much can be taught in a few lessons with the aid of
the resident doctor, and there can be no doubt that if all officials and
workmen would apply themselves to acquire the knowledge of what should be
done in case of injury, before the doctor is reached, much pain and
suffering, and possibly some loss of life, would be avoided.
Probably no subject has ever occupied the minds of the scientific world so
much as that of electric lighting during the last few years. You are all
familiar with the great development which has recently taken place in the
application^of electricity to lighting purposes in our streets,
the president's addrkrs. 185
theatres, and other public buildings. It is of course out of my province to
speak of its general application to-day, but I may perhaps be permitted to
observe on a few points in which it bears on the management of our mines.
Last year, the Royal Commissioners had some experiments tried at Pleasley
Colliery, by lighting up the roads and workings with the electric light,
and, since then, Risca Colliery, in "Wales, and Garnock Colliery, in
Scotland, have been lighted by the same means.
These are, however, only examples of the ordinary lighting, and have not as
yet demonstrated its applicability to be used in the safety-lamp for which
we are all anxiously looking.
Hitherto, the great drawback as regards the safety-lamp has been the fact
that to carry with it the means of keeping up the light or to keep it in
communication with the source of the electric current, required an apparatus
too cumbersome to be brought into daily use.
A great advance has, however, been made in this respect during the last
year. M. Faure has shown that the energy required to produce the electricity
can be stored and carried about from place to place; or, if the storage cell
is kept stationary, it can be easily charged from time to time through wires
connecting it with the dynamo-electric machine—acting in fact in the same
way as the gasometer in the gas lighting system, and the accumulator in a
hydraulic power system.
Our townsman, Mr. Swan, whose achievements in this branch of science are
familiar to you, and who has further improved on M. Faure's system, recently
showed us a miner's lamp, having a storage cell attached to it, which
contained sufficient energy to supply the electricity required by the lamp
for a period of one hour.
This, though enduring for too short a time, is, I consider, a very
satisfactory step in the right direction, and the experience of last year
shows that many powerful minds are working on this subject, and that we may
expect still further improvements in all appertaining to electric lighting.
I am aware that there are two objections to the use of electricity in a
safety-lamp; first, that if the glass of the lamp were broken the light
might explode the gas; and secondly, that any interruption of the current,
such as might be caused by the breakage of a wire, would produce a spark
which might cause a similar accident. But I am in hope that before long
these difficulties will be overcome, and that Mr. Swan's miner's lamp will
put us in the position of obtaining a safe and effectual method of lighting
our mines—safe as it is entirely isolated from any contact
186 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
with the air, and effectual as it would without doubt afford our workmen a
very much greater amount of light than any lamp now in use.
And here I would observe that there is another way in which I think the use
of electricity may be of great service in mining.
Instances, are constantly occurring in which, from various causes, it is
absolutely necessary to apply power at points often far distant from the
shaft.
At present, this must be done by compressed air, hydraulic power, wire
ropes, or by carrying steam to the place in pipes.
To all these systems, and especially to the last, there are objections, and
I see no reason why an improved substitute should not be found in
electricity, which can be conveyed by a wire, probably with less loss of
power; and, if sufficient storage cells are provided at the far end, I think
the power may be applied very economically.
The surplus power about a colliery could be utilized in this way. Hitherto,
the fatal objection to its use for this purpose has been the absolute
regularity required in the motion of the engine working the dynamo-electric
machine. Now that it has been found practicable to store the energy, however
irregularly produced, and then to give it off with the greatest steadiness
when needed, this objection no longer exists, and we may take advantage of
it both for the purpose of producing light and working engines at a distance
from the shaft.
The necessity of providing a thoroughly scientific training for mining
engineers has long been acknowledged. Probably, no country can afford a
better prospect of acquiring a practical knowledge than our own ; but it
must be confessed that the admirable system of national technical education
so prevalent on the Continent, is not carried out to its full extent in
England. The legislature obliges a manager to pass an examination before he
is allowed to have the responsible charge of a mine, but it provides no
means by which he can acquire the requisite knowledge. There are many who
think there should be a still higher grade of examination, and should this
view ever be adopted, I think it will clearly be the duty of the Government
to establish proper mining schools throughout the kingdom, in which our
young men may acquire a thorough training for their profession. A committee
appointed by the Government, is at present investigating the whole subject
of technical education, and has recently issued a preliminary report. In
this, however, they deal chiefly with ordinary education in France and with
the efforts now being made in that country to provide technical schools,
with workshops attached, in which the pupils receive instruction in various
handicrafts, in lieu of serving an apprenticeship.
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 187
The full report of their investigations will be looked for with great
interest.
In the meantime, it is gratifying to observe that voluntary effort has
stepped in in various places to supply the deficiency, and good schools have
for this purpose been established in several localities.
In reference to this I would congratulate you on the appointment of a
Professor of Mining at our own College of Physical Science in Newcastle.
This has been accomplished with the aid of the coal trade of Northumberland
and Durham.
The progress of the College must always be a matter of the greatest interest
to our Institute, both from the beneficial results it produces, and on
account of the active part taken by the Institute in its promotion. I fully
hope and expect that this new professorship will supply a want long felt,
and will, for this district, do away with the deficiency I have spoken of.
Our recent visit to the mining district of the north of France and the Paris
Exhibition must have convinced us that the science of mining is making rapid
strides on the Continent. It is very important that we should keep ourselves
conversant with what is going on there, and I am glad to see that your
Council have determined to publish, from time to time, abstracts of foreign
papers on mining and engineering subjects, which will, J think, add
considerably to the value of the Transactions.
Turning now to the general question of colliery management, I am not aware
that any great change has taken place of late years in the systems of
working. These naturally vary considerably in different districts, but in
the north, though board and pillar is still the ruling method, I think it
may be said that long-wall has been gradually making headway against its old
rival, and no one who has seen the beautiful long-wall faces of the Midland
Counties and the simplicity of their face ventilation can wonder at it. It
is more especially advantageous in working hard coal, where, by decreasing
the amount of powder used, it contributes to obtaining a larger percentage
of round coal.
There are, however, certain of our customs and habits which impede its
progress. Workmen, as well as managers, must be educated to it, and this
cannot be done all at once. I have no doubt, however, that it will maintain
its ground, and, in fact, I think many of our thinner seams, especially
where the production of a large percentage of round coal is essential,
cannot be worked economically in any other way. It is very important for the
welfare of the country at large that we should make the most of our coal
riches, which not only cannot last for ever, but which
VOL. XXXI.—1882.
S
188 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
must be more difficult and costly to work as the better seams are exhausted,
and all parties should heartily co-operate in working out the system which
is found to be the most suitable for this end.
In sinking, the chief advance has been made in the introduction into England
of the Kind and Chaudron system of sinking, or rather boring out a shaft by
means of a trepan or boring tool, worked by wooden rods or spears. This is
of course only applied in cases where the feeders of water are so large as
to render difficult the application of the ordinary method of sinking by
hand with a set of pumps suspended in the shaft. The new winning at Whitburn
is a remarkable example of this. Here the feeders amounted to 12,000 gallons
a minute, and when the ordinary sinking was being carried on, the water, on
any stoppage of the pumps, rose 6 feet in the shaft in a minute, so that it
was considered practically impossible to continue on the old system ; but by
the adoption of the Kind and Chaudron method, the pits were sunk through the
water bearing strata of the magnesian limestone without any extraordinary
difficulty.
The fixing of the tubbing after the shaft is sunk is remarkable for its
efficiency and simplicity. "When a bed of rock, impervious to water, has
been reached, the cast iron tubbing, formed, not in the ordinary segments,
but in rings properly faced and bolted together, is lowered in for a certain
distance from the top by means of rods and screws, the lower end being
closed by a diaphragm or false bottom, which causes the tubbing to be
eventually supported by the water, whilst the proper equilibrium is
maintained by the admission of a certain amount of water into the cylinder
as it goes down.
The water-tight joint between the tubbing and the rock is formed by the
lowest ring being rather less than the one above, which thus slides on it,
and compresses a wall of moss previously packed tight against it and held in
its place by a net.
By this means the pit is sunk, and the tubbing placed in its permanent
position, without interfering at all with the water through which it passes,
and which, ordinarily, is the source of so much difficulty and expense.
In some cases, indeed, this would seem to be the only way of sinking, as,
for instance, at Marsden, a gullet, 10 feet wide, occurred at the depth of
35 fathoms, which, of course, would have given out an enormous feeder of
water.
In a sinking now being carried on at G-hlin, near Mons, the depth to be
tubbed off is 150 fathoms, and I need not say, that at that depth, pumping
from a sinking pit would be attended with the greatest difficulty.
In prospecting for coal and other minerals, the Diamond boring system
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 139
continues to be extensively employed, though there are some who still think
that in boring through seams of coal the change in the nature of the stratum
can be more readily detected by hand boring.
No doubt both systems require trained men to give accurate results. In the
one we depend on the delicacy of touch of the man who holds the bracehead;
and, in the other, the change is detected by the eye of the attendant who
watches the machine, and can tell, by its peculiar action, when the coal is
reached.
In very deep holes, however, every one must acknowledge the great use of the
Diamond Borer. Mr. Vivian, in our discussion on the subject, stated that he
had bored a hole 1,050 yards, and from the seam found at that depth had
brought up solid cores 5 inches diameter and 6 or 7 inches long, and as the
solid core brought up is generally from 50 to 70 per cent, of the whole
thickness of the seam, the result in this case must be regarded as highly
satisfactory.
The great extension of colliery workings, as regards the depth of shafts,
the distance coals are to be brought underground, and the quantities worked
daily, has naturally given great scope to the mechanical engineer in
designing machinery suitable for the work required. This is evident to any
one who remembers the simple engines of the past and compares them with the
superior class of machinery now in use, both for pumping and winding.
Formerly, the expense of steam Avas a trifling item in the working of a
colliery, but now it is absolutely necessary that every economy should be
practised in this direction. The cut-off systems of MM. Audemar and
Guinotte, and that known as the Sultzer Martin, have been described in your
Transactions, and the difficulties attending a varying cut-off in winding
engines seem to have been overcome in the engine erected by Mr. Daglish at
Silksworth. The introduction of the scroll drum, with a diameter varying in
accordance with the position of the load, has been of great service in the
case of many deep shafts.
A counterbalance of some form or other, to aid in equalising the load at
different points in the shaft, has been deemed a necessity in most places of
any considerable depth, and that recently introduced in the Midland Counties
appears to merit consideration from its simplicity and efficiency.
The method adopted is to fix the one end of a rope, of similar weight to the
winding rope, to the bottom of each cage, so that when one cage is at bank
the rope under it hangs in the shaft into the sump, and there " passing
round a pulley is bent up and attached to the bottom of the other cage. It
is evident that by this means the variation of the weight of the ropes
attached to the two cages is effectually counterbalanced, and the
140 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
load is the same at all points in the shaft, the rope below the cages acting
to assist the engine at the start and also acting as a brake when the
ascending cage is nearing the surface. It is said to be very effectual, and
those who have used it express great confidence in its benefit and safety.
It is, of course, similar in principle to the old chain counterbalances
which were formerly used in Wales to regulate the working of the cages in
pits where the load was raised by means of water ran into a tank below the
descending cage and allowed to escape by an adit at the bottom. Its
application, however, to rapid winding with steam is a novelty, and seems to
be a success.
A further development of this is to do away with the winding drum
altogether, and substitute for it a simple pulley or sheave, round which the
rope passes as in an inclined plane.
In this way only one rope is used. It has been applied, I believe, on the
Continent, and is said to work very well and economically, but of course it
must be open to the objection that in case of accident or breakage both
cages must go to the bottom.
Whilst speaking of the economy of power, I may mention the beneficial result
of using properly-constructed boilers placed on the flues of coke ovens.
By this means not only a great saving of fuel and labour is effected, but
the smoke which formerly so disagreeably defaced a coking district is
entirely avoided.
This improvement is adopted, I think, at all coking establishments of recent
construction, and in some, engines collectively of above 200 nominal
horse-power are driven, under ordinary circumstances, without any aid from
hand-fired boilers.
Compressed motive power, continues to be increasingly
applied in underground works. One of the principal improvements in this has
been the use of single-acting cylinders for the compressors, and the
introduction of a spray of water, whereby the cylinder is more easily kept
cool, and the efficiency of the engine much improved.
Safety-hooks for winding appear to be coming into more general use, and are
thought to be a great improvement, though I doubt the policy of making their
adoption compulsory. It is objected by some, that they make the enginemen
more careless, through trusting too much to them, and that there have been
more cases of overwinding since they came into use. This may be, though I am
inclined to think the idea may arise from the fact that where a safety-hook
is used, every case of overwinding, however slight, requires some trouble to
put things right again, and must,
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 141
therefore, be noticed and reported. In any case, it is a question whether
the system, even if it does involve this objection, does not afford
increased safety to life, which more than compensates for any amount of
trouble arising from the above cause.
Safety apparatus to be attached to cages has not made the same progress as
safety-hooks, and, as a general rule, we still depend on good ropes and
frequent examination of them. Whatever may be the future of this question, I
think it is most imperative that all winding tackle should be kept in the
highest state of efficiency, and above all, that the ropes used should not
be kept on too long. I should be very sorry to think that any appliance
might be introduced which would lead us to run the ropes for a longer period
than we are sure of, and to depend on safety-catches in case of accidents.
In underground haulage the adoption of the system of the endless chain
appears to be gaining ground, and lately wire ropes have been, in many
cases, advantageously substituted for the chain on the top of the tubs. The
rope is made to fall into a V, or crook, which is placed on a cranked
movable pivot, and, as soon as the rope enters the crank, it is pressed to
one side and the V firmly clutches the rope.
The endless chain, or rope, which may be said to have been introduced into
this district, through the Report of the Tail Rope Committee, in 1867, is,
no doubt, a very economical system of haulage. The power required is small
compared with that used in other systems, and the wear and tear of tubs,
etc., is very much less, whilst the cost of formation is much reduced, as
the irregularities of the road do not interfere with its action, and,
therefore, much of the expense required in other systems of haulage to
produce a comparatively uniform gradient is avoided.
Coal-cutting machines, though employed in several mines, have not come into
such general use as was at one time anticipated.
There does not, as yet, appear to be a great saving of actual cost in their
application, and, no doubt, to introduce them into old and extensive
workings entails a considerable amount of expense and inconvenience. I
trust, however, that we may see a further development of this method of
working the coal. All machinery which effects a saving of manual labour is
eventually an advantage, both to the employer and workmen, and I venture to
suggest that a further investigation of this subject by your Institute would
be desirable.
The application of mechanical drilling is, no doubt, extending, and is
successfully used in many forms, from the simple hand drill, turned by
manual labour, to the elaborate boring or tunnelling machine of Beau-
142 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
mont, now working in the preliminary operations of the Channel Tunnel, which
bores out a circular drift, 7 feet in diameter, at the rate of 15 yards in
24 hours.
The common hand-drilling machine enables a man to increase his effective
work by at least 30 per cent., and, in the case of the drilling machines
used in the Cleveland ironstone mines, and worked by compressed air, I am
informed that the actual time of drilling is under one-twentieth of that
necessary for the same operation by hand, and including the time spent in
re-fixing the machine, it is only one-sixteenth.
The increase of temperature as the depth from the surface increases
necessarily affects the working of deep mines, and is generally considered
the cause which will limit the depth to which mining operations can be
carried.
The Royal Coal Commission took it at 1° F. for every 60 feet in depth from
50 feet below the surface, and from that they deduced the opinion that,
allowing for the cooling effect of ventilation, a depth of 4,000 feet might
be reached.
Since the date of this report, many further experiments have been made, but,
as explained by Professor Lebour in his recent paper on this subject, in the
greater number of good sets of observations the increase appears to be 1° F.
per 50 or 60 feet.
Professor Lebour explains the difficulties experienced in taking accurate
observations, and further asks for the assistance of members of the
Institute in taking observations in coal mines under the sea, which I feel
sure will be willingly given to him.
Some modifications have been recently made in the Eules of the Institute
respecting the number of meetings to be held in the year, which it is hoped
will work well, and will tend to increase the interest taken by members in
the proceedings.
The object of this and all similar institutions is to promote the
interchange of thought and experience amongst the members, and so to give to
each the benefit of the collective powers of the whole.
Union is strength in this as in other cases, and I desire in concluding my
remarks to express an earnest hope that every one will, to the best of his
abilities, assist by writing papers, taking part in the discussions, and in
other ways contributing to the efficiency of the Institute.
Its purpose every one will admit is to benefit all classes; its only
opponents are danger and ignorance, and its only reward is the knowledge
that it is labouring for the good of all who are brought within the scope of
its operation.
THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 143
Mr. E. F. Boyd said, they ought not to omit to pay a compliment to their
worthy President for the very eloquent and instructive address which he had
delivered, it seemed to embrace almost every subject connected with their
intricate and difficult business—a business which had recently been shown to
be one of great labour, and requiring the greatest endurance on the part of
those engaged in it. Their President's address would, he hoped, direct the
attention of those who had heard it, and also of those who might read it, to
the number of minute details which many were so apt to forget it was
incumbent upon them to study. Those who contented themselves with having
stored a certain quantity of knowledge, and who, when they heard a paper on
a department of work read, thought the consideration of the subject was
ended and closed, and that they had got all the knowledge they could, he
trusted would reconsider their position, and become thoroughly impressed
with the necessity of making continued progress in their business, and of
directing their best energies to the study of all details of the very varied
subjects they were constantly called upon to decide. He had the honour of
being one of the earliest members of the Institute, and was present,
together with their late revered President, Mr. Nicholas Wood, at its
commencement, after an accident at Seaton, and it gave him great pleasure to
see it successfully pursuing its useful career under the guidance of a
practical engineer so respected for his talents and experience as Mr.
Forster; and he proposed a vote of thanks to the President for the very
admirable address which he had delivered.
The motion was seconded by Mr. Armstrong, and unanimously agreed to.
On the motion of Mr. E. F. Boyd, seconded by Mr. W. Cochrane, it was
resolved that the Address be printed in the Transactions of the Institute.
The following paper, by Mr. R. Stevenson, on " The Use of Salt for Laying
Dust in Mines," was read:—
ON THE USE OF SALT FOR LAYING DUST IN MIXES.
145
ON THE USE OF SALT FOE LAYING DUST IN MINES.
Br ROBERT STEVENSON.
It may be now considered as an acknowledged fact that coal dust in a fiery
seam is an element of danger, since Professor Abel has shown that it may,
with an almost inappreciable quantity of free carburetted hydrogen gas
moving at a high velocity, explode at a Davy-lamp; and this the experience
of the writer fully proves; so that to render coal dust neutral in
explosions, not only must it be prevented from mixing with the free gas of
the mine, but it must be prevented from mixing with the ventilating current.
In all fiery seams a strong current is needed to sweep out the gases of the
mine, and the deeper and more extensive the coal winnings are carried, the
more necessary it becomes to increase that velocity, more especially if the
present system of exhaustive ventilation continues; and the more that
velocity increases, the more dusty, and^consequently the more dangerous,
will mining become. In fact, the point seems now to have been reached when
an increase of ventilation will produce an increase in danger, unless coal
dust can be prevented from mixing with the air current.
"Wherever coal-cutting in narrow places continues, especially in the rich
carbonaceous or coking coals, there dust, in ever-increasing quantities,
will accumulate in the atmosphere of the mine until it is so loaded that it
becomes almost suffocating.
To work and use blasting agents in such a mine is, if anything, even more
dangerous than if the work and blasting were carried on in a huge gasometer
filled with gas.
To find a reliable means of damping, or laying the dust, has caused the
writer to make several experiments, all of which except the last were more
or less unsatisfactory.
The most fiery seams in this district (North Staffordshire), are the famous
Bambury Seams, called the Seven-feet, Eight-feet, and Bulhurst coals.
VOL, XXXI.—1882.
'J'
146 ON THE USE OF SALT FOR LAYING DUST IN MINES.
Professor Abel in his experiments found the dust of the Seven-feet, as taken
from the notorious Leycett Colliery, to be the most explosive of all the
samples of coal dust he had experimented with; and the writer having under
his charge some workings in that seam, which for several reasons could not
be worked profitably on the long-wall system, the coal-headings had to be
carried out to the extreme end before coal-getting could begin, and the coal
being shut out by faults from any higher workings where the gases might have
escaped, water found its way into the coal to replace the exuded gas, and
the workings were for these reasons rather hot and dry, and the dust was
simply abominable.
Sweeping and showering water along the roadways and headings were tried to
no purpose.
The angle of dip of the seam was about 45° or 1 in 1, and consequently any
method which might be adopted was comparatively expensive, but the dust
nuisance was so intolerable that it was determined to lay it at any cost.
The water cure was persisted in for some time, but the result was most
unsatisfactory.
Unless all the roadways were previously swept, and even then, the heat and
the velocity of the air current seemed to make the water evaporate almost as
quickly as it could be sprinkled on, and if the floor was drenched the
fire-clay began to heave and give much trouble.
Having provided a quantity of soiled salt for the pit banks early in the
winter, and happily not requiring to use it for that purpose, it was tried
as a substitute for water. The use of water had been stopped for a month
before the salt was tried, and there was a pretty large accumulation of coal
dust in the mine.
The salt was scattered on the top of the dust so as to try it under the
worst possible condition, and the first day it was very disagreeable to the
trolly lads, and the colliers complained very much. However, it was not long
before a great improvement was effected; heaps of dust—which with the least
disturbance used to rise in clouds and float along in the air current,
blinding and half choking every one who had to breathe in the obnoxious
atmosphere—will now lie as still as damp sand, and even when kicked about,
the air current does not in the least carry it away.
The writer considers, therefore, the use of common salt, sprinkled in a
powdered state, over and along the roadways of a dusty coal mine, has been
proven to absorb sufficient moisture from the air of the mine as to become a
most efficient and reliable means of preventing the dust from mixing with
the ventilating current; and, if used intelligently in quanti-
DISCUSSION—USE OF SALT IN LAYING DUST IN MINES. 147
ties of one ton per 500 yards of 6 feet roadway once every week for the
first month, and once a month afterwards, the working in fiery mines will
henceforth be rendered more safe and pleasant.
In the North of England refuse salt is not to be had in any quantity, but
foreign ground rock salt can be obtained at from about 13s. to 15s. a ton 6x
ship, which, \i well moistened with water, will prove as effectual as that
used by the writer.
The President said, that this wras a very important subject, and he was
pleased to see that Mr. Galloway, who had taken much interest in the
subject, had kindly come all the way from Wales to take part in the
discussion.
Mr. Galloway said that, as they could easily imagine, he had taken a very
great deal of interest in this subject. About a month ago, when he first
heard of Mr. Stevenson's use of salt for the purpose of laying dust, he
entered into correspondence with him, and arranged to visit the colliery and
see the results for himself. Accordingly, on his way to the north, he
visited Mr. Stevenson's mine yesterday, and found that some part of it was
flooded with water which prevented his entering the workings where the salt
had been placed. He learnt from Mr. Stevenson that salt was being applied
at the adjoining colliery of Haresfield, and, accompanied by Mr. Stevenson,
he went into the workings where salt was on the road. The shaft at
Haresfield Colliery was 160 yards or 80 fathoms deep, and the place where he
saw the salt applied was close to the bottom of the downcast. At that
point, about 100 yards of road had been sprinkled with the salt of the
district. He brought with him to the meeting a specimen of the salt.
The amount of salt sprinkled on the 100 yards of roadway was said to be one
ton. It was put on about six weeks ago, and the centre of the roadway was
certainly quite moist when he saw it yesterday. The sides of the road,
where the salt had not been thrown, were comparatively dry. He had
brought with him two samples of the dust—one from the centre of the roadway
showing that it was still in a damp state, and the other from the sides of
the roadway (within two feet of the point where the first sample was
collected) showing the appearance of the dust in its dry state. So far,
the experiment seemed to be quite successful in the case of Haresfield.
It remained, however, to be seen whether in a deeper mine, where the air was
drier, common salt of this description would have the same effect in
producing dampness; and, for the purpose of showing the experience which had
been already obtained in this direction, he would make a few further remarks
on the subject.
148 DISCUSSION—USE OF SALT IN LAYING DUST IN MINES.
In March, 1879, Professor Stokes, of the Eoyal Society, suggested to him the
desirability of experimenting with a solution of chloride of calcium. He
experimented in very dry mines in South Wales, and observed the results. He
found that, contrary to his expectation and the expectation of Professor
Stokes, the chloride of calcium crystallized out, and the road became quite
dry where it had been sprinkled. The dryness of the mine was very much
greater—as it was over 400 yards deep—than that of Haresfield Mine where the
salt had been applied. A little later he saw in a French paper that a
solution of chloride of calcium had been applied in the Jabin pits, where
explosions had taken place. The experiment had not been successful, and the
mine remained as dry as ever. In regard to watering mines he observed that
Mr. Stevenson said he had very great difficulty in keeping down dust by that
means. His (Mr. Galloway's) own observations had been much more satisfactory
in that respect. He had had under his own superintendence extensive dry
mines, where watering had been practised daily, and he found it quite
possible and easy to keep down the dust. The roadways remained perfectly
damp for one, or one-and-a-half days after the water had been thrown on, and
only then began to dry a little. There was, as Mr. Stevenson stated, always
the objection where the floor consisted of fire-clay, that it was apt to
heave, and produce other difficulties; and hence it was desirable that some
means of keeping down the dust should be found out which would not have this
objection. If, in the course of further experiments, salt was found to
attain that end, well and good; and if not, then he might mention that the
same object might perhaps be attained in other ways. Salt obtained from
brine pits was, according to analyses which he had seen, not quite the same
as sea salt, as it contained a smaller proportion of chloride of magnesium,
which he imagined was the salt that produced the slight dampness due to
common salt when exposed to the atmosphere. He found, however, that the
average analysis of the waters of the different oceans, given by Eeguault,
showed that sea water contained about 27 per cent, of common salt and *8 per
cent, of other salts, and nearly half of the "8 per cent, consisted of
chloride of magnesium; so that about 10 per cent, of the residual salt in
sea water, remaining after the chloride of sodium had been removed by
evaporation, consisted of chloride and bromide of magnesium. This chloride
and bromide of magnesium were highly deliquescent; and if they could obtain
those two salts without the admixture of common salt, they would have a
better means of laying dust than by using common salt alone. A solution of
chloride of magnesium was one of the bye products in salt making; he was not
at present aware how it was disposed of, but he thought there
DISCUSSION—USE OF SALT IN LAYING DUST IN MINES. 149
would be no difficulty in getting sufficient quantities of it. He suggested
to the members of the Institute the propriety of making experiments with
such bye products, which, no doubt, could be obtained at a much cheaper rate
than common salt, and in all probability would be more efficacious in
keeping down dust. Even if the dryness of the mine was so great that
chloride of magnesium was unable to retain sufficient moisture to keep the
roadway damp after once laying it down, dampness might to some extent be
produced artificially. He observed on one occasion that it had been
suggested to allow a jet of steam to pass into the air, and the same
suggestion was made to him, with the same object, as an original
proposition, by a gentleman in Wales, Mr. Walker Hood of Llynypia Colliery.
There is one objection to allowing a jet of steam to go into the air,
namely, that it would heat the current and produce a higher temperature in
the workings, and this is not desirable; but he had thought that the steam
might be combined with the use of water in a very finely divided state, so
that the dew point of the air might be increased at the same time that the
temperature was raised to only a small extent; and in that way they might
perhaps produce artificially an atmosphere containing so great a degree of
moisture, that either common salt or the chloride and bromide of magnesium
would absorb and retain water to an extent sufficient to keep down dust. He
thought an experiment of this kind could be easily and simply made by some
of the members of the Institute, who had so many means at their disposal for
making experiments.
Mr. John Pattinson said, he quite agreed with Mr. Galloway in the opinion
that the effect which had been produced by the use of common salt in the
case stated was probably owing to the presence of chloride of magnesium, and
perhaps, chloride of calcium in the salt which had been used; and the effect
upon the roads at Tynemouth, mentioned by the President in his able address,
was no doubt also due to the same salts in the sea water used. Common salt
was certainly not very deliquescent. If it was the deliquescent property of
the salt which was of great advantage—and he had very little doubt that it
was so—they could produce the effect more certainly by the use of chloride
of magnesium or chloride of calcium. The latter substance could be more
readily had, and cheaper and in larger quantities than chloride of
magnesium. It happened to be one of the bye products of some of the largest
chemical manufactures, and, if wanted, could be prepared in large quantities
and at very little cost. He agreed with Mr. Galloway that some experiments
might be usefully made with these substances. If they were found to be
efficacious, he might state that many collieries, especially in this
district, had alreadv
150 DISCUSSION—USE OF SALT IN LAYING DUST IN MINES.
within themselves plenty of chloride of magnesium, chloride of calcium, and
also of common salt. He had the analyses of two brines which he had made,
and one contained between 9,000 and 10,000 grains per gallon, and the other
between 10,000 and 11,000 grains per gallon, of chlorides of sodium (common
salt), calcium, and magnesium. One sample of brine contained per gallon
7,434 grains of common salt, 418 of chloride of magnesium, 2,429 of chloride
of calcium, and 338 of chloride of barium. The other sample contained 6,936
grains of chloride of sodium, 1,960 of chloride of calcium, 368 of chloride
of magnesium, 9 of chloride of barium, and 43 of bromide of magnesium. He
might mention that chloride of barium would be much better out as it was a
somewhat poisonous salt; if it was damp, however, as it no doubt would be
when exposed to the atmosphere in the pit, there would be no fear of its
rising up in dust. He was very much surprised to hear that in some of the
collieries chloride of calcium became so dry as to crystallize out, as
mentioned by Mr. Galloway.
Mr. J. T. Dunn did not know that he could add anything to what had already
been said by Mr. Galloway and Mr. Pattinson. He came there prepared to
suggest chloride of calcium as a substitute for salt, not knowing it had
been suggested before. He agreed as to the desirability of making
experiments with chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson said, that this suggestion came at a fortunate time, as
in a short time, at Port Clarence, they would be in a position to supply
salt in large quantities, and probably of good quality.
Mr. Pattinson said, that in all probability it would be found that an
admixture of common salt with chloride of calcium would be most efficacious.
This could be applied either dry or in solution.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Stevenson.
The following paper, by Mr. Edwin Gilpin, on " The Gold Fields of Nova
Scotia," was taken as read:—
the gold fields of nova scotia. 161
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
By EDWIN GILPIN, Jun., A.M., F.G.S., Goveknment Inspector of Mines,
Nova Scotia.
It is proposed in the following paper to lay before the members a brief
account of the Gold Fields of Nova Scotia, a district of interest from a
geological point of view, although as yet it has occupied but a humble rank
as a gold producer.
The age of the rock masses composing this gold field is still conjectural,
but the structure of the individual districts is well proved.
The commencement of a thorough geological survey promises the solution of
many problems of scientific and practical importance in connection with it.
The gold fields of Nova Scotia occupy a district extending along the
Atlantic Coast from Cape Can so to Yarmouth, and varying in width from ten
to forty miles. The total area assigned to the auriferous strata and the
rocks most intimately connected with them is estimated at from 6,500 to
7,000 square miles, of which about one-half is occupied by what are known as
" granite" rocks. The shore presents a low rugged front, diversified by
numerous harbours running for long distances inland, and studded with
islands. The land rises gradually to a height of 560 feet, and is cut up by
numerous lakes and swamps. The soil is generally poor and boulder laden, and
there are large areas supporting no vegetation beyond a few shrubs. In the
Lunenburg district, and many of the inland valleys there is good farming
land, but generally speaking the district is valued only for its timber and
gold mines.
The existence of gold in Nova Scotia was conjectured perhaps when Queen
Elizabeth in 1578, in a patent granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, made a
reservation of one-fifth of all the gold and silver he might discover.
Later, in a patent issued by Charles I. to Sir William Alexander, in 1621,
one-tenth of the precious metal was reserved.
The names of Bras D'or, Jen D'or (Jeddore), etc., would seem to show that
gold was not unknown among the early French settlers, and it appears on good
authority that one hundred and fifty years ago, they washed from the sands
of the River Avon, near Windsor, small quantities of gold.
Sir Charles Lyell, in his remarks on the " Geology of North America,"
published in 1842, predicted the discovery of gold in Nova Scotia.
152 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
However, public attention was not directed to the matter until the discovery
of gold on the Pacific Coast caused a search to be made which was continued
by returned Californian miners until 1858, when a man, drinking at a brook
near Tangier, picked up a nugget of gold. From this chance discovery, and
the excitement which followed, may be dated the beginning of gold mining
proper in the province.
The " Granite" rocks of Nova Scotia may be divided into two sections. The
western one extends from Halifax to Windsor, a distance of forty-five miles,
and stretches in a great belt, interrupted by occasional patches of
auriferous measures, nearly to Yarmouth. To the eastward, another band of
less width stretches with several interruptions from Waverley to the Cape of
Canso. These great masses are but little known and have never been mapped;
the outlines given in Fig. 1, Plate XXII., are from the author's notes, and
Dr. Dawson's "Acadian Geology."
Some ingenious theories have been advanced as to their being really of
Laurentian age, based, it would appear, chiefly on the fact that they have
in contact with them at many places bands of gneisses, mica schists, etc.,
which have been set down as Huronian, as they are more metamorphosed than
the ordinary auriferous strata.
So far, however, as these granites have been studied in their relation to
the auriferous and newer strata they serve to confirm the views entertained
by Dr. Dawson, that they are intrusive masses. Near Sher-brooke, as remarked
by Dr. Dawson, the quartzite at the point of junction with the granite, is
slightly changed in character, having apparently minute hornblende and mica
crystals developed in it, but the granite sends numerous veins into it, and
in them becomes coarser in texture, and presents beautiful aggregations of
plumose mica.
At Cochran's Hill auriferous measures are found lying close to one of the
most persistent of the granite ranges, and are penetrated by bands of
granite from one inch to six feet in thickness. The measures have exhibited
a metamorphism equal to that found anywhere in the coastal range. The slates
have become perfectly crystalline. Mica schists, or micaceous gneisses, with
crystals of chiastolite, and staurolite, have been developed in them.
Dr. Dawson similarly describes the granite of Nictaux, as altering the
Devonian beds and converting them, for a short distance away from the
junction, into gneissoid rocks holding garnet. The granite sends veins into
the strata, and near the junction, holds numerous angular fragments of
altered slate. In the case of both the auriferous and Devonian strata, the
gradual passage from gneissoid rock into the normal metamorphosed quartzite
and argillite, can be frequently observed.
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 153
The Nova Scotia granite has all the characters of a plutonic rock in its
want of stratification, its frequent porphyritic appearance, its passage
into graphic granite, etc., and closely resembles in lithological characters
the intrusive granites of the Eastern Townships of Quebec and of New
England, some of which belong to the Montalban Series of Hunt, while others
are later than the Upper Silurian; and it differs materially from the
typical Laurentian of Canada. In the latter the gneisses are usually
hornblendic, laminated, and interstratified with diorites, pyroxene rock,
limestone, serpentine, etc.
These granites are evidently older than the Carboniferous, for at Horton
their debris is found in the Lower Carboniferous. At Nictaux they penetrate
rocks of Oriskany age. They are therefore much more recent than the
auriferous strata, to which, as will be shown, a greater age must be
assigned.
The pre-Carboniferous age of the gold veins is proved later on in this
paper. From the relation which appears, from the map, to exist between the
granites and the gold districts, it may be inferred that as the veins, as at
Cochran's Hill and elsewhere, cut the granite bands, the granite intrusions
and the formation of the veins are, as Dr. Dawson expresses it, " roughly
contemporaneous."
Around and between these granite masses the gold bearing strata are spread,
with a general strike parallel to the line of the shore, and are now
presented in a series of undulations, such as would be expected from a
pressure acting against the trend of the coast.
Denudation on an immense scale has swept away the crests of the anticlinals,
and presented the strata in a succession of elliptical curves, the axes of
which are variously inclined.
The gold bearing strata may be divided into two great sections. The upper is
composed principally of black earthy pyritous slates with few beds of
quartzites, and not many quartz veins. These veins are auriferous when
exposed in the anticlinals similar to those in the lower section to be
described further on. An instance of this auriferous character of the veins
is met at Lunenburg, but it is not known at what horizon they occur. Its
thickness has been estimated by Professor Hynd to be about 8,000 feet.
The lower section is composed of alternating beds of quartzites and compact
sandstones, sometimes felspathic, and argillites, and is estimated to be
9,000 feet thick.
The following section, exposed in perspecting trenches at Mount Uniacke,
will show the general succession of the measures in the gold
VOL. XXXI.—1SS2.
U
154 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
districts. It must, however, be remembered that in other districts larger
lodes are found, and a much greater thickness of auriferous ground. Thus at
Waverley, gold bearing lodes are known through a thickness of 3,500 feet,
and at Renfrew the thickness of the known and worked gold belt is 5,000
feet.
The measurements are at right angles to the stratification, and the assays
by the Connecticut State Assayist.
SECTION IN ASCENDING ORDER FROM THE AXIS OF THE ANTICLINAL MOUNT UNIACKE
GOLD FIELD.
Strata. Thickness. Veins. Gold
Value.
Ft. In. Ft. In. Oz. Dwt. Grn.
Sandstone ............... 15 6 2 12
7
Quartzose slate... ... ... ... ... 42 0
Slaty sandstone, with bands of slate ... 19 0 60
Slate .................. 1 0
Sandstone ... ... ... ... ... 8
6
Slate .................. 13 2 3 0
Sandstone and slatebands ... ... ... 125 6
Slate .................. 38 6 3
Quartzite ............... 18 0
Slate .................. 16 0
Quartzite ... ... ... ... ... 4
0
Slate and bands of sandstone... ... ... 60
2
( 2 )
Sandstone and thin bands of slate ... ... 19 0 J
5 K
I 5 )
Sandstone and band of slate ... ... ... 110 17
16 8
Sandstone and slate bands ... ... ... 80
7 121
Quartzose slates ... ... ... ... 130
Quartzite ... ... ... ... ... 18
0
Quartzite and slate bands ... ... ... 20 0
5 1611
Sandstone and thin bands of slate ... ... 14 0 20
17 9
I 5
...... 36 0 8 8 3
J2 7 3
...... 42 0 15 12 14
., „ (disturbed) ...... 29 0
Quartzite ... ... ... ... ... 32
0
Slate .................. 12 0 3 0 5
9
Sandstones with bands of slate carrying
several veins up to 8 inches ... ... 203 0
Sandstones, grit at base passing into very fine
grained massive sandstone, not auriferous 380 0
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 155
This is succeeded by 1,G30 feet of measures composed of quartzites with a
few bands of slate and carrying fifteen non-auriferous veins.
THE AGE OF THE GOLD BEARING ROCKS.
It is to be regretted that as yet the age of these rocks cannot be
definitely determined. There has been no systematic survey of the district,
and the strata cannot be continuously followed into connection with well
defined horizons further west. The following opinions are those advanced by
Dr. Dawson, and they seem to the writer to be, so far as his present
experience indicates, based on the only available data.
The following is his general comparative table, taken from the supplement to
his "Acadian Geology:"—
CAMBRIAN.
England, etc. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
Tremadoc slates and Lingula Flags. Mire and St. Andrew's Channel
Series
Menevian Series. in Cape
Breton.
Longmynd Series. Acadian Series, St.
John, N.B.
Harlech grits and Llanberis slates. Quartzites and slates of the
Atlantic
Coast of Nova Scotia.
The Acadian Series of St. John, so carefully examined by Professor Hartt,
forms, with its well characterised fauna, the typical representative on the
Western Continent of the formation known in England as the Menevian or
Barrande's Etage G. of the Primordial in Bohemia.
The Atlantic Coast Series, with the two divisions of quartzite and clay
slate, so divided from the respective predominance in each of the rocks
named, are considered by Dr. Dawson, Mr. Selwyn, and Professor Hynd, to
precede these.
It is to be regretted that hitherto the light thrown on the subject by
fossil evidence has been of the most meagre kind. Mr. Selwyn has recognised
in the Lunenburg slates markings of the nature of those named in Sweden,
Eophyton. Dr. Dawson, however, considers them the trails of aquatic animals
named by him PJiabdichnites, which are characteristic of the Acadian Series.
Professor Hynd discovered at "Waverley nodular bodies and markings, which
Mr. Billings referred with doubt to the genus Eospongia, and casts of
Orthis. Dr. Dawson states that they may be compared with the problematical
object from the Eophyton sandstone of Sweden, described by Linnarson under
the name of Astylospongia radiata, but considers them fucoids with radiating
fronds, allied in form to Hall's Phytopois from the Bird's Eye limestone, or
to Linnarson's Scotolithus from the Eophyton sandstone, and has given them
the name of Astropolithon.
156 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
The only other fossil forms observed are tubes from St. Mary's River
resembling Scolithus.
So far as the above fossils give any information, they serve to confirm the
supposition that the measures in question are to be referred to the Cambrian
period. Within that period the fossils may be compared with those of the
Fucoidal or Eophyton sandstones of Sweden, which underlie the equivalent of
our Acadian series. They may therefore be regarded as probable equivalents
of the Lower Cambrian or Longmynd Series of Europe.
Mention has been already made of the anticlinal folds of the auriferous
measures, and their denuded summits. The veins of auriferous quartz, more
particularly the subject of this paper, occur in them, and run parallel to
the strata, having usually quartzite on one side and slate on the other.
They follow the dips and turns of the encasing rocks, and to a casual
observer appear to be really beds of quartz, formed at the same time as the
beds containing them. They have, therefore, been considered by numerous
writers to be true aqueous sediments.
Others again who have considered the reason of their formation, and the
characteristics of the deposits, affirm with great show of reason that they
are true veins.
Imagine these alternating layers of slate and quartzite ridged up under the
influence of a pressure acting in a horizontal direction, and possibly to
some extent confined by the more unyielding granite masses, it will be
readily conceived that, at points of least resistance, which would be the
crests and sides of the flexures, the strata would separate most readily at
the junction of beds of differing toughness, leaving fissures closely
following the outlines of the undulations. Denudation has swept away the
crests of these anticlinals, and now presents these concentric fissures
filled with quartz, as shown on the plan of the Waverley district. (Plate
XXIII.)
A different effect, however, is noticed when the ends of the anticlinals are
penetrated. Here the pressure acting on the layers not capable of escaping
the pressure by flexure as readily as those already described, has caused
the beds to form corrugations, accompanied, doubtless, in many cases by a
slight movement of one bed on another. The larger of these corrugations,
when filled with quartz, present the appearance of logs of wood laid side by
side and connected by threads of the same mineral, and are called " barrel
quartz."
In Plate XXIY. is given a sketch of one of these corrugated lodes, worked
last year at Moose river. The lode varied in thickness from £ of an inch to
4 inches, and presented the apex of an anticlinal dipping to
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 157
the east. The lode was accompanied by a similar one a few inches below it.
Both lodes carried gold, iron, and lead sulphides, and a little calcite, and
gold showed through the intervening slates. The corrugations in the slates
were parallel to those of the lodes, and extended as far as a section was
exposed by the excavations. Similar, but less strongly marked, corrugations
occur in many of the straight running lodes, and in some instances their
transverse axes point to the line of pressure.
Other effects are recognisable as caused by this pressure. Thus veins called
"anglers" are observed breaking abruptly across the quartzifces, and
obliquely across the slate beds, and in some instances proving rich
sometimes in one rock and sometimes in the other (see Plate XXV.) Numerous
feeders, sometimes auriferous, radiate from the lodes into the surrounding
beds, and in some cases connect them. The thin layers of slate found in most
instances on one side of the lode are frequently so soft and broken as to be
readily removed by the miner's pick. The wider beds of slate are frequently
penetrated by several irregular veins, sometimes uniting and again
diverging, and the whole mass is filled with a net work of spurs and threads
of quartz.
These fissures were filled presumably by the deposition of the quartz and
associated minerals from aqueous or other solutions, in a manner similar to
that in which Mr. J. A. Phillips described the formation of the auriferous
quartz veins of California. There have been certain facts observed in
connection with the auriferous values of the lodes in this province which
maybe worthy of mention.
It is found that, as a rule, in wide bands of slate the veins are feebly
auriferous, as is also the case in massive sandstones, or in sections
composed principally of quartzites. The most productive veins are found
where bands of quartzite and slate of moderate thickness alternate. This may
possibly be due to the slates being readily penetrated by solutions owing to
their original lamination, and its increase by the pressure alluded to
above, and to the fact that the original deposition of the gold may have
been dependent on this alternation of beds of differing minerals.
These remarks apply to the lower section of the auriferous measures. The
overlying slates, although pyritous and containing numerous quartz lodes,
undistinguishable from those already considered, have not yet yielded any
containing enough free gold to warrant working by the present systems of
milling.
The worked veins vary in thickness from one half-an-inch to six feet. The
usual width being from 4 to 8 inches, and a 20-inch vein is considered a
large one. Their length varies from a few hundred feet to over two
158 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
miles. They show frequently a banded structure with cavities filled with
quartz and calcite crystals. Other veins show a compact oily quartz, or are
slightly granular, and break most readily across the vein. Pieces of slate
constantly occur in them, and there are also "horses." The fissures have
been seen to extend after the quartz filling them has run out.
The undulations of the auriferous strata were subsequently disturbed by
numerous faults. From the map of the Waverley gold field, it will be seen
that it is disturbed by two heavy faults, running north and south, and
throwing the measures 180 to 570 feet. Numerous small faults are met, and
they are found, as a rule, to belong to either of two sets of faults, the
one having a north and south and the other an east and west course. These
heavy faults seldom hold veins, but there have been disturbances, subsequent
to the filling of the veins, which have produced fissures also holding
veins, sometimes themselves auriferous, and generally influencing the gold
values of the veins they intersect or touch.
An instance of this is shown at Mount TJniacke, where the Nugget Lode (Plate
XXVI., Fig. 1), which has been traced for about 2,500 feet, has, in the main
openings a "bull" lode lying on one side of it, and touching it at intervals
of several feet. The thickness of the "bull" lode is from 3 to 6 inches, and
it consists of hard white quartz holding little gold and few minerals,
except where the nugget lode runs against it and pinches, when it carries
gold enough to warrant its being crushed. The true lode is from 3 to 8
inches thick, composed of dark-coloured quartz, and carries much iron and
arsenical pyrites. The foot wall is a dark laminated slate, succeeded by a
slaty quartzite. This lode has yielded profitable returns to a depth of 200
feet, when it was abandoned as it had got too deep for a horse to raise the
ore. Another of these later lodes is shown at the Belt Mine, Montagu (Plate
XXVL, Fig. 2), where the cross lode made the vein very rich at the point of
intersection. In every district large barren white quartz lodes are met,
which have been considered to be a result of these later disturbances.
There seems to be but one true igneous dyke cutting the gold measures. This
occurs at Strawberry Hill, Tangier, and is about 40 feet wide, and runs at
right angles to the measures, cutting the veins without, to any appreciable
extent, influencing their positions or metallic contents. Bedded diorite
dykes are met in the Lunenburg district.
The period at which the veins were filled cannot be precisely ascertained.
From its occurrence in the lower carboniferous conglomerate, to be referred
to, it would appear that the greater part had been deposited previous to
that era. The date of the subsequent faults and of the filling
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 159
by quartz, etc., of the fissures they formed is not clear. There are no
measures in the Province of a date later than the Triassic sandstones of
Truro, and it is not known if they are faulted by the extensions of the sets
of dislocations in the gold fields which have been described.
It is known that the strata succeeding the carboniferous limestones up to a
period as late at the Upper or Pernio carboniferous are intersected by sets
of faults corresponding to those of the gold districts. It may, therefore,
be conjectured that the filling of the second set of fissures was not
earlier than the latest period to which can be referred these systems of
faults.
The minerals usually associated with the gold are sulphides and arsenides of
iron, galena, blende, copper pyrites, oxide of iron, copper glance,
molybdenite, native copper, sulphur, chlorite, felspar, garnet, mica,
calcite, felsite, etc., not, however, in quantities of economic importance.
The presence of these minerals, especially of the sulphides and arsenides of
iron, appears to be essential to the value of the lodes. It is true that
numbers of lodes have been worked causing but trifling quantities of
pyrites, etc.; but if not present in the vein they are found in the
enclosing walls, which, in this case are sometimes rich enough to warrant
crushing.
The gold occurs chiefly as free or coarse gold in grains visible to the
naked eye, and in strings or filaments between the planes of the quartz. A
considerable quantity is enclosed in the nodules and nests of the associated
minerals, as will be noticed further on. Crystals have occasionally been
found not exceeding one-third of an inch in diameter. One from Tangier was a
rhombic dodecahedron with bevelled edges, and brilliant finely striated
faces. Others are octahedra, sometimes elongated and flattened, with dull
and rounded faces.
The distribution of the gold in the veins is to a certain extent capricious.
Few lodes carry a uniform yield over a space exceeding 500 feet. There is in
almost every vein one or more zones or "pay streaks" of quartz much richer
than that surrounding it. These zones do not appear to be the effect of any
law that has yet been applied to our mines. They lie at every angle, and
appear to be of very varied length and width.
At the Wellington mine in Sherbrooke, one of these streaks has been followed
nearly 600 feet from the surface without showing signs of exhaustion. The
surrounding quartz varied from 2 to 6 dwts. to the ton, while the "pay
streak" ran as high as 20 ounces.
Plate XXVII. shows this distribution of the gold, from a record kept for
three years of the yield of each parcel of quartz, at the Lawson mine in the
Belt lode, Montagu.
160 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
The richest part of the lode at the surface was at the main shaft, and it
dipped to the westward. Finally the vein was found to thin out to 1| inches
to the eastward, and was worked to the western boundary of the property
where it was 6 inches thick. The effect of a cross lode, shown in the
section, Plate XXVII., Fig. 2, was to greatly enrich the main lode, some
lots of quartz from a point below its intersection yielding 40 ounces to the
ton. The greatest depth reached was 300 feet, and it was abandoned as soon
as the "pay streak" showed signs of lessened value, without any attempt
being made to prove its extension. During the five years it was worked by
the last proprietor, about 200,000 dollars* worth of gold was taken out,
which yielded a handsome return over and above all working expenses.
Another parallel "pay streak" was worked in the same lode, a few hundred
feet away, on an adjoining property.
The following brief description of the Waverley gold district will answer
for the rest as they present no distinctive features. It is condensed from a
report and survey, made a few years ago for the Provincial Government, by
Mr. H. Y. Hynd.
The measures as shown on the plan, Plate XXIII., were originally thrown into
an immense fold the base or east end of which rests on the "granitic"
series, while the western production can be traced for several miles.
Subsequent faults have shifted the axis to the north, and the eastern fault
has made a subordinate anticlinal by bringing up lower beds. It was in this
eastern section that the "barrel" quartz was first met.
In some districts the undulation has become an overlap, thus at Tangier and
Wine Harbour, some of the lodes when exposed have a dip to the north at
their crop, on following them downward they reverse and dip to the south.
The lowest bed met in the Waverley district is a thin bed of slate, of a
greenish and grey colour, lying 24 feet below the "barrel" quartz. In the
better known part of the Waverley series are met massive beds of quartzite,
sandstones, etc., interstratified with thin beds of clay slates.
The following is a general section in ascending order:—
1.—Barrel quartz group.—Comprising 120 feet of quartzite with
slate belts and holding four lodes. 2.—Rose group.—Containing three lodes,
and comprising 60 feet of
quartzite with greenish gray and bluish slates, with numerous
minute crystals of iron pyrites.
* The English pound being equal to 4"87 dollars.
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 161
3.— Taylor group.—This group is characterised by a bed of concretionary
quartzite, 70 feet thick, already referred to as fossilferous, and by thin
bands of curly and finely laminated plumbaginous slates of brilliant
metallic lustre. It contains no fewer than 27 lodes, the thickest of which
averages 18 inches; and has a total thickness of 320 feet. 4.—Tudor
group.—Characterised by two massive beds of gray quartzite holding large
crystals and nodules of mispickel, and pebbles of slate. Its thickness is
190 feet, and it holds 3 lodes. 5.—The south lode group.—This group is 600
feet thick and holds
numerous lodes not yet worked to any extent. The lodes in Waverley have been
in some instances extensively and successfully worked. One or two have been
traced around the anticlinal axis, but as might be expected the
identification of individual lodes on reverse dips can be accomplished only
by means of the accompanying beds as their small size and great number
render mineral characters and physical properties an unsafe guide.
ALLUVIAL GOLD.
As yet alluvial gold has not been worked in this Province to any noteworthy
extent, the total yield being estimated at about 4,000 ounces. The geologist
at once marks the traces of severe and prolonged ice action in the Nova
Scotia gold districts. The markings of the striaa are from S. 20' W. to S.
28° E. magnetic, nearly at right angles to the general course of the strata,
and the edges of the harder beds are presented in long rounded ridges.
There appears to have been two periods of attrition and transportation. The
effects of the earlier one are now visible in immense " boars backs" from 50
to 150 feet in height, and sometimes a mile in length, following a general
north and south course. These may be seen on the road from Halifax to
Montagu, at Musquodoboit, Tangier, etc. They hold immense boulders of
granite and quartzite, fragments of slate and quartz imbedded in clay,
sometimes with layers of sand and gravel. The nearest localities furnishing
the granite are from two to six miles to the north. In some cases the
original site of the enclosed rocks must be sought for at much greater
distances. For example, at Halifax, the drift contains fragments of
amygdaloidal trap, identical in appearance with that found in situ at
Blomidon, on the Bay of Fundy, fifty miles away.
A second and more local action is also visible, and by its agency the
auriferous veins are usually found. This action has carried the quartzite
VOL. XXXI.-1832.
V
162 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
and slate boulders from 100 to 1,800 feet on a course corresponding very
closely with : that of the striae. Thus " prospectors" finding auriferous
quartz boulders, costean to the north and frequently trace the boulders to
lodes corresponding in every respect to the boulders first found. As an
instance it may be mentioned that at Montagu the Rose lode, so called from
the red colour of its quartz, was found by tracing the boulders through the
drift on the line of the striae for a distance of 1,200 feet.
In consequence of this limited transportation the surface covering of many
of the gold districts is auriferous enough to work. So local is this drift
that in several districts numbers of men have made a living by breaking up
and amalgamating the quartz boulders in hand mortars, when a few yards away
a day's search would not afford the smallest "sight" of gold.
The writer is not prepared to account for the limited distance to which
these boulders have been carried, except it be by the action of ice on a
coast line gradually changing its level, and he does not anticipate that, in
Nova Scotia, discoveries will be made of alluvial deposits as extensive as
those of Australia and California, owing to the proximity of the gold
districts to the ocean, and their comparatively low average elevation (200
feet) above the sea level. Still the limited explorations that have been
made in the bottoms of the innumerable lakes which occur all through the
coast section, and from still waters in the various rivers, have shown that
they are frequently auriferous. The expense of drainage has deterred
attempts to test them, but some adaptation of the vacuum or steam dredges
lately introduced in the United States may enable this to be done at a cheap
rate.
At Gays Eiver is presented an ancient auriferous alluvium in a lower
carboniferous conglomerate, similar to that described in the writer's paper
on the Gypsum of Nova Scotia* as characterising the base of the
carboniferous formation at many points in the province. Here the
conglomerate resting on the upturned edges of the auriferous slates, carries
considerable amounts of gold near the junction, and the crevices of the
slate frequently carry the same metal embedded in clay and oxide of iron.
The deposit appears to form part of an ancient river bed, and was worked for
some time by drifts driven on the slate, and a sort of long-wall work taking
out the conglomerate as high as it showed gold.
At Lunenburg the beach, open to the Atlantic, was found for several hundred
yards to be highly auriferous, and considerable quantities of gold
* Vol. XXX., page 53.
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 163
were washed out from the sand, but, as may be imagined, operations could not
be carried on long. The measures at this point belong to the series of
slates forming the upper division of the auriferous strata. They are
penetrated by numerous veins showing gold, but the attempts made to work
them did not prove profitable. It has been conjectured that this deposit of
gold was accumulated by the disintegration of carboniferous conglomerates
similar to those of Gays Eiver, as considerable patches of lower
carboniferous measures are known to occupy the shores of Chester Basin,
remnants of some great carboniferous continent formerly extending where the
Atlantic now reigns.
Having thus briefly noticed the chief points of geological interest
connected with the gold fields, the part the miner has played in the working
of the treasures spread out before him alone remains to be referred to. This
may be divided under the two heads of Mining and Milling.
MINING.
In the earlier operations many companies were started with schemes too
ambitious for their means and broke down before they could get into working
order. Others paid large dividends for a few years, but having no reserve
funds abandoned the work when they encountered the trial of poor ore, which
must be faced by every miner sooner or later. Other properties again have
been continuously worked and have made handsome returns.
On the failure of many of the large companies their properties were sublet
to tributers, some of whom have done well by systematic mining, and others
have effected little beyond robbing the richer parts of the lodes within a
few yards of the surface.
During the past two years a number of the more promising properties have
been purchased by American capitalists, and it is expected that their mining
experience gathered in the Western States will lead to a much larger output
than has been obtained for some years past.
When it is determined to work a vein, a main shaft is sunk, at first to a
depth of about 60 feet, and a shaft on each side from 50 to 150 feet from
the central one. At a depth of 40 feet these shafts are connected by levels,
and stoping started from six points and continued in some cases to the
surface. Then commencing 15 or 20 feet below the levels, a breast of two or
more underhand stopes is carried from shaft to shaft. Frequently, when it is
not desired to work to any depth, shafts are sunk at close intervals, and
the rock raised through several of them. All these shafts are sunk on the
vein so that they vary from perpendicular sinkings to slopes at various
angles, as low as 45 degrees.
164 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
This work is continued as long as the quartz pays, and some of the mines
have reached a depth of 600 feet. Usually in the more systematically worked
mines each stope has the following scaffold low enough to permit of
convenient stowage.
Formerly it was customary to take out at one operation the lode and enough
of the slate, etc., to allow working room of from 2 to 3 feet. This was
found to lead to serious loss of gold, both by theft and by mixture of the
quartz with the rock, which had nearly all to be sorted at bank. Now the
slate, etc., on one side of the vein is first taken out, and the vein
allowed to stand untouched until several hundred square feet of it are
exposed. Then it is removed at one operation and sent directly to the
surface. This method costs rather more, as the width of the ground removed
is increased by the thickness of the lode, but the quartz is not so much
exposed to the workmen, and very little of it is lost.
As might be expected from the nature of the strata, the mines are as a rule
very free from water. It may be said that at a depth of 300 feet they are
perfectly dry whenever proper care has been taken to puddle the shafts on
the rock bed, and not to carry the stopes too near the surface.
The most noticeable exception to this rule that has come under the writer's
notice occurred recently at the Rose Mine, Montagu, where at 150 feet the
main shaft struck a flat throw to the south of three feet. This throw
evidently came to the surface under an adjacent swamp, and passed the water
so rapidly that the men had to immediately leave their work, which was not
resumed until more powerful pumps had been set up.
The pumps used are of every variety, from Cornish patterns to steam
ejectors.
The explosive used is chiefly powder, but in many of the lodes having narrow
slate bands, or very tightly bound, dynamite is used. Formerly English
dynamite and powder were exclusively used, but local factories now supply
both these requisites at fair rates and of good quality.
The drilling is entirely two-handed, and the system of single-hand drills
never succeeded in establishing itself here. Machine drills are but little
used, and the narrow inclined workings, which necessarily characterise our
gold mines, almost forbid their application except for driving levels, etc.
They will, however, be found economical when attention is turned to working
the broad belts of banded slate and quartzite, which are met in many of the
districts, and offer an abundant supply of low grade ores.
The cost of extracting a ton of ore varies between wide limits. In the
narrower veins it frequently costs as high as 15*00 dollars per ton of 2,000
lbs., while in veins three feet wide and upwards it is raised for
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOV A SCOTIA. 165
l-50 dollars a ton, and in slate bands from three to ten feet wide the cost
has been known not to exceed -95 cents. The wages of miners being 1*25
dollars, and of labourers 90 cents to a dollar a day.
MILLING.
The quartzite from the mine is passed directly to the stamp mill. At the
commencement of gold mining here attempts were made to roast the ores before
they were stamped, but as the ordinary circular open kilns were used with
wood for fuel, the heat was not more than sufficient to drive off part of
the sulphur in combination with the iron, and to coat the free gold with
arsenic from the almost omnipresent mispickel, and they were abandoned.
The following description, and the Plate XXVIII., for which the writer is
indebted to Messrs. J. F. Torrance and L. W. Scaife, of the Pittsburgh Gold
Mining Co., showing one of the best mills in the Province, will give an idea
of the general principles on which the quartz is treated.
A "battery" consists of an oblong cast iron box, a, containing four or five
stamps placed at regular intervals, and large enough to allow a space of
several inches between the stamps and the sides of the box. The stamps b and
the stems are of iron, and weigh from 450 to 750 lbs., the stems c pass
through vertical guides d d, and are provided with tappits/. A shai't fitted
with four or five double cams e e, lifts these stamps from six to nine
inches, and the quartz in the box is crushed by their unaided fall. Two or
more batteries are frequently driven from the same shaft. Apertures j are
provided for introducing the quartz and water into the boxes, and gratings h
allow of its escape when crushed to the desired fineness. The crushed quartz
is passed over copper plates amalgamated with mercury, and subjected to
other contrivances for extracting the gold.
The mill was made by Fraser and Chalmers, Chicago, and the total weight
(including no wood, except the guides and props) is 29,450 lbs. Each of the
two "batteries" contains five stamps, and weighs 5,500 lbs. Each stamp has a
maximum weight of 750 lbs., and falls for each blow about 9 inches. The mill
was designed to run at the rate of from 85 to 90 drops for each stamp per
minute, crushing 20 tons of quartz in 24 hours, but owing to the fact that
copper amalgamated plates are placed in the batteries to catch the gold, it
does not generally exceed a speed of 50 drops per minute, crushing about 15
tons in 24 hours to the finest perforated plate. Each "battery" contains
front and back copper plates, and outside the gratings are reversing and
splash plates, and the usual long copper plate, about three feet in length,
all amalgamated with mercury.
166 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
Finally there is a mercury trap, for arresting any mercury or amalgam that
is not caught by the plates, which consists of a pyramidal box base upwards,
into which the battery tailings fall as they leave the plates. A stream of
fresh water enters the apex and forms a sort of quicksand in the box,
wherein the mercury is caught and gradually settles to the bottom whence it
is drawn off. The tailings then pass over troughs lined with blankets which
retain the pyrites, which are washed out by hand into a tub of water at
regular intervals.
The quartz is hauled into the mill, weighed, and thrown on an iron grating
with openings two inches square, which allows the fine stuff to fall into a
bin, capable of holding about seven tons. The coarse quartz is drawn by hand
to the mouth of a Phelps' breaker also discharging into bins. From them the
quartz passes by means of self-feeders of simple construction into the
batteries.
The motive power is furnished by a thirty inch Leffell turbine, the fall of
water being twenty-one feet, which would allow of the mill being enlarged to
double its present capacity.
The fineness to which the quartz is crushed varies in different mills, from
a size passing through a mesh of 150 holes to the square inch, down to one
of 400 holes.
The following estimate of the cost of crushing is from actual performance,
and a mill of ten stamps driven by steam power which is also utilised for
driving a small pump :—
QUARTZ CRUSHED TO PASS THROUGH FINEST TWILLED WIRE CLOTH.
Dollars.
Wood 2i cords at'75 dollar ............... 1-57
One man by day, to fire and feed batteries at ... ... ...
1*50
One man by night at ... ... ... ... ...
... l-50
One man by night at ... ... ... ... ...
... l-25
Chemicals and oil ... ... ... ... ... ...
... "50
Wear and tear ... ... ... ... ...
... ... "75
Total ..................... 7-07
Quartz crushed in 24 hours, 8 tons.
Cost per ton ..................... *88f
The above is for quartz alone; when, as is frequently the case, slate is
crushed with the quartz the cost per ton would be materially reduced. At the
Ophir Mill, at Renfrew, some years ago, the cost per ton for quartz was 60
cents, when crushing at the rate of 600 tons per month.
THE GOLD FIELDS OP NOVA SCOTIA. 167
In some mills the use of plates in the " batteries" is not adopted, but
mercury is added at regular intervals to the ore undergoing pulverisation;
the resulting amalgam accumulates around the circular dies on which the
stamps fall, and is taken out at the week end. The use of mercury traps and
blankets is not as general as it might be. As the gold is generally coarse
much of it is retained in the batteries, and the loss is in the fine gold
not caught by the plates. Excluding the gold found in a state of minute
subdivision in the sulphurets, the mills as a rule do not extract over 75
per cent, of the gold.
The causes of this are the casing of the gold by grease from lamps,
dynamite, etc., and the powdered silicates of alumina which form an unctuous
slime, as well as the vibratory motion of the stamps inducing a crystalline
condition of the gold unfavourable to amalgamation, in addition to the
flouring of the gold by the stamping, so that it floats too rapidly over the
plates to permit of its being caught by the mercury. No process has yet been
found equal to the task of recovering the gold thus lost.
As already stated, considerable quantities of arsenical pyrites and
sulphurets of iron, lead, and copper are found in the veins usually in close
connection with the gold. The percentage present of these minerals varies
very much. Some veins and the encasing rocks are heavily loaded with them up
to a proportion as high as 60 per cent.; while in other veins, equally
auriferous, the quantity will not exceed one per cent. The average amount
may be estimated at not less than 5 per cent.
They are presented as scattered crystals, as films in the bands of the
veins, and as irregular masses or pockets frequently connected by threads.
As an almost universal rule they contain gold. A marked exception has been
noted at Mount Uniacke where a number of small veins containing large
amounts of mispickel yielded but mere traces of gold and silver. Beautiful
specimens of gold are frequently secured by treating nodules of pyrites with
acid, which presents the metal in curiously interlaced plates and films,
when by a previous examination no gold could be detected. As yet the
treatment of these pyrites has been of the most superficial character, they
are passed through the mills together with the quartz and allowed to run
away with the tailings.
The following assays of these ores, freed from quartz, will show their
value:—
168 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
Yield pee, Ton of 2,000 Lbs. Locality. Area.
Ore. Gold.
Silver.
Oz. Dwt. Gr. Oz. Dwt. Gr.
Wine Harbour... Provincial Co__ Arsenical pyrites ... 11 8 16
Sherbrooke ... Boulder Area ... Arsenical pyrites and 4 1
16 8 19 10
galena
Do. ... Coburg Area ... Arsenical pyrites ... 1 12 15
6 10 16 I
Do. ... Canada Co. ... Mispickel and iron 45 0
0
pyrites
Do. ... Meridian Co. ... Mispickel and iron 11216
900
pyrites
Montagu ... O'Connor Area... Mispickel and iron 12 12 22
10 0
pyrites
Do. ... Belt Lode ... Mispickel 100
0 0
Ovens......McCullochlot ... Mispickel and iron 242 16 0 16
5 0
pyrites
__________________________________________________________
These results are confirmed by the assays of the same ores from various
districts made by the writer, who on several occasions, has found nickel and
cobalt present up to 2 per cent. The following assays of pyrites which have
been concentrated from tailings, show the inadequacy of the ordinary process
of stamping to extract the gold from them.
Yield per Ton oe 2,000 Lbs. District. Area of Vein.
Ore. Gold.
Silver.
Oz. Dwt. Gr. Oz. Dwt. Gr.
Tangier ... New York Co. Concent, arsen. and sulpirides 6 5 0
2 4 0
Do. ... Leary Lode... Do. do. do.
4 14 4
Waverley ... ... Do. do. do.
6 14 1 0 10 0
Sberbrooke .. Average lots.. Do. do. do. 2
10 0
The following table shows the assay values of several samples of tailings
and pyrites taken from waste heaps not concentrated, showing that much free
gold is lost in addition to that carried away by the various pyrites, as
already alluded to.
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 169
I Yield pee, Ton op 2,000 Lbs. District. Area.
Ore. Gold.
Silver.
Oz. Dwt. Gr. Oz. Dwt. Gr.
Waverley ... ... Tailings .........
0 oz. 7dwt.4 gr.
Do. ... Barrel quartz Do. ... ...
... 15 0
Montagu ... Belt mill ... Do. ......... 16 13
Do. ... ... Tailings natural concentration
300
It would seem that no regular system of assays of the values of the ore and
pyrites before and after milling has ever been carried out here. A few such
experiments would afford valuable data to replace the empirical and
haphazard method of heating the ores too frequently seen among our miners.
At Montagu a Fro me concentrator has been erected to heat the tailings of
that district, which are said to yield pyrites averaging 60 dollars to the
ton. It is yet too soon to speak of its practical working, but should it
equal the expectations of the builder there is a good field for this work,
as about 412,700 tons have been crushed since gold mining began here.
The amalgam of gold and mercury is squeezed in canvas and leather bags to
get rid of as much mercury as possible, and heated in a crucible, having a
close lid fitted with condensing appliances. The resulting gold sponge is
smelted with oxidising re-agents, poured into oblong moulds and forwarded to
the United States, where it is sold on the Mint assays.
Nova Scotia gold, like that of other countries, is an alloy of which silver
forms the chief impurity. As a rule it is of a high degree of fineness. The
following analyses were made some years ago, but represent its character at
the present time:—
Locality. Authority.
Composition.
Gold. Silver. Iron. Copper Lead. Zinc. Total. Mooseland......O.
C. Marsh ...98'13 T76 trace -05 ...... 99"94
Tangier Field Lode. B. Silliman ...97-25 2-75
............lOO'OO !
Do. Leary do. U. S. Assay Office .. 96-60 ..................
Waverley......H. How ......94-69 4"74 ... -39 ... -16
99'98
Ovens ......A. Gesner......93-06 6'60 ... -09 ......
99-75
VOL. XXXI.-1882.
W
170 THE GOLD FIELDS OP KOVA SCOTIA.
This fineness is much influenced by the presence of galena, as the gold from
certain lodes carrying large quantities of this mineral sometimes rims as
low as 800 parts in 1,000. From numerous assays the average fineness of gold
from different countries is about:—
Parts in 1,000.
Victoria............ ........... 958
Nova Scotia ..................... 955
California ..................... 880
Russia ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 891
'British Columbia ... ... ... ... ...
... 875
The foregoing remarks touch briefly on the chief points of interest to the
geologist and miner presented by the Nova Scotia gold fields, and it is
feared that clearness of detail has to some extent been sacrificed to a fear
of trespassing on the patience of the members.
Doubtless the chief attention of the miners here, who, as a rule, possess
little capital, will continue to be directed to the small rich veins
yielding-quick returns, and it is to be regretted that as a rule their
operations are confined to working out the more accessible parts of the pay
streaks, and no systematic scheme of work is attempted. It is anticipated,
however, that in the future the greatest reliance will be placed on the low
grade ores. There are numerous belts known to contain many thousands of tons
of quartz and slate, yielding by mill tests up to seven pennyweights (6-70
dollars) of gold to the ton. From the costs of extraction and milling
already given it will be seen that in many cases these ores would yield good
returns if worked on a fairly large and careful system. This experiment is
now being practically tested in the Sherbrooke district by parties who
purpose adopting the usual treatment in stamp mills to secure the coarse
gold, and a systematic concentration of the tailings which will yield
considerable quantities of arsenical and other pyrites. These would find a
ready sale at the reduction works of the Eastern States, and form an
important item in the returns.
The gold is held by the Provincial Government who grant areas of 250 by 150
feet for a term of twenty-one years, with option of renewal, for a fee of
two dollars, and a royalty of two per cent, on the gross value of the
smelted gold produced, which is valued at nineteen dollars an ounce (from 20
to 60 cents less than its market value). The royalty is collected from the
mill owners, who are obliged to give bonds, and make sworn returns of the
quartz crushed and the yield of gold.
The following tables show the total yield of gold since 1862, in which year
systematic statistics were first collected.
THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 171
NOVA SCOTIA GOLD FIELDS.—GENERAL ANNUAL SUMMARY.
Average Earnings per
Year. Total Ounces of Gold Stuff Yield per Ton Total
Days ^an peJ.5^,and
Extracted. Crushed. of 2,000 Lbs. Labour.
a? 18 dollars
per Oz.
Oz. Dwt. Gr. Tons. Oz. Dwt. Gr.
Dollars. Dollars.
1862 7,275 0 0 6,473 1 2 11 156,000 83 249
1863 14,001 14 17 17,002 16 11 273,624
92 276
1864 20,022 18 13 21,434 18 16 252,720
112 426
1865 25,454 4 8 24,423 1 0 20 212,966 215
645
1866 25,204 13 2 32,161 15 2 211,796 214
642
1867 27,314 11 11 31,386 17 9 218,894
2-24 672
1868 20,541 6 10 32,262 12 17 241,462
1'53 459
1869 17,868 O 19 35,147 10 4 210,938
152 456
1870 19,866 5 5 30.829 12 21 173,680
2-05 615
1871 19227 7 4 30,791 12 11 162,994
212 636
1872 13,094 17 6 17,093 15 7 112,476
209 627
1873 11,852 7 19 17.708 13 9 93,470
2-28 684
1874 9.140 13 9 13,844 13 5 77,246 212 636
1875 11,208 14 19 14,810 15 4 91,698
2-20 660
1876 12,038 13 18 15,490 15 13 111,304
L94 582
1877 16.882 6 1 17,369 19 10 123,565
216 738
1878 12,577 1 22 17,990 13 23 110,422
2"05 615
1879 13,801 8 10 15,936 17 8 92,002
2-34 702
1880 13,234 0 4 14,037 18 20 103,826
218 654
1881 10,756 13 2 16,556 12 20 126,308
1*52 456
Total 321,362 18 7 422,741 j ...... 3,157,391 ......
______________1________________
It is computed that about 8,000 ounces were produced before that date, which
would make the total amount to the present date about 330,000 ounces.
In addition to the amount legitimately mined and crushed, there is reason to
believe that in every district a very considerable quantity is stolen by the
miners, theft being assisted by the common occurrence of the gold in small
nuggets or "sights" in the quartz. Much of the richest quartz from numerous
veins worked by two or three men is known to be reduced in hand mortars, and
the resulting gold is surreptitiously sold, so that the returns made to the
Department of Mines may be considered as by no means fully representing the
amount of gold extracted.
The tables also show the number of mills, which it may be remarked work only
at intervals, also the number of days' labour performed at mining,
prospecting, and surface work, from Avhich it will appear that the business
although small is fairly remunerative.
172 THE GOLD FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
NOVA SCOTIA GOLD FIELDS.—GENERAL STATEMENT FOR THE YEAR 1881.
nes. ¦d
Average Yield
Districts. Number of Mi Days' Labour. Mills Employ< Steam Mills.
Water Mills. Quartz, etc., Crushed. Yield per Ton. Oz. Dwt. Gr. M Y
Oz. aximum ield per Ton. Total Yield of Gold. per Man per Day for
12 Months at 18 dollars per Oz.
Dwt.
Gr. Oz. Dwt. Gr. Dollars.
Carribon .. 3 15,426 3 2 1 1,661 13
14 6 3 16 1,129 18 13 1-31
Gays River .. 1 274
1214 7 78
Montagu .. 2 17,982 2 2 1,165 15 10 3
1 15 900 616 •90
Oldham .. 1 2,471 2 1 1 604 10 21 1
7 9 32910 4 •98
Renfrew .. 2 5,038 1 1 583 9 5 1
5 19 269 813 •96
Stormont 1 4,332 80 9 18 5
3 0 17310 0 1-58
Tangier .. 3 11,721 3 1 2 716 2 3 9
2 3 9 399 916 73
Uniacke .. 3 10,003 4 3 1 3,094 11 3 2
5 7 1,355 8 21 •61
Waverley .. 2 5,517 3 1 2 535 8 23
2 0 0 374 0 0 2-28
Sherbrooke .. 10 29,285 6 4 2 5,279 14 0 1
18 6 2,580 2 20 1-32
Wine Harb OY 1 5,098 1 1 552 1
8 20 3 3 0 79514 0 2-80
Uiiproclaime< L. 4 19,161 5 1 4 2,287 117 2
11 9 2,436 912 220 1-52
33 126,308 30 15 15 16,556 12 20 6 3 16
10,75613 2
From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the area containing gold is
very large, and that the little work that has hitherto been performed has
shown that there are numerous lodes that have yielded good returns. The
district as yet has not shown the extensive alluvial deposits characterising
those countries which have become famous for their production of gold, and
the future development will, so far as can be judged at present, be due to
more extensive working of the veins.
The district affords good openings for men having capital and mining
experience, and as a rule such men have done well here. Companies have done
equally well whenever their operations have been controlled by competent
agents, who have learned to work on the systems experience has shown to be
best adapted to the country, and have not maintained the rules of mining
learned in wide lodes, etc.
When the cheapness of labour, the abundance of water power, a favourable
climate, and the accessibility of the district are considered, it may be
fairly anticipated that gradually the attention of miners and capitalists
will be turned to the Nova Scotia gold fields, and that with improved
methods of treatment, and the accumulation of experience in detecting and
following the richer deposits this industry will become a leading one in the
province.
PROCEEDINGS. 173
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, JUNE 10th, 1882, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
JOHN MARLEY, Esq., in the Chair.
The Assistant-Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported
the proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Ordinary Member— Mr. John Harbottle, Manager, Skelton Park Mines,
Marske-by-the-Sea.
Associate— Mr. Richard L. Weeks, Willington, Co. Durham.
Student— Mr. Charles Forster, Backworth House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Associate— Mr. Thomas Henry Ward, Manager, Kuldiha Colliery, Bengal, India.
Student— Mr. Frank Marston, Bromfield Hall, Mold.
The Assistant Secretary read the following paper, by Mr. E. F. Melly, "On
the Anthracite Coal of South Wales:"—
VOL, XXXI.—1888.
X
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 175
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
By E. F. MELLY.
During the past year a vigorous crusade has been undertaken in London
against smoke and its companion, fog, and the National Health and Kyrle
Societies, under the Presidencies of the Duke of Westminster and Prince
Leopold, have originated a movement with a view to the abatement of smoke,
in which they have been assisted by the Anthracite Coal Owners of South
Wales, who advocate this fuel as the only satisfactory preventative of the
smoke nuisance. In the following paper the writer has endeavoured to give a
general description of anthracite, its mode of occurrence, its distinctive
qualities, and its uses, together Avith such statistics as it has been
possible to collect. It is only to be regretted that the great prejudice
against anthracite has prevented the same interest being taken in it, as has
been bestowed on other coals, while it is a lamentable fact that the
production in South Wales is, at the present time, considerably less than it
was twenty-five years ago, although there is no doubt that the consumption
is again slightly on the increase.
DEFINITION OF ANTHRACITE.
The word anthracite is derived from the Greek dv0pae, signifying carbon or
charcoal. It wTould appear to be a somewhat difficult matter to give an
accurate description of the coal, owing to the fact that it varies much in
quality; but the following distinctive features are a good indication of
anthracite proper :—
1.—Shiny, bright appearance.
2.—Hard and brittle.
3.—Entire smokelessness.
4.—High specific gravity.
5.—Perfect cleanliness.
6.—Large excess of carbon.
7.—Low percentage of sulphur and ash.
In appearance it is either flinty and massive or woody, the former
176 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OP SOUTH WALES.
being by far the harder variety. It is somewhat difficult to light, but once
burning develops great heat, which can be greatly increased by the use of a
strong draught. It also decrepitates in burning, and this is one of the
chief obstacles to its use. This property is supposed to be due to the
presence of water between the fibres of the coal, which water on becoming
heated, is converted into steam, and thus splits up the coal.
There are several other names for anthracite, such as " stone coal," the "
Kilkenny" coal of Ireland, and the " blind coal" of Scotland, while in Wales
it is sometimes called "culm," though this name is only applied to the
rubble or small.
It is found in very large quantities in the United States, the best deposits
being in Pennsylvania, where it is the chief fuel. The present consumption
in the United States, for all purposes, now amounts to about 28 million tons
per annum. It is also worked in France and Russia, and there are
considerable quantities to be found in Germany, Spain, Italy, and Austria.
It is, however, only with the anthracite of the United Kingdom that this
paper has to deal, and the deposits in Ireland and Scotland being both
limited and poor in quality, the vast resources of South Wales alone seem
worthy of attention.
HISTORY.
The first mention of the use of anthracite is in Mr. George Owen's " History
of Pembrokeshire," written in 1595. After extolling its smokeless
properties, he states that some was taken "to the citie of London, to the
late Lord Treasurer Barley, to shewe howe far the same excelled that of
Newcastell, wherewith the citie of London is servid, and I think if the
passage were not soe tedious there would be greate use made of it." Two
hundred and fifty years later, Taylor, in his "Statistics of Coal,"
prophecies its general adoption in London. Little coal was, however, worked,
except in Pembrokeshire, for many years on account of the want of outlet;
but -the formation of the Swansea canal in 1796, the Neath canal in 1800,
the Gwendraeth Valley canal in 1825, all of which are now supplemented or
superseded by railways, and the Llanelly railway, in 1840, gave an outlet to
the entire basin, and a ready communication Avith the ports of Swansea,
Neath, Llanelly, Pembrey, and other parts of the kingdom.
There would appear to have been a heavy spurt in the trade at this period,
leading to the opening out of a large number of collieries, which, perhaps,
accounts for the present very small individual output of most of them, and
the fact that many have come to grief through want of trade.
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 177
MODE OP OCCURRENCE.
A few words may be devoted to describing the gradual transition from the
highly bituminous coals in the east to the anthracite. The coal-field
commences near Pontypool, in Monmouthshire, with coals of a highly
bituminous character. Passing gradually to the west, the semi-bituminous
coals of Ebbw Vale and Tredegar are first found, and these appear to merge
into the celebrated smokeless steam coal of Aberdare and Merthyr. South of
this point the Ehondda Valley produces both steam and bituminous coals.
Proceeding westwards from Aberdare there is a considerable district at
Hirwain and the Neath Valley of bastard anthracite, a coal which is
intermediate in analysis and quality between steam coal and pure anthracite.
It fetches a price equal to second-class anthracite, and is used for mixing
with other good coals for steam purposes. This passes on to the anthracite
deposits, which continue without interval (except the sea) along the north
rise to St. Bride's Bay.
The writer is unaware of any really satisfactory explanation for this change
in the quality of the coal. One explanation is that it may be caused by
friction, produced by the pressure of superincumbent strata, or from
internal disturbances ; but as the anthracites are in many cases rather
nearer the surface than the other coals, and, with the exception of
Pembrokeshire, are by no means disturbed, this explanation cannot be
considered a good one.
The following analyses of typical coals in each district show, however, how
the hydrogen and oxygen have been gradually eliminated, and the carbon
consequently increased. In the case of the bastard anthracite, it would
appear that the carbon has been partly replaced by ash, this coal being much
dirtier than either anthracite or steam coal.
Analyses of a Newcastle bituminous coal and an American anthracite are added
for the sake of comparison.
TABLE I.—ANALYSES. District .. .. Newcastle. Monmouth. Aberdare.
Hirwain. Owmaman. Pembroke. American. Colliery .. .. Hartley.
Abercarn. Nixon's. Dunraven. Garnant. Kilgetty. jfa,,cr
Quality Bitu- Semi-bitu- Smokeless Bastard
Anthra- Anthra- Anthra-
^ ' " ' minous. minous. Steam Coal Anthracite
cite. cite. cite.
Carbon ... 81-85 85-98 90'27 8837 92"66
94-18 91-05
Hydrogen ... 5"29 470 4-12 363 2-12
2'99 ~\
Oxygen ... 7'53 5"53 253 >
76 V 3-63
„. 4-01
4-68 C
Nitrogen ... 1-69 '90 "63 )
-50 )
Sulphur ... 1-13 -59 1-20 1-09
-12 -59 -07
Ash ...... 2-51 2-30 125 2"90
-42 -98 525
178 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES
The district of anthracite collieries in South Wales is very extensive, but
the greater number of them are mere openings in the side of a hill,
connected with an incline, to screens at the railway siding. A great many of
these are stopped for want of trade three days per week during certain parts
of the year, when the demand for lime-burning in France, or malting in
England, is slack.
Eeferring to Plate XXIX., it will be seen that the anthracite deposit
commences on the east near Glyn Neath, in Glamorganshire, and passes
westwards some thirty miles to Kidwelly, in Carmarthenshire. Here it is lost
under the waters of Carmarthen Bay and re-appears again at Saun-dersfoot, in
Pembrokeshire, crosses that county, a distance of about twenty miles, and
finally disappears along the shores of St. Bride's Bay.
This may be divided into three main districts, producing anthracite of
varying quality. (1) Pembrokeshire. (2) The Gwendraeth Valley, in
Carmarthenshire. (3) From thence eastwards, including the Cwmaman Valley,
the north of the Swansea Valley and South Breconshire, extending to the Vale
of Neath.
(1.) PEMBROKESHIRE.
The strata in this county are much disturbed and broken up by large faults,
and the seams of coal, although of the very best quality of anthracite, are,
with the exception of about four, too thin to be worth working. Fig. 1,
Plate XXX., gives a section at the Moreton colliery, near Saundersfoot, the
Kilgetty seam being added on at a depth of fifty yards, as proved at a
neighbouring colliery. Although there are several seams of great thickness,
they are found to be too dirty to work.
The Lower-level and Kilgetty seams are the two chiefly worked, and are much
harder than the others, producing respectively 50 per cent, and 40 per cent,
of large, while many of the other seams produce almost entirely small. The
cost of working is very high on account of the thin seams, but, as will be
seen further on, the excellent quality and high reputation of the coal
enables the owners to obtain a much higher price than that paid for the
other anthracites. Fully one-half of the production in Pembrokeshire is used
for house purposes in that county, while the large coal is shipped at a high
price for malting.
(2.) THE GWENDRAETH VALLEY.
There are a large number of excellent seams of coal in this valley, as may
be seen by reference to Fig. 2, Plate XXX. They differ from those in
Pembrokeshire chiefly in their hardness, it being a usual thing to produce
only about 15 per cent, of small coal, beyond what is made in hewing, and
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 179
which is left underground. The percentage of carbon is also lower. Near
Llanelly these anthracites are somewhat inferior, but the coal in the
north-eastern portion of the valley, though not quite so good as that of
Pembrokeshire, is well adapted for malting, a process which requires the
best anthracite.
The chief seams are the " Big Vein," the "Stanllyd," and the "Pump Quart."
There are few faults, and the collieries are not as a rule much troubled
with water, while labour being much cheaper than in the steam coal
districts, the cost of working is very low. Besides the seams shown in the
section there are several others, amounting it is said to no fewer than
twenty-two in all, so that the quantity of coal in this district is very
large.
It is, however, a deplorable fact that there are many collieries in the
Gwendraeth Valley which have been stamped as failures, and are now no longer
at work, while very few work as much as 80 tons per day.
(3.) FROM THE GWENDRAETH VALLEY EASTWARDS, ETC.
The district of most importance in the third section is the Cwmaman Valley,
where the largest and most profitable collieries are situated, some of which
have an output equal to 250 tons per day. There are a large number of seams
varying from one to nine feet thick, while near the Vale of Neath one of
these seams attains'the thickness of eighteen feet. Amongst these the "Big
Vein" (answering to the Stanllyd of the Gwendraeth Valley) has the greatest
reputation, while the "Brass Vein" and "Diamond Vein" are also of excellent
quality. The " Furnace" or Four-feet seam, supposed to be the same as the
celebrated " Four-feet" of Aberdare, has been largely used for iron
smelting, with very economical results, and is now shipped for the same
purpose to Maryport.
The cost in this valley is also low, and nothing but the restricted demand
prevents large profits from being made.
Proceeding eastwards to the boundary of the district, the coals are found to
be rather inferior, the percentage of carbon being lower. They are, however,
very hard and well suited for lime burning; the seams are the same as those
of the Cwmaman Valley.
QUANTITY OF ANTHRACITE WORKED. During the past few years, no absolute
statistics of the quantities of anthracite worked have been made out, but
the following, which appear however to be only approximate, have been
obtained from Mr. Robert Hunt, and show the production twenty years ago.-—
180 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
Tons.
1855.................. 997,500
1856 ...... ............ 964,500
1857.................. 960,500
1858.................. 737,590
1859.................. 800,350
These the writer has ventured to supplement by the following Table, which
has been prepared with the help of the Mineral Statistics for 1879 and 1880.
Although, in the case of Glamorganshire and Carmarthenshire, the figures are
not absolutely accurate, yet it is believed that they are very approximate:—
TABLE II.—QUANTITIES.
^Sou^Wateif Total Anthracite 0oal- Total 0oal in South
Wales.
County.
Anthra- T tl 1879 1880
1879- 1880_
cite.
Pembroke...... 7 7 84,573 79,386
84,573 79,386
Carmarthen ... 26 41 360,000 359,800
631,967 625,933
Brecon ...... 6 8 32,456 40,179
83,571 100,616
Glamorgan ... 13 304 165,000 196,000
12,368,187 15,320,196
Monmouth ...... 82 ... ...
4,660,745 5,039,549
Total ... 52 442 642,029 675,365 17,829,043
21,165,680
Average daily output of anthracite collieries ... 46 tons.
Average daily output of all collieries ...... 172 „
Allowing 280 working days per annum.
It will be seen that the output of the anthracite collieries is wretchedly
small, and that the total annual quantity produced does not amount to ¦5 per
cent, of the total output of Great Britain. The only explanation of the
great diminution of the output appears to be that iron smelting in these
districts is almost a thing of the past, whereas twenty years ago large
quantities of iron were made with this coal.
According to the report of the Coal Commission, there was in 1863, a
quantity of 215 millions of tons of workable coal remaining in
Pembrokeshire; but allowing for the very tender quality of coal in this
district, added to the large number of faults, it is believed that this
estimate of workable coal is much too high.
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 181
The coal in Carmarthenshire and Glamorganshire, however, has not the fault
of being tender and would appear to be easily obtainable, as the seams are
thick and the faults few. The anthracite district in these counties extends
over an area 30 miles in length, with an average width of nearly six miles,
giving a total area of over 100,000 acres. The total thickness of the
various workable seams of coal proved at different points amounts to over 45
feet, so that it is believed that an estimate of 30,000 tons per acre
(allowing 1,000 tons per foot per acre) will be well within the mark. This
will give a total of 3,000 millions of tons, from which must be deducted the
workings which have already occurred, but the statistics above show that
they can have made but a slight inroad into this enormous mass of mineral
fuel.
MODE OP WORKING.
There are two main plans of working anthracite, the oldest and most usual of
which is the "pillar and stall" system, with what is called "single road
stall." This is shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXXI. After leaving the shaft
pillars, headings are generally driven off the main levels to the rise, at a
distance apart of about 90 yards. From these, leaving only a pillar of 15
yards or less to the level, stalls 7 yards wide are opened out, the pillars
between them being generally about 6 yards. These stalls are driven forward
about 45 yards, a road being laid on one side, to meet the corresponding
stall from the next heading, and are timbered according to the strength of
the roof, with props or " sets" of three, and the small coal, which is worth
very little, is thrown into the "gob" at the side. As the trams are usually
very large and weigh about 30 cwts. when loaded, it is customary to make
these stall roads sufficiently high to admit of the horse or pony coming
right up to the face, while the collier has no duties beyond getting,
filling, and timbering. Nothing is paid per yard of advance after the stall,
which commences only 6 feet wide, is once opened out; the price paid for
opening off the heading being from 10s. to £1. From Is. 4d. to 2s. is paid
for each " set" of three timbers. When the stall has met the corresponding
stall from the next heading, the pillar is driven across, and as much of it
brought back along the same road as the roof will allow. If the roof be
strong it is nearly all extracted, but in many cases nearly the whole of it
has to be left, which makes this system a very wasteful one.
The ventilation is effected by holings from stall to stall. These are made
only 4 or 5 feet square, and are driven very cheaply. The lowest stall is
thus connected to the return air-way, while a door is placed at the entrance
of each stall from the heading.
VOL. XXXI.-1882.
^
182 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
The "double road stall," Fig. 2, Plate XXXI., only differs from the
preceding in the fact that the stalls are generally about 20 yards wide with
a road on each side, the space between being packed as much as possible with
rubbish. The pillars are from 15 to 20 yards wide, and when the stalls have
proceeded about 60 yards to the barrier provided for the heading above, they
are cut across and brought back: they have a much better chance of being
extracted than in the former method, while the ventilation is much more
satisfactory and proceeds up one side of the stall and down the other.
One great objection to the pillar and stall system, and one that exists
throughout South Wales, is the large face required in proportion to the
number of men, it being very difficult to get two men to work together in a
7 yards stall, or three in a 20 yards stall.
The other method is that of "long-wall," which is coming more and more into
fashion, and is especially adapted to flat and thin seams. The working
places or stalls are, as a rule, about 15 yards wide for each set of men,
and a gob road is kept open for each. These roads are cut off by cross
roads, which are made through the gob every 60 yards, so as to save the cost
of maintenance. The air as usual circulates round the faces, with occasional
splits as the distance becomes greater.
WORKING BY CONTRACT.
It is a very usual plan to let out the whole work to three or four
contractors, who agree to deliver the whole of the coal into truck at a
certain figure per ton. This appears to be a very bad plan, but it has been
found to work well in several cases, while it has on the other hand often
been the ruin of the underground workings, and caused the loss of large
tracts of good coal. The usual heads of such a contract are as follows:—
1.—This contract includes all the cutting of the__________seam of
coal, driving headings, airways, turning stalls, driving through faults,
(provided such faults do not exceed the thickness of the seam), pumping and
hauling water, clearing falls, filling and discharging rubbish from the
levels. 2.—The contractors are to find horses, pit wood, timber for doors
and tram repairs and all other necessary purposes, and all grease and oils
and other stores required. 3.—They are to keep clear all air courses and
keep the ventilation good, and to keep all the works in thorough repair.
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 183
4.—They are to follow the directions of the manager, and to drive
headings and stalls according to his orders, and keep to the
measurements decided on from time to time. 5.—They are to be responsible for
all damage that may arise from the
carelessness of their men, and to be liable for all accidents
during the term of this contract. 6.—If the manager finds that any work has
not been properly done,
he may employ other persons to carry out the same properly
and charge the cost to the contractors. 7.—The contractors agree to work not
less than 100 tons per day of
large coal: the proportion of small coal brought to bank not
to exceed 15 per cent, of the large. 8.—The contract to commence
on__________and the term to be for
one year. Payments to be made on the first Saturday of each
month, to the amount of 90 per cent, of the work done up to
the end of the previous month. 9.—The contractors to find two sureties of
£250 each as a security
for the proper execution of the contract.
COST OP WORKING.
The cost at most anthracite collieries (exclusive of Pembrokeshire) is very
low. The getting price of course varies a good deal, but in several
collieries known to the writer it is less than Is. 4d. per ton on large
coal, the small being extracted by "Billy Fairplay," and worked free. The
day wages of mechanics and enginemen only amount to 4s. per day, and are
often less; while the hauliers, repairers, and colliers taken from their
work for other purposes are only paid 3s. 6d. It should be mentioned,
howrever, that the whole of the workmen at a colliery partake of the rise
and fall of wages under the sliding scale arrangements.
Considering the prices obtainable for the coal the royalties and wayleaves
would appear to be rather high, being often as much as §-d. and Id. per ton
on all the coal drawn. The following cost sheet is that of a colliery
working anthracite under peculiarly favourable circumstances, being entirely
without water and requiring only one small hauling engine to deliver the
coal at the screens. It would, of course, be much less were the output
increased, as it might easily be:—
184 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
COST SHEET OF______________COLLIERY.
Output foe Month ending______________
Tons.
Large.................. 980
Small.................. 220
Total......... 1,200
UNDEEGBOUND- Cost
person. ^ ^
Getting............... 1 0'85
Yard work ............ 3'40
Overman and fireman ... ... ... 1*40
Haulage ... ,.. ... ... ... 2*86
General repairs ... ... ... ... 3*28
---------- 1 11-79
SUKEACE—
Smiths and joiners ... ... ... T88
Screening ... ... ... ... 2*40
Sundries and 5 per cent, advance ... 2*04
---------- 6-32
Stoees, &c.—•
Timber............... 2"50
Oils and sundry stores ... ... ... 0"50
Horse hire and keep ... ... ... 2'50
Royalty and wayleave ... ... ... 8'00
Rates and taxes... ... ... ... 1*45
Management and office expenses ... 3"63
----------1 6-58
Total............ 4 0-69
Although in some cases a little gas is found in anthracite collieries, yet
an explosion is almost unheard of, and they are generally worked with open
lights. Their working is certainly attended with less danger than that of
the other South Wales collieries, as will be seen by the following Table,
showing the deaths in 1879 and 1880, in proportion to the coal raised: the
higher proportion in 1879 was due to one shaft accident killing three:—
TABLE III.—ACCIDENTS.
Total Deaths. No. or Colliekies. ^^p^^eath^1^10
Year.
South Wales Anthracite. South Wales. Anthracite. South Wales.
Anthracite.
1879 270 11 ...
... 66,037 58,366
1880 418 4 442
52 50,444 163,841
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 185
USES OF ANTHRACITE. It is difficult to arrive at any reliable figures
showing the proportionate use of this coal, but the following have been
provided by a gentleman who has a large connection and trade in all the
various uses of anthracite, and it is believed that they are substantially
correct:—
Per Cent.
1.—Lime burning ............... 45
2.—Malting.................. 30
3.—Hop drying ............... 3
4.—House purposes............... 10
5.—Steam ... ... ••• ¦•• ••• •••
'
6.—Iron smelting ............... 5
100
(1.) LIME BURNING.
This is the main use of anthracite coal, which is almost the only fuel
adapted to this purpose on account of its smokeless properties, as it is so
disagreeable to the men to stand over the furnaces from which heavy clouds
of smoke are rising, while a great heat and a durable fire are also
considered necessary.
It is largely shipped to France, chiefly during the spring, and is used
throughout the lime kilns of South "Wales.
(2.) MALTING.
This process consists of the gradual drying of barley which has been
previously allowed to soak in water for two days, and then laid out for
another ten days, during which time it begins to sprout. The malt kiln
consists of a brick chamber laid with perforated tiles, and the products of
combustion find their way through these holes, and through the barley,
which is thus gradually dried. The furnace is at some depth below the
drying chamber and the products of combustion are directed by iron
plates, so as to spread uniformly in their passage through the tiles; the
drying process takes 48 hours. As smoke would damage the malt it is
important that the fuel be absolutely smokeless and as free from sulphur
as possible, and as the fires have to burn with a long steady heat for many
hours, a low percentage of ash is also very desirable. These advantages,
added to that of great heat, are possessed by good anthracite, and no other
coal is ever used for this purpose, while coke is used to a small extent in
some districts.
(3.) HOP DRYING.
This process is similar to the preceding, and the same remarks will apply.
It, however, only takes place during a short portion of the year
186 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
—from the middle of August to the end of September—and as the fires are not
required so long, the anthracite is not necessarily so pure and strong as
that used for malting.
(4) HOUSE PURPOSES.
There appears to be no doubt that the peculiarly noxious character of London
fogs is owing to the atmosphere being charged with particles of unconsumed
carbon, which have escaped in the smoke of domestic and other fires.
Although there have been several inventions more or less capable of
preventing smoke, yet the only satisfactory cure is the use of anthracite
smokeless coal. There are, no doubt, several difficulties attendant on the
use of this fuel, the chief of which is that of lighting it, but by taking
the following precautions these are easily surmounted. It requires a rather
large fire-place, which should have fire-brick sides, as the strong heat is
apt to destroy the iron, and a good draught, which can always be easily
produced by the use of a "blower" or piece of sheet iron placed over the top
of the fire. The best way to light the fire appears to be with a moderate
quantity of wood and a red hot iron or salamander, as a strong heat is
required. The pieces of coal should be about the size of an egg, and the
fire should be replenished moderately before it gets low. It must not be
poked, a pleasure which many Englishmen, who regard the poker as a domestic
institution, will be obliged to deny themselves, but the ashes must be
gently raked out.
The writer has recently visited the Smoke Prevention Exhibition at
Manchester, and there saw several excellent fire-grates and stoves for
burning anthracite coal, the best of which appears to be that of Mr. Crane,
shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXXII. The spaces on each side of the fireplace
usually filled with brick-work, are occupied by side flues communicating
with the bottom of the grate. When the register door is closed, a strong
draught is circulated, and the products of combustion are conveyed down the
side flues, and directly under the fire, part being again drawn through the
fire, and the remainder finding its way into the chimney through an opening
below the level of the grate. The register door should be opened when the
fire is well alight; the heat is very great, and as the fire lasts a long
time there is a very great economy.
In many parts of Wales this coal is universally used for house purposes, and
the writer has received several letters from persons who have used it for
years, and infinitely prefer it to bituminous coal on account of its
cleanliness. In Pembrokeshire it is usual to mix the small coal with
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 187
moist clay and form balls, which when ignited with the help of a little
wood, get red hot, and make an excellent and enduring fire. They are
frequently seen in the cottages of the poor, and they have a resemblance to,
but much better effect than the ordinary coke fires.
(5.) STEAM.
There are two main obstacles to the use of anthracite for steam purposes.
First, the great local heat which destroys the bars, and secondly, its slow
combustion. In 1847 the steamship "Washington," belonging to the American
line running from Southampton to New York, started with anthracite coal, and
a fan to promote rapid combustion; but within a few hours she was back in
Southampton with her bars utterly destroyed by the great heat. In 1854
Messrs. McClarty, of Liverpool, used anthracite for two years, apparently
with great success, without any artificial draught, and found a saving of 20
per cent, in stowage, and a reduction in consumption of over 40 per cent.
The general business of the firm proving unprofitable, this successful use
of anthracite came to an end.
About this time Dr. Frankland, after a series of experiments, gave the
following figures as comparison of the evaporative power of various coals
per cubic foot of stowage in steamers:—
Lbs. of Water evaporated by 1 Cubic Foot of Coal.
Duffryn, Welsh steam coal ............ 568'02
Graigola ..................... 581-20
Nixon's Mertbyr.................. 514-93
Lyon's patent fuel... ... ... ... ...
... 585'33
James and Aubrey's anthracite ... ... ... ...
565-02
Watney's anthracite ... ... ... ... ...
74236
thus showing the great superiority of anthracite.
It was also used in 1853 on board the "Victoria and Albert," with the help
of steam jets, and gave great satisfaction. The "Great Britain," "Royal
Charter," and "Faith," also used anthracite; but in no case has its use
continued, the great difficulty being to obtain sufficient draught without
burning the bars, it having been found that anthracite without artificial
draught requires nearly GO per cent, more grate surface than other steam
coals.
This difficulty seems to have been at length overcome by Mr. Perkins'
invention, subsequently improved by Mr. Flannery. Referring to Fig. 2, Plate
XXXII., it will be seen to consist of a series of hollow perforated bars,
resting on a hollow dead-plate and hollow bridge, a is the main pipe
conveying air from the fan, h the branch pipe to the bridge c. The air
enters the bar at each end and passes into the fire through the per-
188 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
forations, while portions also pass through the furnace door / and through
the bridge at e, to allow of an extra supply of air, anthracite being more
liable than any other coal to give off partially consumed gases.
This system is found to answer excellently ; the fiercer the combustion
produced by the blast, the cooler is the bar on account of the large supply
of air passing through, while the economical results have been proved by
experiments on board Messrs. Penn's steamer "Elephant."
The following experiments were made in 1874 with a small tubular boiler, of
which the dimensions were as follows :—Length 11 feet 9 inches, diameter 4
feet 5 inches, tubes 4 feet 7 inches long, area of fire-grate 9^ square
feet. The steam was kept at a pressure of about 40 lbs.
TABLE IV.—STEAM EXPERIMENTS.
Ordinary Bars. Anthracite Coal and Patent Bars.
Coal.
--------------------------.__________________________________________-----
Birch Powell ^ -mQa+ Hm.„ Very Blower Blower
Grove Coal Duffryn. No Blast' Sma11 Fan' f Open. Full Open.
No. of Experiment .... 1 2
3 4 5 6
Lbs. of water evaporated per lb. of coal...... 7'06 7-83
7"94 7"98 814 6-56
Lbs. of water per hour... 672 745 594 960
912 1,204
Horse-power produced... 10 11 9j 15
14 19
A reduction of 1 per cent, should be made from JSTos. 4 and 5 for the steam
used for the blower, and of 2 per cent, from No. 6. It would thus seem that
the patent bars, with a moderate blast, give the best results.
Since these experiments a steam jet has been adapted to the same furnace in
the form of a number of jets, one to each bar. This has enabled anthracite
small to be used under boilers, a fuel quite out of the question, without
some artificial draught, while the bars remain cool and uninjured.
Anthracite coal is of course used for steam purposes at all anthracite
collieries, and the only complaint is the low horse-power produced. It has
also been used by Messrs. Hall and Son at their powder works at Faver-sham,
for the last thirty years. They say that they took to it primarily on
account of the absence of smoke and sparks, and they have found that no
artificial draught nor other alterations were required in their furnaces,
the bars being one inch apart and the pressure of steam 40 lbs.
(6.) IRON SMELTING. Large quantities of iron were at one time made in South
Wales from anthracite coal, and in 1872 over 72,000 tons were used for this
purpose.
THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 189
The iron trade in these districts has, however, now almost ceased, and with
the exception of that used in Cumberland and Staffordshire, little
anthracite is now used for this purpose. Some of the anthracites do not
decrepitate seriously in the furnace, and, with this obstacle removed, their
great heat and small percentage of ash and sulphur render them excellent
smelting coal, so that their use in the above-named districts is rapidly
increasing.
The following are the prices of the various anthracites :—
(1.) PEMBROKESHIRE.—Lower Level Vein. s. d.
Large ......... 12 0 f.o.b. Saundersfoot.
Rubble ......... 8 0 at pit for house.
Small ......... 5 0 „
These prices are very high, but the coal is superior to other anthracites.
(2.) CWMAMAN VALLEY.—Big Vein. s. d.
Large ............ 7 0 at pit.
Small ............ 2 6 „
Large ............ 9 0 f.o.b. Llanelly.
Small ......... ... 4 6 „
The "Brass" vein and "Furnace" vein realise Is. to Is. 6d. less for large,
and 6d. less for small. The Swansea Valley good anthracites fetch about the
same prices.
(3.) BRECONSHIRE DISTRICT INFERIOR ANTHRACITES—9 Foot Vein.
s. d.
Large............ 5 0 at pit.
Small............ 1 9 „
Large............ 7 6 f.o.b. Swansea.
Small......... ... 4 3 „
All the above prices are less 2£ per cent, in thirty days.
It will be seen that there is a good margin of profit, if a sufficient
quantity of good anthracite can be disposed of.
It may also be well to give the prices, delivered in London, compared with
other coals used for house purposes. It must be borne in mind that the coal
should be broken into pieces the size of an egg before delivery, as it is
much too hard for this to be done by the housemaid. This breaking up is
rather costly, on account of the small made, and is charged for extra at Is.
per ton. In America this is done at the pits by machinery, and the pieces
sorted into "lump coal," "steamer coal," "broken coal," "egg coal," "stove
coal," "chestnut coal," the value increasing as the size is reduced.
VOL. XXXI.—1883.
2
190 THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
Prices in Truck at Delivered London Stations, into Cellars. s. d.
s. d.
Wallsend best ...... By sea ... 23
0
Silkstone best ............ 16 6 22 0
Wigan ............... 16 0 21 0
Derby brigbts ........... 14 0 19 0
Kitchen ............... 13 0 18 0
Hard steam ..." ......... 13 6 18 0
Big Vein anthracite ......... 17 0 22 6
„ „ broken to egg size ... 18 0 23
0
The difference between the prices in truck and the delivered prices consists
of:—9d. shovelling out of truck, 2s. 9d. screening, cartage and delivery;
and the balance represents the merchants' profit and the loss on small coal
made in re-screening, which is sold for smithery purposes, at 8s. to 9s. per
ton.
It will thus be seen that anthracite is no dearer than the good London house
coals, while it is far more economical in burning.
COKING.
Although at the present time no coke is made in South Wales, yet it is
interesting to mention several attempts which have been made to coke it. As
long ago as 1859, experiments were made at Kilgetty with partial success,
and a good deal of anthracite coke was sold for blast furnaces. About ten
years after, Messrs. Penrose and Richards, of Swansea, took out a patent for
anthracite coke, which was made in the following manner:— Proportions of 60
per cent, of anthracite small, 35 per cent, of bituminous small, and 5 per
cent, of pitch were mixed together and crushed in a Carr's disintegrator.
The right quantities were obtained by three Jacob's ladders, the buckets of
which were made in proportionate size to the quantities required. The ovens
used were of the ordinary square type, and the coke, which took about
seventy hours to burn, was found to be so hard as to scratch glass, and to
be about 23 per cent, heavier than ordinary coke, while the yield is said to
have been over 70 per cent. It was used at the Landore Siemens' steel works
with good results, the sulphur being exceedingly low, and the economy of
fuel being equal to about 20 per cent. On the whole, however, it appears
that it was not a commercial success, and its manufacture is now
discontinued, except in France, where it is still largely made and used at
Oreusot.
Amongst other applications for which anthracite is more useful than ordinary
coal, may be mentioned the Dowson gas generator. This apparatus produces gas
for a gas engine, by passing super-heated steam,
DISCUSSION—THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 191
at a pressure of about 25 lbs. on the square inch, into a grate burning
anthracite, fixed at the bottom of a generator made of cast iron. A quantity
of air is also drawn in, and the steam is decomposed and forms with the
carbonic oxide a gas which has a great heating effect, though low
illuminating power. It is then passed through scrubbers to a gasometer.
Anthracite, on account of its high percentage of carbon, is most suitable
and economical, and it is stated that 12 lbs. of it will produce 1,000 cubic
feet of gas at a cost of a |d. per horse-power per hour.
In conclusion, the writer would venture to point out that experiments and
practise have satisfactorily proved that anthracite, used with proper
appliances, is a cheap and efficient fuel for most purposes, and, on account
of its smokelessness and cleanliness, eminently suitable for domestic use,
while it appears certain that as the best steam coal of Aberdare becomes
exhausted, it is certain to take its place.
He would also offer his best thanks to several gentlemen who have given him
great assistance in the production of this paper, which it is hoped may be
of interest to the members of the Institute.
Mr. T. W. Bunning said, that he did not think that the use of anthracite
would be a satisfactory mode of reducing the smoke nuisance in London, since
it could only diminish the visible, and probably the least injurious,
portions of the products of combustion, which products within a small
fraction of a per cent, were invisible, and it seemed to him that the
combustion of the same quantity of any sort of coal would produce
approximately the same results both in the quantity and nature of the
deleterious gases evolved. In fact these deleterious products would be 7 per
cent, greater in the Kilgetty anthracite, which by the table given in page
177 is shown to contain the most carbon, than in the Hartley bituminous
coal. In order to give some idea of the enormous quantities of air changed
into noxious gases and poured daily into the atmosphere of London, Mr. Dunn
has kindly made a calculation, given in a foot note,* which shows that on a
winter's working day, when the consumption
* Gases peoduced by Combustion of Coal.
Carbon dioxide.—If coal completely burnt, each 1 % carbon produces 3| % C02.
Hence, 1 ton gives 82-13 lbs. C02 = 701-25 cubic feet at 60° P. and 30" bar.
Sulphur dioxide.—Each 1 % sulphur yields 2 °/o S02. Hence, 1 ton gives 44<-8
lbs. S02 - 263-8 cubic feet at 60° F. and 30" bar.
Water vapour.—Each 1 °/o hydrogen produces 9 % water vapour. Hence, 1 ton
gives 201'6 lbs. H20 = 4,221-3 cubic feet. (Supposed vaporous at 60° E. and
30" bar.)
Air consumed.—Each 1 % carbon requires 701-25 cubic feet oxygen per ton =
3,500 cubic feet air roughly.
192 DISCUSSION—THE ANTHRACITE COAL OE SOUTH WALES.
is roughly 30,000 tons, the gases would, if kept together, cover 150 square
miles (about the area of London) 7 feet 10 inches deep, if anthracite coal
was burnt, and 7 feet 4 inches if Hartley was burnt; one of these gases
alone, the C02, would render unbreathable fnty times its own bulk of air,
that is a column 60 feet high all over London if Hartley was burnt, and 70
feet high if anthracite was the fuel. Fortunately, it is true, that
diffusion takes place very rapidly, but it is not to be wondered at that,
after two or three calm, damp days in London, the atmosphere
Each 1 % sulphur requires 263'8 cubic feet oxygen per ton = 1,300 cubic feet
roughly.
Each 1 o/0 hydrogen requires 2,lI0-6 cubic feet oxygen per ton = 10,000
cubic feet air roughly.
Thus, the Hartley coal with 81-85 o/0 C, 5"29 % H, 7 53 % 0, and 1*18 % S,
would take out the oxygen from 81-85 x 3,500 + 1-13 x 1,300 + 4-35 x 10,000
~ 331,444 cubic feet of air, and replace it by 57,397 cubic feet C02, 298
cubic feet SO.,, and 18,362 cubic feet water vapour, for each ton of coal
consumed.
The Kilgetty (Pembroke) anthracite, with 94*18 o/0 C, 2"99 % H, "76 o/0 0,
and "59 % S, would for each ton of coal consumed take out the oxygen from
94'18 x 3,500 + -59 x 1,300 + 2'9 x 10,000 = 359,397 cubic feet of air, and
produce 66,044 cubic feet C02, 156 cubic feet S02, and 12,242 cubic feet
water vapour.
Hunt states that 10,563,948 tons of coal are sent up to London every year,
which, considering that very much more is burnt in the winter than in
summer, and on a working day than on a Sunday, represents about 30,000 tons
per winter working day. This from the Hartley coal means the production of
1,721,910,000 cubic feet = 191,324,000 cubic yards C02 8,940,000 „
= 1,000,000 „ S02
558,960,000 „ = 62,106,000 „ H20 vapour,
and implies the total removal of oxygen from
9,943,320,000 cubic feet = 1,104,814,000 „ of air,
and from the Kilgetty anthracite the production of
1,981,320,000 cubic feet - 220,146,000 „ C02
4,680,000 „ = 520,000 „ S02
367,260,000 „ = 40,806,000 „ H20 vapour,
with the total amount of oxygen from
10,781,910,000 cubic feet = 1,197,990,000 „ of air.
Area of London say 150 square miles = 464,640,000 square yards, so that the
thickness of the layers of the products of one day's coal combustion
(supposing them to be spread uniformly over this area), and of the stratum
of air which would be completely deprived of oxygen, would be as follows:—
Hartley Coal. Kilgetty Anthracite.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
C02 ...... 1 2-44 ... 1 5-06
(s.g. 1-524)
SO, ...... -08 ... -04
(s.g. 2-211)
H20 ...... 482 ... 3-20
Nitrogen remaining 5 8-48 ... 6 1-30
(s.g. -971)
7 3-82 7 9-60
Total air consumed 7 1-60 ... 7 7-62
DISCUSSION—THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 193
becomes so unbearable as to kill the fat pigs at the Agricultural Show. In
fact the smoke proper, or the very small fractional percentage of soot or
unconsumed carbon floating about is rather an advantage, as it calls
attention to the greater evil arising from the invisible products of
combustion, in the same way as the smell of the street gas has saved many
thousands of persons from being killed by explosions.
Mr. Dunn said, he did not know that it had been clearly shown how much of
the deleterious effects of fog were due to smoke, which was an unconsumed
portion of the coal, and how much to what he might call the legitimate
products of combustion. So far as these latter were concerned the
substitution of anthracite for bituminous coal would be no practical
advantage, the difference, with the same consumption of coal, being to
increase the evil. There was no doubt that the diminution of the quantity of
smoke, if it did not decrease very much the deleterious effects of fog,
would help to render it very much less unpleasant while it lasted. It seemed
to him that the question of removing the smoke nuisance would be one
principally of relative cost. There had been two or three plans proposed by
which, if the smoke was not removed it would be lessened, even with the use
of bituminous coal. There were Moncrieff's and Siemens' plans, both of which
go upon the idea that there should be removed either a portion or the whole
of the volatile matter of coal as gas, and that the coke or partially burnt
coal produced should be used as fuel, with or without the assistance of a
portion of the gas obtained from it. He supposed only a trial of these plans
on a large scale, as compared with the use of anthracite coal, would solve
the question as to which would be the least expensive and also the most
efficient.
Professor Lebour said the first paragraph of the abstract of Mr. Melly's
paper referred to the de-bituminizing of coal from east to west in Wales.
This was a question which had been before the Institute on a former
occasion, and one upon which the late President, Mr. Grcenwell, had given
very valuable information. In the abstract of this paper it was distinctly
stated that the further west they went in South "Wales, not only was the
bituminous character of the coal lost more and more, but that the district
became more and more faulty; and attention was drawn to the fact that in
Pembrokeshire the faults were both larger and more numerous—a fact which was
known, but to which perhaps attention had not been called here in connexion
with the de-bituminizing of coal. As to this de-bituminizing of coal, the
assumption that the coal had been, one way or another, baked by the heat,
might partly account for it. It was not a
194 DISCUSSION—THE ANTHEACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES.
new theory, but this bore out, to some extent, the old theory that the heat
which altered this coal—which in South Wales could not be traced to the
presence of igneous rocks, as igneous rocks were remarkably absent —might be
due to faults in that coal-field. Exactly the same thing was observed in
Pennsylvania where the de-bituminizing- effect took place from west to east,
the eastern part being the most anthracitic, and accompanied by greater
contortions, showing that there had been great mechanical action which had
certainly not taken place without very great heat, and that heat had
probably been quite sufficient to effect the de-bituminization of the coal.
It was here sometimes found that the upper part of a seam was anthracitic
and the lower bituminous; in cases of this sort it was extremely difficult
to assign any reasonable cause for the change with our present sources of
knowledge.
Mr. Daglish, in reply to Professor Lebour's remarks, drew his attention to
the fact that whilst, as correctly stated by him, there was a gradual and
marked alteration or de-bituminization of the lower or steam coal seams,
viz., the 4-feet, 6-feet, 9-feet, &c, in a westerly direction in the South
Wales Coal-field; this change did not apply to the upper or house coal
seams, viz., the Nos. 1, 2, 3, Ehondda Seams, &c, which continued of a
highly bituminous character over the whole of the true smokeless steam coal
district; the characteristic alteration, therefore, in the lower or steam
coal seams could hardly be due to any direct igneous action. Where coal
seams are known to be affected by igneous action—as, for instance, in the
vicinity of the various basalt dykes and whin sills in the North of England
and the South of Scotland—the coal is entirely altered in character, and in
fact carbonised and turned into coke. This is not the case in South
Wales, where the coal is uninjured.
Professor Lebour said, he agreed with what Mr. Daglish had said about
bituminous seams in Wales overlying anthracite seams, and that was one of
the difficulties which had never been solved. It was perfectly true that the
character of the anthracite seams was entirely different to that of the
coke-coal which was got from the sides of whin dykes. They did not know what
the effect would be on coals under great thicknesses of rock; and it was
quite possible that this anthracitic change which had taken place under such
circumstances precluded them from being even compared with those altered
coals got nearer the surface in English workings or in Scotland. This
de-bituminization was probably due to a number of conditions which they were
not acquainted with, or at all events which had not been proved yet. Mr.
Daglish would agree that,
DISCUSSION—THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF SOUTH WALES. 195
so far, the greater or more intense faults in Wales seemed to accompany and
coincide with the greater or more complete de-bituminizing of coal there.
"What Mr. Daglish had pointed out in regard to the Aberdare Valley was
interesting; but there was a stranger fact as to some coals in Pennsylvania,
where the anthracite was at the top in a single seam and the bituminous at
the bottom, both far removed from any igneous rock of any kind, but in the
vicinity of great contortions of the strata.
Mr. T. W. Bunning- then read the following "Description of the Fleuss
Apparatus for Breathing in Noxious Gases." He said he had to express his
thanks to Mr. Corbett for allowing the apparatus to be exhibited, and to Mr.
S. H. Hedley for his great kindness in attending and describing to him the
use of the apparatus.
THE FLEUSS APPARATUS FOR BREATHING IN NOXIOUS GASES. 197
THE FLEUSS APPARATUS FOE BREATHING IN NOXIOUS GASES.
By the SECRETARY.
The appliances for enabling persons to remain under water or in vitiated air
are shown in Figures 1 to 18, Plates XXXIII., XXXIV., and XXXV., which
delineate various views of apparatus suitable for being used by a person
having to work in vitiated air or shallow water.
Fig. 1 shows a front view, and Fig. 2 a side view, of a mask, or face-piece,
by which the nose, mouth, and ears of the person wearing it can be shut off
from the surrounding air. Projecting out from the mask are two pipes, a, b,
one for the inlet of purified air to the interior of the mask, the other for
conveying the exhaled vitiated air to the purifying apparatus.
This mask is kept on the face by straps going round the back of the head,
and by a bandage passed over the mask from a to b fastened under the chin of
the wearer. This latter fastening is, in the more modern masks, rendered
unnecessary by an air-pipe of India-rubber running round, which adapts
itself to all the irregularities of the face, and makes a sufficiently tight
joint without subjecting the wearer to the unpleasant pressure of the
bandage, and this is a very great improvement. In all cases it is better
that the person wearing the mask should be without a beard.
The mask, however, is not a comfortable arrangement, and many persons prefer
the "goggles" used by Denayrouze to protect the eyes, whilst breathing with
the help of the simple apparatus shown in Plate XXXV., Fig. 18. It consists
of a tube a kept in its place by the band c; the two ends of the tube d, e,
serve the purpose of the tubes a and b in the mask. The flat projection b is
grasped by the lips and teeth. By this arrangement the wearer is not
inconvenienced by the perspiration and water which flood the mask after it
has been used for some time, although it subjects the wearer to an emission
of saliva which is very difficult to get rid of.
VOL. XXXI.—1882.
a a
198 THE FLEUSS APPARATUS FOR BREATHING IN NOXIOUS GASES.
The apparatus for purifying the air is most conveniently arranged to be
carried on the back of the wearer in the form of a knapsack, and can be put
on, ready for use, in five seconds. It is shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5, Plate
XXXIII., and Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9, Plate XXXIV.
At the bottom is a strong metallic vessel c, about 6 inches diameter and 16
inches long, charged with compressed oxygen, at a pressure of 250 lbs. to
the square inch. Above this vessel is a rectangular metallic case d. Into
the case d is fitted a vessel e, formed of vulcanite, which is not acted
upon by caustic soda.
This vessel, shown more particularly in Figs. 6, 7, and 8, Plate XXXIV., has
a perforated false bottom and is divided into compartments by division
plates, two of which pass from the top of the vessel to the perforated false
bottom, while the central one passes from the bottom of the vessel up to
within a short distance from the top.
The compartments of the vessel when in use are filled with tow and caustic
stick soda. The vessel is covered with a lid, made air-tight by an
India-rubber washer between the lid and vessel. Two pipes pass from the lid;
through one of them marked /, Fig. 9, the exhaled vitiated air is led into
one end compartment, while by the other, marked g, the air, after having
passed upward and downward through the compartments of the vessel e, can
pass back to the interior of the mask to be again breathed. The pipe g is
formed with a branch pipe g', standing out from it, from which a flexible
pipe is led to the interior of an air-bag g", Fig. 10. This bag serves as a
flexible air reservoir, which will expand when air is exhaled, and contract
when air is again drawn from it into the lungs.
The inlet and outlet tubes on the mask are connected respectively to the
inlet and outlet tubes on the lid of the vessel e by elastic tubes of
India-rubber. Each elastic tube has a metal valve, Fig. 12, attached at one
end; the inhaling valve opening towards the mask, and the exhaling valve
opening away from the mask. Each elastic tube is made with corrugations, as
shown at Fig. 11, so that it will readily stretch. The ends of the short
tubes on the mask, and on the lid of the vessel e, and the ends of the valve
pieces, have each a small projecting flange around them, and the ends of the
elastic tubes, when simply stretched over these flanges, hold firmly to them
and form air-tight joints.
To restore to the air the requisite quantity of oxygen, a small pipe h,
Figs. 3, 4, and 5, is led out from the metallic vessel c, Fig. 4, in which
the store of oxygen, under pressure, is contained, and by a flexible pipe
connected to it at U, Fig. 4, is led into the flexible tube, which is in
connection with the air-bag; a short length of metal tube, such as shown at
Fig. 12', being used where the smaller pipe is led into the larger one.
THE FLEUSS APPARATUS FOR BREATHING IN NOXIOUS GASES. 199
To control the passage of oxygen from the vessel c to the bag, a valve j is
employed, which can be opened, more or less, as required. This valve is
shown in detail in Fig. 13. By turning the screw /, Fig. 13, Plate XXXV.,
the valve can be lifted, more or less, away from its seat, and so a greater
or less quantity of oxygen may be allowed to pass out continuously from the
vessel c through the small tube h. The loops 1c, Fig. 10, at the lower part
of the bag, are to pass over the studs I, at the ends of the vessel c, Figs.
3, 4, and 5. The straps at the upper part of the bag are to be buckled
together, and form a loop, which hangs over the shoulders of the wearer and
is connected to the apparatus at m m, Fig. 4. The lid of the vessel e, Fig.
9, is held down and the vessel retained in the metallic case d by bars n,
passed across the top of the case, through eyes which project up from it as
shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5.
When the apparatus is to be used for enabling persons in the ordinary
diver's dress to work under water without fresh air, it is modified in the
manner shown at Figs. 14 to 18, Fig. 14 shows a side elevation of the
ordinary metallic shoulder-piece of a diver's dress, with the apparatus
combined with it. There is a clip plate all round the edge of the
shoulder-piece, by which the opening at the top of the diver's dress is
clamped in the ordinary manner, and a tight joint made between them. Fig. 15
is a front elevation of the helmet which can be secured to the
shoulder-piece and locked thereto by giving it a partial turn. Figs. 16 and
17 are, respectively, a face and side view of the mask which is to be
secured over the nose and mouth of the wearer inside the helmet. This
apparatus being used for deep-water diving, it is necessary that the case d,
containing the vessel which holds the caustic stick soda should be closed by
a strong metallic cover, with metallic pipes leading to and from it, and the
vessel e, which contains the caustic soda, is made with a flange round the
top. Above the top of the vessel e is placed a strip of sheet India-rubber,
and above this the metallic cover. The cover is secured by screws as shown
at Fig. 14. The pipes which take the foul air to, and convey the purified
air from, this vessel, are secured to the headpiece as shown at a, Fig. 14.
The purified air passes straight into the dress which serves the purpose of
the bag, Fig. 10; and the exhaled air is forced by the lungs through the
pipe y, Fig, 16, and through a flexible tube, to x, Fig. 14, and from thence
through the purifying vessel. A small valve is fixed on the mask at z, to
prevent the exhaled air becoming mixed with the purified air in the dress;
and another valve is put on the outlet pipe to prevent the return of the
exhaled air before it has become purified. A small pipe
200 THE FLEUSS APPARATUS FOR BREATHING IN NOXIOUS GASES.
from the oxygen reservoir is also connected by a nnion to the
shoulder-piece, and a continuation leads into the interior of the helmet. As
the mask or mouthpiece, Figs. 16 and 17, is not required to protect the
eyes, it is made smaller than the one shown at Figs. 1 and 2.
d, d, Figs. 4 and 14, are metal loops on the exterior of the oxygen
reservoir, through which a belt may be passed and buckled round the waist of
the person using the diving dress.
As this apparatus could not be successfully used in dark places without some
means for obtaining light, a lamp has been devised which will burn when
surrounded by gases which will not support combustion.
This lamp is illustrated in Plate XXXVI. It consists of a metallic sphere c,
which serves as a reservoir for compressed oxygen, and upon this sphere is
fixed a spirit lamp d, with a movable pin e, for carrying a lime, and a
movable platinum tube /, capable of adjustment for directing the stream of
oxygen through the flame of the spirit lamp on to the lime. This platinum
tube / forms the extremity of a tube g, which traverses the spirit reservoir
of the lamp d, passes into the sphere c containing the oxygen, and
communicates with a jamb cock h, which is capable of adjustment from without
the sphere c, and controls the stream of oxygen for producing a small or
greater light at pleasure. The reservoir of the spirit lamp d forms part of
the spherical oxygen reservoir, and has on its outer part a screw thread and
collar i, on to which is screwed a double hood Tc, y, the joint being made
air-tight by means of a washer. This hood Tc, consists of an elongated
cylinder with domed top and flanged base, with a screw ring I, within, by
means of which it may be attached to, or detached from, the screw thread and
collar *, on the spirit lamp d. To the flanged base is attached, by
soldering or brazing, a somewhat similar cylinder Td of greater diameter,
forming a space between the two in which water is contained. The inner
cylinder is fitted with a glass disc m, facing the flame of the lamp, and
the outer cylinder Tc' is similarly fitted with a glass disc or bull's eye
n, by which means the rays of light from the interior of the lamp pass
through the water contained by these two cylinders to the exterior. The
products of combustion are carried into the space filled with water through
a sensitive valve o, fitted into the inner cylinder Tc, near the base, and
pass outwards through a valve p, in the dome above the water level to the
exterior of the lamp. The outer cylinder is fitted with a suitable handle,
and has a cap r, which, when removed, exposes the valve o, in the inner
cylinder, and facilitates its renewal, and the spherical oxygen reservoir c
is fitted with a suitable connection s, by which is admitted a fresh charge
of compressed oxygen
THE FLEUSS APPARATUS FOR BREATHING IN NOXIOUS GASES. 201
when the reservoir has been exhausted. A metallic ring t, attached to the
globe, forms a base on which the lamp will stand, and when the lamp is used
for submarine operations a weight is enclosed within this ring. By this
means the buoyancy of the lamp is counterbalanced. In the more modern models
a worm-and-screw motion is added to the valve h, so that the admission of
oxygen may be regulated to the greatest nicety.
The oxygen can be supplied by the patentees in wrought-iron bottles, 6^
inches outside diameter, and 3 feet 3 inches long and £ inch thick, 16 hours
supply tested up to 1,000 lbs. per inch, and filled with oxygen at about 600
lbs. to the inch for £5 5s. each, £4 10s. being for the vessel and 15s. for
the oxygen; and the contents of these bottles can be conveyed to the lamp
and breathing reservoir in less than a minute.
The following is a ready mode of providing oxygen if it has to be made at
the place where the apparatus is used :—
Put a retort made of wrought-iron boiler plate, 18 inches high, 6 inches
diameter, and f inch thick, and filled with five pints of chlorate of
potassium and one gill of black oxide of manganese, on a slow smith's fire,
and let the gas evolved pass through a cleaner (for which an old tin oil
drum, 8 inches in diameter and 18 inches high, will serve), filled with
water, into which a piece of caustic soda about the size of a walnut has
been placed, so that the gas will pass through the wrater and be cleansed by
the soda from any chlorine gas that may be with it.
The gas from this charge will fill four ordinary oxygen bags containing
about 18 cubic feet, and will be more than sufficient to twice fill the
reservoir for the breather and for the lamp; and from the bags the oxygen
may be forced into the receivers by a pump, l£ inch diameter and 8 inches
stroke, worked by hand, to a cylinder which is kept cool by a jacket through
which a constant stream of cold water is kept flowing.
As time is always a great object when this apparatus is required, it may be
useful to mention that in fifteen minutes from placing the retort on the
fire, gas begins to come off, and in fifteen minutes more the bags are
filled; after this it takes seven minutes to fill each reservoir to the
required pressure.
If a man is well accustomed to the work, and has only to exert moderate
energy, he can remain between three or four hours in un-breathable gases
with one charge of oxygen; if the man has to exert himself violently, the
supply will be exhausted much sooner; so also will it be if he is nervous or
excited. Considerable experience is required to economise the oxygen, since
the regulation of the supply is in the hands of the wearer, who, if he is
not cautious, can rapidly exhaust it.
202
DISCUSSION—THE FLEUSS APPARATUS.
Mr. T. W. Bunning said, it might be interesting to know that the Steam Coal
Trade had appointed a small committee to discuss the advisability of having
an apparatus kept in a depot, ready to be sent to any place at a moment's
notice on receipt of a telegram; and they would be glad to receive any.
suggestion from Mr. Corbett or Mr. Hedley as to the best mode of conducting
such a depot, whether it would be better to make gas at the depot or to
bring it in jars from London.
Mr. S. H. Hedley, in answer to numerous questions upon the subject, said,
that the apparatus was of great aid in exploring; but with regard to
ridding, timbering, or anything of that nature, it could not be used very
well, as it was rather cumbersome. For exploring it was very useful, and
with it a person could travel in a height of about 3 feet 6 inches. He
had used it himself after the Seaham explosion, and had travelled about 400
yards with its aid in the gas, in which distance he passed over two or three
heavy falls. The height was about 4 feet for the first 100 yards and 6
feet for the remaining 300 yards. There was no work heavier than exploring
to be done. It was not used in setting timber or any work of that
description. It might be urged as an objection that the supply of oxygen
is under the command of the wearer, who, if he gets at all nervous, might
supply himself with too much, and so exhaust the store before it would be
safe to do so; but this would be the only inconvenience, since an overdose
of oxygen does not seem to have any injurious consequences, and if some
regulator could be attached, which, when once set in motion would keep a
continuous supply, it would be better. There seems also to be no
inconvenience arising from the loss of the nitrogen through leakage, as
enough to keep the fresh1) oxygen sufficiently diluted for respiration seems
always to remain in the bag. At Killingworth, where the apparatus was used
for the purpose of saving life, it was found that two men carried out a
fainting man to a safe place while a third carried the lamps. With very
little practice a man with common intelligence would be able to use the
apparatus. There is no difficulty with regard to the mouth-piece if the
lips are kept closed. If, by inadvertence, the mouth is opened, foul air
is inhaled; by putting on the mask that difficulty is removed and the mouth
can be kepropen. The price of the breathing apparatus is about £20, and of
the lamp about~£14. On one occasion he had worn the apparatus three hours
forty minutes without experiencing any difficulty either at the time or
afterwards; but then he was either sitting still, or moving very little.
If he had been undergoing any violent exertion he could not have worn it so
long. With sufficient practice the noise, which gets less as the pressure
decreases,
DISCUSSION—MINEEAL EESOURCES.
203
of the oxygen passing into the bag, will always give warning of the supply
getting low; of course it is advisable not to go in so far as to run the
smallest chance of the supply failing, and it would probably be safer if a
small pressure gauge were attached, but this would add a pound or two to the
apparatus which now weighs 28 pounds, as much as can be carried with
comfort; at present the time the apparatus has been in use, and the sound of
the discharge of the oxygen from the receiver to the bag, are the surest
indications of the quantity of oxygen remaining in the reservoir. The bag
into which the fresh oxygen is at first poured expands and prevents the
pressure becoming too great for being comfortably inspired, and the art of
supplying the oxygen by regulating the screw is only acquired by practice.
When a man enters the mine with the apparatus on, he proceeds as far as he
can with safety or comfort to himself without putting the apparatus to his
mouth. To save time in changing the breathing apparatus, bottles of
compressed oxygen could be placed at a point where the air is just becoming
vitiated with deleterious gases, and thus save the time in sending them to
bank to be changed. There should never be less than three people down
together in the dangerous gases, and they should all withdraw as soon as one
got into difficulty. There should be at least six sets of apparatus in
any depot for the use of a district, and such depot should be provided with
means both for making and compressing the oxygen as well as having a large
store of oxygen in bottles already compressed. The lamp will burn about
four hours; but, if the supply of oxygen is accidentally turned off, the
spirit lamp ceases to burn and the light goes out; the same result will
occur if too much oxygen is directed through the flame of the wick, or, if
the lime is broken by a sudden shock from the lamp striking any object
severely. In all these cases it would have to be uncovered to be lighted
again; and, therefore, brought out of the deleterious gases. Of course the
regulator requires altering with great care as the pressure diminishes.
The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Bunning for his
paper and to Mr. Hedley for the information he had given on the subject.
Mr. Bewick seconded the motion, which was unanimously agreed to.
Professor Lebour's paper "On the Mineral Resources of the Country between
Rothbury and Wooler :—
Professor Lebour said, he did not suppose there would be much discussion
upon this paper. When it was read there was a possibility of the Central
Northumberland Railway being made from Newcastle to Rothbury, and from
Rothbury to Wooler; but that possibility was now considerably
204 DISCUSSION—UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.
lessened, so that a great many of the resources lying to the west of
Kothbury would probably remain boxed and bottled up in the earth for some
years to come. When the railway was made he had no doubt that these
resources, especially the cement beds, would become as valuable as the
Scotch cement beds, which they resembled in quality and surpassed in
thickness.
Mr. Bewick said, that he had had the opportunity of going over the district
described by Professor Lebour, and from what he saw it did not seem to be
overflowing with milk and honey. The district struck him as being rather an
agricultural than a mining one. Although the Central Northumberland Railway
Company had not succeeded in getting an Act of Parliament, or rather had
withdrawn their application, there remained the fact that the North-Eastern
Company got an act enabling them to open up the country from a few miles
south of Wooler to Cornhill, and the only part of the country untraversed
would be the part between Kothbury and Eglihgham. "When the Central
Northumberland Railway was before the Committee of the House of Commons, the
Committee recommended that that district should be opened out, and then the
treasures described by Professor Lebour might be utilized.
Professor Lebour's paper "On the Present State of our Knowledge of
Underground Temperature :"—
Professor Lebour asked the members to make a correction in his paper (page
70). Where it stated that " the decrease of temperature upwards is about
three and a-half times more rapid in the air than in the rock," it should be
" less rapid." When the paper was read Mr. Boyd asked him to give the height
above the sea level of each of the places mentioned in Table I., and Mr.
Bewick asked him to give the geological formation of each. He promised,
inadvertently at the time, to do those two things, but some of the places
were in North Siberia, and he did not know their height above the sea, nor
where to get the information; but the geological formations he would give.
Since the paper was read many observations of a remarkably interesting
nature had been made in Alpine tunnels. A new formula for calculating the
temperature at any depth below mountains and so on, had been arrived at by
Mr. Lommel and Professor Stur. Taking all these circumstances together, he
thought it would be more satisfactory to read a short supplemental paper
than to give, in discussion, the geological formation of the places.
Mr. Bewick suggested that Professor Lebour, in his second paper, might give
information about the temperature in the Channel tunnel.
DISCUSSION—JET MINING. 205
Professor Lebour said, the request he made at the end of his paper, for
information as to observations under the sea, had been met in the most kind
manner by the mining engineers to whom the paper was addressed. An
interesting set of observations had been taken in the Whitehaven Coal-field
with the thermometers of the Committee; and Mr. G. Baker Forster had
consented to have observations taken in the mines in Northumberland working
under the sea in his charge,, and there would then be no lack of information
from both sides of the island. One point which he thought would have given
rise to discussion was the extraordinary length of time boreholes retained
heat from boring instruments. Observations which had been taken several
months after boring operations had been vitiated by the residuum of heat,
and it would be unwise to take observations in boreholes by means of
thermometers until sufficient time had elapsed for the heat to be
dissipated.
Mr. Charles Parkin's paper " On Jet Mining."—The Secretary read the
following letter from Mr. Parkin :—
HtJTTON-lE-HOLE,
June 7th, 1882. Tiieo. Wood Bunning, Esq.
My Dear Sin,—I am sorry that an important engagement will prevent my
attending the meeting on Saturday.
When 1 read my paper "on Jet Mining'" in December last, in the discussion
which followed, Professor Lebour considered Professor Phillips' view, "that
jet was simply a coniferous wood," to be wrong. How do we then account for
the petrified stump of a tree, found near Haiburn Wyke by Young and Bird in
their survey (see quotations in my paper), consisting of the root of coaly
jet in a bed of shale, whilst the trunk in the sandstone was partly of
petrified, and partly of decayed sooty wood ? 1 may add a similar occurrence
was met with at Rosedale.
Since reading my paper an article has appeared in Cassell's Magazine,
February number, on the subject, in which rather a curious statement is
made. In speaking of the recent expansion in the trade, it goes on to say "
that the introduction of steam power, &c, and the increasing use of jet
bracelets, worn as a preventative of rheumatism in the arms, have given
recent expansion to the trade." The use of jet as a preventative of
rheumatism is quite new to me, and I should be glad to learn whether the
virtue is a characteristic of jet alone, or whether a bracelet of any other
material would prove equally beneficial ? I would take this opportunity of
expressing my thanks to Professor Lebour for having added so much to the
interest of my paper at the meeting, by illustrating the subject with his
fine collection of specimens.
I am, my dear Sir,
Faithfully yours,
(Jhables Pabkin.
VOL. XXXI.—1*82.
jj j}
206 DISCUSSION—JET MINING.
Professor Lebour said, he had never heard of jet as a cure for rheumatism;
but there were a great number of stones—he could make a list of 50 or
60—worn uselessly, or not, for medicinal purposes. As to Phillips'
observations on jet, he (Professor Lebour) said he thought Phillips had gone
too far in saying that all jet exhibited woody texture. There was no doubt
that a great quantity of jet showed no texture of any kind. He thought
Phillips had founded his statement on the sections he had seen; but the art
of making sections had considerably improved since Professor Phillips' time,
when if a man had had one or two sections cut they would be considered
interesting and rare by him, and no doubt that gentleman might have seen one
or two sections of fossil trees which had become mineralogically jet; but
the greater part of the jet he (Professor Lebour) had seen possessed no kind
of structure visible to the naked eye, or even under high microscopic power.
He adhered to the remark which he made when the paper was read, explaining
it in this way, and it was not in contradiction of what Phillips said. What
Philips said, instead of applying to all jet, probably applies to only some
jet.
PROCEEDINGS. 207
PROCEEDINGS.
THURSDAY, JUNE 22nd, 1882.
EXCURSION TO THE LANdLEY BARONY LEAD MINES.
At the invitation of Messrs. Bewick and Partners, the proprietors, a party
of about forty members of the Institute visited the above mines on Thursday,
the 22nd June, 1882. Conveyances had been provided by the Firm, and the
party first inspected the Joicey Shaft and works connected therewith, and
afterwards proceeded to the Leadbitter Shaft and to the Honeycrook Works.
At the conclusion of the inspection the members were invited to take
luncheon with the owners at Mr. Bewick's residence, the extremely wet state
of the weather preventing any of the party proceeding to the Byron Colliery
to inspect Messrs. Bowlker and Watson's Fan, as was originally intended.
Mr. Bewick kindly promised to furnish a full description of the method of
getting and preparing the lead ore, and of the machinery used for the
purpose, for publication in the Transactions.
VOL. XXXI.-1882.
• c q
PROCEEDINGS.
209
PROCEEDINGS
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, AUGUST 5th, 1882, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL
HALL, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
GEO. BAKER FORSTER, Esq., President, in the Chair.
Messrs. A. L. Steavenson, T. W. Benson, and A. M. Potter, were appointed
scrutineers to examine the voting papers for the election of officers for
the year 1882-83.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The Secretary also read the reports of the Council and Finance Committee,
which were unanimously adopted.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Ordinary Member—
Mr. George Henry Oldham, M. and M.E., St. John D'el Rey Mining Company,
Tower Chambers, Finsbury Pavement, London.
Associate— Mr. Thomas Henry Ward, Manager, Kuldiha Colliery, Bengal, India.
Student— Mr. Frank Marston, Bromfield Hall, Mold.
The following were nominated for election at the next meeting:—
Associates—
Mr. Joseph Proud, South Hetton Colliery Offices. Sunderland. Mr. George
Benson Monkhouse, Accountant, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr. W. R. Dakers, Chilton
Colliery, Ferryhill.
Student—
Mr. Collin Cole, Bebside Colliery, Northumberland.
Mr. J. D. Kendall, C.E., F.G.S., read the following paper "On the Hasmatite
Deposits of Furness :"—
THK HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FUftttESS.
211
THE HEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FUKNESS.
By J. D. KENDALL, C.E., F.G.S.
PART I. INTRODUCTORY.
Fuhness may be considered as a continuation of the district dealt with by
the author in his paper on the "Haematite Deposits of West Cumberland,"
published in Volume XXVIII. of the Transactions. Together, these two
districts yield the principal part of the haamatite produced in Great
Britain. Furness and West Cumberland being so near together it might be
expected that the deposits they respectively contain would have many points
of correspondence, and such is the case; but at the same time—and this is
perhaps the more interesting fact—there are many points of difference in the
deposits of the twro areas. By way of bringing together the more prominent
facts relating to the deposits of the two districts, so that they may be
seen on the same field of view, and a more comprehensive judgment formed
thereby, it is proposed, in the course of the paper, to notice the more
important of these variations and agreements, and, if possible, to explain
them. Properly, the deposits now to be considered should have been included
in the previous paper above alluded to.
Furness is divided into two parts, High Furness and Low Furness. The
boundary between these twTo divisions is, however, not very clearly defined.
The former includes the high ground northward from Ulverstone as far as the
head of Windermere, and for several miles on both sides of Coniston Lake. It
is in fact a part of the Lake Country. Low Furness, as its name indicates,
consists mainly of low lying ground, which seldom reaches an altitude of 300
feet and is mostly below the 250 feet contour. It is in this part of the
district that haematite occurs in such large quantities. The low lying
ground in which it is found is a continuation of the long, narrow belt in
West Cumberland which lies between the sea and the western hills of the Lake
Country, the unly difference between the
212 THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
low ground in West Cumberland and this being, that there the hills are on
the east of the low ground whilst here they are on the north; so that in
both districts there is a stretch of low lying and gently undulating ground,
with the sea on one side of it and rough mountainous ground on the other
side.
The geological systems represented here are the same as in West Cumberland,
although they are differently developed in the two areas. The relations of
the different formations occurring both here and in the adjoining country
are shown in Plate XXXVII. On a larger scale the superficial extent of the
various rocks found in the district immediately under consideration, is
given in Plate XXXVIII. The comparative depth and the succession of those
rocks are given in Plate XXXIX. As will be seen from this section there are
two breaks in the geological continuity, as is the case in West Cumberland,
and they occur at the same points in both districts. One break being between
the Silurians and the Carboniferous rocks, the other between the
Carboniferous rocks and the Permians. Throughout each of the latter systems
there seems to be perfect conformity. Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XL., are sections
across the district (Plate XXXVIII.), and will explain its geological
structure more clearly.
Skiddaw Slate.—A patch of this rock appears in the district in a most
remarkable manner, as shown in Plates XXXVII. and XXXVIII. It has been
thrust up through the overlying Silurians in such a way that it may now be
seen on the surface side by side with the Coniston Limestone of Haume,
which, geologically, is many thousands of feet above the Skiddaw Slate.
Eelatively this upheaval is greater even than that which has occurred at
Black Comb, where the same kind of rocks have for a comparatively small area
been forced up through the greater part of the Borrowdale series.
As seen in this district the Skiddaw Slate presents a very shaley
appearance, breaking up, under the influence of the weather, into small thin
flakes.
Borrowdale Series.—A small patch of these rocks occurs on the north side of
the Skiddaw Slate area, as shown in Plate XXXVIIL, but there is nothing
about them which demands special notice in this paper.
Coniston Series.—These rocks, as developed in this district, have their
normal character, and they do not need special mention.
Carboniferous Rocks.—This series of rocks, consisting of the subdivisions
described below, rest unconformably on the Silurians just noticed. At the
time the Carboniferous rocks were deposited the main
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 213
outlines of the Silurian hills of Furness and neighbourhood seem to have
been very much what they are to-day. This is shown by the way in which the
Carboniferous rocks run up into main valleys like the Duddon and Leven, as
may be seen in Plate XXXVII.
1.—Conglomerate.—This rock occupies a very small area on the surface, as
shown on Plate XXXVIII. Its limited extent appears to be owing to the way in
which it, along with the other rocks of the Carboniferous system, were
thrown down at the foot of the Silurian hills. Every additional layer put on
would overlap, on the landward side, that below, so that only after the
rocks had been tilted and very considerably denuded could the lowest layers
possibly be brought to the surface.
The formation consists of rounded fragments of older rocks firmly cemented
together in such a way that it has the appearance of a hardened boulder
clay. It was at one time supposed to belong to the Devonians.
2.—Shales and Limestones—Overlying the conglomerate there is a great
thickness of shale with numerous thin bands of limestone. The latter
increase in thickness toward the upper part of the formation and gradually
introduce the great mass of limestone by which they are overlaid. The
following is the journal of a borehole put down through these rocks between
Dunnerholm and Ireleth:—
Fms. Ft. In.
Fms. Ft. In.
Sand clay and pinnel ... 29 4 6
Brought forward ... 40 4 10
Hard limestone ...... 4 8 Red limey shale
...... 3 6
Eed limey shale ...... 12 Hard Dastard limestone
... 10
Limestone ......... 2 0 Red limey shale ......
2 16
Red limey shale ...... 2 3 Bastard limestone
...... 10 3
Limestone ......... 16 Red limey shale ......
6
Red limey shale ...... 12 6 Bastard limestone......
14
Limestone ......... Ill Red limey shale ......
3 9
Red limey shale .. ... 30 Bastard limestone
...... 16
Limestone ... ... ... 5 5 Red limey
shale ... ... 8
Red limey shale ... ... 13 Bastard
limestone...... 13
Brown limestone ...... 2 6 Red limey shale
...... 12 0
Red limey shale ...... 10 3 Bastard limestone......
2 11
Brown limestone ...... 115 Red limey shale ......
2 0
Hard limey shale ...... 13 Bastard limestone......
10
Brown limestone ...... 13 Red limey shale ......
10
Hard sandy limey shale ... 102 White limestone ......
4
Brown limestone ...... 5 Red limey shale
...... 10
Hard sandy limey shale ... 5 8 White limestone
...... 4
Hard bastard limestone ... 3 9 Red limey shale
...... 8
Carried forward ... 40 4 10 Carried forward
... 49 1 2
214 THE HEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FTJRNESS.
Fms. Ft. In.
pmS- pt, In
Brought forward ... 49 1 2 Brought forward
... 68 0 9
Red limestone ...... 4 8 Limestone
......... 10
Limey shale......... 17 Red limey shale ......
12 0
Red limestone ...... 6 Hard limestone
...... 2 1
Limey shale......... 16 Red limey shale ......
2 0
Hard limestone ...... 3 5 Hard limestone
...... 18
Red limey shale ...... 4 6 Red limey shale
...... 4 3
Hard limestone ...... 2 0 Hard limestone
...... 19
Red limey shale ...... 5 6 Red limey shale
...... 2 8
Hard limestone ...... 9 Hard limestone
...... 19
Red limey shale ...... 2 0 Red limey shale
...... 110
Hard limestone ...... 2 0 Red limestone
...... 9
Red limey shale ...... 10 Red limey shale
...... 17
Hard limestone ...... 10 Red limestone
...... 6
Red limey shale ...... 9 Red limey shale
...... 10
Hard limestone ...... 3 Red limestone
...... 16
Red limey shale ...... 19 Red limey shale
...... 14 8
Hard limestone ...... 11 Soft red and white
parting... 3 1
Red limey shale ...... 19 Hard red shale
...... 15
Hard limestone ...... 9 Hard red
limestone...... 3 2
Red limey shale ... ... 46 Red limey shale
... ... 47
Hard limestone ... ... 11 Red limestone
... ... 9
Red limey shale ...... 2 1 Red limey shale
...... 9 5 1
Hard limestone ... ... 19 Bastard limestone
... ... 139
Red limey shale ... ... 16 Red limey shale
... ... 2 310
Hai'd limestone ... ... 11 Red shale
... ... ... 5 5 4
Red limey shale ... ... 10 Red bastard
liznestone ... 1 1 11
Hard limestone ... 3 11 Red shale
... ... ... 2 19
Red limey shale ... ... 2 1 6 Red bastard
limestone ... 10 6
Hard limestone ...... 5 8 Red shale .........
1 4 10
Red limey shale ... ... 102 Red bastard limestone
... 59
Hard limestone ... ... 18 Red shale ...
... ... 245
Red limey shale ...... 2 17 Bastard limestone
..... 3 11
Limestone ... ... ... 8 Red shale
... ... ... 143
Red limey shale ... ... 143 Bastard limestone
... ... 9
Limestone ......... 8 Red shale .........
5 5 6
Red limey shale ... ... 2 9 Bastard
limestone ... ... 6
Limestone .,....... 3 Red shale .........
2 0 10
Red limey shale ...... 5 3
Carried forward ... 68 0 9 Total
depth......119 0 10
8.—Carboniferous Limestone.—As in West Cumberland so in Furness, this is the
most important formation of all, so far as the present subject is concerned,
as it is in this that all the hasmatite deposits occur. It
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 215
consists almost entirely of limestone, there being only in addition a few
thin beds of shale which seldom exceed an inch or two in thickness. The
thickest beds of shale occur near the bottom and top, that is near the
underlying shales just noticed and the overlying Yoredales, presently to be
described. The total thickness of the formation is not known, but it is
certainly over 940 feet, as that thickness has been pierced by one borehole
at Windhills, near Stainton. The following is a journal of that hole :—
Fms. Ft. In.
Fms. Ft. In.
Surface ......... 5 10 Brought forward
... 129 1 0
YORDEDALE ROCKS. CARBONIFEROUS
LIMESTONE.
Blue whirlstone ... . . 56 Brown limestone
... ... 36
Grey sandstone ... ... 5 0 Limestone
... ... ... 106
Blue shale ......... 63 0 Black shale.........
10
Grey sandstone ... ... 30 Lough hole ...
... ... 10
Blue shale ... ... ... 800 Bastard
limestone ... ... 56
White sandstone ... ... 2 0 Shale and
limestone... ... 5 6
Black shale ... ... ... 136 Shale and
limestone... ... 4 0
Shale and sandstone ... 2 0 0 Limestone ...
... ... 30
Sandstone ... ... . . 2 3 0 Shale
(fossil) ... ... 5 6
Black shale ... ... ... 120 Limestone ...
... ... 5 22
Sandstone ... ... ... 140 Shale (fossil)
... ... 144
Black shale......... 29 2 6 Limestone .........
5 0
Shale and sandstone ... 56 Grey sandstone
... ... 20
Black shale......... 40 4 6 Shale............ 12 6
Bastard limestone ... ... 1 4 6 Black shale ...
... ... 50
Black shale ... ... ... 2 14 Shale and
limestone... ... 3 0
Grey limestone ... ... 32 Ore and
limestone ... ,.. 30
Black shale......... 2 0 6 Grey limestone ......
3 3 9
Limestone ... ... ... 106 Limestone mixed
with white
Black shale......... 13 0 clay .........
2 10
Fossil shale......... 5 46 Grey limestone ......
3 3 6
Grey limestone ... ... 20 Light grey
limestone ... 41 2 3
Bastard limestone ...... 4 0 Clay mixed with ore
... 28
Shale and limestone...... 14 0 Dark grey limestone, streaks
Black shale......... 4 0 0 of ore .........
5 0
Limestone ...... ... 2 20 Limestone ...
... ... 66 0 11
Black shale ... ... ... 130 Grey limestone
marked with
Red joint ... ... ... 6
brown joints ... ... 2 11
Limestone ... ... ... 6 Limestone
... ... ... 21 4 0
Black shale... ...... 110
Carried forward ... 129 1 0 Total
depth......286 5 6
There being no beds of marked lithological character in the formation it is
impossible to arrive at the thickness by correlation. The same difficulty is
met with in fixing the exact geological level of many of the
VOL. XXXI.—1882.
-D -D
216 THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
haematite deposits. It is easy to show that the Askam deposit is in the
lower beds of the formation, and that the Stank and Stainton deposits are in
the upper beds, but it is not possible at present to say in which beds the
Lindal Cote deposit is, except that it is in the middle beds, but whether it
is nearer the top or bottom cannot be said, and there are many cases of this
kind in the district. Equally difficult is it to trace in these rocks the
existence of faults for the same reason. It is sometimes possible to detect
them in the mine, but the amount of their throw cannot even then be
determined, as will be readily understood.
As in the "Whitehaven district so it is found to be here, the absolute level
of a deposit is altogether independent of its geological level, some
deposits in the bottom beds of limestone being much shallower or nearer the
surface than others that are in the upper beds of limestone.
The dip of the rocks in the western part of the district is to the west, at
angles varying from 20 to 45 degrees. In the eastern part of the district
the general dip is to the S.E., at angles of 5 to 15 degrees.
In searching for haematite in Furness some very peculiar sections are
occasionally met with. That given below may be taken as an example:—
Journal of a Borehole put down at Crossgates.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
Soil ........................ 2 0
Gravel and clay ... ... ... ... ...
... 24 0
Decomposed limestone ... ... ... ...
... 170
-------43 0
Yellow clay mixed with iron ore ... ... ... 40
Black mould ... ... ... ... ... ...
40
Iron ore (dark coloured) ... ... ... ...
20
Black mould mixed with iron ore ... ... ... 60
------ 16 0
Iron ore ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 80
Decomposed limestone ... ... ... ...
... 70
------ 15 0
Black woody deposit ... ... ... ... ...
120
Decomposed limestone ... ... ... ...
... 60
Black mould and wood ... ... ... ... ... 20
Yellow clay mixed with ore ... ... ... ... 16
0
Black mould mixed with ore ... ... ... ... 10
0
Do. .................. 4 0
Do. mixed with ore and limestone ... ... 8 0
------ 35 0
Total depth ............ 127 0
The wood found in this and similar sections is exogenous, and belongs to
recent species which proves clearly that it at any rate, and
THE HEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 217
presumably the material in which it is embedded, has been recently
introduced. The three masses of clay and black mould mixed with iron ore in
the above section may therefore be taken to be filled " loughs" or caverns.
Many of the caverns found in the district contain a large quantity of clay,
and also pieces of haematite and other materials. If they were filled with
these materials a section of them would not be very different from that of
the borehole given above.
The "backs" or vertical joints in the limestone have the following
directions, one set bearing about 25 degrees north-west and south-east, the
other set being nearly east and west; and it is worthy of mention that all
the caverns in the district have one or other of these directions where they
are not interfered with by faults. The large cavern which was discovered at
Stainton about eleven years ago illustrates this observation very well. The
length of that cave is about 230 yards, and although it makes numerous turns
in the course of its length, it invariably follows one or other of the two
sets of joints in the limestone, as is easily ascertained, for these joints
can be seen quite distinctly in the roof of the cavern. A plan and
section of this cavern is given in Plate XLI.
The composition of the limestone is variable, sometimes being very
silicious, much more so than in Analysis No. 3 below. Where it has been
worked for fluxing purposes it is very pure, as shown in Analyses Nos. 1 and
2 :—
1. 2. 3.
Stainton. Goldmire. Haume.
Carbonate of lime ...... 95"00 ... 98*00
... 89-00
Do. magnesia...... 4"20 ... "70 ...
2-93
Silica ............ -50 ... -83 ...
3"24
Oxide of iron and alumina j
Carbonate do. '
100-00 100-21 97-77
The specific gravity may be taken to be about 2*72 on an average.
4.— Yoredale Rocks.—Overlying the limestone just described, and terminating
the Carboniferous system upwards, there is a large mass of dark-coloured
shales interbedded in their lower part with one or two beds of limestone,
and near the top with a few beds of sandstone. These rocks were formerly
supposed to belong to the Coal-measures—in fact a few years ago a shaft was
sunk near Stank in the hope of finding coal. This shaft, after passing
through about 90 fathoms of rocks belonging to the Yoredales, came upon a
very fine deposit of haematite in the Carboniferous limestone below. The
greatest thickness of Yoredale
218 THE HEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FUENESS.
rocks yet proved was near Gleaston, where, by the Diamond boring machine,
about 1,410 feet were pierced after passing through about 590 feet of St.
Bees Sandstone and shales and 65 feet of Magnesian Limestone. The upper part
of the Windhills borehole, given on page 215, was in these rocks, and it may
be taken as a fairly representative section of them. Near Gleaston there is
a small patch of greenstone protruding through these rocks. What was
probably a branch from it was passed through in the midst of the Yoredale
rocks by the deep borehole just alluded to. The deep borehole at Rampside
also pierced a similar rock in the Eed Sandstone.
Before leaving the Carboniferous rocks it may be of use, and at the same
time interesting, to notice how differently they are developed here from
what they are in the Whitehaven district. For this purpose Plate XLII. has
been prepared. Sections A, B, and C are taken respectively in Furness, at
Oleator Moor, and near Cockermouth. The change from the Cleator Moor Section
to the Cockermouth Section occurs at the Silurian promontory of Ullock,
whence the proportion of sandstone and shale seem to gradually increase,
through by Cockermouth and Caldbeck on to Alston Moor, where these silicious
and aluminous rocks occupy by far the greater part of the formation, the
limestone being only about one-fourth of the whole. The change from the
Cleator Moor Section to the Furness Section is made somewhere in the
concealed area between Egre-mont and Silecroft. From the latter place, where
the Carboniferous Limestone first comes to the surface after leaving
Egremont eastward across Furness, it assumes the same massive character, and
has the same freedom from shales and sandstone which it has in Derbyshire.
Magnesian Limestone and St. Bees Sandstone.—Both these rocks are represented
in Furness, the latter in considerable force, but it is not necessary to
notice them at any length, as they seem to have no connection with the
subject under discussion. Pieces of Red Sandstone belonging to the St. Bees
Formation are found in some of the deposits, but they seem to have been
introduced subsequently to the formation of the deposits, as will appear
further on. By a borehole put down near Rampside, in search of coal, the Red
Sandstone, with the accompanying gypseous shales, were proved to be more
than 1,230 feet thick.
Superficial Deposits.—These consist of boulder clay, sand, and gravel.
Sometimes, as at Yarlside, they are as much as 537 feet thick; among the
included pebbles and boulders, haematite frequently occurs, but the boulders
of this ore have no necessary connection, as is often supposed, with
underlying deposits of it. They are, for instance, very frequently found
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 219
over the Red Sandstone, and also over the Yoredale shales. Associated with
this superficial formation there is a curious brecciated limestone which is
known locally as "Crab rock," and which was supposed by Murchison and
Harkness to belong to the Permians, and to be the equivalent of the Eden
Valley "Bockram." It was also considered by them to show the Permian age of
the haematite.
In leaving this part of the subject, it may be well to notice that the
physical changes undergone by this district correspond very closely with
those that have affected West Cumberland. Both districts are, in fact, parts
of a much larger area over which there has been a corresponding-sequence of
events. The rocks which occupy the lower ground immediately surrounding the
mountainous tract of the Lake Country, seem to have been everywhere
similarly affected. The Carboniferous rocks rest on the upturned and eroded
Silurians, and the Permians are spread out unconformably over the
Carboniferous rocks. There thus appears to have been three great upheavals
of the Lake District rocks, the first of which took place in
pre-Carboniferous times, the second in pre-Permian times, and the third and
last subsequently to the deposition of the Permian Rocks.
PART II.—FORM, POSITION, AND INNER NATURE OF DEPOSITS.
Form and Position of Deposits.—In describing the deposits in the
Carboniferous limestone of West Cumberland they were divided into four
kinds:—1st, "Bed-like" deposits; 2nd, "Vein-like;" 3rd, Dish-like;" and 4th,
" Irregular-shaped" deposits. In Furness they may be separated into three
kinds:—1st, "Vein-like;" 2nd, "Dish-like;" and 3rd, " Irregular-shaped." So
far as the author is aware, there is not a single " bed-like" deposit in
this district, unless the small flats from the Lindal Moor and Stank Veins,
hereinafter to be noticed, be considered such.
This absence of " bed-like" deposits is curious, and evidently arises from
the fact that the limestone occurs almost in one solid mass, and is not
separated by intervening layers of sandstone and shale, into beds, as at
Whitehaven. The rocks here being everywhere of the same character, there is
nothing which could induce a "bed-like" form of deposit.
1.— Vein-like Deposits.—Some of the most important deposits in the district
are of this form—that at Lindal Moor being the finest. The length of that
deposit, so far as it has been worked, is about 1,000 yards in a direction
about N. 25 degrees W., and S. 25 degrees E. Its breadth is very variable,
sometimes being only a few inches wide, whilst at other places it is over
220 THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OP PTTENESS.
30 yards. Plate XLIII. is a section across the northern end of the vein, at
a point where the width was more regular. From that section it will be seen
that the deposit is laid alongside a fault, in fact three faults are seen,
but whether they continue alongside the deposit from N. to S. cannot be
said, as the lying cheek or " foot-wall," as the rocks on the upside of the
fault are called, has not been sufficiently laid open at the southern end of
the deposit, but the ore at that end of it seems to lie on the most westerly
of the three faults shown in the above section. The foot-wall of the vein is
very regular, as shown in the section, and the varying width of the ore just
noticed is entirely due to the irregular form of the " hanging-wall" as the
rocks are called on that side of the vein opposite the " foot-wall." At tire
northern end of the vein the ore has been worked to a depth of nearly 60
fathoms, and the bottom of it seems to have been reached. In the southern
end it is now being worked at 70 fathoms, and ore is still going down in the
sole of the lowest workings.
Another "vein-like" deposit of some importance is being worked by the Stank
Mines and by some of the pits of the Yarlside Mining Company. This deposit
was found by the Barrow Steel Company when they were searching for coal in
the Yoredale rocks, near Stank. A section of the northern end of it is given
in Fig. 1, Plate XLIV. Here, too, the ore occurs by the side of a fault, but
in this case it is in the rocks on the upside, whereas at Lindal Moor it is
in the rocks on the downside of the fault. As shown in the section, there
is, near the upper part of the vein, a " flat" of ore, but so far as yet
proved it is not of great extent. This "flat" is the only approach to a
bed-like deposit that has come under the writer's notice in Furness, and the
only one so far as he knows that has been found there. The direction of the
vein is about 25 degrees N.W. and S.E. It has been worked for a length of
about 600 yards, and for a depth of about 30 yards without reaching the
bottom. The width varies from a few inches to about 25 yards including the
masses of limestone which are embedded in the ore. Occasionally these
limestone masses are so large, and so elongated in the direction of the
vein, that the ore is in places split up into a number of vein-like bodies
which are parallel to one another in the main, but, being of irregular
breadth, communicate at intervals and form a sort of net-work of ore in the
limestone. The "hanging" wall is quite regular, and the variations in the
width of the vein are due to the irregular form of the "lying cheek." This
is just the opposite of what is seen at Lindal Moor, but the two deposits
correspond in this, that the regular side of the vein in each case is
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 221
that on which the fault is situated. The limestone at Stank is overlaid by
Yoredale shales which dip in a south-easterly direction, that is, along the
vein. The ore is confined entirely to the limestone, and does not go up into
the shales, so that the vein may be said to have a dip south-eastward
corresponding to that of the surrounding strata. It has thus two dips, one
westward, due to the inclination of the fault by the side of which it is
laid, the other south-eastward like the adjoining limestone. This
longitudinal dip of the ore and the accompanying increase in the thickness
of the overlying shales are such that at the most southerly point worked,
the upper part of the vein is at a depth of about 80 fathoms from the
surface, whilst near the Yarlside Mines the same ore is reached at a depth
of about 40 fathoms. The vein seems to be best at the rise end and to become
poorer as it is followed in below the shales. This feature is often seen in
similar deposits in the Whitehaven district.
Another vein-like deposit is shown in Fig. 2, Plate XLIV., which is a cross
section of part of the Yarlside Mines. Its direction is about northeast and
south-west, corresponding with that of the fault along which it is laid. Ore
has been worked here to a depth of 42 fathoms from the surface without
reaching the bottom. As in the two deposits just described, its width is
exceedingly variable. Sometimes the ore is found close against the fault, at
another time there is a piece of silicious stone between them as shown in
the section.
In all the vein-like deposits hitherto found, notwithstanding the great
variations in their width, there is a general narrowing downwards. This is
partly shown in Plate XLIII., but in some sections it is much more evident
than in that one.
All the vein-like deposits are in what may be called the eastern side of the
district, or on the east side of the Great North and South Fault which runs
through by Parkhouse and Dalton, as shown in Plate XXXYIIL, and it is
curious to observe that all the deposits above noticed have a westerly
"hade," that is to say, the faults along which they lie are down to the
west. This is just the opposite of what is found in the Whitehaven District.
There the North and South Faults are up to the west. But in that district
the rocks have a westerly dip, whilst in this, where the vein-like deposits
have been found, they dip south-east.
2.—Dish-like Deposits.—Most of the deposits in the district are of this
kind. In their simplest form they are roughly-like filled irregular basins,
just below the drift, but in some of the more complicated forms this
resemblance is somewhat remote owing to the fantastic outline of their
222 THE HiEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
sides. At other times deposits of this kind are so long as compared with
their breadth that they seem almost like veins. Plate XLV. shows a plan and
sections of two of the simpler forms of these deposits, at Tytup, one of
which has been worked to the bottom, but the other is still working. Figs. 1
and 2, Plate XLVI., are plans of the Park deposit, the largest deposit of
this or any other kind in the district. Fig. 1 shows the form of the deposit
at 40 fathoms from the surface, and Fig. 2 its form at 50 fathoms. In an
east and west direction the deposit measures about 860 yards, and in a north
and south line its greatest length will be about 260 yards. The average
thickness of the drift overlying the ore would be about 10 fathoms, and the
deposit has been worked down from that level to about 83 fathoms from the
surface, and the bottom of it is not yet reached. These figures it must be
understood give an extreme idea of the size of this deposit. Besides, it
contains large quantities of sand and clay, to be hereafter noticed, but
still it is an enormous mass of ore, and there is no deposit of the same
kind in Furness which approaches it in size. There are many deposits larger
than those shown in Plate XLV., as for instance those at Mousell,
Crossgates, and Lindal Cote, but they are nothing like Park in size.
Branches of ore from these deposits frequently assume a vein-like form which
are called " ginnels." They are, however, different from the vein-like
deposits just described. In the latter, one cheek is regular, but in the
former both cheeks are very irregular. Moreover, they do not appear to be
laid along faults, but their direction corresponds nearly wTith the north
and south joints in the limestone. Some deposits consist almost entirely of
these " ginnels," as at Bolton Heads. Where such is the case they usually
extend up to the drift.
These dish-like deposits, so common in Furness, are rarely met with in the
Whitehaven district. There, nearly all the deposits are covered by a rock
roof over the greater part of their area, although at some point or other
they are almost sure to extend up to the drift.
3.—Irregular-Shaped Deposits.—There is only one good instance of this kind
of deposit in the district, and that is at Askam. A plan and section of a
small part of this deposit are given in Plate XLVII. As there shown, the ore
seems to be entirely surrounded by limestone; but in another part of the
deposit it lay immediately below the surface in a dish-like hollow, somewhat
similar to the deposit at Park. In the discussion which took place on the
writer's paper on the " Bsemntite Deposits of West Cumberland," published in
Vol. XXVIIL, of the Transactions,
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 223
Mr. Greenwell introduced a section of the Askam Mines which shows how the
ore, as just mentioned, at some parts of it came up to the drift. Mr.
Greenwell's section, however, showed the ore to be bed-like, which it is
not. Moreover, there is no unconformity in the limestone above and below the
ore as shown in Mr. GreenwelPs section. From the main body of the Askam
deposit numerous "ginnels" protrude like fingers from the hand, and the
direction of these "ginnels" always corresponds with that of one or other of
the main joints in the surrounding limestone, mostly with the joints running
nearly N. and S. The total area of the deposit, including the large masses
of limestone that project into the ore from the sides, roof, and sole, would
be about 1G acres. Its length in a N. and S. direction would be about 260
yards, and from E. to W. it would be about 300 yards. It was overlaid by
about 16 fathoms of drift, and on the dip side of the deposit where it had a
rock roof, as shown in Plate XLVII., the ore extended to a depth of about 40
fathoms. Generally the deposit, notwithstanding its irregular form, had the
same dip as the limestone, and it extended to a less depth on the rise side
where it came up to the drift than on the dip side where it had a rock roof.
This is a common feature of deposits both in this district and at
Whitehaven.
Inner Nature of Deposits.—Hitherto only the form and position of the
deposits have been noticed. Their internal peculiarities next demand
attention. These are numerous and curious, and present some marked contrasts
with those of the Whitehaven district. It will be remembered that one of the
commonest features of the Whitehaven deposits is the occurrence in them of
beds of shale which are interstratified with the surrounding limestone. In
Furness this feature is rarely met with, for the very good reason that, as
already pointed out, there are few beds of shale in the limestone. Still
they are met with occasionally in the ore. Fig. 1, Plate XLVIIL, is a
section of one of the "ginnels" in the Askam deposit, which shows a thin
layer of shale interbedded with both the limestone and the ore. Another
section in the same mine, showing shale interbedded with the ore, is given
in Fig. 2 of the same plate. Whether or not these beds extended into the
limestone it is impossible to say, owing to the way in which the deposit was
worked, but they had the same dip as the limestone. Fig. 3 is a section in
the same mine, and shows a thin layer of shale forming the roof of a
bed-like piece of ore. Fig. 4 shows the same kind of thing as it was
exhibited at the north end of the Lindal Moor vein. In the same deposit the
section given in Fig. 5 was exposed. It shows, in the ore, a thin bed of
shale, which abuts against the fault on
vol.. xxxr.-i8R2.
K K
224 THE HEMATITE DEPOSITS OP FURNESS.
one side. On the other side the boundary of the ore has not yet been
reached, so that it cannot be said whether or not this layer of shale is
interbedded with the limestone; but, as will be seen from the drawing, it
has the same dip as the limestone, both above and below it.
In most of the deposits the ore is interrupted by masses of stone which
frequently have an elongated form, their longer axes having a direction
corresponding very nearly with the north and south joints of the limestone.
These stony masses are usually connected either at one end or both, or at
the bottom, with the main body of limestone in which the ore lies; that is
to say they project into the ore from the surrounding limestone. Some
smaller pieces of stone, having the shape of rough irregular spheres, are
frequently embedded entirely in the ore, as shown in Fig. 6, which is a
representation of one of these limestone balls as seen in Stank Mine. Fig. 7
shows another form of included limestone, as seen in the Lindal Moor
deposit.
In some of the dish-like deposits large masses of red and white sand are met
with. In the Park deposit there is a very large quantity of it, so much in
fact that it is worked and sent to Barrow for use at the blast furnaces. The
horizontal form of these sandy masses at Park is shown in the two plans of
that deposit given in Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XLVL Vertically they are as
irregular as in plan, but are more or less continuous from the under side of
the drift down nearly to the 70 fathoms level. In the 60 fathoms level there
are blocks of Red Sandstone which in the centre cannot be distinguished from
the St. Bees Sandstone. On the outer side of these blocks the sandstone is
less hard and arranged in concretionary layers, which are softer and softer
outwards until they disappear altogether in a mass of loose sand.
Frequently in the dish-like deposits, and occasionally in those having a
vein-like form, masses of red, yellow, and whitish clay are met with.
Sometimes this clay is quite hard, and then it receives the name of "
hunger." The clay masses usually, but not invariably, occur around the
outside of the ore between it and the limestone; or, as in the case of the
Park deposit, between the ore and the sand. They are not continuous but
interrupted, as shown in Plates XLV. and XLVL Sometimes two or three fathoms
of clay may be found between the ore and the limestone. At other times the
ore can be seen abutting against the stone. In the latter case the limestone
has a rounded outline, and is often decomposed to a depth of nearly an inch;
or, to use the miners' expression, it has then a crust on it. In the
deposits containing hard compact ore, the stone and
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OP PURNESS. 225
ore at their junction are often blended into one another in such a way that
they seem to be " grown together," as is often the case in the Whitehaven
district. This appearance is sometimes met with in the deposits containing
soft ore, but not very often, except in small pieces, as might be expected.
In many instances, particularly in the Mousell Mines, the limestone on the
outside of the clay appears to be very much broken up, and between the
disjointed masses of stone some of the clay just spoken of has penetrated.
Sometimes in the clay surrounding the ore vegetable matter is found,
particularly in the deposits at Crossgates. In one or two of the mines there
pieces of flattened exogenous wood, 6 inches to 8 inches diameter, have been
found embedded in the clay on the outside of the ore; in one case at a depth
of 24 yards from the surface in a mine which is overlaid by only about 4
yards of drift. Occasionally these clays enclose small angular patches of
white sand and also angular, sub-angular, and rounded fragments of hematite,
as shown in Fig. 8, Plate XLVIII. There is also associated with the clay a
substance called by the miners " black muck," an analysis of which is given
below :—
Analysis of Black Muck.
* Water at 212° F................ Til
„ combined ... ... ... ... ...
5-56
Peroxide of iron ... ... ... ... ...
37'88
Alumina ... ... ... ¦•• ¦•• •••
2*86
Manganese oxide ... ... ... ... •••
11'97
Carbonate of lime ... ... ... ... ...
2*34
Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... •••
'45
Sulphuric acid ... ... ... ... • • •
—
Phosphoric „ ... ... ... ... ¦••
1*13
Insoluble silicious matter............ 36*70
100*00
The miners sometimes call the dark vegetable matter previously alluded to
"black muck," but the two substances to which they give that name, it need
scarcely be said, are entirely different, except in outward appearance.
The ore found in the Furness deposits may be divided into three classes:—
1.—Hard compact llue-purple ore, in which there are numerous loughs, lined
with kidney-like concretions and spar, such as occur in the
* This would have been very much greater if the analysis had been made soon
after the sample was taken out of the mine. Being kept for about six months
in a very dry place before it was analysed, a considerable amount of water
was lost.
226 THE H/EMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
Whitehaven deposits. This kind of ore is found in the northern end of the
Lindal Moor deposit, in the Stank deposit, and in part of the Askam deposit.
Its composition is as follows :—
1. 2. 3.
Ferric oxide ...... 78-61 ... 83*00 ...
9423
Protoxide of manganese ... "24 ... — ...
'23
Silica ......... 16-45 ... 15-50 ...
490
Alumina ......... 1-87 ... ...
*63
Lime ... ... ... "56 ...
trace ... '05
Magnesia ... ... ... '24 ... —•
... trace
Phosphoric acid ... ... "03 ... —
... trace
Sulphuric acid ... ... "04 ... —
... -09
Water ... ...... 2"02 ... 1-50
... '56
10006 100-00 100-69
Metallic iron ... ... 55"03 ... 58-10
... 65'98
Specific gravity ...... 4-34 ... 4-53 ...
4-83
Loss of moisture in drying at 212 degrees P. would probably average one to
two per cent.
Although the outward appearance of this hard ore suggests the idea that it
is very compact, yet on being submitted to the microscope it is found to
contain a number of minute cavities, as shown in Plate XLLX., which is a
representation of a piece of this ore magnified 48 diameters. These cavities
are mostly filled with silica, and their proportion to the mass is about the
same as that of the silica in the above analyses, so that the silicious
quality of these ores in this district, and in "West Cumberland, is, as
indicated by chemical analysis, and still further demonstrated by
microscopic analysis, due to a mechanical admixture of quartz. The larger
cavities in the ore that are visible to the unaided eye, and which are
locally called loughs—also contain a quantity of silica in the form of
quartz spar, but this will not much affect the analyses as most of it is
thrown aside in working the ore. The kidney ore, when seen under the
microscope, contains very few cavities, and as might be expected from that
fact, its chemical analysis shows very little silica. The more silicious the
ore the greater is the number of minute quartz-filled cavities which it
contains. Fig. 1, Plate L, shows the form and mode of occurrence of some of
the small loughs, but many of the larger ones are two or three feet in
diameter. A few of these cavities are lined with calcite and specular ore,
but they mostly contain quartz. Many of the loughs are filled with spar,
others only partially so. The proportion of both filled and open loughs to
the volume of ore will probably be about one-sixth. As in the Whitehaven
deposits the kidney
THE HJEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 227
ore is invariably found forming the walls of loughs, and it is never found
apart from what was once a lough, although it may be that loughs which
originally existed are now filled with spar, as shown in the figure last
referred to. This hard ore is sometimes very curiously mixed with stone, as
shown in Fig. 2, Plate L.
2.—Dull reddish purple ore which occurs in moderately hard pieces mixed with
softer concretionary ore of a bright red colour, in some of the interstices
of which there is a quantity of very soft, red, greasy-looking ore called
"smit," which seems to be the same kind of ore as that forming the
concretions, but in a powdery condition and mixed with water. The
concretionary ore, on being subjected to the action of the atmosphere, and
turned over a few times rather roughly, falls into a powder, which, when
moistened, has exactly the appearance of "smit," and leaves the same red
greasy stain. Tinder the microscope it is seen to contain a number of minute
particles of quartz, which, in the pre-powdery condition of the ore,
occupied cavities therein, similar to those found in the hard blue-purple
ore.
This ore is found at the southern end of the Lindal Moor deposit, in part of
the Stank deposit, at Yarlside, Crossgates, and elsewhere. The softest of it
is known as "puddling" ore. Its composition is as follows :—
1. 2.
Dried at 212° F.
Ferric oxide ......... 77"24 ... 86-50
Protoxide of manganese ... '11 • • •
'21
Silica............ "09
Alumina ... ... ••• '24
Lime............ 6-00 ... 277
Magnesia ......... '41 ¦•• I'46
Carbonic acid......... 419 ... 2'96
Phosphoric acid ... ... — • • •
trace
Sulphuric acid ...... — • • • H
?Insoluble residue ...... 9'07 ... 655
Water............ 2"82
100-17 100-56
*Silica............ 7'27 ... 618
Alumina ......... 1'47 ... "30
Lime ... ••• ¦•• '08
8-82 6-48
Metallic iron......... 54-06 ... 60-55
Specific gravity ...... 4"04 ... 4-47
228 THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FUENESS.
The harder pieces of ore, as already mentioned, contain microscopic
cavities, some of which are filled with quartz, but many of them are empty.
In this ore the loughs are smaller but more numerous than in the hard
compact ore first described. When they contain spar it is generally calcite,
very little quartz occurring in them. The soft kidneylike concretions in
this ore are frequently found following the contour of included pieces of
stone, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7, Plate XLVIIL, and sometimes as in Fig. 3,
Plate L., it may be seen in "ginnels" having the same relation to the
limestone cheeks.
In this ore, at OHlbrow (the south end of the Lindal Moor deposit), a number
of fossils belonging to the Carboniferous Limestone have been found, some
converted into haematite, others only partially so.
3.—Soft dark ore.—This is the most abundant ore in Furness, being that which
is mainly found in the dish-like deposits. It consists of hard pieces of ore
like those last described, some of which have the kidney-form of the size of
a man's hand, and less, set in a moderately soft, dark red or brown, and
sometimes nearly black matrix, which consists of "smit," clay, and
manganese; the whole mass having a most confused appearance. It contains no
loughs, except such as are occasionally found within the harder pieces of
it, and these are necessarily very small. Its composition is as follows:—
1. 2. 3. 4.
Ferric oxide ...... 6061 69-81 75-35
84-47
Manganese ...... 2-22 1-12 1-49
-22
Silica ...... ... 2193 15-38 7'27
6"95
Alumina... ... ... — —
2*10 —
Lime ......... "39 -21 -21
-25
Magnesia ...... '56 "70 "64
-41
Sulphuric acid ...... — — —
—
Phosphoric acid ... '03 '02
'03 -03
Loss on ignition ... 3'76 3"44 2-54
1*58
Moisture lost at 212° F. 1P44 1010 10-00
6 90
100-94 100-78 99-63 100-81
Metallic iron ...... 42-43 48-81 5275
59-13
Specific gravity ... 3-66 378 3-98
4-30
In the other two classes of ore the kidney-like concretions are invariably
found immediately adjoining loughs, but in this they are embedded in the
softer ore, and altogether apart from loughs.
The distinguishing feature of this ore, chemically, is its comparatively
large percentage of manganese. The second ore described contains a
THE HiEMATITE DEPOSITS OP FUENESS. 229
high percentage of lime and carbonic acid, due probably to the presence of
limestone. The hard compact ore contains little manganese but a large
quantity of silica.
Before leaving this part of the subject, it is necessary to notice the
distribution of the deposits. A glance at Plate XXXVIII. will show that they
are mainly concentrated around the high ground about Haume, their number and
extent decreasing as the distance from Haume increases; the only exceptions
being the deposits at Stainton, Stank, and Yarlside, which are adjacent to
the two great lines of fracture traversing the district, as will be seen on
reference to Plate XXXVIII.
The minerals associated with the ore are, barite, calcite, pyrite, quartz,
and manganite.
PART III.—AGE OP THE DEPOSITS.
In a paper on the " Haematite Ores of North Lancashire and Cumberland," read
before the British Association, at Leeds, in 1858, Professor -Phillips is
reported to have said "that the date to which it" (the ore) " could with
most probability be referred was that of some part of the Permian deposits."
Other opinions on this subject are given in the writer's paper on the
"Haematite Deposits of West Cumberland." In the discussion which took place
after the reading of that paper, Mr. A. L. Steavenson quoted some remarks,
published in the "Kevue Universelle," on the mines of Somorrostro, in Spain,
which were to the effect that the deposits there worked were formed during
the Cretaceous period. It was not clear whether Mr. Steavenson wished to
convey the impression that the deposits of West Cumberland and of Furness
also were of Cretaceous age, but if so he was certainly in error, as shown
by the fact that fragments of haematite are found in the Lower Permian
breccia at Whitehaven and at Rougham Point (see Plate XXXVII.) This breccia
does not occur in Furness, but it is found near Humphrey Head, in Cartmel,
which is only about five miles away, and, as already pointed out, the
physical changes undergone by the district under consideration so nearly
resemble those which have taken place in West Cumberland, and, in fact,
throughout the whole of the low ground surrounding the Lake District, that
if the haematite in one part of the area can be shown to be of a certain
age, it is extremely probable that the same kind of ore in other parts of
that area is of a corresponding age. In the Whitehaven district the evidence
on this part of the subject is so complete, and has been so fully dealt with
in the writer's paper on "The Haematite Deposits of West Cumberland," that
it seems altogether unnecessary here to prolong the discussion. The whole
of the evidence
230 THE HiEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
goes to show that the haematite of West Cumberland is of early Permian age.
In Furness there is no special evidence on the point beyond that which is
furnished by the breccia of Humphrey Head, in Cartmel, which shows that the
ore there, and therefore in Furness, is certainly older than the bulk of the
Permians, so that the ore both at Whitehaven and at Furness may be taken to
be of the same age, that is early Permian. Additional reasons for this
conclusion will be adduced when the origin of the deposits is discussed.
PART IV.-OPJGIN OF THE DF.POSITS. On this question the opinions of other
writers were given when dealing with West Cumberland. The conclusions
arrived at in the paper on the " Mines of Somorrostro," referred to by Mr.
A. L. Steavenson, are altogether opposed to the facts, as the writer can now
very confidently assert, for, since the discussion took place which led to
the mention of that paper, he had had an opportunity of going very carefully
over nearly the whole of the mines in the province of Viscaya as well as
over part of those in the adjoining province of Santander. Those deposits
are much younger than these—younger even than was stated by the writer in
the "Revue TJniverselle"—but they both tell the very same story as to their
origin.
The Whitehaven deposits show clearly that the ore in them was not, as is
often supposed, thrown down in caverns. One of the strongest facts upon
which that conclusion is based is the occurrence in the ore of thin layers
of shale, which are also interbedded with the surrounding limestone. In
the Furness deposits very few of these shale beds are found, because there
are very few of them in the limestone. Still, they are met with
occasionally, as shown in Fig. 1, Plate XLVIII., and they prove the same
thing here as at Whitehaven. Other facts, pointing in the same direction,
are the frequent " growing together" of the limestone and ore, the presence
in the ore of fossils belonging to the Carboniferous limestone, and of
spherical and irregular pieces of limestone with kidney ore arranged in
concretionary layers around them, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7, Plate XLVIII.
All these facts, as pointed out by the writer in discussing the origin of
the West Cumberland deposits, tend to show that these immense masses of
haematite were formed by a replacement of the limestone. Another fact not
there mentioned, but which has a similar import, may also be noticed. The
existence of loughs and microscopic cavities in the ore is altogether
incompatible with the supposition of its being a sedimentary deposit. They
might exist in an igneous formation, although it is very unlikely that they
would then have their present irregular form, but that
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 231
such was not the mode in which this haematite originated is clearly shown by
the presence in it of the shale beds above alluded to. Now, replacement
pseudomorphs of haematite after calcite, have precisely the porous
appearance presented by the hard ore of this district and Whitehaven, a fact
which renders it still more probable that the deposits of both districts
originated by a process of replacement.
The average composition of the hard blue-purple, or of the softer reddish
purple ore yielded by any deposit may perhaps be expressed as follows:—
Peroxide of iron by weight 85 per cent, (equal to 595 per cent, of metallic
iron). Foreign matter do. 15 do.
The specific gravity of peroxide of iron is about 5, and the average
specific gravity of the associated foreign matter may be taken at about
2'24, so that the relative volumes of the two sets of material existing in
the ore may be taken as 170 is to 67, that is to say, in 237 cubic feet of
solid ore 170 feet will be peroxide of iron, and 67 feet foreign matter. But
it is found that about one-sixth of the bulk of a deposit of hard ore must
be allowed for loughs, which are either filled or empty, in other words,
only five-sixths of such a deposit can be taken as ore. It appears,
therefore, that in any deposit of hard haematite measuring say 999 cubic
feet the volume is made up as follows:—
Cubic Feet. Peroxide of iron ... ... ... ...
... ... 598
Foreign matter ... ... ... ... ...
... 235
Loughs ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 166
Total ............999
Thus it is apparent that in a deposit of hard haematite little more than
one-half the volume of the ore (including loughs) is occupied by peroxide of
iron, the remainder consisting of loughs and foreign matter. This foreign
matter was probably deposited after the ore, and so filled up the minute
pores which once existed in it; just in the same way as it is seen that many
of the large loughs have been subsequently filled whilst others are but
partially so.
The replacement of limestone by haematite may be effected in several ways in
the laboratory, but, most probably, in the case of the deposits under
consideration, it resulted from the action of an aqueous solution of either
perchloride of iron or of bicarbonate of iron.
The reaction which ensues when an aqueous solution of perchloride of iron is
brought into contact with limestone as is follows:—
Fe2 Cla + 3 (Ca COs) - Fe2 Os + 3 (Ca Cla + CO,).
vol. xxx r.—j 8*2.
F F
232 THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
Or in other words peroxide of iron is precipitated, calcic chloride is held
in solution, and carbonic acid gas is given off. If the reaction takes place
at an elevated temperature, the hydrated precipitate may be altered to
anhydrous haematite. In " Dana's Descriptive Mineralogy," 5th edition, p.
168, it is stated that "E. Davies has shown that the ordinary precipitate of
hydrate of iron, on being boiled in water, may have its water reduced to
3*52 per cent. (J. Ch. Soc, 2, 4, 69) and Rodman (I.e.) has by the same
method reduced it to 2 per cent., showing that the water varies with the
temperature of origin, and, as Davies observes, no great heat is needed to
make thus anhydrous hasmatite." In "Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry" (new
edition, 1875), vol. 3, p. 395, more precise information on this head is
given in the following statement:—" Ferric hydrate gives off part of its
water between 80 degrees and 100 degrees C, and the whole at a red heat; it
is also completely dehydrated by heating it from 160 degrees to 200 degrees
C, with a saturated solution of chloride of calcium or chloride of sodium."
By the above reaction, as already mentioned, a solution of chloride of
calcium is produced, which needs only to be heated and the precipitated
peroxide of iron would be deprived of its water. The manner in which the
solution was heated will be noticed hereafter, but it is probable that a
much less temperature than that mentioned above, if continued for a great
length of time, might have the same effect.
By the action of bicarbonate of iron on limestone there results:—
Fe C„ 05 + Ca C03 = Fe C03 + Ca C„ 05.
In other words, carbonate of iron is precipitated, and bicarbonate of lime
is held in solution. The conversion of the carbonate into the peroxide of
iron is effected as follows:—
2 (Fe C03) = Fe2 03 + C02 + CO.
Two volumes of the carbonate of iron being required to produce one volume of
hasmatite, there is a loss from the evolution of carbonic acid and carbonic
oxide of nearly one-third of the weight.
These reactions and changes necessitate the following relation in the
volumes of hasmatite and limestone. From a solution of perchloride of iron,
999 cubic feet of limestone would precipitate only 290 cubic feet of
haematite of the ordinary density, but it would precipitate a larger volume
if the density were reduced. From a solution of bicarbonate of iron, 999
cubic feet of limestone would precipitate 438 cubic feet of hasmatite. This
quantity is so much nearer than the previous one to the relative volume of
peroxide of iron actually found in the deposits that, from these
considerations alone, it might seem more probable that the replacement had
been effected by means of a solution of bicarbonate of
THE HiEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FLTRNESS. 233
iron rather than by a solution of perchloride of iron; but there are other
reasons which necessitate the rejection of that supposition, as will
hereafter appear.
It has been clearly shown that both here and in West Cumberland, the
hasmatite was deposited at a time which was marked by great volcanic
activity, that is to say, simultaneously with the formation of all the
pre-Permian, or early Permian faults which intersect the Carboniferous
limestone. This connection of itself suggests that the source of the
iron was volcanic; but there are other reasons which point much more
directly to that conclusion. Pre-Permian faults, it is known, occur
everywhere throughout the Carboniferous band which encircles the Lake
District, yet it is only at three points in that band, viz., Whitehaven,
Millom, and Furness, that hasmatite has been found in large quantities. An
examination of Plate XXXVII. will show that at each of those points the
Skiddaw slate, which is the lowest known rock of the district, has been
brought up to the surface. It has occupied that position, too, since
pre-Carboniferous times, for the Carboniferous Limestone reposes on it at
Cleator, at Millom, and in Furness. Now, without assuming anything so
extremely uncertain as that the earth's interior, during Permian times, was
in a fluid condition, it seems perfectly legitimate to infer that the
violent fractures and dislocations which then took place resulted from great
internal pressure due to a locally elevated temperature. That being so,
is it not exceedingly probable that these fractures and dislocations would
be accompanied by certain volcanic emanations ? and seeing that the earth's
crust would be thinner at those points where the Skiddaw slate was on the
surface, than at other points where it was covered by rocks of a later age,
and seeing that at those same points the uplifting action has been greatest,
and that therefore the fractures and dislocations must there have been
greatest too, it follows that there also the volcanic emanations would be
most abundant. The way in which the hasmatite deposits of Furness are
clustered around the older rocks of Haume, as shown in Plate XXXVIII.,
points clearly to the source of the iron. It may be said, of course, that
they simply indicate that there the limestone was more broken up during the
upheaval than it was farther away, and that, therefore, it would be more
readily acted upon by any solution of iron brought into contact with it, no
matter whether that solution came from above or below. But that would not
be so, as will be hereafter shown. Besides it seems altogether impossible
that the iron solution can have come from above, notwithstanding, that the
deposits, as a rule, decrease in size downwards. Where could it come from
above ? There were no overlying rocks then, containing iron, as most of
the Upper Carboniferous
234 THE HEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FTJRNESS.
rocks had been removed by denudation, and if the iron solution had come
along the surface from a distance surely it would have found its way, as
liquids do now, along valleys and other similar depressions in the ground,
and would consequently attack the limestone along those valleys, so that
there should be some intimate connection between valleys and haematite
deposits; but no such connection is found. On the contrary, some deposits
occur on ridges separating valleys, others on hillsides, and bearing in mind
that the physical features of a district may have been greatly altered since
the Permian era, yet it is difficult to conceive h6w or by what means the
face of any district can have been so altered that a valley exists now where
there was formerly a hill, and vice versa. Again, if overlying rocks had
been the source of the iron, it might be expected ore would be more
frequently found in the uppermost bed of limestone, as it would first
intercept the descending solution. Tt might also be expected that deposits
found in the neighbourhood of Urswick would be quite as large as those found
nearer Haume. That the fractures in the rocks near Haume were larger than at
Urswick matters little, for the merest joint at either place would soon be
widened by the action of the iron solution, and the precipitated material
would, for a long time, be so loose and porous that it would offer very
little resistance to the percolating waters, so that a difference of a few
inches in the width of the primary joint would not affect the ultimate size
of a deposit. That is rather a question of circulation, for it is quite
clear that the more rapidly a mineral solution passes through the rocks the
greater, in any given time, will be the precipitate resulting from the
chemical action of that solution on the rocks through which it passes. Now,
there might be a better circulation at Urswick than near Haume; at any rate,
it is impossible to say that it was not quite as good, nor is it possible to
show that the conditions promoting circulation were better at the one place
than at the other.
If the salt of iron which effected the replacement be supposed to have come
from below in a gaseous condition, and to have been dissolved, before
reaching the surface, in the waters circulating through the rocks in the
neighbourhood of Haume, where, as already pointed out it was most reasonable
to look for volcanic emanations, then the whole of the facts presented by
the distribution of the haematite deposits of Furness become as simple and
as easily understood as any other geological proposition, and the very same
remarks will apply to the deposits of Millom and of Whitehaven, by
localising the volcanic action respectively at Black Comb, and near Dent. It
is known that perchloride of iron dissolves in water with considerable
evolution of heat, so that there would be the high temperature
THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 235
which it has been shown is necessary for the dehydration of the precipitated
peroxide of iron. Then again, circulation being, as a rule, greater along
lines of fracture than through the body of the rock; the occurrence of
deposits by the side of faults is easily understood; and since the iron
solution would attack the limestone as soon as it was brought into contact
with it, and as it would be most readily brought into such contact along
lines of fracture near its source, the reason for the localisation of the
Furness deposits around the high ground at Haume, and along the two main
fractures traversing the district, is at once apparent. By the time the
solution, in its course through the rocks, reached Urswick and the more
eastern parts of the district, it would be robbed of most of its iron. At
Millom and Cleator the limestone band is so narrow that it is impossible to
say whether or not there is a corresponding diminution in the size of the
deposits, as the distance from the source of the iron increases. But in
viewing the deposits in this connection, there naturally arises one most
important question. Why is it, seeing that the Carboniferous limestone is
resting on the Skiddaw slate all the way from Egremont to Cocker-mouth, that
haematite occurs most abundantly between Egremont and Rourah ? The
explanation of that fact is probably as follows:—The boundary between the
Skiddaw slate and the large area of volcanic rocks on the south is known to
be a faulted boundary. There is thus adjacent to the Whitehaven haematite
area, as will be seen on referring to Plate XXXVIL, an important fracture in
these older rocks. Then, again, from Egremont to Rourah the Carboniferous
limestone is very much faulted, whilst between Rourah and Cockermouth there
are very few faults. These facts seem to indicate that the uplifting action
which produced the faults was greater near Egremont than in the direction of
Cockermouth, and therefore in addition to the rocks being more seriously
dislocated at the former than at the latter place, thereby facilitating to a
greater extent the action of the aqueous solution on the rocks, there would
be a greater number of passages formed for the escape of the iron from
below. So that whether attention is turned to the distribution of the
deposits in the Whitehaven district or of those in Furness, the suggestion
is irresistibly made that the source of the iron was volcanic.
The gradual diminution downwards in the size of the deposits is explained by
the fact that the circulation of underground water is greatest near the
surface, and that it gradually diminishes downwards until a plane is arrived
at, where there would be no circulation at all but for differences of
underground temperature. This downward diminution of circulation must
necessarily produce a downward decrease in the precipitate resulting
236
THE HEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
from the chemical action of any mineral waters passing through the rocks.
Thus the wedge-like form of mineral veins is not, as is often supposed, a
proof that they are filled fissures, but is a natural consequence of the
differences in circulation of underground waters.
The source of the iron being volcanic, it is clear that the replacement was
not effected by a solution of carbonate of iron, as that salt is easily
decomposed by heat, and is, therefore, not found among volcanic emanations ;
but the perchloride of iron is one of the commonest of volcanic products.
According to the preceding calculations, however, it appears that a deposit
of haematite produced by the action of perchloride of iron on limestone,
would only contain about half as much peroxide of iron as is actually found
in the deposits of this district and of West Cumberland. But it must be
borne in mind that perchloride of iron has the power of holding, in
solution, a considerable quantity of peroxide of iron* which, when the
critical stage is reached in the reaction, is deposited along with the
proportion of iron locked up in the perchloride, so that the deficiency
indicated by the calculations may have been supplied in that way; or it may
have been precipitated by lime or other salts in the water. In "Watt's
Dictionary of Chemistry," 1875, Vol. III., page 379, there occurs the
following interesting statement on the solubility of peroxide of iron in
perchloride of iron:—
"Soluble ferric oxychlorides, or basic chlorides, are obtained bj adding
recently precipitated ferric hydrate to aqueous ferric chloride. The hydrate
dissolves in considerable quantity, and a deep red solution is formed
containing from five to six or seven molecules of ferric oxide to one
molecule of the chloride. The solutions may be heated or diluted with water
without decomposing; those which contain the larger quantities of oxide
deposit a portion of it, however, on the addition of certain salts, and when
evaporated leave residues which do not re-dissolve in water. Compounds
containing not more than 10 at Fe2 03 to 1 at Fe2 Cl„ are, on the contrary,
perfectly soluble in water after evaporation. (Phillips' Phil. Mag., [3]
viii. 406; Ordway Sill. Am., [2] xxvi. 197; Bechamp Ann. Ch. Phys., [3] lvi.
306, lvii. 296.)"
The sand and clay, so common in the Furness deposits, have clearly been
deposited in loughs and caverns in the limestone subsequently to the
formation of the ore. The porous nature of the ore and its proximity to the
surface, in such deposits as contain clay, would favour the admission of
carbonated waters to the limestone surrounding it. Thus caverns would be
formed on the outside of the ore, which would need only to be filled with
argillaceous and arenaceous materials to present the appearance of the
pockets of sand and clay, which are found along the outside of the
* The writer was unaware of the solubility of peroxide of iron in
perchloride of iron, until he was informed of it by Mr. A. Kitchin, F.C.S.,
of Whitehaven.
DISCUSSION—THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS. 237
ore in the dish-like deposits. It is not a little interesting to contrast
the heterogeneous character of the materials contained in these cavernous
deposits with the complete absence from the ore of any foreign matter
whatever, except such as may have been introduced chemically.
The broken nature of the ore found in nearly all the shallow deposits, is
the result of some forcible action that has taken place since the ore was
consolidated. This is shown by the occurrence in the deposits of broken
pieces of hard ore having a kidney-like form where there is now no lough nor
any indication of one but the kidney ore itself. This result might have been
brought about by the intense frost which prevailed during the glacial
period. Water collecting in the loughs and pores of the ore becoming frozen
would, if there were cavernous spaces or caverns filled with soft material
round the outside, in all probability break the ore to pieces, as then the
resistance to outward pressure would bo little, if any, more than the
tensile strength of the ore.
The clay which is found in the interstices of the broken ore has probably
been carried down by water recently, from the overlying glacial deposits.
The President said, that this important and carefully prepared paper, to
which they had listened with great interest, treated of geological questions
which must, of course, require consideration, and which would probably raise
some discussion. The paper would be open for further consideration in
connection with Mr. Kendall's paper on " The Iron Ores of Antrim."
Mr. John Daglish said, that, unfortunately, he was called out of the room
during the reading of the paper, but he had heard enough of it to make him
appreciate the valuable addition it would be to their Transactions, and if
the proposed excursion was made to the district described by Mr. Kendall,
the paper would prove a valuable guide-book to the members. He proposed a
vote of thanks to Mr. Kendall for the paper.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson said, he had great pleasure in supporting the motion.
He had entirely forgotten that on a former occasion he had taken part in the
discussion referred to by Mr. Kendall. The opinions which he then gave were
not his own opinions, and he did not want it to be understood that he
thought the haematite deposits were of the cretaceous period. The remarks
attached to his name were those of the writer in the "Revue Universelle."
238 DISCUSSION—THE HAEMATITE DEPOSITS OF FURNESS.
Mr. J. A. Ramsay said, there was a deposit of haematite a few miles south of
Carlisle, and it certainly was not of igneous formation. It was lying in
beds. Several borings had been made showing different thicknesses of this
ore varying from some feet down to a few inches; he had himself seen
specimens of the borings.
The President—Perhaps Mr. Ramsay will prepare a paper on the subject.
Mr. J. A. Ramsay said, he would have pleasure in doing so if such
information as he had would be sufficient for a paper. However, from the
place he had referred to, to higher ground near Kirkby Stephen, deposits of
hgematite could be traced. He had made several tours through the district,
and on one occasion he had the pleasure of Mr. Kendall's company.
Mr. John Marley seconded the vote of thanks which was unanimously agreed to.
Mr. T. J. Bowlker's " Description of a New Ventilating Fan" was discussed:—
The President said that Mr. Bowlker had come from a distance at considerable
inconvenience to discuss his paper, and as many other gentlemen were present
who were desirous of taking part in the discussion, it would be more
convenient to proceed with it now, and take Mr. E. P. Rathbone's paper on
the " Dry, or Wind, Method of Cleaning Coal," as read.
Mr. Wigham Richardson said, he was very glad that this paper had been
brought forward; and he hoped some gentlemen present, who had had some
experience in fans, would favour them with their opinions upon the invention
in question. He had had no experience in connection with the large fans used
for ventilating mines; but he had tried a large number of fans in connection
with foundry cupolas and smiths' fires, and the results had been extremely
puzzling to him. He had tried Roots' blower and Schiele's fan, and also the
ordinary old-fashioned fan, which was simply like a paddle working in a
case. He had tried Lloyd's fan, but had never been able to come to a
conclusion as to why in some cases one fan seemed to be better than another.
As he understood Mr. Bowlker's idea, it was to reduce the friction of the
air on the sides of the casing by reducing the size of the fan. He thought
that every day they were finding more and more that the question of friction
was of the greatest importance in respect to questions in connection with
DISCUSSION—DESCRIPTION OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 239
which until now it had been to a great extent perfectly ignored. It was a
trite axiom that friction and heat were correlatives; but they sometimes
forgot that, if friction produced heat, it was another way of saying that it
lost power. The experiments which for many years past had been carried on by
Mr. Froude on the resistance of vessels going through water had almost
revolutionized the ideas of naval architects upon the amount and
distribution of power required in propelling ships through water. Mr. Froude
went so far as to consider that, up to a certain point, say 9 knots, the
whole resistance of the ship was simply and entirely friction. The late Mr.
Ericsson, of the United States Navy, or, at any rate, of New York, was so
much impressed with the importance of this, that he proposed to lubricate
the hulls of ships in going through the water by pumping air at the
fore-foot and along the keel, so as to form a glove of comparatively
frictionless air between the water and the ship. Last year he met Mr.
Thorneycroft, who has built torpedo boats and yachts which have attained a
marvellous speed, and he (Mr. Thorneycroft) told him there was no doubt that
experiments would have to be made in the same direction as Mr. Ericsson had
pointed out, and that he himself was preparing to build a yacht to go at a
high speed, and to put such powerful appliances on board that he would be
able to maintain a glove of air between the water and the ship. He thought
that Mr. Bowlker, in dealing with the air so as to reduce the friction was
in the right direction, and as he understood that the fan had been
successfully in work for some time, it looked like a success. There were
gentlemen present, however, who had had large experience with different
kinds of fans, and if there was a weak point in the invention which did not
strike himself—he only spoke of it abstractedly as an engineer—he hoped it
would be pointed out.
Mr. D. P. Morlson said he thought the last speaker had fallen into a slight
error when he attributed friction to the air from the fan case itself.
Experiments had been made by placing several water-gauges upon the case of a
Guibal fan (of which he understood this fan was supposed to be, he would not
say an improvement, but a modification) showing a depression of air or
partial vacuum in the casing, and proving without any doubt whatever that no
friction occurred attributable to the fan casing. Consequently, the idea of
three outlets was not, he thought, in any shape or way supported by the
assumption of any friction of the air within the case. M. Guibal made
experiments some years ago with two outlets, but after the result of those
experiments, he confined himself to a single outlet with a properly adjusted
shutter. He thought, however, that a great improvement could be made by
means that might be devised to
VOL. XXXI.-1882.
9 Cr
240 DISCUSSION—DESCRIPTION OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
overcome the vibration which was found in all fans, both small and large.
This vibration was dispelled by taking exactly the opposite course proposed
by Mr. Bowlker; for instead of facilitating the escape of air by numerous
openings, the vibration (which was really loss of power) was minimised by
restricting as much as possible the area of the outlet, and the width of the
tips of the blades. If the discussion was adjourned he hoped to be able to
lay before the Institute the formulae and drawings explanatory of this
assertion.
Mr. W. Cochrane said, he had prepared some notes, but had not brought them
with him, as he had understood that the discussion of this subject was to be
deferred in order to be considered along with some kindred paper. One main
point in the paper that he had noted was the unfair comparison made between
a machine 8 feet 6 inches diameter, driven by a band, and a large one of 45
feet diameter. The small fan would give a higher useful effect, being worked
up to its full power, than a large fan not worked up to the full effect it
was capable of exerting; therefore, without any regard to the system, this
alone might account for the advantages, if any, claimed for the smaller fan.
The system was decidedly a retrograde one, in his opinion. It was an
approach to the open circumference which he thought had been shown to be a
thorough mistake. By the arrangement they had no facility whatever to alter
the fan to suit the varying condition of the mine; whereas in the Guibal the
sliding shutter was capable of adjustment. Again, how could they construct a
fan of this kind when sizes above 8 feet or 10 feet were required ? The
enormously extravagant price for construction in masonry or iron would be an
objection to the fan on a large scale. If the discussion was adjourned he
would look up his notes upon the subject.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson said he agreed in the main with Mr. Morison and Mr.
Cochrane. If three outlets were better than one, six or more would be better
still, and ultimately they would get on to the open fan. He had seen the fan
at work. It seemed to do very well, and for the work done was very small,
but it worked noisily, and noise was loss of power. The Guibal was, he
thought, the best theoretically; but they had to consider the first cost,
and then the maintenance of the machine. Many Guibal ventilators had broken
down on account of their great size ; and a large one of 45 feet diameter
could not be worked at a speed sufficient to develop its full theoretical
effect for any time without breaking down, so that practically large Guibal
fans worked constantly at a great disadvantage when compared with smaller
ones, and, of course,
DISCUSSION—DESCRIPTION OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 241
if a smaller one could do the work, it would be an advantage even were the
absolute effect not so favourable. He had a Guibal broken down a few weeks
ago, and since that the Castle Eden Guibal fan had broken down. Mr. Cochrane
objected to the increased cost of the Bowlker fan, but he could not follow
him in this, for if they could get a fan of 12 feet which would give as much
air as a 40 feet fan, it was natural to conclude that the first cost and
maintenance of the small fan would be less than that of the large fan; and
if Mr. Bowlker could get up to 45 or 50 per cent, useful effect, as in the
Schiele fan, which had never been known to break down, he thought the
invention would be a useful one, even if by a slight percentage the Guibal
gave the best result, and under all the circumstances he rather inclined to
the smaller fan. He was at present considering what was to be done about two
fans, and the whole matter would have his best attention, and when Mr.
Morison brought his views forward he would join him in the discussion.
Mr. Henry Lawrence said, that there were more Guibal fans at work than any
other class, and the percentage of breakage was very small.
Mr. W. Cochrane said a point had been raised by Mr. Steavenson as to large
and small fans. He (Mr. Cochrane) merer? wished to say that the Guibal, of
any diameter, would give a better result than any other fan; and he hoped
Mr. Steavenson would not think it a necessity of Guibal's fan that it should
be of a large diameter, such as 30 or 40 feet. He did not see why Mr.
Steavenson should say a Schiele should run better than a Guibal.
Mr. Steavenson—Because it is made of one piece and is of a stronger form.
Mr. W. Cochrane doubted that. Guibal's ventilator was capable of being made
as strong as any other, and a constructor ought to be ashamed of himself if
he could not put up a Guibal which would work to the full extent without
breaking down.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson—But they do break down, probably owing to the great
vibration.
Mr. T. J. Bowlker said, he would certainly like a little more prcof before
he could believe that, as Mr. Morison had said, there was no friction inside
of the Guibal fan. Mining engineers at the present time were generally more
or less conversant with the laws which governed natural phenomena, and were
aware of the fact that where air was in motion there was always a certain
amount of friction; and if a candidate, going up for his certificate of
competency, were asked to find the friction of the air in a Guibal when its
periphery was moving at sixty miles an hour, he would
242 DISCUSSION—DESCRIPTION OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
not say it was zero, but very far from it. At all events, if he did say it
was zero, he would certainly not obtain his certificate. He would like Mr.
Morison to explain why air, as soon as it got inside a Guibal fan, suddenly
ceased to obey the ordinary laws of nature. Although the water-gauge showed
a decreased pressure at the interior of the walls of the Guibal fan, that
only meant that the air there was at a comparatively infinitesimally
diminished pressure, and did not prevent the air rubbing against the sides
all the time. Mr. Morison had referred to experiments made on a Guibal fan
with two outlets, which proved that they gave no better result than one, but
he considered that he had obtained a better water-gauge by his fan, and that
his three outlets answered their purpose quite as well as the single one of
the Guibal fan. The water-gauge got by a fan might be found by multiplying
the square of the velocity of the tips of the vanes in feet per second by
certain multipliers. He took the three instances of the Guibal fan given in
the report of the Committee appointed by the Institute to experiment on the
various fans working in different parts of the country. The multiplier for
the Hilda fan was '00029, for the Cannock Chase fan *00024, and for another
fan •00025. The multiplier for his fan was "00029, which was as high as that
for the 50 feet Guibal fan. Theoretically it ought not to give such a high
water-gauge as the Guibal, and this he thought could be made plain to the
members by the aid of a diagram. In a paper read by Mr. Cochrane a year or
two ago the water-gauge of the Guibal was shown in this way. If a quantity
of water were made to rotate in a cylindrical vessel its surface would be of
the form shown in the woodcut, and would
cause a difference of pressure between the centre and the circumference
equal to the height from a to b; and if the water were allowed to escape by
an evasee outlet, there would be an extra difference of pressure equal to
that from b to c; but if the water were allowed to flow in through an
opening of diameter ff, the height due to that portion, since it did not
rotate, would be lost. Now in the Guibal fan the opening was about one-third
of the whole diameter, whereas in the fan in question the opening was
one-half of the whole diameter. Thus the Guibal ought theoretically to get
DISCUSSION—DESCRIPTION OF A NEW VENTILATING FAN. 243
a water-gauge equal to / c, whilst his fan ought to get one equal to e c,
whereas it practically got one equal to the Guibal. Mr. Cochrane had stated
that a smaller fan, if worked to its full extent, gave a higher useful
effect than a large fan not worked to its full extent. He did not see how
that was, so long as the periphery speed and water-gauge were the same. He
thought the contrary was enforced in the remarks on the subject in the
President's Address last year. With regard to the moving shutter in the
Guibal, he thought at first it might be necessary to put some arrangement
equivalent to a shutter on his fan, but when a fan was put up without one,
and experiments tried, he found a shutter would be quite superfluous, unless
the conditions were very varying indeed, and then it would be better, in
most instances, not to put down a fan until it was found what the condition
of the mine was. Suppose a fan was put up of capacity to get 200,000 feet of
air per minute, and that it was found that with a certain water-gauge only
100,000 feet were going round; and suppose the maximum useful effect of the
fan was 55 or 56 per cent., then with the smaller quantity of air the useful
effect would be much less, and he did not think a shutter would affect it
much. For instance, at Hilda, the fan, he thought, was shown in the report
to give only about 40 per cent, of useful effect; and if there had been a
much larger quantity of air through it, it wrould have given a better useful
effect. With regard to the size of the fan, a fan of his type 18 feet G
inches diameter, with a water-gauge of 4 inches, would be able to circulate
200,000 cubic feet of air through a mine, and that was as much as was
required in almost any of their largest mines.
The President said, the discussion would be adjourned, and if Mr. Bowlker
would favour them with his presence at the next meeting, it would be
continued then.
Mr. D. P. Morison said, if the discussion were adjourned to the next
meeting, he thought he would in the meantime be able to get his figures,
etc., ready.
The following paper by Mr. E. P. Eathbone, on the " Dry, or Wind, Method of
Cleaning Coal," was taken as read.
THE DRY, OK WIND, METHOD OF CLEANING COAL. 245
THE DRY, OR WIND, METHOD OF CLEANING COAL.
By E. P. RATHBONE.
This method of cleaning coal is based on the separation of the shale or
other impurities from the coal by means of jets or currents of air blown
upon the coal at a constant and previously determined pressure. In order to
accomplish this satisfactorily, the coal, etc., must first be subjected to a
careful classification by means of a trommel or revolving screen, the result
being that all the pieces reserved for separate treatment will be about one
size, but will vary in weight according to their specific gravities. To make
this quite plain the writer has drawn an imaginary diagram, Plate LI.,
representing a jet of air blowing upon a mass of material made up of pieces
of coal, shale, and iron pyrites, all of one size, with the exception of the
fine particles of dust adhering to the pieces.
From this diagram it will be observed that the distance to which the
particles are projected is in direct relation to their specific gravity,
viz., the coal being the lightest is blown furthest, the shale next, and the
iron pyrites falling closest to the muzzle of the blast.
A system of cleaning coal, theoretically based on this principle, has been
successfully introduced, and is to be seen in practical operation at the "
Rhein-Preussen" Colliery, in Westphalia, being the invention of the managing
director, Mr. Hochstrate.
Although the machinery employed is of a most interesting character, still,
it appears to the writer that the system is open to many improvements and
modifications, especially in the event of its being applied in any way to
coal-cleaning in this country.
The advantages claimed by the inventor, especially that of having perfectly
dried coal to deal with in the coke ovens, are of an importance which can
hardly be exaggerated. It is therefore hoped that this paper, if it serves
no other purpose, may be the means of directing attention to this subject.
The following description of this system was published in the "Revue
Universelle des Mines" for January and February, 1881:—
246 THE DRY, OR WIND, METHOD OF CLEANING COAL.
At the " Rhein-Preussen" Colliery the coal, as it comes from the shaft, is
tipped directly on to a screen of the "Briart" type (viz., movable bars
worked by eccentrics), marked a a Plate LII. The bars of this screen are set
about two inches apart. The screened coal, viz., that which passes through
the bars, passes into a box beneath and is conveyed by the Archimedean screw
b into the large revolving screen or classifi-cator c, by means of which the
coal is separated into the following sizes:— Quarter-inch, quarter-inch to
half-inch, half-inch to three-quarter inch, and three-quarter-inch to one
inch.
The fifth size, or that which passes out at the end of the screen, is
composed of pieces of a size varying from one to two inches, which are not
treated in the cleaning apparatus but pass directly on to an endless strap
or band d, from which the pieces of shale, etc., are picked by hand, the
coal thus cleaned passing directly into the railway wagons.
For each of the other four sizes a separate cleaning apparatus is required,
as will be seen from Plates LIU. and LIV. The revolving screen c is partly
enclosed by iron sheeting s, which serves to guide the screened coal on to
the movable screen/, Plate LIV.
This screen (which receives a slight end-percussion motion) serves to spread
the coal evenly in the chamber or channel g, in which the actual cleaning of
the coal takes place.
Before proceeding further, it would be well to give a description of the
construction of this channel g.
It is divided into two compartments by an iron grating. At one end of this
channel the mouth of the fan h is fixed ; the other end opens out into the
dust chamber i. Inside this compartment and below the grating, there is an
endless band k revolving in a direction contrary to that of the air current.
The cleaning of the coal is accomplished as follows:—
The coal passing from the screen / falls upon the grating in the channel g,
and, being subjected to the force of an air current, slides forward into the
hopper /. The very fine particles of coal dust are blown by the air current
into the dust chamber i, the pieces of shale, etc., falling on to the iron
grating, and passing through it on to the endless band below. Particles of
coal are prevented from passing through the grating along with the shale by
allowing the current of air to enter into the space above the endless band
and below the grating.
The pieces of shale, etc. (dirt), only pass through the grating when their
weight is sufficient to overcome the pressure of the air beneath. When that
is the case they fall through the bars on to the endless band
THE DRY, OR WIND, METHOD OF CLEANING COAL. 247
k, which conveys them on to the general endless band n. The coal dust which
is carried into the dust chambers is also partly deposited in two other
chambers il and i2, which are divided by partitions, as shown in the plate.
In order to avoid the least possible loss a jet of steam is introduced into
the chamber i2, the opening of which is closed by a straw covering.
The produce from the first chamber i is removed by the screw p to one end,
from which it is raised by the bucket elevator r into a large hopper, from
which it is run out into the small coke wagons in the usual manner.
CONDITIONS FOR SATISFACTORY WORKING.
1.—The strength of the air current should be directly proportionate to the
size of the coal treated.
2.—The grating in the air chamber should be so inclined towards the mouth as
to allow the coal to glide easily forward, at the same time allowing the
shale and dirt to pass through it. The sizes of the holes in the movable
screen and in the grating must be directly proportionate to the size of the
screened coal.
The results of working on this system will be found in an abstract of a
paper by Messrs. Basiaux and Leonard, page 11 of Abstracts of Foreign
Papers, showing that 50'5 per cent, of the whole* output was cleansed by the
wind separation, the percentage of dirt amounting to 6'1 per cent.
ADVANTAGES OF THE DRY OVER THE WET METHODS OF CLEANING COAL.
1.—The cost of the former is estimated at only a fraction of that of the
latter on the same quantity of coal treated (i.e. with some of the foreign
systems, as Liihrig's).
2.—The manipulations being few, the coal and dirt are not so likely to get
broken up into smaller pieces (an important point in dealing with tender or
brittle coals). The fine dust which adheres to the different particles of
coal, etc., is completely removed, and does not result, as in the wet way,
in the production of a fine coal mud too dirty to be of any use for the
manufacture of coke.
3.—By avoiding the accumulation of mud, the loss consequent on small
particles of coal being invariably disseminated throughout the semi-liquid
mass in the treatment by any wet process is also avoided.
4.—The dry way does not necessitate the making of large reservoirs for the
reception of the coal mud.
VOL. XXXI.—1882,
H H
248 THE DRY, OR WIND METHOD ON CLEANING COAL.
5.—The dry coal gives the very best results in the manufacture of coke.
6.—The wear and tear in the coke ovens and in the coal-washing machinery is
not nearly so great in dealing with dry material.
7.—The time occupied in making the coke when the substance is dry is of
necessity much shorter.
The cost for the erection of a complete establishment to treat from 500 to
600 tons per day is also set forth in the abstract already referred to.
The cost of cleaning the coal is about 6d. per ton, and the quantity treated
600 tons per diem.
APPENDIX.
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS
FOR 1881.
By the SECRETARY.
These readings have been obtained from the observatories of Kew and Glasgow,
and will give a very fair idea of the variations of temperature and
atmospheric pressure in the intervening country, in which most of the mining
operations in this country are carried on.
The Kew barometer is 34 feet, and the Glasgow barometer 180 feet above the
sea level. The latter readings have been reduced to 32 feet above the sea
level, by the addition of "150 of an inch to each reading, and both readings
are reduced to 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
The fatal accidents have been obtained from the Inspectors' reports, and are
printed across the lines, showing the various readings. The name of the
colliery at which the explosion took place is given first, then the \ number
of deaths, followed by the district in which it happened.
At the request of the Council the exact readings at both Kew and Glasgow
have been published in figures.
YOL. XXXI.—1881-82.
I J
250 BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS.
BAROMETER READINGS, &C
JANUARY, 1881.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Babometeb. w2£«. Bahometee.
«2£«
| 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 4 P.M. 10 P.M. MaXi' Mlni" I 4 A.M.
10 A.M. j 4 P.M. 10 P.M. Maxi" Mini-
a n.". ""•"• »*.». -^v mum. mum. p
mum. mum.
1 30-321 30-353 30-318 30-337 417 32'5 1
30-059 30'082 30-095 30-146 46-8 37'9
2 30-341 30-400 30-396 30-410 42'3 39'0 2
30-182 30'223 30-203 30'202 47'2 44-0
3 30-379 30-384 30'323 30-306 43'3 38-5 3
30-189 30-173 30-118 30'113 45'5 41'8
4 30-287 30-259 30-230 30-247 41'9 363 4
30-164 30-248 30-289 30-382 44'9 32'2
5 30-223 30-252 30'229 30-260 43-3 37'5 5
30-420 30-484 30'510 30-553 34-2 27'1
6 30-305 30-387 30-419 30'507 41-0 359 6
30'580 30-645 30-658 30-682 37'9 32-3
7 30-531 30-574 30-556 30'576 40'4 31'6 7
30-658 30'689 30'625 30-616 34-8 27'1
8 30-561 30-550 30-477 30-444 37'8 30'2 8
30'562 30-558 30-485 30'465 29'6 26'6
9 30-381 30-332 30-241 30-186 38'2 33-4 9
30-404 30'373 30-261 30-206 29'3 24'8
10 30-116 30-056 29'960 29'917 34'6 33-5 10
30'116 30-104 30-015 29'956 36'8 23-3
11 29-8(0 29-805 29715 29'632 35'0 31'4 11
29'825 29-732 29-575 29-512 30'5 22'8
12 29-493 29-485 29-477 29'500 32-3 22'0 12
29-450 29-462 29-582 29'680 30'3 21'0
13 29-481 29-527 29'593 29720 33-2 19'9 13
29-688 29-716 29-672 29756 27'9 14'9
14 29-819 29-853 29'802 29'824 25'6 13-5 14
29'833 29-874 29779 29755 27'3 13'1
15 29-795 29-810 29735 29710 25'0 10'9 15
29-687 29-709 29-685 29'686 24-4 147
16 29-749 29-815 29-829 29'859 27'6 15'0 16
29-690 j 29-664 29-670 29-675 24'3 8'4
17 29-819 29-791 29701 29-574 30-5 9'4 17
29-669 29-677 29'664 29-682 22'6 8-6
18 29-337 29-194 29'083 29'129 3V1 27'1 18
29-646 , 29-717 29-702 29'666 32'0 23'6
19 29-155 29-209 29-258 29'436 30'2 26'5 19
29'604 I 29-637 29'622 29-654 29'8 22'1
20 29-637 29-825 29'909 30-009 29-0 15'0 20
29-690 29-850 29-950 30-072 29'2 227
21 30-049 30-189 30'237 30-291 27'9 16'0 21
30-164 30-346 30'366 30-362 26'2 15'2
22 30-285 30-223 30'122 30'115 32-2 16-1 22
30-302 30-240 30-190 30-174 353 12'1
23 30-130 30-185 30-198 30'247 35'8 27'1 23
30'148 30-186 30-200 30'223 33'0 18'8
24 30-268 30-277 30'206 30-159 29'4 227 24
30'196 30-167 30-082 30-052 31"2 12'8
25 30-073 30-001 29'887 29"848 28'0 19'0 25
29-974 29'938 29-850 29-801 33-0 16-3
26 29-776 29-692 29'525 29'361 35'0 17'7 26
29720 i 29-629 29-458 29-327 28'2 18'9
27 29-280 29-301 29-231 29'141 41-6 34'9 27
29-206 29'162 29-059 29-038 35'0 199
28 29-007 29-095 29-155 29'098 42'3 36'0 28
29-002 28-980 28'946 28-910 40'4 33-4
29 28-965 28-917 28-841 28'977 46'8 41"8 29
28-846 28780 28754 28-830 39"4 36'0
30 29-074 29-176 29-136 29'201 47"6 41'3 30
28-886 28-960 28-986 29-009 42'8 36'4
31 29-392 29-522 29'559 29'621 48-8 34'3 31
29'112 29'248 29'359 29-467 42'3 37'4
FEBRUARY, 1881.
1 29-701 29-829 29'896 29"927 37'5 33-4 1
29'552 29'670 29725 29-740 38'7 32-6
2 29-833 29-702 29"662 29717 49-3 33'8 2
29'688 29'606 29'499 29-489 38'3 34'7
3 29693 29-645 29-545 29"480 52'3 46'9 3
29-450 29'384 29-283 29-194 42-3 36-1
4 29-395 29-420 29-380 29'381 49'9 45'2 4
29-116 29-154 29-132 29-102 46-4 [ 41'3
5 29-347 29-405 29'420 29'554 437 37'5 5
29-090 29-320 29'539 29732 41-1 33'0
6 29-686 29-864 29'967 30'085 39-9 30'0 6
29-848 29-913 29-948 i 29-956 36-4 281
7 30-106 29-977 29-617 29'264 46-3 26-4 7
29-800 29'398 28-873 j 28-800 41-9 ! 28-6
8 29-127 29-192 29-271 29'469 49-5 42'1 8
28750 28-890 29'117 ! 29-382 42-9 I 35-8
9 29-581 29-716 29-650 29'436 45'4 40-8 9
29-604 29-649 29-506 j 29-162 38-2 ! 32-7
10 29-181 28-980 28-927 28'922 507 40'6 10
28764 28-644 28-586 ; 28758 42'8 315
11 28-879 29-087 29-541 29773 41-2 34-4 11
29-179 29-506 29-700 ! 29-874 37'2 29-9
12 29-891 30-017 30-039 30'065 40'5 29'2 12
29"944 29'974 29-912 29-814 37'0 23'1
13 30-045 30-009 29'952 29'876 40'3 27'4 13
29736 29-706 29'626 ! 29'546 36'0 33-0
14 29-769 29-721 29'658 29'690 397 36-5 14
29-500 29-534 29-533 ! 29-586 37'9 32'8
15 29-708 29-759 29756 29'816 43'6 32'0 15
29-611 29-673 29-687 , 29-750 38'9 27"8
16 29-845 29-917 29'877 29'895 43'5 30'8 16
29795 29-818 29-789 > 29-801 40'1 28'2
17 29-887 29-911 29-897 29'919 41-0 34-4 17
29-806 29-844 29-849 , 29-877 43'9 35'7
18 29-933 30-004 30-031 30-095 45-8 37"6 18
29-911 29-992 30-063 30-144 37'8 35'0
19 30-091 30-129 30-106 30'122 42'3 36-6 19
30-154 30-190 30-188 I 30-234 36"4 34'6
20 30-111 30-160 30-152 30-191 38'5 335 20
30-242 30'300 30-319 30-386 36'3 32'9
21 30-192 30-237 30-234 30-230 34'6 29-1 21
30-398 30'438 30-422 I 30-442 36-0 ! 32'4
22 30-169 30-156 30'101 30'124 35'0 29'8 22
30-410 30-416 30-357 30-294 34-9 32'9
23 30-118 30-185 30-187 30'239 35'2 32-9 23
30-225 30'205 30-199 30-259 38'9 32'3
24 30-236 30-272 30'245 30-255 39'1 34-0 24
30-288 30-316 30'279 | 30-240 42'1 j 27'3
25 30-200 30-157 30-051 29'986 37"2 31-1 25
30-112 30-023 29-909 \ 29-817 43'1 | 34-3
26 29-872 29"84l 29779 29-815 42'0 27"5 26
29754 29778 29'806 29-890 38'0 ! 331
27 29-818 29-833 29794 29786 37'3 29-2 27
29-926 29-987 29-964 29'954 35-0 j 301
28 29-738 29-722 29739 29-848 341 27'0 28
29'910 29-870 29-828 29'836 35-1 ' 24-9
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS. 251
BAROMETER READINGS, &c.
MARCH, 1881.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Tfivt-
Tem-
Barometer, pebattjee.
Barometer, peeatuee.
I 4 a.m. 10 a.m. 4 p.m. 10 p.m. ^axi" M™" 1 4 a.m. 10 a.m.
4 p.m. 10 p.m. Maxi" Mini" g
mum. mum. p
mum. mum.
1 29-950 30-068 30'096 30-150 40'5 25"1 1
29'837 29'860 29-909 30'018 36'4 24"4
2 30-183 30-263 30-274 30-290 42'9 28'4 2
30-108 30'209 30-218 30-209 327 19'0
3 30-196 30-000 29'890 29'759 39'0 33'5 3
30-106 29-978 29-822 29725 37"1 25"0
4 29-576 29-504 29-420 29-419 47'8 37"0 4
29-634 29'565 29-507 29-462 35-3 31'0
5 29-377 29-360 29-413 29-257 55'6 45-5 5
29-385 29'366 29-308 29'238 35'9 33"1
6 29-239 29-424 29-450 29-449 56'3 47'3 6
29-138 29-168 29-206 29'219 35'9 31'9
7 29-345 29-286 29-105 29-351 56'8 47'8 7
29-150 29'040 28-999 29-107 41'9 34'9
8 29-477 29-630 29739 29-914 49'2 42'0 8
29-216 29'316 29-443 2y576 42'5 36'2
9 29-914 29-892 29'929 29-939 53-2 40'6 9
29-396 29'453 29-440 29-530 47"8 34-9 10 29-947
30-039 30-049 30-067 587 50'4 10 29'640 29'758
29'799 29'791 51'2 45'2
II 30-052 30-064 29'987 30'005 57'3 43-6 11
29'742 29728 29-745 29'840 49'6 43'8
12 29-991 29-987 29'948 29'987 52-2 41-4 12
29-889 29-y24 29-914 29-900 49'9 37"9
13 29-962 29-945 29-863 29-841 507 39-0 13
29'834 29777 29-647 29'656 46'9 39-6
14 29-806 29-843 29'869 29-991 48'1 36-1 14
29'636 29"729 29-918 30'103 48'0 35'3
15 30-069 30-184 30'226 30-320 51-7 34-7 15
30-193 30-261 30-255 30-294 52'3 31'8
16 30-331 30-377 30-336 30'4] 0 56-0 31-3 16
30'270 30-273 30-246 30-280 51'2 32'8
17 30-434 30-512 30'471 30-521 57'5 32-2 17
30-269 30-312 30-290 30'290 51-1 45'5
18 30-506 30-495 30'364 30'358 59'0 38'5 18
30-168 30-098 30-029 29'980 52'3 46'1
19 30-254 30-214 30-094 30-035 547 39-0 19
29-863 29-888 29-858 29'838 48'5 41'2
20 29-917 29-860 29759 29764 53'0 37'6 20
29783 29-728 29-677 29-646 43"1 31'5
21 29-697 29-705 29-653 29-690 45'0 33-4 21
29'579 29-516 29-584 29"762 32'2 25"4
22 29-819 29-959 29-941 30'004 45-2 31-0 22
29'739 29773 29798 29'828 36'2 25'1
23 29-872 29-875 29-607 29'370 47'5 28'6 23
29-736 29-540 29-236 28'982 40"9 30'2
24 29-218 29-331 29-338 29-387 487 39-6 24
28'978 28'996 28-992 28'99S 40'7 31'3
25 29-359 29-417 29-477 29-594 44-4 32-1 25
29-038 29-198 29-316 ^9'514 43"3 31'1
26 29-649 29'727 29-764 29-884 437 30'0 26
29'632 29-720 29'770 29"836 38'2 25'9
27 29-920 29-949 29-882 29-897 43'0 27'0 27
29'838 29"848 29-818 29'826 44"6 31-9
28 20-870 29-880 29-820 29-818 45'4 30-4 28
29790 29-813 29752 29'686 457 36'0
29 29-747 29-728 29-676 29-879 53'4 29-0 29
29-669 29-794 29-847 29'976 4T0 29'9
30 29-922 30-012 29-987 30-052 -43"7 28'2 30
30'029 30'094 30-064 30'071 36'6 24-0
31 29-986 29-989 29-884 29-898 45"5 33-5 31
30-040 30-029 29-964 29-979 45"3 24"8
APRIL, 1881.
1 29-828 29-767 29'665 29-711 50'1 33'3 1
29'972 29'986 29-939 30-049 44-2 30-8
2 29-720 29-790 29'839 29-951 48'4 36'5 2
30'084 30'148 30-186 30-240 38'2 32-0
3 29-961 30-003 29'978 30-011 43'0 33'0 3
30'234 30-238 30-166 30-178 45'0 30'2
4 29-994 30-003 29'949 29-921 46-2 30'5 4
30-164 30'140 30-089 30'093 46'9 26'9
5 29-830 29-787 29723 29-745 477 337 5
30'028 29-985 29-914 29'953 44-8 29'9
6 29-722 29-779 29-777 29-895 487 33'6 6
29"938 29'950 29-935 30'061 48'0 28'8
7 29-923 30-003 29-997 30-060 47'9 33-5 7
30'100 30'158 30-144 30'212 48'0 34"2
8 30-063 30-047 30-020 30-046 48-3 32-7 8
30'192 30-195 30-080 30"130 48-0 33-9
9 30-015 30-040 30-016 30-057 52'9 36-6 9
30123 30-110 30-006 30'042 52'0 31-9
10 30-026 30-000 29-914 29'868 58'7 36'0 10
30-014 30'009 29-868 29-880 55'2 31-8
11 29-799 29-804 29-796 29-857 60'3 39-8 11
29'836 29'804 29'728 29'700 48'9 34-9
12 29-864 29-875 29-868 29-906 58'5 47-1 12
29-650 29-664 29-671 29'755 52'5 40'0
13 29-880 29-881 29-838 29-824 66-4 48-1 13
29788 29'828 29-828 29'894 59"6 46'6
14 29-757 29-796 29-797 29-855 61-1 46'2 14
29-899 29-907 29-840 29'879 507 40'0
15 29-860 29-897 29-875 29-932 60-2 44-2 15
29'858 29'899 29-905 29-995 52'0 40'3
16 29-943 29-970 29-943 29-982 58-5 39'4 16
30'023 30'044 30'034 30-074 52"2 39'8
17 29-966 29-986 29-941 29-950 63-6 39-9 17
30-076 30'140 30-145 30-216 55"2 38'5
18 29-941 29-934 29-884 29'945 61-0 38"8 18
30-222 30'225 30-156 30-214 51'8 35'5
19 29-921 29-970 29'944 29-962 41-7 36'9 19
30-216 30'209 30-130 30-100 46'5 34'9
20 29-907 29-854 29781 29-770 41-5 32'8 20
30'039 29'967 29-869 29-867 45"6 317
21 29-750 29-754 29736 29749 45-6 29-9 21
29'820 29-771 29-670 29-660 48'9 35"8
22 29-717 29-754 29-813 29-945 49-9 33'0 22
29706 29'822 29-840 29-938 58'2 377
23 30-009 30-063 29-947 29-904 55'0 34'3 23
29'938 29'870 29-752 29-841 48'0 32'9
24 29-869 29'992 30-014 30-026 57"4 42-2 24
29'879 29'882 29-796 29-614 51-0 40"5
25 29-930 29-888 29-841 29-904 60-1 46'6 25
29'622 29'650 29-647 29700 51'3 37'9
26 29-915 29-910 29'944 30-087 54-4 40'5 26
29'686 29'794 29-898 29'998 52'8 38'1
27 30-115 30-132 30-065 30-109 56-5 29'9 27
30'002 30-024 30-036 30-100 53'9 40'0
28 30-159 30-232 30-215 30-223 58-0 38"4 28
30-128 30-150 30-109 30-060 57'2 35'9
29 30-161 30-134 30-047 30-024 59'0 46-6 29
29'994 29'943 29-883 29'831 56-3 47'1
30 29-935 29-837 29'656 29-636 62'1 45"4 30
29"740 29'658 29'52l 29'425 54'2 45"8
252 BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS.
BAROMETER READINGS, & C.
MAY, 1881.
KEW. GLASGOW.
TfM- -r.
TEM-
Baeometee. peeatuke.
Bakometee. febattjee.
J i *n a i«„„ Maxi- Mini- £
, .„ ia . M 4, p m 10 pm Maxi-Mini's 4 a.m. 10 a.m.
4 p.m. 10 p.m. mum mum % 4 a.m. 10 a.m. 4 p.m. j.u
p.m. mum. mum.
A
__' _"_____________________________________
1 29-657 29-661 29-628 29'639 59*6 42*9 1
29-366 29*410 29-442 29-532 487 43'0
2 29-603 29-599 29-616 29748 55-6 43*6 2
29-616 29-720 29-781 29-902 47*6 40*0
3 29-843 29-945 30'007 30*073 48-4 36'2 3
29'944 30-084 29'964 29"939 50'3 36-3
4 30-074 30-037 29-977 30'057 56-9 31-8 4
29'847 29789 29-814 29-905 53-3 ¦ 39-0
5 30-124 30-180 30-167 30-207 63'3 40'2 5
29-942 29'851 29767 29759 53*5 40-9
6 30-236 30-250 30-278 30*396 66-0 49'1 6
29*776 29-874 30-006 30*139 56-1 45*1
7 30-461 30-560 30-549 30-602 66'4 43-2 7
30*257 30-364 30-489 30-589 56'9 44-0
8 30-616 30-617 30-547 30'603 63'0 42'9 8
30-610 30-618 30'579 30-597 63'9 40-9
9 30-585 30-580 30-548 30-586 56'9 38"0 9
30-638 30'667 30-616 30'706 61'2 41-1
10 30-583 30-611 30'585 30-625 535 38-2 10
30710 30700 30-614 30-614 60/9 40-0
11 30-626 30-604 30-491 30'473 58'0 32*5 11
30-576 30-548 30'488 30-458 64'2 38'8
12 30-436 30-393 30-298 30'304 63'4 37"6 12
30-414 30'366 30-278 30-130 59/6 44-2
13 30-232 30-183 30-038 30-024 70'5 40'1 13
30-126 30-016 29-876 29788 55"3 437
14 29-996 29-992 29'928 29'929 64-9 42'7 14
29775 29'802 29-779 29748 56*1 45-3
15 29-853 29-767 29-600 29'512 61*1 48*6 15
29-608 29-406 29-142 29-066 55*8 46-5
16 29-371 29-500 29*693 29'942 56*3 42-4 16
29-128 29'236 29-660 29*814 53-1 38*5
17 29-998 29-946 29*821 29-711 57*5 35*8 17
29*767 29'546 29-297 29-310 53-0 38'1
18 29-602 29-585 29-599 29'610 61-8 50-1 18
29'269 29*249 29*265 29*259 57*2 45-6
19 29-555 29-603 29'647 29723 61-0 48-3 19
29-225 29'256 29'299 29-366 56*4 457
20 29-780 29-876 29-950 30*072 60-6 43-9 20
29-433 29*520 29-644 29-842 56*9 46-0
21 30-176 30-276 30-302 30*370 67"2 41'2 21
29'978 30-090 30-164 30-246 61'8 44-3
22 30-408 30-412 30-352 30-332 67"6 41-0 22
30'304 30-372 30-352 30-357 66'1 47*1
23 30-257 30-226 30'172 30-146 69*6 49'4 23
30-380 30-361 30-290 30-307 66'1 47*3
24 30-103 30066 29-969 29-917 65'2 51'3 24
30'296 30-219 30-143 30-127 67'2 45"0
25 29-833 29-804 29772 29781 72-1 38'4 25
30'045 29-922 29-850 29'867 53'7 46-1
26 29-749 29-775 29771 29777 66'3 50-0 26
29-882 29*921 29-900 29'915 65'3 47'5
27 29-771 29-808 29-823 29'869 66-0 57'0 27
29-910 29-890 29-854 , 29-899 70'4 49-9
28 29-872 29'898 29-887 29'946 72"0 54'8 28
29'928 29'949 29'958 30-014 72'1 47"2
29 29-947 29-991 30'046 30-131 64-5 517 29
30-053 30-099 30-106 30-205 74"6 50-2
30 30-186 30-248 30-269 30'337 70'4 46'5 30
30-257 30-308 30-292 30-323 74-3 50'8
31 30-344 30-354 30'273 30-269 76-1 46-5 31
30-341 30-313 30"278 30'270 74*9 52*0
JUNE, 1881.
1 30-239 30-211 30-124 30*150 78*1 48*0 1
30-250 30-198 30-139 30-120 75-5 5T0
2 30-139 30-123 30'087 30-120 76'3 50'7 2
30-118 30-080 I 30-092 30-128 72*0 497
3 30-113 30-133 30-077 30-076 76'9 52*4 3
30-110 30-061 , 30-000 29-920 61'0 48-2
4 30-047 30-004 29-865 29'817 78*2 55*9 4
29-827 29717 29-514 29'382 61-8 50-9
5 29-689 29-608 29-495 29"424 62'5 51-6 5
29-411 29-406 29'407 29-428 57/1 43-4
6 29-394 29-450 29-450 29'515 59'0 46'6 6
29-430 29*454 29*544 29-630 53*2 41-3
7 29-520 29-586 29'636 29-726 55-0 45'0 7
29-646 29*675 29'709 29'810 53-1 37-0
8 29-787 29-877 29-961 30-081 55*0 42*0 8
29'900 29'981 ; 30-068 30-154 52-3 36-3
9 30-141 30-176 30'176 30-213 54*3 38'5 9,
30-198 30-226 30*205 80-180 56-0 41-0
10 30-197 30-178 30-096 30-062 59*4 43'0 10 \
30-122 30-064 30-012 30-012 51-1 40*8
11 30-003 29-997 29*979 30'023 64'0 46-8 11 '
30-020 29'994 29*925 29'948 61-5 427
12 30-025 30-043 30-005 30-016 67'2 52-9 12
29-957 29*958 ; 29*954 30-000 60-3 42*0
13 30-022 30-039 30*012 30*044 67'0 53-5 13
30'005 30-028 29*992 30-027 62-0 47*0
14 30-029 30-027 29-969 29*976 66-4 527 14
30-008 29-977 29-885 29-900 63/9 46/3
15 29-964 29-958 29'910 29*947 72*2 48-2 15
29*888 29-866 , 29-848 29-880 55/1 45-4
16 29-932 29-934 29*891 29'893 73*0 53*5 16
29"869 29-852 29-813 29786 55'9 40-8
17 29-872 29-886 29-876 29-868 71'0 57'9 17
29734 29737 ! 29'751 29717 61-4 51-9
18 29-837 29-841 29'804 29'821 68"9 57'1 18
29-693 29-650 29-633 29'682 64-2 537
19 29-793 29-789 29743 29-756 70'0 54-6 19
29716 29705 j ------ 29'548 62'3 53-0
20 29-747 29-762 29739 29'677 69-2 55'4 20
------ 29-507 j 29-400 29'461 | 63*5 51*0
21 29-521 29-539 29*559 29'596 707 57'2 21
------ 29-225 29198 29-190 63-1 54-1
22 29-623 29-661 29728 29'861 69'0 53-5 22 .
29'288 29'372 29'405 29*509 j 63/1 50*2
23 29-948 30-067 30-136 30'213 69'0 51'9 23
29'697 29*913 30-052 30-150 I 57*3 42*9
24 30-234 30-211 30-148 30-141 76*1 47*5 24
30-128 30'064 : 29'995 29'864 63*9 41-2
25 30-066 30-017 29-992 30-031 63*1 47*0 25
29-770 29'698 : 29-740 29-856 63-2 49*8
26 30-107 30-167 30-146 30-115 70-1 48*6 26
29-951 30-033 30'038 29-974 61-4 487
27 30-012 29-940 29*871 29'918 62'4 54*6 27
29'810 29'734 < 29-777 29'838 59"8 47'6
28 29-984 30-054 30-071 30'133 65-1 50-0 28
29'838 29'871 j 29'912 29-964 61-2 48"3
29 30-167 30-213 30-213 30-289 701 51-2 29
29-913 29'924 30-006 30-099 60'9 50'0
30 30-292 30-267 30-177 30-119 71'8 47"4 30
30'070 29-906 ; 29'770 29"724 58'9 48'0
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS. 258
BAROMETER READINGS, &C. JULY, 1881.
KEW. GLASGOW.
Baeometee. peeTatube.
Baeometee. pee^tuee.
J 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 4 P.M. | 10 P.M. JS S; J 4 A.M. 10 A.M.
4 P.M. » «/ E£2t
1 30-023 29-956 29"923 29-975 78"9 50"9 1
29779 29756 29799 29-964 63'2 49-0
2 30-033 30-072 30-059 30-089 74'4 57'6 2
30-069 30-024 29-970 29'734 62'0 48'2
3 30-098 30-115 30-117 30-169 78'6 55-8 3
29722 29'832 29799 29787 61'5 54'0
4 30-171 30-201 30-180 30-180 84-3 63'3 4
29-890 29-886 30-009 30-068 63-3 53'9
5 30-165 30-096 29'965 29-835 90"0 61"0 5
30-050 30'002 29'899 29'784 64-2 53-2
6 29-702 29-650 29'803 29'967 68'9 52'0 6
29'669 29"534 29-5l2 29'668 59-5 497
7 30-028 30-069 30-044 30-062 65'6 49"4 7
29'644 29-788 29-802 29748 59'9 48"6
8 30-009 29-967 29-918 29-916 65-0 50'9 8
29-736 29748 29-740 29'864 63-0 51"0
9 29-936 29-986 29'983 29-976 69'0 47*1 9
29-876 29'864 29'718 29-780 64-8 47"3
10 29-982 30-089 30-143 30-200 72'2 56-1 10
29726 29'953 29-956 29-912 65-3 52'9
11 30-199 30-197 30-140 30-101 77"5 55'4 11
29"882 29'8J0 29-826 29'885 63"7 55'9
12 30-034 30-019 30-021 30'123 78'4 54"7 12
29-893 29*948 29-934 29*924 64"0 52'9
13 30-153 30-214 30-215 30-279 75"1 53'9 13
29'836 29-910 30-020 30-003 64*4 54*9
14 30-267 30-293 30-220 30'186 85-0 58-2 14
30-036 30'076 30*048 30-010 71-1 57'1
15 30-120 30-057 29'968 29'987 89'6 60'0 15
29'946 29'923 29'986 30'040 64-0 49-0
16 30-008 30-033 30-023 30-047 797 62-6 16
30-057 30-067 30-059 30-068 63-1 45*2
17 30*047 30*076 30*013 30*006 82*0 60*5 17
30*022 29*940 29*752 29*714 60*4 49*4
18 29*979 29*978 29*927 29*936 85*4 60*9 18
29*731 29*810 29*840 29*853 64*9 54*8
19 29-873 29*857 29*794 29*804 84*8 59*7 19
29'825 29'802 29770 29753 64'5 55*2
20 29*783 29*845 29*844 29*904 73*0 57*3 20
29*693 29*644 29736 29*841 62'2 47*9
21 29*977 30*006 29*964 30*005 71*5 50*0 21
29*926 29*945 29*926 29*854 62*1 45*9
22 29*968 29*949 29*883 29*879 63*2 53*9 22
29*688 29*556 29*559 29*703 59*9 49*0
23 29*926 29*961 29*901 29*897 71*0 54*5 23
29*776 29*800 29*792 29*757 58'6 45'9
24 29-889 29-850 29751 29733 707 56'0 24
29705 29"632 29'477 29*358 61*8 517
25 29-706 29-693 29*629 29'579 65'2 52-1 25
29-387 29*418 29*444 29*475 63*0 50*9
26 29*495 29*539 29'647 29-794 67"4 53*4 26
29*488 29*585 29*670 29*806 60*5 50*8
27 29*860 29-968 30'023 30-137 67'1 48'8 27
29-888 29*951 29"974 30*008 60*9 42*8
28 30*180 30*194 30*105 ! 30*057 71*6 44"1 28
30'008 29-984 29-951 29-84,2 59'9 48-9
29 29-930 29*959 29*953 : 29*965 70*8 56*2 29
29*594 29*650 29732 29-698 59-5 54-3
30 29-903 29-855 29748 \ 29763 67'0 57'0 30
29-650 29*596 29*534 29-510 59'4 51-8
31 29-681 29-527 29'457 j 29-597 66*7 57'5 31
29*450 29*361 29-293 29-410 59*4 48*1
AUGUST, 1881.
1 29*708 29*781 29*758 29*853 711 49*9 1
29*520 29*655 I 29*750 29-860 60*0 45*0
2 29*970 30*082 30*105 30*179 72*1 54*8 2
29*935 29*973 I 29*922 29*842 65*0 40*5
3 30*195 30*220 30*227 30*267 69*5 51*1 3
29*848 29*836 , 29*920 30*038 63*0 54*0
4 30*271 30*304 30*227 30*200 78*6 57*6 4
30*064 30*048 j 30*038 29*968 697 52'6
5 30-125 30-046 29-912 29-910 80-5 51-8 5
29-830 29722 j 29-650 29*641 66*2 54*9
6 29*967 30*071 30*113 30*169 71*1 55*3 6
29*636 29*781 29*917 29*942 62-2 52-3
7 30-164 30*127 30*028 29-969 71-0 49'9 7
29-820 29793 i 29-650 29-523 64'3 54"9
8 29-895 29-805 29-708 29-521 72*3 53*0 8
29*550 29*583 | 29'500 29*452 63*3 51*7
9 29*486 29*574 29*712 29-822 69*1 54*1 9
29*500 29*578 I 29*618 29*662 63'0 50-4
10 29-805 29-795 29733 29*903 67*5 54*2 10
29*628 29*543 29*542 29*699 56*4 48*3
11 29*989 29*996 29*837 29-826 68-2 50-1 11
29727 29-724 ! 29'690 29-760 60*5 48*6
12 29*835 29*783 29*639 29*579 60*8 51*9 12
29*722 29*652 ^ 29*584 29*566 59*2 46*9
13 29*603 29*662 29*704 29-738 58-9 48"0 13
29'522 29-537 I 29'578 29*649 60*2 49'1
14 29-731 29-794 29-823 29*857 62*2 53*6 14
29*650 29*690 | 29*723 29*754 63*4 50*4
15 29*851 29*851 29*804 29-720 62*5 52*9 15
29*722 29*712 i 29*664 29*626 62*3 49*0
16 29*645 29*610 29-503 29-461 67'2 j 557 16
29'567 29-523 i 29*450 29*404 56*0 53*2
17 29*420 29*437 29*430 29*423 63*7 ! 55'1 17
29"334 29-324 ! 29'344 29-414 55'9 51*0
18 29*412 29*586 29*705 29-767 66-5 i 53-5 18
29-450 29-526 29-570 29'610 61-4 46'5
19 29-704 29-530 29"446 29-642 66'1 52'0 19
29'532 29-429 29-326 29-408 53*0 47*3
20 29*761 29*898 29*911 29*909 65*1 48'5 20
29'538 29-656 29734 29767 60-1 44"8
21 29-793 29-743 29726 ! 29'817 62*5 47*1 21
29*720 29708 29'692 29743 607 43-9
22 29-831 29-851 29'824 | 29-840 66-0 45'6 22
29-750 29785 29746 29*786 62*2 43*9
23 29*768 29*706 29*602 ' 29-524 68-4 55"2 23
29768 29740 29'674 29-602 55-4 49*0
24 29*521 29*649 29*723 I 29*835 64*3 51*4 24
29*508 29-554 29-614 29-674 55-0 49'9
25 29-812 29-714 29'545 [ 29-421 62-5 51'5 25
29'660 29-556 29*300 29*078 55*1 49*7
26 29*339 29*406 29*446 I 29'556 66'9 53-0 26
28-835 28*966 29*237 29*432 54*9 47*5
27 29*628 29*709 29768 j 29'889 62'3 48'2 27
29-542 29'630 29'692 29-746 56'1 42-0
28 29-963 30^65 30-184 30-129 637 4yl 28
29-778 29"842 29'840 29'898 54-0 44-2
29 30-062 29-992 29'930 29-875 62*2 50*3 29
29*874 29*855 29*814 29*848 57*0 39*4
30 29*736 29*786 29*813 29*948 65*4 52*2 30
29*908 29*994 30*076 30*166 57*4 44*0
31 30*037 30*121 30*139 30*189 56*5 49*7 31
30-202 30*250 30*254 30*335 60-0 37*9
254 BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS.
BAROMETER READINGS, &C.
SEPTEMBER, 1881.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Barometer, perattoe.
Barometer. perato're.
% 1a.m. 10 a.m. 4 p.m. 10 p.m. Maxi" Mini" I 4 a.m.
10 a.m. 4 p.m. 10 p.m. M,.**' £~"
P mum,
mum. p
mum, mum.
1 30-167 30-165 30'146 30'178 55'3 48'8 l
80-826 30-333 30-298 30-365 62'2 39-1
2 30-141 30-125 30-083 30-093 60-1 50'3 2
30-330 30-314 30-270 30-260 55'9 43'2
3 30-040 30-015 29'959 29-960 62'6 49'8 3
30'200 30-155 30-095 30-097 60'3 49"3
4 29-906 29-890 29-835 29-829 63'6 47'5 4
30-028 30-010 29'978 29'974 55-9 50'3
5 29-761 20-727 29-613 29'546 60'3 50'9 5
29'896 29-840 29743 29'665 58-9 48"8
6 29-450 29-514 29'536 29-541 65'1 54-0 6
29-516 29-438 29'396 29'423 55-8 48-3
7 29-521 29-617 29'675 29-727 65'0 52-0 7
29-420 29-48 i 29"532 29'613 60-1 50'9
8 29-723 29-715 29'699 29754 637 477 8
29-614 29-663 29-670 29758 59"4 49-8
9 29-779 29-859 29-873 29'963 647 49'9 9
29-812 29-895 29'946 30-060 60'9 50-9
10 29-971 29-988 29-981 29'988 57'5 48-2 10
30'102 30-143 30-102 30-124 61'8 49'8
11 29-951 29-944 29'923 29-961 58'5 51'9 11
30'193 30-095 30'O42 30'062 59'2 487
12 29-950 29-978 29-989 30'035 59'0 54-0 12
30'054 30-056 30-012 30-016 57"1 50-1
13 30-045 30-095 30-073 30'094 63'6 51'5 13
29-980 29'994 29-984 29'994 57'5 48-4
14 30-083 30-103 30-069 30'094 64-6 477 14
29'988 30-010 30-010 30'052 56-8 46'5
15 30-075 30-108 30-084 30'147 64-1 46-1 15
30'054 30-114 30-084 30'132 58-9 41-5
16 30-161 30-196 30-131 30'132 64-2 40-4 16
30-122 30-142 30-090 30-058 59'3 44-6
17 30-059 30-027 29-913 29'842 65-9 44-7 17
29-923 29'827 29704 29-668 57'1 46-3
is wm m© si^sas 2»*«» i\-z 54-ft 1% 1 ss-sai
as-sea 29-sh , aa-sas 53-s sq-s
19 29-709 29-805 29'833 29'894 66-0 51-4 19 J
29-628 29'687 29700 29'744 58'3 49-3
20 29-862 29-823 29-702 29'577 68-2 49-1 20
29708 29-692 29'592 29"534 62'3 50'3
21 29-419 29-418 29'447 29-475 63-4 52-3 21 I
29'418 29-366 29-346 29'408 59-0 53'3
22 29-493 29-585 29'626 29'665 60'0 48-5 22
29'212 29-626 29"624 29-870 55-3 50'0
23 29-796 29-924 29'995 30-101 59-5 53-3 23 j
29'974 30-033 30-038 30-058 55-5 50-5 I 24 30-127
30-160 30-133 30-110 65-3 55-0 24 ' 30-034 29-918
29-900 . 29-84,8 55-9 50S
25 29-997 30-021 30-007 3&-W7 88-S 4S-4' 25
2&'%%1 ISfm l^sas ' 2ft-TCi 58-4 < 44-9
26 30-045 30-052 30-087 30-156 64'2 47'5 26
29'814 29-894 29'928 29'982 59-9 48'3
27 30-144 30-176 30-141 30-212 61-4 47'0 27
29'995 30-066 30'088 30-157 587 47"0
28 30-229 30-302 30'307 30'368 61-9 42-1 28
30-156 30-212 30-204 30-227 58-3 48'2
29 30-361 30-391 30-322 30-355 63-0 397 29
30-171 30-134 30'090 30-070 60'0 51-9 SO 30-333
30-368 30-312 30-317 621 39-4 30 30'110 30-210
30'220 30-256 60-9 537
OCTOBER, 1881.
1 30-279 30-256 30-194 30-197 58'9 39-1 1
30'247 30-257 30-200 30-237 62-3 48'5
2 30-152 30-145 30-106 30'123 57"9 43-1 2
30'200 30-218 30'156 30-167 57'9 42-1
3 30-105 30-132 30-138 30-176 57'9 43-3 3
30-160 30-171 30-154 30-208 57'6 40-9
4 30-166 30-182 30-162 30-161 53-5 39'1 4
30-224 30-273 30-250 30-298 54-3 45-0
5 30-127 30-157 30-206 30-263 47"4 34'0 5
30'274 30-289 30'304 30'362 50-6 39-2
6 30-226 30-241 30-294 30-393 54'2 35'0 6
30'380 30-432 30'404 30-416 53-0 38-2
7 30-423 30-475 30-410 30'364 52-6 46'3 7
30-360 30'358 30-300 30-268 53-0 46-0
8 30-216 30-052 29-906 29"852 48"0 44-6 8
30192 30-181 30-090 29'968 55-4 43-0
9 29-806 29-810 29767 29-868 52'3 44'0 9
29-726 29-617 29-610 29'698 517 42"0
10 29-952 30-032 29-996 29-930 56'2 39-1 10
29'654 29-611 29-600 29-372 55-7 42'8
11 29-786 29735 29727 29-789 617 49-1 11
29-266 29-324 29'374 29-416 56'0 427
12 29-832 29-803 29757 29725 56'9 457 12
29-408 29-408 29'414 29-426 51"1 38'6
13 29-722 29-839 29798 29'535 56-6 44"0 13
29'414 29'560 29'480 29-185 48-4 38"2
14 29-233 29-080 29-156 29'657 58'7 44'5 14
29-596 29'510 29'201 29-550 44"0 36-0
15 29-853 29-911 29'985 30'l46 49'3 35-1 15
29-662 29-806 29"998 30-142 45-5 33-8
16 30-240 30-361 30-364 30-391 48'0 30"0 16
30'220 30-292 30-258 30'248 44-9 30'5
17 30-381 30-392 30-325 30'328 52"4 25"4 17
30-170 30'150 30-114 30-127 52'0 36'6
18 30-279 30-270 30-197 30-200 52'0 33"8 18
30-106 30-121 30'084 30-128 54-6 42-0
19 30-163 30-149 30-045 29-976 48'5 36'2 19
30-141 30-182 30-108 30-113 49'0 41-0
20 29-886 29-808 29'677 29611 5()-4 40'1 20
30-034 30-035 29'924 29-846 50'4 46'3
21 29-563 29-609 29'595 29-594 487 44'4 21
29798 29798 29756 29748 48"3 45'2
22 29-511 29-380 29'254 29-259 51-6 46'6 22
29-614 29'584 29'485 29-418 48-0 44-1
23 29-308 29-393 29"435 29-505 52'3 48'7 23
29-424 29'438 29-650 29717 47'9 45"0
24 29-539 29-628 29-670 29-696 49'0 457 24
29-731 29780 29'820 29-870 48'6 43'8
25 29-708 29-773 29'809 29'890 50'1 39'5 25
29-925 29'987 30'024 30-082 46-0 40'9
26 29-957 30-052 30-095 30-169 49'1 39"2 26
30-116 30'214 30'258 30-335 47'0 40'0
27 30-173 30-205 30'189 30-219 46'0 37'4 27
30-343 30'358 30-306 30'278 44-4 38'6
28 30-193 30-177 30-105 30-086 46-5 37'0 28
30'208 30-190 30-180 30-215 47'3 36'2
29 30-074 30-101 30-123 30'194 44-6 35-6 29
30-236 30'343 30-350 30-364 42-4 34-6
30 30-203 30-219 30-199 30'225 44'0 32'5 30
30-328 30-306 30-228 30194 42-2 30-4
31 30-202 30-185 30-089 30-033 39'8 27'5 31
30-118 30'048 29'900 29-764 42'3 31-0
.__________________________________________________________......
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS. 255
BAROMETER READINGS, &c.
NOVEMBER, 1881.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
Barometer. ^-^T™" ,.
Barometer. Temperature.
"*" *" PERATURE.
J 4 A.M. 10 A.M. 4 P.M. 10 P.M. StfeS; | 4A.M.jlOA.M.
4 p.m. 10 p.m. J^J; Mini
p p
1 29-881 29-837 29792 29-810 39"4 32-2 1
29'226 29'580 29-522 29'606 40"3 33'6
2 29-774 29-802 29787 29-806 41'9 33-5 2
29'658 29'720 29720 29736 44'0 36'0
3 29-766 29-766 29'722 29-839 52'5 37'4 3
29'676 29-628 29'620 29'679 40'0 35-3
4 29-818 29-880 29-930 29-962 59'5 50'4 4
29-638 29-556 29-646 29724 48-3 40'1
5 29-937 29-961 29'963 30'063 61-5 537 5
29-694 29'674 29-700 29786 54'0 44'9
6 30-063 30-136 30-162 30-237 57'5 397 6
29-814 29-894 29'942 30-008 51'8 467
7 30-232 30-193 30-117 30-146 55-6 42'2 7
30'038 30-080 30-060 30'068 50'9 40'3
8 30-148 30-192 30-169 30-157 53'8 517 8
30-000 29'986 29'996 29'984 56'0 41'8
9 30-106 30-078 29-995 29-979 55-1 41-9 9
29-930 29'946 29-850 29796 53'3 457
10 29-983 30-033 30-061 30-154 59-2 42'0 10
29-736 29714 29-800 29'914 52'3 44'3
11 30-202 30-230 30-194 30-160 577 50-0 11
29-906 29-871 29-758 29750 55'3 52-0
12 30-041 30-122 30-190 30-269 58-2 51-6 12
29-730 29-840 29-820 29-837 53'3 51'2
13 30-306 30-384 30-390 30-417 59'9 50'3 13
30-068 30-140 30-050 30-100 551 45'9
14 30-387 30-368 30-295 30-231 54-0 47'5 14
30'138 30-075 30-018 29'942 59'0 52-0
15 30-088 30-017 29'945 30'053 53-9 46-4 15
29728 29'538 29-466 29'576 54"0 44-3
16 30-073 30-007 29-850 29'693 55-1 43'6 16
29'492 29'242 29-160 29-062 52"6 45'7
17 29-604 29-755 29-849 30'022 54-8 43'0 17
29'214 29'460 29-710 29'966 47'0 33'8
18 SO-162 30-S09 30-812, SQ-S\5 47'5 3S-1. IS
30-078 30-138 30-010 29'854 52'0 31-5
19 30-218 30-218 30'Hl 30-033 53-5 42'2 19
29'840 29'796 29-668 29'428 54-2 51-4
20 29-980 30-014 29-970 29'874 56'5 43-1 20
29-580 29-641 29-528 29-378 51"9 45-6
21 29-653 29-525 29723 29-695 54-0 49-1 21
29-050 29-116 29-274 29-046 51"2 44-1
22 29-526 29760 29'901 29'954 58'3 42'6 22
29-674 29-072 29-386 29'373 55"3 39-2
23 29-857 29'848 29-922 30-068 53-6 42'9 23
29-440 29-456 29-534 29'674 45'0 36-5
24 30-077 30-029 29-925 / 29S68 I 53-2 / 42-3 24 I
29'578 29'378 29-384 29'438 51'0 / 39-0 , S15S ci&-"iT\ )
1cb-'&&) 18>-Vin \ ^'S>-0"i4<| S5-5 1 44"8' 25 29-466.1 29-430
29-374 1 29-364] 45'9 39'6
26 29-616 29-603 29'264 28-937 55"6 42'1 26
29-318 29'214 28-754 28-302 47'4 36'2
27 28-924 . 28'986 29'004 29-056 56'0 44-1 27
28-182 28-068 28-114 28'292 46'2 421
28 29-083 29-260 29"444 29-628 52'4 40'2 28
28-513 28742 29-002 29'344 47'6 42-0
29 29-795 29'971 30-051 30'125 47'8 29'3 29
29-600 29'764 29-816 29786 46'1 37'3
30 30-092 30-085 30-018 29'996 47'6 29'4 30
29'696 29'608 29'562 29'664 49"5 43"0
DECEMBER, 1881.
1 29-936 29-923 30-040 30-182 47"6 37'5 1
29'778 29'856 29'884 29'908 46"3 39'8
2 30-210 30-245 30-227 30-217 53'2 37'2 2
29-818 29-784 29-750 29-786 52"5 45'0
3 30-168 30-170 30-163 30-179 48'6 37'2 3
29-782 29-880 29-964 30-020 52'0 34'3
4 30-206 30-229 30-223 30-217 451 36'0 4
30-022 29-990 29-936 29-882 45'0 30'0
5 30-175 30-123 30-134 30-222 48'6 38'6 5
29-913 29'958 29-923 29-954 45'8 35'8
6 30-248 30-210 30-002 29-838 50'4 317 6
29'944 29'758 29'304 29-214 49'9 35-6
7 29-747 29-799 29-840 29-919 50'8 36-6 7
29-276 29-376 29-478 29'570 45"4 38'1
8 29-936 29-913 29'848 29-769 42-4 33'9 8
29-575 29-592 29-544 29-488 41'4 35'8
9 29-651 29-589 29'535 29-555 89'5 31'8 9
29-442 29-456 29-482 29'556 37'6 30-4
10 29-564 29-593 29-604 29'626 36'4 31-6 10
29-610 29'689 29'682 29'712 32'0 27'0
11 29-640 29-682 29-684 29-722 37'5 307 11
29700 29740 29-787 29'878 39'5 26'1
12 29-768 29-832 29-873 30-014 39"5 36'1 12
29-958 30'046 30-058 30-096 40"4 36-1
13 30-162 30-302 30-328 . 30-337 37'2 27'3 13
30-162 30-164 30-100 30-014 42"0 28'8
14 30-317 30-267 30-191 30-152 41-2 26-6 14
29'878 29-830 29-958 30-026 43'0 35'0
15 30-086 30-048 29-974 29-911 42'3 37"8 15
29-994 29'950 29-800 29-700 38-0 307
16 29-803 29-769 29'674 29-499 43'8 S9-2 16
29'560 29'435 29-374 29'240 39'0 32-0
17 29-391 29-233 28'986 29-136 52'3 45'3 17
28'924 28-609 28'466 28-588 42'2 45'9
18 28-741 29-274 29'428 29-506 53'5 37"4 18
28'594 28-801 28-834 2S-975 39"8 33'1
19 ------ 29-561 29-525 29-427 44'6 35'9 19
29-054 29-143 29-174 29-120 39'0 34-1
20 29-051 28-925 29'063 29-132 44-8 387 20
28-856 28-794 28'900 29-058 38'8 33-0
21 29-357 29-607 29-751 29-879 44"0 30-5 21
29-076 29-290 29-528 29'694 40'8 33'0
22 29-905 29-919 29-923 30-085 377 28'5 22
29-764 29-870 29-978 30-104 32"8 26-7
23 30-241 30-405 30'479 30-540 36-6 24-0 23
30-102 30-300 30-334 30-304 37"3 28'8
24 30-529 30-511 30-458 30-491 39"4 24-5 24
30-167 30-036 29-982 29'982 46'2 37'2
25 30-483 30-515 30-495 30-502 42'0 27'9 25
29-914 29-944 30'020 30-163 50"9 44-6
26 30-516 30-584 30-569 30'584 45'6 417 26
30-228 30-298 30-290 30'316 50"3 45'1
27 30-577 30-615 30-579 30-585 45"6 41-1 27
30'306 30-365 30'358 30-334 46"7 39"2
28 30-510 30-462 30'389 30'349 42-1 36-6 28
30-254 30-198 30'100 30-010 48'2 39-3
29 30-266 30-232 30-152 30-110 46'0 32"7 29
29'866 29'752 29"732 29'698 50'6 44'0
30 30-017 29-991 29'909 29-907 45'0 37'6 30
29'538 29-546 29-550 29-600 48'3 39-9
31 29-883 29-894 29'833 29'832 44-6 38'6 31
29'676 29-750 29'658 29'546 40-9 36'0
________________________________________________^______________
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEEES.
ABSTRACTS OF FOREIGN PAPERS.
THE MINING INDUSTRY OP PRUSSIA, 1880.
Die Bergiverks-Industrie und Bergverwaltung Preussens im Jahre, 1880.
Zeitschrift fur das Berg-, Hutten- und Salinen- Wesen. Vol, XXIX., pp.
459-492.
Coal.
1880. 1879. Per Cent.
Production in tons......... 42,172,944 ... 37,674,648 ...
increase 11-94
Value at pit's mouth ......£10,530,853 ... £8,744,640 ...
do. 20-43
Average value per ton at pit's mouth 5s. ... 4s.
1\d. ... do. 7'54
Number of mines at work ... ... 403 ...
405 ... decrease 0*5
Persons employed......... 155,006 ... 147,939 ...
increase 478
Tons raised per man employed ... 272 ...
255 ... do. 6'2
Deaths by accident......... 503 ... 444
... do. ll-04
„ per 1,000 employed...... 3-222 ... 2-968
... do. 8*5
Men employed per death ...... 308 ... 333
... decrease 7*5
Tons raised per death ...... 84,042 ... 85-044
... do. T2
Lignite.
Production in tons......... 9,874,888 ... 9,278,354 ...
increase 6'42
Value at pit's mouth ......£1,508,288 ... £1,439,770 ...
do. 476
Average value per ton at pit's mouth 3s. 0|d. ... 3s.
lid. ... decrease 1"61
Number of mines at work ... ... 469 ...
473 ... do. 0-8
Persons employed ......... 19,757 ... 18,593 ...
increase 6'26
Tons raised per man employed ... 499 ...
499 .. ¦— —
Deaths by accident ... ... ... 42 ...
40 ... increase 5-0
„ per 1,000 employed...... 2-125 ... 2-147
... decrease 1-02
Persons employed per death ... 470 ...
464 ... increase 1"3
Tons raised per death ...... 235,116 ... 231,959
... do. 1-3
Total Fossil Fuel.
Production in tons......... 52,047,832 ... 46,953,002 ...
increase 10-8
Value at pit's mouth ......£12,039,141 ...£10,184,410 ...
do. 18-2
Average value per ton at pit's mouth 4s. 7£d. ... 4s.
4d. ... do. 67
Number of mines at work...... 872 ... 878
... decrease 06
Persons employed ......... 174,763 ... 166,532 ...
increase 4-9
Tons raised per man employed ... 297 ...
282 ... do. 5-3
Deaths by accident......... 545 .. 484
... do. 12-6
„ per 1,000 employed...... 3-118 ... 2-906
... do. 7'3
Persons employed per death ... 306 ...
344 ... decrease 11*0
Tons raised per death ...... 95,500 ... 97,010
... do. 15
C. Z. B.
a
2
THE MINERAL STATISTICS OP THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY FOR THE
YEAR 1879.
Statistische Mittheilungen tiler das Bergwesen im KonigreicJie Sachsen,
1879. Jahrluch fur das Berg- und Btittenwesen im Konigreiche Sachsen auf
dasjahr 1881, pp. 1-202.
Metalliferous Coal Lignite
Mines. Mines. Mines.
Number of mines in 1879 ...... 268 ... 65
... 141
Extent of mineral field in sq. miles ... 79£ ...
33£ ... 7 s
Persons employed ......... 7,832 ... 16,227 ...
2,609
¦ Total employed, 26,668, and the population depending on these men equals
59,662.
Output in tons ............ 38,417 ... 3,310,613 ...
590,889
Tons raised per man per annum ... 4-9 ...
204 ... 227
Value of production .........£241,990 ...£1,130,644 ...£91,188
„ per ton at pit's mouth ... ...£6 5s. lOd. .. 6s.
lOd. ... 3s.
Deaths per accident ......... 9 ... * 133
... 1
„ per 1,000 employed ...... 1*16 ... 8'20
... 0"38
Number of persons employed per death 870 .., 122
... 2,609
140 Tons raised per death ......... 4,268 ... 24,892
... 590,889
29115
* Figure high owing to an explosion of fire-damp in the Bruckenberg Coal
Mine on December 1st, 1879, by which 89 persons lost their lives.
C. Z. B.
THE RIVE-DE-GIER COAL-FIELD STATISTICS.
Statistique Besumee du Bassin de Bive-de-Gier. M. Meurgey,
Comptes-rendus rnensuels, Soc. de VIndustrie Minerale, 1880, pp. 76-80.
The principal items are as follows:—
1.—Gross Drawings, Workmen Employed, Average Annual Drawings per Man, prom
1873 to 1879.
Years. Tons. Workmen.
Tons.
1873 ... 1,017,000 ... 6,369 ... 160
1874 ... 754,000 ... 5,103 ... 148
1875 ... 738,000 ... 4,949 ... 149
1876 ... 792,000 ... 4,977 ... 159
1877 ... 753,000 ... 4,926 ... 153
1878 ... 732,000 ... 5,105 ... 143
1879 ... 723,000 ... 4,507 ... 161
2.—Workmen Below and Above-ground, and Mean Annual Drawings
per Man.
Workmen. Tons per Man.
Years. Below-ground. Above-ground
Below-ground. Above-ground.
1878 ... 3,469 ... 1,636 ......
211 ... 447
1879 ... 3,126 ... 1,381 ...... 231
... 524
3
4.—Average Yearly and Daily Wages in 1879.
Below-ground. Above-ground.
£ s. d. Fr. £ s. d. Fr.
Yearly wage ... 51 7 0 (1,284) ... 39 2
0 (977)
Daily wage...... 0 3 8 (4-45) ... 0 2 9|
(3*38)
5 and 6.—Comparing one colliery with another, the number of tons produced by
each workman in 1879 varied from 85 to 207 tons, and the number per hewer in
1878 from 0*8 to 99 tons.
7.—Number of collieries in 1879 was 37, and the average annual drawings per
colliery 19,500 tons.
8.—Colliery Consumption.
Gross Drawings. Colliery Consumption. Proportion.
Years. Tons. Tons.
Per Cent.
1878 ... 732,000 ... 74,400 ... 10-2
1879 ... 723,000 ... 89,000 ... 12 3
9.—Water Raised and Compared with Gross Drawings.
Water Raised. Water Raised
Years. Tons
to
(Cubic Metres). Coal Extracted.
1873 ... 3,833,000 ...
3"8
1874 ... 2,785,000 ...
37
1875 ... 3,333,000 ...
45
1876 ... 3,808,000 ...
4-8
1877 ... 3,060,000 ...
4-1
1878 ... 3,661,000 ...
50
1879 ... 4,601,000 ...
6'4
10.—Comparing one colliery with another, the maximum ratio of water to coal
(at Mouillon) was in 1878 15*8, and in 1879 17*4 j the minimum (at
Plat-de-Gier) was in 1878 016, and in 1879 015.
11.—Number op Accidents Below-ground.
Years. Accidents. Killed. Injured.
Victims.
1873 ... 40 ... 13 ... 30 ...
43
1874 ... 36 ... 13 ... 27 ...
40
1875 ... 34 ... 13 ... 25
... 38
1876 ... 29 ... 7 ... 23 ...
30
1877 ... 25 ... 8 ... 21 ...
29
1878 ... 15 ... 13 ... 21 ...
34
1879 ... 16 ... 4 ... 12
... 16
12.—Proportion op Accidents to Number of Workmen and Thousands of Tons of
Coal Extracted.
Number of Workmen for Thousands of Tons Extracted
for
Years. 1 Killed. 1 Injured. 1 Victim.
1 Killed. 1 Injured. 1 Victim.
1873 ... 490 ... 212 ... 148 ...... 78 ...
34 ... 24
1874 ... 393 ... 189 ... 128 ...... 58 ..,
28 ... 19
1875 ... 381 ... 198 ... 130 ...... 57 ...
30 ... 19
1876 ... 711 ... 216 ... 166 ...... 113
... 34 ... 26
1877 ... 616 ... 235 ... 170 ...... 94 ...
36 ... 26
1878 ... 393 ... 243 ... 150 ...... 56 ... 35
... 22
1879 ... 1,127 ... 376 ... 281 ...... 181
... 60 ... 45
4
15.—Distribution op the Coal in 1879.
Tons. Tons.
Neighbouring works and P. L. M. Railway ... ... ...
300,000
Department of the Rhone ............... 200,000
Do. Isere ............... 52,000
Do. Ardeche ............... 50,000
Do. Ain.................. 8,000
Do. Drome .............. 8,000
Departments l'Est .................. 16,000
--------- 634,000
Colliery consumption ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 89,000
723,000
------------ J. H. IV
THE HAINAULT COAL-FIELD STATISTICS.
Statistique du Bassin Houiller du Hainaut. M. Pinel, Comptes-rendus
mensut Soc. de VIndustrie Minerale, 1881, pp. 14-17.
The following statistics are taken from the Report of the
Engineer-in-Chi
Director of the Mines of the Province:—
Average Selling Price per Ton.
Years. Drawings in Tons. s. d.
Fr.
1870 ... 10,196,530 ... 8 10-27 (11-07)
1871 ... 10,037,230 ... 9 230 (11-49)
1872 ... 11,616,166 ... 10 11-23 (13'67)
1873 ... 11,652,953 ... 17 6-24 (21-90)
1874 ... 10,698,130 ... 13 6-04 (16-88)
1875 ' ... 10,968,175 ... 12 7-68 (15-80)
1876 ... 10,486,660 ... 11 0-86
(13-84)
1877 ... 10,259,374 ... 8 11*90
(11-24)
1878 ... 11,003,423 ... 8 1'53
(10-16)
1879 ... 11,448,531 »... 7 7"58
(9-54)
Drawings in 1879. Tons.
Steam coal.................. 1,120,280
Semi-bituminous coal ... ... ... ...
5,965,845
Coking coal.................. 2,201,386
Free-burning coal ... ... ... ... ...
2,161,020
Total ............ 11,448,531
1.—Workmen Employed.
1878. 1879.
Below-ground ......... 56,383 ... 55,893
Above-ground ......... 17,277 ... 17,974
Total ...... 73,660 ... 73,867
Average annual wage ... £33 8s. 9d. (836f.) ... £32 4s. (805f.)
2.—Working Cost per Ton.
1878. 1879.
s. d. Fr. s. d. Fr.
Labour ...... 4 5-66 (5-59) ... 4 1-82
(5*19)
Other expenses ... 3 6-24 (4-40) ... 3 5-18
(4-29)
Total ... 7 11-90 (9-99) ... 7 7*00 (9"48)
5
3.—Drawings, etc.
1878. 1879.
Tons. Tons.
Coal............ 11,003,423 ... 11,448,531
Per working pit ...... 56,428 ...
59,319
„ man below-ground ... 195 ...
205
„ „ above-ground ... 637 ...
637
„ workman employed ... 150 ...
157
Selling price.........8s. 1 -536d. (10-16f.)... 7s. 7'564d. (9'54f.)
4.—Results.
1878. 1879.
Fresh mines opened out ... 43 ...
40
Profits .........£280,072 (7,001,800f.) ... £239,934 (5,998,364f.)
Mines closed......... 46 ...
47
Losses .........£246,272 (6,156,800f.) ... £214,191 (5,354,780f.)
General profits ...... £33,800 (845,000f.) ... £25,743
(643,584f.)
Profits per ton ...... 0"672d. (0'07f.) ...
O-576'd. (0'06f.)
Workpeople Employed in 1879. below-groitnd.
Men ... ..................41,866
Women over 21 years of age ... ... ... ... 1,162
„ between 16 and 21 years of age ...... 2,793
Boys between 14 and 16 „ ...... 4,350
„ under 14 „ ...... 2,984
Girls between 14 and 16 ., ...... 1,602
„ under 14 „ ...... 1,139
Total ...............55,896
ABOVE-GROUND.
Men ..................... 12,296
Women over 21 years of age............ 685
„ between 16 and 21 years of age ...... 1,507
Boys between 14 and 16 „ ...... 976
„ under 14 „ ...... 788
Girls between 14 and 16 „ ...... 885
„ under 14 „ ...... 837
Total................ 17,974
In 1870 the workmen below-ground wrought 191 tons. » 1871 „
„ „ 188 „
„ 1872 „ „ „ 206 „
„ 1873 „ „ „ 191 „
„ 1874 „ „ „ 174 „
„ 1875 „ „ „ 178 „
„ 1876 „ „ „ 174 „
» 1877 „ „ „ 180 „
„ 1878 „ „ „ 195 „
„ 1879 „ „ „ 205 „
The following table shows the comparison between the annual wage of the
workman and the value of the coal produced by his work:—
6
Portion taken by the
Value produced per Man. Annual Wage per Man. Workman
per 1,000 fr.
produced by his Work.
Years. £ s. d. Fr. £ s.
d. Fr. £ s. d. Fr.
18V0 ... 40 8 0 (1,010) ... 35 2 5 (878)
... 34 15 2 (869)
1871 ... 40 0 10 (1,001) ... 34 0 0 (850) ...
33 19 2 (849)
1872 ... 56 4 0 (1,405) ... 42 0 0 (1,050) ...
29 17 7 (747)
1873 ... 88 3 0 (2,204) ... 56 4 9 (1,406)
... 25 10 5 (638)
1874 ... 57 1 6 (1,427) ... 47 16 0 (1,195) ...
33 10 5 (838)
1875 ... 52 4 9 (1,306) ... 47 3 2 (1,179) ...
36 2 5 (903)
1876 ... 43 4 9 (1,081) ... 41 8 0 (1,035) ...
38 6 5 (958)
1877 ... 33 15 2 (844) ... 33 6 5 (833) ...
39 9 7 (987)
1878 ... 33 19 2 (849) ... 33 8 9 (836) ...
39 7 2 (984)
1879 ... 32 11 2 (814) ... 32 4 0 (805) ...
39 10 5 (988)
Accidents in 1879.
Accidents in the Pits. Accidents.
Killed. Injured.
C by the ropes ...... 10 ... 9 ... 5
In descending or re- I ^ fixed ladders ... 1 ...
1 ...
turning to bank ( ^ man engines ... 1 ...
1 ... -
By other causes ... ... ••• • •• ... 11
... 11
Falls of roof ...............55 ••• 50 •••
6
Explosions ............... 6 ... 133 ...
38
Powder .................. 7 ••• 6 ¦••
l
Asphyxia.................. 4 ••¦ "
On the inclined planes............ 14 ... 12 ...
3
Sundry accidents below-ground ...... 19 ... 17
... 2
„ above-ground ...... 12 ... 12
... —
Total ............140 Victims, 314
1.—Pee 1,000 Workmen Below and Above-ground.
Years. Accidents. Killed.
Injured.
1870 ... 2-136 ... 2-077 ...
0-465
1871 ... 2-865 ... 2-453 ...
0-416
1872 ... 2-022 ... 2-673 ...
0-256
1873 ... 2-124 ... 2-275 ...
0-415
1874 ... 1-898 ... 2-060 ...
0'649
1875 ... 1-662 ... 3-088 ...
0-322
1876 ... 1-721 ... 1-682 ...
0-152
1877 ... 1"522 ... 1'442 ...
0-240
1878 ... 2-023 ... 2-036 ...
0-391
1879 ... 1-895 ... 3-493 ...
0-758
2.—Per 100,000 Tons Drawn.
Years. Accidents. Killed.
Injured.
1870 ... 1-44 ... 1*40 ...
0-31
1871 ... 1-29 ... 1-70 ...
0-29
1872 ... 1-28 ... 1-69 ...
0-16
1873 ... 1-45 ... T55 ...
0-28
1874 ... 1-42 ... 1-54 ...
0-48
1875 ... 1-22 ... 2-27 ...
0-24
1876 ... 1-29 ... 1-27 ...
014
1877 ... I'll ¦•• 1*05 ...
0-17
1878 ... 1-35 ... 1-36 ...
0-26
1879 ... 1-22 ... 2-25 ...
0-49
J. H. M.
7
COAL DUST AS AN ELEMENT OF DANGER IN MINING. By the Rev. H. C. Hovey.
Amer. Jour. Se., Set: 3, Vol. XXII., pp. 18-20.
The results of Mr. Edwin Gilpin's investigation as to the part played by
coal dust in spreading and augmenting an explosion, which took place in
November, 1880, in the Albion Mines, Nova Scotia, are described.
The pit in question was 1,000 feet deep, and was ventilated by means of a
Guibal fan capable of circulating 120,000 cubic feet of air through the
ramifications of the mine. Except near the shaft the mine was very dry and
dusty. The seam worked is 37 feet thick. On the morning of the explosion the
mine was reported practically free from gas. An hour after, a first
explosion took place at a considerable distance from the shaft of which the
cause is unknown. Its result, however, besides being fatal to a number of
men, was to drive huge volumes of coal dust into certain portions of the
workings, some of the finer dust finding its way to the lamp cabin, and
there, coming into contact with an oil lamp burning openly, a second
explosion took place. The author remarks:—" Secondary explosions, caused by
extracted or generated gas, are nearly always in the vicinity of the first
onej but here is a case where the second was half a mile from the first,
with an intervening space of at least a quarter of a mile known to have been
free from flame, and presumed to have been free from gas, because men were
in it Math lamps which showed no indication of its presence." (Page 20.)
The author merely describes the facts without attempting to explain them.
G. A. L.
VENTILATING INSTRUMENTS.
Note sur les Appareils de Controle et de Surveillance de VAerage des Mines.
Par M. L. Agdillon, Ingenieur des Mines. Annates des Mines, Ser. 7, Tome
XX., pp. 248-284. Three folding Plates, 5-7.
The author passes in review the various ventilating instruments under the
heads of—
1.:—Those for measuring the volumes of air. 2.—Those for measuring the
ventilating pressure. 3.—Those for measuring the speed of ventilating
machines. With reference to the difficulty of measuring exactly the mean
velocity of the air in a gallery, he quotes M. Morgue to the effect that "
the ratio between the mean velocity and the velocity at any given point in
the same section remains constant, whatever the variations of the mean
velocity." It is only necessary, therefore, to find, once for all, the
ratio between the mean velocity and the velocity at any one convenient
point, and in future merely to measure the velocity at that point.
J. H. M.
THE PREVENTION OF EXPLOSIONS IN MINES CAUSED BY THE USE
OF POWDER.
Notice sur un Procede Propre a Prevenir les Coups de Feu Qrisou Resultant de
VEmploi de la Poudre dans les Mines. Par Oscar Bustin, Directeur des Mines
de la Societe des Sarts, Ancien Sieve de V'Ecole des Mines de Liege. Rev.
Univ. Mines, Ser. 2, IX, pp. 491-508. Four folding Plates, 25-28.
The author points out that one-seventh of C02 added to the most explosive
mixture renders it harmless, and he enters into the details of an
arrangement for the injection of this gas into the board immediately before
the firing of the shot.
8
From 1821 to 1879 the explosions that have occurred in Belgian mines may be
divided, according to their causes, as follows. (Table taken from the
Report of the Belgian Commission, page 209):—
Causes. 1821-50.
1851-79. 1821-79.
Naked lights............ 49 ... 29 ... 78
Opening of lamps ... ... ... 48 ...
33 ... 81
Rapid movement of lamps ... ... 5 ... 5
... 10
,, currents of air ... ... 7 ...
2 ... 9
Defective lamps ......... 17 ... 32 ...
49
Spontaneous combustion ... ... 1 ... 1
... 2
Ventilating furnaces... ... ... 18 ... 1
... 19
Fires at bank ... ... ... ... 4 ...
4 ... 8
Unknown ............ 21 ... 15 ...
36
Gunpowder ............ 47 ... 73 ... 120
Total ......... 217 ... 195 ... 412
It will be observed that not only is gunpowder credited with being the cause
of the largest number of accidents, but that accidents from this cause are
increasing.
J. H. M.
THE VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION OF EXPLOSIONS. Sur la vitesse de propagation des
phenomenes explosifs dans les gaz. Note de MM. Beetholet et Yieille. Comptes
Bendus XCIV., pp. 101-108 and 822-823. The experiments were made in open and
closed tubes of lead caoutchouc and glass, 66 to 144 feet in length by \ to
f of an inch internal diameter (20-092 to 43'34 by 0-005 to 0015 metres),
straight and curved; under pressures varying from 22 to 63 inches of mercury
(0566 metre to P580 metres) and filled with mixtures of H2 + O, CO + 0, and
Ha + 0 + air, with the following results, viz.:—The velocity of propagation
of the explosion is not affected—by curves in the tube, by the material of
which the tube is made, by closed or open end or ends, by the length of the
tube, by the pressure, at least within the above limits, or by the diameter
of the tube within the above limits.
The velocity is affected—by the diameter of the tube if very much reduced
below £ of an inch. The result of the reduction being to decrease slightly
the velocity of propagation.
By the composition of the explosive mixture, viz.:—
Feet per Sec. Metres per Sec.
H, + 0 ... ... ... gave 9,366
... (2,810)
CO + O ...... ... „ 3,630 ...
(1,089)
Air + 45 per cent, of Ha + 0 ... „ 4,796 ...
(1,439)
,, +40 ., „ ... „ 4,170
... (1,251)
„ +35 „ „ ... „ 4,016
... (1,205)
„ +32 to 5 ,, ... No explosion
propagated.
J. H. M.
9
THE PELZER FAN.
Ventilateur Pelzer. M. Clamens, Comptes-rendus mensuels, Soc. de
VIndustrie Minerale, 1881, pp. 175-177 and 236, Plate XIV. This fan is on
the screw principle, is of small diameter, but revolves at a high velocity.
It is in use at several German and at one English mine.
Diameter Revolutions Depression Velocity of the Volume of
the A^here Air** ¦g . of Fan in per Minute of
in Air in Air in measured
in
la! ? e _;
AT,.!...,,,, T7„„(- Cubic Cubic
& O I I Milli- Tnrh.,
Mf*es *epet Metres Feet Square Square
W J £ Engine. Fan- metres. Inches- M$*L.
MF?t. per per Metres. Feet. g
Minute. Minute Mmute. Minute,
1 i . 2-5 8'2 174 114 8-10
0'31-0'30 300 934 720 25,430 2"4 5F66*
2 J9_ 34 221 28-30 T09-117
405 1,328 972 34,331
3 (2 Sf 57-59 370-380 65-70 2-53-273
775 2,542 1,860 65,695
4 P-° 57-59 370-380 65-70 2'53-2 73
705 2,312 1,700 60,044
1 _ A 25 8-2 30 195 22 0 85
.. .. .. .. 314 6757t
2 S»j 40 260 40 1-56
.. .. .. .. „
3 'ggS 45 292 52 202
..........
4 Sip 57 331 64 2'49
..........
5 °W 56 364 78 304
1 a 2-5 8-2 24 255 40 156
235 770 719 25,395 306 65-85J
2 « 30 326 70 273
321 1,052 972 34,331
3 m 34 340 80 312
335 1,098 1,095 38,674
4 u 36 370 82 319
418 1,371 1,279 45,174 5-2
40 390 88 343 451 1,479
1,378 48,671
6 _ 35 350 80 312
493 1,617 1,183 41,783 24 51-6611
7 a 37 375 85 3'31
528 1,731 1,267 44,750 „ „
8 « 38 382 86-88
3'35-3-43 558 1,830 1,339 47,293 „
1 &% 2-0 6-56 .. 200-220 51 F98
.. .. 1,076 38,004
3-3 450
02V*
____________________________________________________________________________
_________
* The measures were made in the fan drift close to the fan.
t The workings only just begun and ventilated by means of columns of pipes.
X Measures taken in the fan drift close to the fan.
II Measures taken in a drift where there was a good deal of water falling
from the roof.
J. H. M.
THE TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY ELECTRICITY.
Transmission des forces motrices au moyen de Velectricite. M. Batjee,
Comptes-rendus mensuels, Soc. de VIndustrie Minerale, 1880,^?. 305, and
1&&1, pp. 154-156.
At a meeting of the Society, Central District, held on the 26th of
September, 1880, a committee, consisting of MM. Baure, Courtin, Gaillard,
Blanchard, and Durand, was appointed to consider the question, and, if
possible, make practical trial of the transmission of power to long
distances in mines by means of electricity.
At a subsequent meeting, 6th March, 1881, two members of the committee were
deputed to assist at the experiments now being made below ground in the
Loire Coal-field.
J. H, M.
THE TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY ELECTRICITY AT THE BLANZY
MINES.
Transmission des forces par Velectricite. Application dans les mines de
Blanzy a la mise en marclie d'un ventilateur portatif. M. Mathet,
Comptes-rendus mensuels, Soc. de VIndustrie Minerale. 1881, pp. 104-107,
Plate IX. This is a description of an arrangement used for airing a stone
drift. The shaft was 550 yards deep and the drift 430 yards long, 980 yards
in all; and the air had to be carried this distance in pipes llf inches
diameter (-3 metres).
b
10
The drift was first aired by means of a waterfall; but this was found
insufficient, and the temperature at the face was 95° F. (30° C). A fan was
then put into the drift, about 150 yards inbye, and driven by electricity,
wires being taken down the shaft for that purpose. The fan is 2-6 feet
diameter by llf inches broad (0-8 x 0"3 metres), and at 730 revolutions per
minute delivers 13-42 cubic feet of air (0*38 cubic metres) at the face. The
temperature is now 89° F. (32° C), at which the men can work for eight
consecutive hours without fatigue.
When the Gramme machine at bank makes 1,200 revolutions that in the mine
makes 700 to 800, yielding about 60 per cent, of the power.
Cost of the Installation.
£ s.
Portable engine of 10 horse-power ... ... ... ...
— —
Two Gramme machines ... ... ... ... ...
120 0
Conducting cable, copper ... ... ... ... ...
21 0
Return cable, iron ... ... ... ... ...
... 3 15'64
Fixings for cable in shaft ... ... ... ...
... 14"4
Frames to carry Gramme and ventilator ... ... ... 2
1'88
Frames to carry Gramme and portable engine ... ... 7
4'0
Erecting ..................... 4 19-68
Shaft for engine .................. 10 0
Total (4,244-25 fr.) ............£169 15*6
If, instead of electricity, compressed air had been employed to drive the
fan, the cost
would have been:—
£ s.
A portable 10 horse-power engine ... ... ... —
—
A compressor, Saulter and Lemonier ... ... ... 349
6'0
Pipes ..................... 188 16-0
Elbows, etc................... 0 14-4
Fixings in shaft... ... ... ... ... ...
3 0
Bolts and India-rubber rings ... ... ... ...
30
Erecting..................... 12 0
Masonry and concrete...... ... ...... 6 0
Shaft for engine and Compressor ... ... ... 20
0
Sundries..................... 8 0
Total (14,700-50 fr.) ......... £590 16-4
More than three times the cost of transmission by electricity.
J. H. M.
ELECTRIC GIN, PERONNIERE COLLIERY.
Installation aux mines de la Peronniere d'une transmission electrique
pour une exploitation en descente. M. Charousset, Comptes-rendus
mensuels. Soc. de VIndustrie Minerale, 1881, pp. 230-235. A steam engine of
32 horse-power drives a pair of Gramme machines, each 8 horsepower. The
electricity is carried from these by four conductors, each conductor being
formed of 16 No. 20 B.W.G (1 millemetre diameter) copper wires, to a pair of
similar machines placed in the workings, 875 yards from the shaft bottom
which is 437 yards deep. Total distance 1,312 yards (1,200 metres).
%
11
The bank up which the coal is drawn is 120 yards long, and dips 14^ inches
per yard ('4 per metre).
The work done is equal to 5*2 horse-power.
During the month (up to 3rd December, 1881) the machine has been at work not
a shift has been lost nor a tub stopped.
J. H. M.
APPARATUS FOR CLEANING COAL BY MEANS OF AN AIR-BLAST.
Note sur le nettoyage du charbon par vent souffle par MM. Basiatjx et
Leonard, Ingenieurs au charbonnage du Hasard, Liege. Rev. Univ. Mines. Sir.
2, IX., pp. 135-139, one folding Plate, 13.
This apparatus has been invented and erected at the Rhein-Preussen colliery,
by M. H. Hochstrale, the manager.
The coal is first separated by a trommel into five sizes. The fifth, which
passes over the trommel and gives pieces from one to two inches (25-50
millimetres) in diameter, goes direct to the ovens. The others go each to a
separate cleaner where the coal is spread out in a trough, about 6 feet 9
inches long by 2 feet broad, divided by a horizontal perforated iron plate
into an upper and lower compartment. One end of the trough is in
communication with the air-blast, the other with the cleaned coal dust
chamber, from which, however, it is separated by a sloping screen, the
bottom end communicating with a hopper placed below the trough. In the lower
compartment of the trough is an endless band which carries the coal to be
cleaned in a direction opposite to that of the air-blast.
The air-blast blows the pure coal dust through the screen into the cleaned
coal dust chamber and the larger coal against the screen, down which it
slides into a hopper, whilst the stones, too heavy to be affected by the
blast, are carried on by the endless band into another hopper.
Result of an experiment made at the Rhein-Preussen colliery on 2,298 tons of
unscreened coal:—
Tons. Per Cent.
1.—Large coal......... 6087 ... 26-5
2.—Nuts ......... 492-9 ... 21-4
3.—Stones ......... 37"4 ... 1-6
Total ...... 1,139-0 ... 49-5
Tons. Per Cent.
4.—Cleaned peas ...... 504-6 ... 22-0
6.— „ dust ...... 514-1 ... 22-4
6.—Stones from cleaners ... 140*3 ...
6'1
Total ...... 1,159-0 ... 50-5
The washed coal gives 7 per cent, of ash and the stones 45 to 50 per cent,
of coal. Note the great impurity of the one and the richness of the other.
The price complete for an output of from 500 to 600 tons per day is:—
£ Francs.
1.—Buildings ............ 260 (6,500)
2.—Coke ovens ......... ... 240 (6,000)
3.—Engine and boiler, 25 horse-power ... 165 (4,125)
4.—Cleaners............... 700 (17,500)
5.—Leading? (transmission) ... ... 115 (2,875)
1,480 (37,000)
12
The cost per month at Rhein-Preussen is:—
£ Francs.
1.—Labour ............ 2615 (653-75)
2.—Materials ............ 4-35 (108*75)
3.—Coal for boiler .......... 5-00 (125*00)
4—Sundries ............ 12*00 (300*00)
47*50 1187*50
Which, at 600 tons a day, is 0'79 pence per ton.
J. H. M.
NEW METHOD OP MAPPING THE ANTHRACITE COAL-FIELDS
OP PENNSYLVANIA.
By Chakles A. Ashbtjbneb, Philadelphia, Trans. American Inst., M.E. Vol.
IX.,
pp. 506-518, three folding Plates.
These maps are being made by Government Geologists upon a scale of 800 feet
to
1 inch, and will show
SlTEFACE FEATUEES :—
1.—Railways. 2.—County roads. 3.—Streams.
4.—Outcrop of coal beds. 5.— Limit of coal measures. 6.—Towns,
coal-breakers, &c. UKDEEaEOUisrD Feattjbes :—
1.—Contour lines, 50 feet vertically apart, of the most extensively
developed
coal seam. 2.—Area worked out and area being worked of the same seam. 3.—The
workings of the same coloured. 4.—The workings of other seams coloured.
Each seam being distinguished
by a colour. A map containing these facts will show:— 1.—Area of coal
basins.
2.—Area of the individual seams worked out and under development. 3.—Area of
the coal basins undeveloped. 4.—The structure of the basins where worked,
with their rate of rise and
fall in the centre.
5.—The amount of coal available at different depths.
6.—The most probable structure of the undeveloped areas.
J. H. M.
THE ROYAL MINING ACADEMY OF FREIBERG.
Die Konigliche Bergakademie zu Freiberg. Jahrbuchfiir das Berg-, und
Hiittenvoesen im Konigreiche Sachsen auf dasjahr 1881, pp. 203-220.
At this Academy there were, during the session 1880-81, 122 students, of
whom 76 were German.
There were twelve professors for the following sciences and
subjects:—Mining, Mineralogy, Metallurgy, Higher Mathematics, Chemistry,
Mechanics, Geognosy and Palaeontology, Metallurgy of Iron specially
considered, Physics, Mining Laws, Mining Statistics, Surveying, and Geodesy.
13
Also, four extra teachers for Political Economy, Architecture, Hygiene, and
Analytical Chemistry.
The students have access to three laboratories—Mining, Chemistry, and
Metallurgy (iron specially)—and one workshop for the making of models.
A three to four years' course of study at the Academy completely educates
students for the mining and metallurgical professions.
C. Z. B.
A SUMMER SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL MINING. By Henby S. Muneoe, Adjunct Professor,
School of Mines, New York City.
Trans. American Inst. M.E., Vol. IX., pp. 664-671. Since 1877 the students
have spent about a month each summer in practical work at one or more mines.
For this purpose they are divided into squads of two or three men, and
each squad is assigned to the care of a skilled miner, whom they assist to
drill, hew, etc.
The experiment having proved successful, this summer class now forms a part
of the regular course of study for the degree of mining engineer. The
details of the practical work are given in the paper.
J. H. M.
THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR MINERS AND MECHANICS AT
DRIPTON, LUZERNE, CO. PA.
By Oswald J. Heijstbich, Principal. Trans. American Inst, M.E., Vol.
IX.,
pp. 390-395. This school was opened in May, 1879, for students over fifteen
years of age. Instruction is given for two hours each evening, and at
times, when the pits are closed, from 9-12 a.m. and from 2-5 p.m.
Classes. 1.—The Preparatory Class.—In this it is intended to admit boys
under 15. 2.—The Junior Class.—English composition, book-keeping,
mathematics, science,
and geometrical drawing. 3.—The Senior Class.—Mechanical drawing, mining,
and dressing of minerals. 4.—The Expert Class for graduates is under
consideration.
The instruction is free, pupils providing only their books and materials;
and the special object of the school is not to turn out young engineers, but
to raise up intelligent foremen.
J. H. M.
PRUSSIAN ROYAL COMMISSION ON EXPLOSIONS IN MINES.
Commission zur Untersuchung und Priifung der Sicherheitsmaassregeln gegen
schlagende Wetter. Zeitschrift filr das Berg-, Hiitten- und Salinen-wesen.
Vol. XXIX., pp. 32-63-70-83.
This Commission, which consists of 26 members, including the chairman (Dr.
Serlo), commenced its sittings in June, 1881.
The Commission subdivided itself into three Commissions, one relative to
statistics as to explosions in Germany and elsewhere, another as to
Government regulations, and the third as to the scientific and technical
bearings of the subject.
No official report has as yet been published except the programme,
consisting of questions which are likely to have a connection with the
subject.
C. Z. B.
14
THE FRENCH FIRE-DAMP COMMISSION.
Report to the Minister of Public Works, 22nd June, 1880.
Commission du Grisou. Rapport au Ministre des Travaux Publics. M. A.
Daubree, Ann. des Mines, Decrets, Ser. 7, Tome IX, 1880, pp. 225-231.
The Commissioners appointed MM. Aguillon. Le Chatelier, Petitdidier,
Lallemand,
Regnard, and Alfred Tresca, Sub-Commissioners. They have studied the
following subjects:—
1.—Safety-lamps and questions bearing thereon. MM. Mallard and Le
Chatelier
have ascertained that fire-damp once mixed with air cannot be again
separated. The
temperature at which an explosive mixture will fire. The pressure caused
by, and the
velocity of propagation of an explosion. They have determined what lamps
they think
should be condemned in future. They have constructed a fire-damp detector
from an
idea of MM. Turquan Brothers, by which less than 1 per cent, of gas can be
easily
detected.
2.—Coal dust. Experiments are being made but there are no results published
at present.
3.—Ventilation and anemometers. M. Vicaire has constructed an anemometer. M.
Le Chatelier a very sensitive water-gauge. MM. Mallard and Le Chatelier have
proposed an ingenious instrument by which the quantity of air passing into a
mine can be ascertained at each instant.
4.—The chemical composition of fire-damp. M. Fouque was appointed to enquire
into this subject; but has been unable to give more than a portion of the
results he had hoped to obtain.
5.—Life saving apparatus and physiological researches bearing on the matter.
M. Regnard has made some interesting experiments in the Commentry mines. He
proposes to submit a programme of observations which it would be desirable
to have tried at the scene of an accident, this being the only way of
testing their value.
6.—An abstract of the causes and circumstances of all the explosions of
fire-damp that have taken place in France. There are 420 about which
reliable information can be obtained.
7.—Colliery rules. M. de Souich has drawn up an abstract of the rules
enforced in fiery mines both in France and in other countries. Based upon
this MM. de Souich, Aguillon, and Pernolet have drawn up a set of rules
which are being considered by the Commission who are now about to send out a
set of rules entitled " Principles to be Considered in Working Fiery Mines,"
to the different collieries.
8.—The Commission has also examined proposals which have come to it from
without, either through the Minister of Public Works or direct from the
originators.
In all sixty-four proposals have been examined.
J. H. M.
ID
RULES FOR FIERY MINES.
+. Report of the Loire Committee.
Reglementation des mines a Grisou. M. Le Secretaire, Comptes-rendus
mensuels, Soc. de Vlndustrie Minerale, 1880, pp. 201-234.
This paper contains:—
First.—A scheme of rules for the fiery mines of the Loire coal-field drawn
up by the Loire coal-trade, and submitted to the French Fire-damp
Commission, 6th April, 1880. The headings are:—
I.—Mines fiery throughout.
1.—Ventilation and general management. 2.—Safety-lamps. 3.—Gunpowder.
II.—Mines fiery only in parts.
Second.—A discussion, dated 9th, 16th, and 23rd September, 1880, by the
Loire coal-trade of a scheme of " Principles to be Considered in Working
Fiery Mines," drawn up and submitted to them by the French Fire-damp
Commission. The headings are:—
Chapter I.—Ventilation and general management. „ II.—Gunpowder. „
III.—Lighting. „ IV.—Dust. „ V.—Sundries. „
VI.—Penalties.
J. H. M.
RULES FOR FIERY MINES. Report of the North of France Committee. Rapport
presents au comite des Houilleres du Nord et du Pas-de-Calais par la
commission nommee par lui. M. Le Secretaire, Comptes-rendus mensuels,
Soc. de VIndustrie Minerale, 1881, pp. 42-49.
This paper contains a scheme of rules for the fiery mines of the North of
France and Pas-de-Calais coal-field, drawn up by the above coal-trade to be
submitted to the French Fire-damp Commission. The headings are: —
a.—Ventilation. b.—Lighting. c.—Powder. d.—Sundries.
J. H. M.
REPORT OF A COMMITTEE OF THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES ON THE COAL DUTY.
Rapport fait, au sujet de la houille, au nom de la commission de la ckambre
des deputes chargee d'examiner le projet de loi relatif a V etablissement du
tarif general des douanes—par M. Louis Legrand, Ann. des Mines, Decrets,
Ser. 7, Tome IX., 1880, pp. 69-79.
The Committee state reasons for and against the duty on foreign coal (about
Is. a ton), and decide in favour of retaining it.
16
They quote a great many statistics^of which the following are a part:—
In 1878 there were 629 concessions, but only 357 pits at work.
The produce, etc., is now, in round numbers:—Produce, 17,000,000;
consumption, 24,500,000; export, 600,000; import 8,000,000.
More than four-fifths of the produce conies from six
coal-fields:—Valenciennes (North of France, etc.), the Loire, Alais, Creusot
and Blanzy, Commentry, and Aubin. The remainder from 41 small distinct
basins.
Of the imports more than 4,000,000 tons come from Belgium, principally to
the department of the North, also to those of the Seine, Meurthe and
Moselle, Aisnes, and Ardennes. From England 2,750,000 to the departments
lying near the coast, principally Seine-inferieure and Algeria. From
Germany 1,000,000, principally to Meurthe and
Moselle.
Wages per Year. Price at Pit.
Men r---------*---------., Tons per Man
,---------*----------,
Employed. Francs. £ s. per Year. Francs.
s. d.
1833 15,400 ... ... ...
10 8 0
1852 ... ... ... ...
10 8 0
1873 ... ... ...
... 25-30 20-24
1875 ... 1,058 42 6
1876 110,802 ... ... 154
1878 106,415 975 39 0 159
13'46 10 9
Before 1860 the duty varied from ir52d —2s. 10-56d. (P2—3"6 fr.) per ton,
according to the kind of coal and the place from which it was imported.
Cost of Transport. The Southern Railway of France charges 0"288d. (3
centimes) for English and 0'48d. (5) for the coal from Aveyron and Carmaux.
The Northern carries to Paris for the same price per ton, viz., 5s. lid.
(7'4 fr.), English coal from Dunkirk, 190 miles, Belgian from Quievrain, 164
miles, Native from Lens, 131 miles.
The Western charges 4s. ll"6d. (6 fr.) from Dieppe to Rouen, 125 miles, 5s.
lid. (7-4 fr.) from Lens to Rouen, 127 miles, 6s. 7"6d. (8"3 fr.) from Lens
to Reims, 139 miles, 5s. 3-8d. (6"65 fr.) for Prussian coal from Batilly to
Reims, 114 miles. The production per man per year is :—
In England 333 tons. „ Prussia 200 „ „ Belgium 180 „ „ France
154-159 tons. The cost of production in England is 5s. 3-4d. (6-5 fr.) per
ton, whilst in France
it is 8s. 9-6d. (11 fr.)
J. H. M.
A BUREAU OF MINES AND MINING, ETC., IN THE UNITED STATES.
The Engineering and Mining Journal, 21st January, 1882. Details of a Bill
introduced by Mr. Belford, of Colorado, in the House of
Representatives, and referred to the Committee of Mines and Mining.
Section 1.—Relates to the establishment of a Bureau of Mining. Do. 2.—
Do. do. Manufactures.
Do. 3.— Do. do.
Labour Statistics.
Do. 4.— Do. do.
Commerce.
J. H. M.
17
REPORT ON BREAKAGE OF COLLIERY ROPES.
Rapport fait au nam de la Commission chargee far M. le Ministre des Travaux
Publics d'etudier les Questions concernant la Rupture des Cables de Mines.
Par M. L. Aghjulon, Pngenieur des Mines, Annates des Mines, Ser. 7.
Memoires, Tome XX, 1881, pp. 373-497.
Object of the Report. The Minister of Public Works appointed, on the 30th
May, 1878, a Commission to report on wire ropes where men ride.
First Part.—Ropes in use in France, i. The Commission deal specially with
winding ropes, and divide these into fibre (or textile), iron-wire and
steel-wire ropes.
Most of the coal-fields and salt mines employ textile, the iron mines
principally wire ropes.
In 1879 only nine pits in France had steel winding ropes, although steel is
frequently adopted in hauling; galvanized ropes in two lead mines and one
sinking pit.
II.—TEXTILE ROPES.
The Commission recommend the use of Manilla in wet shafts, and hemp in dry
shafts, taking the precaution to have the hemp ropes saturated with tar or
vegetable oil. They conclude that textile ropes are not free from unexpected
ruptures similar to those usually attributed to wire ropes.
III.—IRON-WIRE ROPES.
In France the usual wire employed is from No. 12 (-0705 in. dia.) to No. 18
("134 in. dia.), Paris wire gauge, for round ropes, and No. 13 ("0752 in.
dia.) to No. 15 (-0843 in. dia.) for flat ropes. Of these No. 14 is the
most usual.
Round ropes are in two distinct groups—those in which the core of the strand
has a single series of encircling wires, and those in which there are two
concentric series, the wires being 6 to 8 in each strand in the first type,
and 18 to 23 in the second. The number of strands varies from 5 to 8 and
reaches 9 in the Rive-de-Gier district.
Flat ropes have 4, 6, or 8 cables of 4 strands each (sometimes 6), each
strand composed of 6 to 11 wires. The stitching is made with soft wire,
occasionally galvanised. Double stitching is not recommended.
Taper round ropes are not described, but the taper flat ropes are made
similarly to those in use in England.
The resistance of a rope, compared with that of the accumulation of
individual resistances of the wires, is nearly identical.
Alteration by Wear.—On first starting ropes usually stretch 1 to 2 per
cent., and sometimes a further stretching occurs when nearly worn out. But
the wearing and flattening of the wires, and the appearance of occasional
broken wires, are the best signs of limit of work. The molecular alteration
of the wires is much disputed, but it is clear that by constant vibration
the iron becomes more brittle. The conclusions arrived at by the Commission
being that a new and an old rope vary in the proportion of 100 to 55 (or 45
per cent.); and, further, that whereas in a new rope the comparative
strength of individual wires only differs by 13 per cent., in a worn rope it
approaches 75 per cent.
In flat ropes the results are still more striking, the wires would not after
use even stand one bend in the vice, which is partly attributed to the
cutting action of the stitching wires.
c
18
The ultimate conclusions derived by the Commission are that ropes, after a
certain period of actual work, may give way, without external notice,
especially when con-timious and sudden jerks are taken into account.
Load.—The Commission state that the best firms only load their ropes to
one-tenth of the breaking strain; but in small ropes of good wire, where
each wire has its own share of work, this is occasionally increased to
one-sixth.
Wear due to folding on Drums or Pulleys (Minimum Diameter).—No direct
experiments have been made, but the recommendation is a minimum of 10 feet
pulleys and 13 feet drums.
Angle hettveen Pulleys and Drum.—All makers endeavour to diminish this as
far as practicable, and to have a direct lead from pulley to drum.
Springs or buffer shackles are after trial abandoned.
Splices.—The same remarks apply as to those in textile ropes, except that
even more care should be used.
Pulleys are recommended to be cleaded with wood, especially in flat ropes.
Keep of Popes.—Oxidation being one of the principal causes of failure and
wear, it is important to keep the ropes greased. Acid oils should be
avoided.
IT.—STEEL EOPES.
The Commission admit that the experience in France is not sufficient to
generalise, but they state that experiments have shown that the wires of
broken or worn steel ropes had lost all flexibility.
V.—EEMAEKS APPLICABLE TO ALL THE PRECEDING- SYSTEMS.
These may be summarised by stating that the Commission found that a system
of mutual confidence was usual, employers and makers trusting each other. In
some districts, especially in the " Nord," a system of guarantee similar to
that in use in Belgium is enforced.
Winding Men.— The inquiries show that safety-cages are not universal, that
men are preferably changed on the newest rope, and that less speed and more
caution are used in these circumstances.
The Commission recommend that a daily register of every winding rope should
be kept.
VI.—WIEE-EOPE GUIDES.
The statistics collected by the Commission are without data or interest,
except
that no loss of life has resulted from their employment, although frequent
breaks are
reported.
vii.—inclined planes.
viii.—general use in aeeian eoads, etc.
Second Part.—Popes in use Abroad.
i.—belgium.
Flat Hemp and Manilla Popes are generally adopted on the grounds of safety
and
facility in counter-balancing at great depths, owing to their considerable
thickness;
safety-cages being only compulsory where metallic ropes are used.
Manilla Popes.—-These are made taper in deep pits; a good example being at
Sacre Madame, 900 metres (984 yds.) in length tapering from 315-5
millimetres (12J ins.) to 193'37 millimetres (7£ ins.), weight of rope 8
tons, weight of load 6^ tons including 2| tons of coals. Guarantee by maker,
30 months work or 120,000 tons of coals. Water alone is used as a
preservative.
Iron Wire Popes are even rarer in Belgium than steel, working oad
one-seventh of their breaking strain, the wires being about 13 or 14 B.W.G.
19
Steel Popes are not common, but are employed at Mariemont, Bascoup, &c.;
wires, 14 or 15 B.W.Gr. At Seraing round steel wire ropes are used, very
flexible, composed of 6 cables each, 5 strands of 6 wires, No. 14 W.G.
Guarantee.—A regular system of maker's guarantee exists of from 18 to 24
months wear, a fine of one-twelfth to one-twenty-fourth of the value of the
rope being deducted for each month short of the guarantee.
In the Hainaut district in changing men the following conditions are
compulsory:— Safety-cages and safety-hooks. Maximum fixed number of men to
ride. Weekly examination by special officers. Register of each rope.
II.—ENGLAND. It may be said that textile winding ropes are now unknown in
England. Iron and steel-wire ropes, round and flat, being exclusively
used. Wires are divided into charcoal iron, Bessemer crucible and plough
steel. The usual wires are Nos. 11, 12, and 13 B.W.G.
The Commission classify as follows the causes of the success of metallic
ropes in England:—
1.—Careful manufacture with selected wire.
2.—Effective examination.
3.—Careful preservation.
4.—Large diameters of winding drums and pulleys.
5.—Care in winding and small number of decks.
6.—Skill of enginemen.
III.—GERMANY. Although textile ropes are occasionally met with, the usual
materials are iron or steel, especially the latter.
Tests are general, both by makers and users, and are classified :—
1.—Breaking strain.
2.—Stretching due to strain.
3.—Flexibility.
4.—Torsion. The iron wire is principally obtained from Westphalia and
Saarbriick, and the following is a Table of the number of bends, at an angle
of 90 degrees, requisite to break the wire in a vice with jaws one-fifth of
an inch radius:—
B.W.G....... 11 12 13 14
16 17 and 18
No. of bends...... 4 to 6 5 to 7 5 to 7 7 to 8 8
to 9 10 to 12
English steel wire is preferred to the home-made, and the following bends
are required:—
B.W.G....... 11 12 13 14
16 17 and 18
No. of bends, as above 4 to 6 4 to 7 4 to 8 7 to 9
9 to 11 12 to 16
The price of steel is not quite double that of iron, while the work is more
than twice in favour of steel.
The proportion of working load to breaking strain is one-eighth to
one-ninth. Men are only allowed to ride in coal-drawing shafts after
examination and by special authority from the Government officials.
D. P. M.
20
TESTING ROPES AND SOCKETS BY HYDRAULIC POWER.
Hydraulische Presse zum Zerreissen ganzer Drahtseile auf der
Konigl-SteinJcohlen-grube FriedricJisthal, bei Saarbriicken. Von Heeen
Battmann, Zeitschrift fur das Berg-, Hiittcn- und Salinen-tvesen. Vol.
XXIX., pp. 57-64. Plate V.
The hydraulic press consists of a vertical cast-iron stand, at the top of
which is a hydraulic press, the plunger of which works upwards, and hy means
of side rods, which can he lengthened and shortened, moves a crosshead
helow, to which is attached one end of the rope to he tried, the other end
being held in the bottom part of the frame. The rope is fitted at both ends
with sockets, and, necessarily, the efficiency of the sockets was tested
with the breaking strain of the ropes, for everything depended upon the rope
being held tight to prevent slipping when under strain.
Ten different sorts of sockets were tried, briefly described as follows:—
No. 1, Baumann's patent, which consists of three wedges acting upon a hard
patent metal cast round the rope, and which are held together by a box, in
the inside of which the wedges move in grooves. The rope is thus held by
these wedges, which act indirectly through the metal; and to the circular
box enclosing the wedges, metal and rope, the weight to be carried by the
rope is attached, the circular box being so made that the heavier it is
weighted the tighter it drives the wedges, thus securing the rope.
Nos. 2 and 3 sockets are on the same principle, except that the wedges act
immediately upon the rope without their being protected by patent metal. No.
2 is for round ropes and No. 3 for flat ones. Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are similar
to the ones generally used in England, the wires at the end of the rope
being unravelled and turned; in No. 4 is a conical ring, the whole being
enclosed in a conical box, the ring acting as a wedge in keeping the wires
tight against the rope and the encircling box.
In No. 5 a round wedge-shaped pin is driven into the end of the rope after
the wires have been turned over and the whole encircled by a conical box.
No. 6 has molten lead or zinc cast over the end of the rope after the wires
have been turned over, the whole being covered with a conical box like the
rest.
In Nos. 7, 8, and 9 the rope is bodily bent over a ring, forming a loop, the
end being fastened to the rope in No. 7 by rings which are made to fit tight
by being hammered to fit when in place; and in Nos. 8 and 9 hy three sets of
clamp plates, which have rough and hardened edges, held by two bolts to each
clamp in No. 8 and four bolts in No. 9. The ropes tested were made by G.
Heckel, of Saarbriicken, not made for the trial, but were spare ropes at the
colliery where the experiments were made.
They were all of steel, two being round and one flat. No. 1 was l'l inch in
diameter, and was composed of seven strands, each having a hemp core 0*39
inch diameter. Each strand had seven wires 0-09 inch diameter. The total
area of metal was 0-377 square inch. The breaking weight, when new, was
guaranteed by the maker to be 62,000 lbs., and in being tested proved to be
equal to 70,000 lbs. The rope had been lying in the open air and was covered
with rust in some places.
Rope No. 2 was 0-95 inch in diameter, and was composed of six strands, each
strand had a wire core 0'07 inch diameter, around which were six wires 0*06
inch diameter, covered again with eleven wires 0-07 inch diameter. The area
of the rope, not including the six wire cores, was 0'3 square inch, and the
guaranteed breaking weight 48,000 lbs., but which, in testing, reached
58,600 lbs.
The cast steel flat rope was 2#36 inches wide and 0'5 inch thick, and was
composed of four round ropes sewn together; each rope had six wires 0-06
inch diameter, and a hemp core 0'078 ineh diameter. The area of the rope was
0-369 square inches, and its guaranteed breaking weight was 55,000 lbs.,
reaching to 66,000 lbs. on being tested. This rope like No. 1, had been in
the open air and was covered with rust in some places.
21
These ropes, with the different sockets, underwent 68 experiments with the
following results:—¦
The breaking weight of the rope is a little less than that of the total of
the wires composing it, due, no doubt, to the unequal tension of the wires
in the rope, arising from the irregular thickness and temper of the wires,
which offer an unequal resistance when being twisted in the manufacture of
the rope.
The tension of the wires is also influenced by the fastening of the sockets
to the ropes. In most of the trials the single wires on strands broke one
after the other when they all broke together a higher breaking weight was
registered.
The sockets gave results as follows:—
No. 1, or Baumann's patent, gave the highest and most uniform results. No. 2
gave the next best results; but the wires, from the rough edges of the
wedges, were damaged. This is of importance, because a rope, unlike a single
wire, does not form a whole, and when the outer part is held tight, the
inner will move a little, causing a greater tension on the outer wires, and
which, if damaged, will considerably weaken the rope.
Nos. 7, 8, and 9 gave fair results. Their fault is that the clamps cannot be
made sufficiently tight to prevent the rope from slipping, so that the bolts
had to be continually tightened, causing their threads to strip in two
instances, and would, for this reason, not be safe for winding ropes.
Nos. 4, 5, and 6 proved quite useless; the ropes could never be held long
enough to get the breaking strain, as they could not be held by the sockets.
The reason seems to be, that when wires are unravelled in these sockets and
are turned back, their tension is unequal, and the wires are drawn through
the rings encircling them in spite of all conical rings and wedges.
The usual method adopted in England of bending the wires back over a ring
and fastening the long shaped socket with pins driven through the rope and
riveted was not tried.
C. Z. B.
WINDING ROPES.
Ueber Schacht-Forderseile und SeilTcosten. Von Heeen Wendeeoth,
Zeitschrift fiir das Berg-, ILutten- und Salinen-wesen, Vol. XXX., pp.
77-80.
The Official Report of the German Government upon the safety of ropes used
for winding in the Dortmund district from the year 1872 has been published,
and has been followed by a similar Beport on the fiscal mines of
Saarbriicken for the four years 1877-1880.
The reports give details of experiments and observations made upon the
following
number of ropes:—
T\„r*n,»nA Fiscal Mines of
Dortmund. Saarbrucken.
Flat ropes of cast steel ... 87 ...
27
Do. iron ...... 18 ... 20
Do. aloe fibres ... 19 ...
6
Round ropes of cast steel ... 388 ...
42
Do. iron ... ... 210 ...
191
Total ... ... 722 ... 286
The following Table shows the cost of the ropes—calculated by multiplying
the whole length of the ropes with the average weight per metre and with the
price per kilo-
22
gramme in marks (shillings)—the work done by the ropes given in million
kilogramme metres—and lastly, the cost of the ropes per million foot pounds,
given in the original per ton metre (1,000 kilogrammes lifted 1 metre high)
:—
DORTMUND DISTRICT. SAARBRTTCKEN DISTRICT.
Work done Work done
by the Cost of by the
Cost of
Description of Rope. r,„„<. . fl,„ Ropes in Ropes
„ . , Ropes in Ropes
Cost of the Million per Cost of the
Million per
- ™pe;s Kilogrammes Million . ii-op,eB Kilogrammes
Million
JJta= Metres = 1,000 Foot "!™= Metres = 1,000 Foot
bhillmgs. Tons nearly Pounds Shillings. Tons nearly
Pounds
(984 Tons) in Pence. (984 Tons) in
Pence, per Metre. per
Metre.
Flat Ropes, Cast
Steel ... 1877 53,280-61 361,043 0-243 4,018-00
18,928 0-350
1878 63.250-45 475.345 '220 2,123'80 10,464
'333
1879 46,746-64 423,396 -182 9,97325 52,765
-312
1880 41,131-30 522,448 '130 8,849-80 38,286
"381
204,409-00 1,782,232 -190 24,964-85 120,443 -342
Flat Ropes, Iron...
1877 15,579-75 127,279 0-202 7,211-25 59,723
0-199
1878 3,147-30 13,258 -391 2,884-50 24,614
-193
1879 3.147-30 16,585 -313 2,884'50 16,226
-293
1880 2,340-30 14,002 -276 3,344-14 31,920
-173
24,21465 171,124 '233 16,32439 132,483 *203
Flat Ropes, Aloe ...
1877 9,836-40 165,028 0-098 2,770-56 3,713-5
1-231
1878 18,677-28 178,773 -172 1,762*48 26,634-1
-109
1879 8,257'02 388,211 -051 2,958-25
9,080-0 -522
1880 26,486-98 605,238 -072 ......
............
63,257-68 1,337,250 -092 7,491-29 39,427-6 -313
Round Ropes, Cast
Steel ... 1877 117,783-51 1,551.781 0-125 24,099-12
275,669 0-144
1878 111,855-47 2,173.276 -085 4,050-00 69,264
-096
1879 123,367-57 2,051,150 -099 12.041-34 183,234
-108
1880 169,440,87 3,445,196 -081 14,396-96 158,568
-150
522,447-42 9,221,403 -094 54,587-42 686,735 '131
Round Ropes, Iron
1877 45,083-62 577,973 0-129 47,454-80 872,366
0-090
1878 40,174-60 852.514 -078 25,652'49 534,454
-080
1879 29,076-78 626,155 -076 25,579-33 571,739
-074
1880 20,863-02 576,173 -027 31,139-27 669,378
-077
134,197-92 2,632,815 -084 129,825-89 2,647,937 '081
On comparing the costs it will be seen that they stand higher in
Saarbriicken than in Dortmund. The conclusion to be drawn from this is, not
that ropes of an inferior quality are used in the former district, nor that
the ropes are not so well taken care of, but that, as the ropes are used for
drawing men and material in the Saarbriicken mines, great care and
precaution is taken that the ropes are renewed as soon" as any defect in
them has been noticed, in order that perfect safety may result.
28
In many cases the ropes are taken off after having been used for one year,
and in others after the rope has done a certain amount of work, even should
they have shown no signs of giving way.
By this procedure, economy is not sacrificed in such a degree as the figures
might lead one to suppose; it must be taken into account that the ropes,
after having been in use for winding, are used for other purposes, such as
for balancing in the shaft (Koepe's system), and on inclines underground.
The Table showing sudden breakages of ropes may, at first sight, appear to
favour the Saarbriicken mines, but it will be seen that the percentage of
sudden breakages in the number of ropes used, places the Saarbriicken
district in a most unfavourable position.
The number of ropes taken off after use in Saarbriicken amount to one-third
of the number taken off in Dortmund.
The sudden breakages amounted to in the:—
Dortmund District. Saarbriicken District.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
In the year 1877 ... 8-98 ...
7'96
Do. 1878 ... 9-40 ...
180
Do. 1879 ... 5-23 ...
6-89
Do. 1880 ... 4-70 ...
313
It must be noticed here that no accidents to life have taken place through
the rope breaking in the Saarbriicken fiscal mines during the years above
enumerated.
The following Table shows the work done and the length of time the ropes
were in use in the two districts. From this it will be seen that the number
of days a rope was used on an average is not much higher in the Dortmund
than in the Saarbriicken district, while on the other hand the work done by
a rope on an average is much higher in the former than in the latter,
showing that quick winding in the deep mines of Saarbriicken must have a
deleterious effect upon the ropes:—
Dortmund. Saarbrucken.
Year. Average Work A Tif
Average Work A VPM „p T ¦*- np_
Kilogrammes. m uays. Kilogrammes.
m-Uaya.
1877 23,787 535 10,888
444
26,956 554 12,099 429
28,971 539 14,363 538
36,879 577 14,034 535
Taking the construction of the ropes into account, the flat ropes are the
most expensive, in spite of their value as counterbalancing agents.
In Germany flat ropes are not used to any great extent, but principally for
sinking purposes and when distance is short between the winding drum and the
shaft.
With regard to the material of the ropes, flat cast steel ropes give the
worst economic results, and although they are lighter than those of iron,
are not to be recommended. The cost of aloe ropes is second when compared
with others in the Saarbriicken district, and fourth in the Dortmund
district, that is as the cheapest flat rope; they are even cheaper than
round ropes of iron. Still, in both districts, as said before, they are only
exceptionally in use, while in France and Belgium they are to be found
nearly at every colliery. The cost of aloe ropes, even if in their
construction great care and good materials be used, would not be so high as
to prevent their being again generally used in Germany.
24
According to very accurately made rope statistics at the coal-mine at
Kleinrosseln. in Lothringen, one of the largest private collieries in the
Saarbriicken district, and managed by Belgian engineers, where aloe ropes
are only in use, the cost of 9 ropes used in 1880
was:—
• Cost ............£1,408
Work done ... ... ... 282,874 million
kilogrammes.
Cost per million foot pounds ... 0-164 pence.
The average life per rope amounted to 770 days.
It should he here mentioned how great an influence careful treatment and
management has on the cost of using ropes. Above all things the spare rope
kept at the collieries should be kept protected from rust. With steel ropes
the freedom from rust is especially to be sought after; if they be not
sufficiently protected they will not last, even if the best and the most
suitable material is used in their manufacture. Often is the spare rope seen
at collieries lying in the open protected only by a small wooden roof,
exposed to the rain and snow. Penetrated with the damp, the ropes are often
covered with rust before they have been placed for use. To preserve the
ropes it is absolutely necessary that they should be kept in places where
the damp cannot penetrate. The same should not be too warm or have leaky
steam pipes traversing them.
It is further requisite that the ropes should be often well greased. How
often this should take place depends upon the wetness of the drawing shaft;
under certain circumstances about every week or fortnight. There is no
difficulty in greasing them; lately machines have been constructed for the
purpose, which lessen the work and bring about a better result. The grease
should be rich in fat and free from acid. It should also be seen that the
grease does not turn hard, for then in the deep cavities between the wires,
rust can form under the grease, so that a rope may look well greased when at
the same time its wires are being eaten through with rust.
C. Z. B.
THE COST OF MACHINE-DRILLING COMPARED WITH HAND-DRILLING.
Der Maschinelle Bohrbetrieb auf den Gruhen der Abtheilung Ramsbeck der
Actien-
Gesellschqft fur Bergbau, Blei- und Zinkfabrikation zu Stolberg
und in
Westfalen. Von Heben C. Habee, ZeitscTirift fur das Berg-, Hutten- und
Salinen-wesen, Vol. XXX., pp. 43-65.
At the Ramsbeck Lead and Zinc Mines machine drills have lately been used
with
success for two years, and the work done has been carefully compared with
that of
hand-drilling, proving superior both in economy and speed.
The strata consists of hard schists and greywacke, through which veins
bearing lead and zinc in the shape of sulphurets run with a gangue of
quartz. The greywacke is exceptionally hard, and the progress of driving
in it by hand is tedious and slow.
The cost of hand-driving for level roads 1J yards wide and 2 yards high is
as follows:—
In schist ... ... ... ... ...
£3 10 0 a yard.
In greywacke ... ... ... ... ... 5
16 ,,
For double tramway roads the price was £4 18s. and £6 5s. respectively.
These prices include explosives, repairing of drills, lights, and stowing.
The speed of driving the single tramway roads, with two men in eight-hour
shifts and three shifts in twenty-four hours, was in schist 10 feet per
month, and in greywacke 13 feet. In double tramway roads the average speed
was 9 feet 10 inches per month.
The explosive used in machine drilling was dynamite. Gunpowder was not
strong enough with deep holes, while gun-cotton and dynamite-gelatine were
too expensive and not altogether satisfactory.
25
The machine drills used were of the well-known Schram type, with percussion
borers; they recommended themselves after some trials with others.
The position of the holes to do the most work had to be at as great an an-le
to the face of the level as possible, and therefore a short drill, occupying
little space and easily placed in any position, was found to be the best.
Hand-drilling had to be as closely imitated as possible-that is, the holes
had to be bored so as to get the least amount of resistance with a long
hole.
The air-compressing machinery to supply air to the machines was of the
ordinary type, and maintained a pressure of four atmospheres.
The following was the result of working with one Schram drill in drivin- a
level winning for the whole year 1879 :—
Distance driven in twelve months ...
tors ™wi0
..... iuii4 yams.
Average breadth .........
10 f t
Number of working days of three eight-hour shifts ... 291
Average distance driven per day ......... 1 ft 1*28
in
XT v J?0; per shift ............ Winches."
Number of holes drilled ......... 5
qgK
Total depth of the same
q'oa^i j
. , ,, „ , ...............<3,907t
yards.
Average depth of holes per day worked ...... 13.42
*
Da Perhole ............ 1-96 feet."
Do. per yard driven ......... 366 yards.
Wages per yard driven............ £ *'
*'
Total amount of wages paid .........
446_f^~n
Cost of fuel ....
-. , „
r, • , ,. .................. 54 14
0
.Repairs to machines ............ fi2
Loss of steel ............
^
Enginemen's wages ............ 14,
12 a
Stores—drilling machines ...
10 „ .
t^ . ............
13 6 4
JL>o. air compressor............ ,
iq
Replacement of capital and interest......... 39 0
0
Totalcost ............... £643 8 ~7~
Cost per yard ......
oa _
mi '" '"
"" •'• *" 5s.
lotal number of single-men shifts ......... 11*73
Men's wages, after deducting cost of lights, explosives, tool
repairs (borne by them)—net earnings...... £244 3s 9d
Average wage per man per shift ......... 2s 9d '
Explosives used—dynamite ......... -,fil
' ,
Do. gun-cotton......... „i.
Do. fuse......
,KO ."
xr , - , . , ..............453 pieces.
.N umber or detonating caps ......... 55SS
Cost of explosives .............'.'.' .'.'.' £'i61 17s.
2d
Do. per yard driven ............ £1 10s. 4d.
Compaeison of Hand and Machine-Deiting.
Cost of doing the same work by hand ...... £810
3s
Saving, taking economy and speed into account ...... 394 per cent
Saving in money by using machine drills ......... £116 14s 5d
Do. per yard driven ............ £1 lis. 2|d.'
Do. percent.......... 20f
d
26
Interest on capital and amortizement was placed at 13 per cent, on the
capital, which was £900 for three machine drills, including service of pipes
and air-compressing machinery. Two drills were used in sinking.
The drift varied from 7 feet 3 inches in width to 9 feet 6 inches; the
former is dead and the latter is ore-hearing ground.
The following gives the different items in percentages:—
Per Cent. Per Cent. Wages........................67-98
Engineman and stoker (air-compressor and boilers) ... 2*47
----- 70-45
Eepairs to machine ... ... ... ... ...
... 10-49
Fuel ........................ 9-24
Loss in steel ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 1*32
Stores for machine ... ... ,.. ... ...
... l-08
Do. air-compressor ... ... ... ...
... 0-84
------ 12-48
Amortization and interest ... ... ... ...
... 6'58
100-00
The loss of steel in machine-drilling is nearly the same as that in
hand-drilling, accounted for from the fact that by hand-drilling the head as
well as the edge of the drill wears.
Each machine requires two men, and these do all the work necessary except
laying the rails.
The air pipes were of wrought iron, but are now being replaced by cast iron
ones on the score of economy. The holes are bored wet, and therefore water
pipes are also used to conduct water with as great a head as possible to the
borehole.
A great advantage in using machine drills worked by compressed air is the
gain in ventilation. The health of the workman suffers when drilling by hand
through the continual vibration caused by striking the drill; also the
cramped position, often requisite while drilling, is injurious.
The saving effected in sinking and level driving for one year amounted to
£920, or more than the cost of the whole machine drilling plant.
C. Z. B.
IMPROVEMENTS IN MINING MACHINERY IN PRUSSIA DURING THE
YEAR 1880.
Versuche und Verbesserungen bei dem Bergwerksbetriebe in Preussen wahrend
des Jahres, 1880. Zeitsehrift fiir das Berg-, Hiitten- und Salinen-wesen.
Vol. XXIX., pp. 238-276. Folding Plates, 15-21.
Undeegeound Stone Hand Boeees.
Machines for boring air holes used as stentons in winning places have come
very much into use. Pour are recommended—those of Munschied, Gildemeister
and Kamp, Wegge and Pelser, and Hussmann. They are rotary drills, having
jagged teeth cutting edges in circumference of drill.
The Husmann machine is a drill inside a drill, the centre being a
twisted-shaped tool, which breaks up the core made by the outer drill. Four
men are necessary to work this drill in one shift of eight hours, and in
that time 34 to 46 feet can be bored, the drills having a diameter of 12
inches for the large one and l£ inch for the centre one.
27
Machine Bokebs. The only machine which has attracted attention during the
year is Brandt's Patent Hydraulic Stone Borer. This drill is circular and
makes a core, and is driven by two hydraulic engines, the pressure of water
being derived from the pumping column in the shaft. The exhaust water and
also the full pressure of the water can be made to pass through the hollow
drill, to wash the hole; and the full pressure of water, by means of a
piston attached to the drill, forces the drill against the rock whilst
rotating. It, therefore, does not powder the stone like the percussion
borers, nor grind it like the diamond borers, but it breaks the stone, the
drill having peculiar cutting edges. It uses about one-half cubic foot of
water per minute.
Explosives.
Compressed prismatic gunpowder—" Cartouchenpowder" — is made up in small
cartridges about 1| inch long and f inch diameter. Its cost, compared with
ordinary gunpowder, is as 1 to l-43, but gives a better result as 1"71 is to
1.
Fairholme and Co.'s woodpowder has with several trials proved itself to be
unsatisfactory. It consists of KNOs (impure), 61 "4 per cent., sawdust 26"5
per cent., and sulphur 12\L per cent.
Compressed gun-cotton has given better results than expected, but has to be
kept exceedingly dry to get good results.
Nobel's explosive gelatine, or gelatine dynamite, has been tried, and,
compared with dynamite, gives good results. Its cost is high, being nearly
twice that of dynamite. The unaccountable explosions occurring at two
collieries in Germany, in magazines stored with gelatine dynamite, have
cautioned mining engineers against its use.
Ieon Shaft Timbee. At the Shamrock No. 2 Pit (Westphalia) the guides and
buntons are of wrought iron. The buntons are of angle iron, and are fastened
to wrought iron rings or cribs fixed in the pit. The guides are of channel
iron, fastened by bolts and nuts to the buntons. The guides are 10 yards
long, and each length is fastened to three buntons. The guides, buntons, and
rings cost £1 16s. per yard complete, with labour and materials. In
fourteen days 220 yards of this work was finished.
Pump woeked by a Watee Column used as a Tbansmitteb of Powee. At the Uni
Mine, Unterste Martinshart, a pump 106 yards below the main pump rods, and
90 yards from the shaft, is worked by means of a water column, which derives
motion from a plunger worked by the main pump rods. By this means a piston
is moved backwards and forwards, to which is attached a lifting and forcing
pump at the other end of the column. An air vessel is attached to the
cohimn, and the whole has been at work for several months, working well in
all respects.
Bleicheet's Wiee-bope Railway.
At several collieries and iron mines in Germany Bleichert's rope railways
are used, which consist in suspending one or two ropes, or wrought iron
rods, from pole to pole, over roads, rivers, etc., at any distance above the
surface, on which trams or carriages are hung on wheels, and which are moved
backwards and forwards by an endless rope supported and fastened to the
carriages below the other ropes.
It is only used for short distances, to take slag or dirt to refuse heaps,
or small quantities of mineral, and their great advantage is that thev can
cross uneven ground at little trouble and expense. The speed reaches
sometimes four miles an hour, transporting per day of ten hours a quantity
of 100 to 200 tons of mineral, at a cost per ton per mile of about sixpence.
28
Ventilators. A Pelzer ventilator has been erected at the Bruchstrasse
Colliery. It is a centrifugal fan, with screw-like vanes, having a diameter
of 8i feet. With a speed of 224 revolutions per minute, the inlet drift
having an area of 24£ square feet, the quantity of air exhausted per minute
amounted to 27,318 cubic feet at a speed of 1,115 feet per minute, the
water-gauge standing at 1T73 inch.
AlR-COMPRESSOES.
At the lead-mine, Friedrichssegen, a Soimneiller's air-compressor has been
replaced by one of Dubois and Francois'. The peculiarity of this
air-compressor is that little space is wasted between the piston and the
exit valves, and that water is partially used in driving the air before the
piston. The water is forced in a small quantity at the end of each stroke
in the form of spray. The inlet valves are in an inclined position,
gaining thereby an increased area. The following is the result of
experiments made:— Speed of piston per second in feet ... ...
2 2£ 3i 4 4^
Number of strokes per minute ... ... ... 15 20
25 30 35
Cubic feet of air compressed to give one cubic
foot of air at 5| atmospheres ... ... ... 5-32 543
5'55 5"81 6*41
Amount of air drawn into compressor, at the temperature and pressure of the
atmosphere,
taking the volume of compressed air as unity 0"94 0'92 090 0'86
0-78 The steam engine working the compressor has one steam cylinder, 1
foot 7*7 inches diameter, with a 3 feet 113 inches stroke. The
air-compressing cylinder is driven by the piston rod of the steam cylinder,
and is 1 foot 5'7 inches diameter. 120 cubic
feet of air are compressed per minute to a pressure of 5 atmospheres.
C. Z. B.
STEEL RAIL GUIDES.
Note sur les guidonnages metalliques etablis aux fosses d'Havre. Par Ch.
Dbmanet, Rev. Univ. des Mines, Vol. VII., 1S80, pp. 549-555. One folding
Plate, No. 22.
The arrangement consists of four guides (2 for each cage) fastened to two
buntons.
The rails are vignoles made of steel, and weighing 29 kils. per metre (58
lbs. per yd.) They are 8-5 metres long (9 yds.), fished and bolted to oak
buntons 2"10 x 015 x 0'20 metres, and set 1*5 metres apart.
In the walling, the buntons are set into cast iron sockets.
In the tubbing, iron circles of U section rest upon the ribs of the tubbing,
and these circles carry transverse girders to which the rails are attached.
Two millimetres (0'078 in.) are left open between the ends of the rails for
expansion, and the bolt holes in the rails and fish plates are made oval in
the usual way.
Rail guides are generally (in this case the rails were exceptionally low)
more expensive than wood; but M. Demanet thinks that the additional cost is
more than compensated for by their superior rigidity and durability.
Cost where Shaft Tubbed. Francs PerFm.
a.— Circles:—
Per Metre. £ s. d.
Each circle weighed, including bolts, 182 kilos., and cost 30 francs
per 100 kilos. (400 lbs. at £12 4s. 4d. per ton). They were
placed every 2 metres (1-09 fins.) = 54-60 fr. (£2 3s. 8'lGd.) To each
circle there are two oak sleepers (P25 x 008 x 0-16) x 2
metres = 0-032 cub. metre (1-128 cub. ft.) costing 4'8 fr. (3s.
10-08d.)
29
Francs Per Fm.
per Metre. £ s. d.
To each circle there are 8 bolts and washers, 2'16 francs
(Is. 8-71d.) Erecting, T8 fr. (Is. 5-28d.) Total for each circle complete,
and placed in pit per metre and
per fathom .................... 31-68 2 6 4
b.—Pails :— There are 4 metres of rail guides for each metre of shaft.
The
4 metres weigh 116 kilos, at 14 fr. per 100 kilos. (256 lbs.
at £5 14s. per ton) = 16-24 fr. (£1 3s. 9d. per fm.) ...
16'24 13 9
Putting guides into shaft 1-95 fr. per metre (2s. 10-3d. per
fathom) ........................ 1-95 2 10-3
c.—Fish plates.-— •6 x -085 x -085. 4 of them per 8-5 metres, weighing
7'5 kilos.
and costing 9-28 fr................... 1-10 1 7"3
Total per metre and per fathom ... ... ... 50-97
3 14 6'6
Cost where Shaft Walled. „
_ ,
Francs Per Fm.
a.—Buntons :—
per Metre. £ s. d.
The buntons are placed 1*5 metres (4 feet 10| inches) apart, they
are of oak, 2-10 x 0'15 x 0-20 (6 feet 10| inches x 6 x
8 inches). Two buntons cost 18*9 fr. Each pair requires
8 bolts and washers = 2-64 fr. Putting up in shaft = 2-50
fr. Total for each pair of buntons, 24-04 fr., which is per
metre and per fathom ... ... ... ... ...
... 16 133
b-—Pails:— ) ,
, _ „- , _ „
_.. . . ± \ as above............ 19-29 18 3
c.—Fish plates:— J
Total per metre and per fathom ... ... ... 35'29
2 11 6
If the guides had been made of oak 0'15 x 018, and costing 180 fr. the metre
cube (5'89 x 7'07 inches at 4s. per cub. ft.), the cost per metre would have
been 19-44 fr. instead of 16'24 (£1 8s. 4d. per fm. instead of £1 3s. 9d.),
without taking into account the cost of erection, more expensive in the case
of wooden than of iron or steel guides.
J. H. M.
AIR-COMPRESSORS—LOSS OF PRESSURE FROM FRICTION OF THE AIR
IN THE PIPES.
Experiences faites au Tunnel du Saint-Gothard sur PEcoulement de I'air
comprime en tongues conduites metalliques pour la transmission deforces
motrices. Par E. Stockalper, Inge nieur-Chef de Service. Pev. Univ. des
Mines, Vol. VII. Sir. 2, 1880, pp. 257-281. Plates, 10-12.
The co-efficients of friction usually given for the flow of air through
pipes being at variance with the practical experience of M. Stockalper, he
has made experiments at the Saint-Gothard Tunnel, and finds the loss of
pressure to be very much less than that given by the ordinary formulae.
His experiments were made with two pipes. The first, 5,000 yards long and
7'8 inches in diameter (4,600 x 0-20 metres), made of cast iron, fastened
together with bolts and caoutchouc rings. The second, 570 yards long and 5-8
inches diameter (522 x 0'15 metres) of wrought iron and similarly joined.
30
The quantity of air passing per second was calculated from the strokes of
the
compressor.
The pressures were taken by Bourdon gauges, and the temperatures of the air
in the pipe by thermometers, so arranged that they could be read without
removing the bulb
from the interior of the pipe.
M. Stockalper comes to the conclusion that to calculate the loss of pressure
it is sufficient to treat the question as if the pipe contained water
flowing at the same velocity as the air, and to reduce the loss of pressure
found from water in the ratio of the density of the compressed air to that
of water.
Thus let— J = Loss of pressure in atmospheres for a pipe one metre long. d =
TAj.
a = See Darcy's table.
Q = Volume of air passing per second in cubic metres. 8 = Weight of one
cubic metre of the flowing air in kilogrammes.
J = d, Q2 8
In English units when— J = Loss of pressure per yard of pipe.
« = Jhr
a = See Darcy's table.
Q = Cubic feet per second.
B — Weight of one cubic foot in ounces.
3 = \ d. (—~X x 8 \ 0-914, which approximately = d, Q2 8 0-000733.
\ \35'316' )
Total loss '= J I = (a, Q2 8) 0-000733 I where I = length of pipe in yards.
D in Darcy's table «¦ the diameter of the pipe in inches divided by 39*37.
Darcy's Table for Cast or Wrought Iron Pipes, New.
Diameter in i Diameter in
Diameter in
Metres. Metrea.
Metres.
D. a. D. a.
D. a.
0-01 58,395,000 0-18 9918
0-39 0-194055
0-02 1,169,250 0-19 7'5295
0-40 0-17067
0-027 222,800 0'20 5*7855
0-41 0-15056
0-03 125,155 0-21 4-50925
0*42 0-133225
0-04 26,280-5 0-216 3-90305
0'43 0-118435
0-05 7,937 0-22
3-5546 044 0-10538
0-054 5,267-5 0'23 2-8361
0-45 0-094005
0-06 3,010-45 i 0-24 2-2805
0-46 0-08422
0-07 1,333-05 0-25 1-8526
0-47 0-075495
0-08 660-95 0-26
1-51725 0-48 0-067825
0-081 619-3 0-27
1-2518 0-49 0-06118
0-09 356-905 0"28 1-0418
0"50 0-055195
0-10 206-21 0-29 0-8710
055 0-034114
0-108 138-135 0-30 0"73385
0-60 0-0220155
0-11 125-625 0-31 0-6206
0-65 00146985
0-12 80-005 0-32
0-52855 0-70 0010128
0-13 52-92 0-325 0-488235 0"75
0-0071595
0-135 43-529 033 0-45235 0-80
0-005175
0-14 36-111 0-34 0388915 0-85
0-00381445
0-15 25-3195 0-35 0-33521 0-90
0-00286075
0-16 18-1505 0-36 029063 0"95
0-00173075
0-162 17-0285 0-37 0-252955 1-00
0*00168275
0-17 13-313 0-38 0-221375
31
Experiments of 17th December, 1878.
Comparison between the Results observed and those calculated by
different Formulae.
O ° • o> "I H <y "i Loss of Press
itre in Atmospheres
-*> r* o .©"-i^m 2 (0JF 10,334 Kilogr.),
Calculated
g . * § 'a ° s>> a a -g
from Formulae.
sp -9~ |§« |ft- g^ |gg. J1.| I*3 i a *h ¦ ¦ *
¦g ,g 2 j= » S II a ^S'S °S3 *£
p> ^ h-S& sag
s * iif J i %t p i ° M g* ?
r * s £_ I__i_
M. M. M3. Atm. Kil. M3. M.
"1 j 0-20 4,600 0-936 5*42 21° 6*500 0*185 5*89 0-36 0*57
0-61 0'64 0*90 1-25 d J 0-15 522 0-936 5*12 26*5 6*030 0-200
11-32 0*24 030 0-31 0*34 0-48 0"46
•*! ( 0-20 4,600 0-623 4-285 21 5-140 0-156 4-968 0-22 0-32 0*345
0*30 0*52 0*76 j| ( 0-15 522 0-623 4-095 26*5 4-820 0-166 9*394 0-07*
017 0-175 0*15 0'27 0-29
M j 0-20 4,600 0-520 3745 21 4-490 0'149 4-747 0'19 0-25 0-27
0*29 0-41 0-63 ?| | 0-15 522 0-520 3*597 26-5 4-230 0*158 8*942
0-105 0-135 0*14 0*15 022 023
* Error of observation probably.
It will be observed that M. Stockalper's formula, though agreeing more
nearly with the results of practical experiments than those of the other
observers quoted, gives a loss of head larger than is found to be really the
case.
J. H. M.
SEPARATE VENTILATION AND ITS COST.
Uber Separatventilation und ihre Kosten. Von B. R. Forstek, Jahrbuch filr
das Berg- und Huttenwesen im Konigreiche Sachsen auf das Jahr 1882, Figs.
1-5, Plate I., pp. 1-17.
In several mines in Germany separate ventilation has been adopted. A system
of pipes is necessary to convey the air from the surface to the point where
it is required underground at a sufficient pressure to overcome friction,
either to issue into the working place or to transmit power to a ventilating
machine. The following formula will enable the loss of pressure through
friction to be calculated. It has been found to agree with experiments made
by Stockalper in the St. Gothard Tunnel.
z = io^-|-g(5+0-M2-xla334
Where Z = Water-gauge in millimetres of - loss of pressure of air from
friction through moving in pipes. Z= The length of pipes ).nmetres< d = The
dia. of pipes )
m = The velocity of the air in metres per second.
8 — Weight of 1 cubic metre of compressed air at a temperature of 20 degrees
C. (taking into account heat of the mine) in kilogrammes. Table I., page 33,
shows the loss of pressure of air on flowing through pipes a length of 1,000
metres, at different initial pressures and with different sized tubes.
32
At the fiscal colliery Zankeroda in Saxony, extensive trials lasting over
three years have enabled the cost of such ventilation to be got at.
The cost of 1 cubic metre of air reduced from a pressure of 3 atmospheres
additional pressure, to 0 atmosphere pressure has been found to be 4"2d.
a.—Then by simply allowing the compressed air to flow into the workings 1
cubic, metre of air cost 4-2d.
J.-By employing a Kirting's blowing apparatus, which draws external air to
assist
the compressed air, similar to an injector, the cost is g—- = '636d. 0.—By
employing a Woolf's transmitter to drive a Root's ventilator the cost has
been found to equal ^ = '132d. per cubic metre.
These costs are exclusive of amortization and interest on capital. Air
compressed by a centrifugal ventilator would be found to be the cheapest,
but the pressure of such air would vary from 10 to 160 millimetres
water-gauge, or an average of 60 millimetres. In Table I. 10 millimetres
water-gauge has, however, been taken Centrifugal ventilators, now almost
universally adopted to ventilate mines, could by a mechanical contrivance be
made, while ventilating a mine as usual, to compress air on the exit side to
be used for separate ventilation; or separate centrifugal ventilators could
be adopted to send the air into the mine. Mr. A. Brandt, engineer, for the
purpose of sending compressed air through 5,000 metres of piping m the
Vorarl Tunnel Works, used 3 centrifugal ventilators,-one placed in front of
the other. The engines indicated 200 h.p., the pressure amounting to 3"5 to
4 metres water-gauge, or nearly half an atmosphere. The following results
were obtained with:-Revolutions Millimetres
Giving Cubic Metres
per Minute Water-gauge.
of Air per Second.
900 ... 650 - 1'5
1,050 -. 750 ... 1-75
1,120 ... 1>00° ... 2-25
1,220 ... U50 - 2'5
1290 •• 1>225 •••
2'55
L320 ... 1>300 ..¦ 2-88
By simply employing a centrifugal ventilator at a colliery to compress air
at the same time while discharging, the cost is small, as it has been
ascertained at the Zankeroda collierv to equal -00252d. per cubic metre.
This U small, but the pressure obtained in such cases is scarcely
sufficient, unless by a speed of only 2 metres per second, to overcome the
friction in the pipes.
Bv Brandt's 3 centrifugal ventilator system the cost was found to be, at a
pressure of one-fourth atmospheres, -576d. per cubic metre. With air
compressing machines at the Marien colliery this cost was 744d. per cubic
metre.
Power may be transmitted underground by means of electricity created on the
surface and taken underground either in copper wires or by old ropes. This
has been done at Blanzy, and Messrs. Siemens' and Halske, the celebrated
electricians, are preparing one for the colliery Zankeroda, which costs,
with generator, engines etc., £250, and which with 4* to 5 h.p., will
transmit 2 to 2* h.p. (50 per cent duty), to a separate ventilator which it
is calculated will deliver 50 to 7* cubic metres of air per minute, at a
cost of -096d. per cubic metre.
100 cubic metres of air per minute would suffice for 40 men a shift, and
taking the sain of health and increased work done by receiving a plentiful
supply of fresh air the author ventures to say that the first cost of
separate ventilation could be covered in a year.
33
TABLE I.
Showing Loss of Peessttee of Compressed Aie theotigh Friction in Pipes 1,000
Metres Long.
N.B.— This loss is reduced in the same proportion as a reduction in the
length of the Pipes.
1.—By 3 Atmospheres Pbessube of the Aie (31,002 Millimetees
Water-gauge).
Quantity in Cubic Loss of Pressure of the Air in the Pipes in
Millimetres
Metres of Air per of Water-gauge when moving at the following
Min. reduced to Velocities in Metres per Second.
0 Atmosphere______________________________________________________
Pressure, and
~ "
"--------------------------------
Dia of Pipe in , „ . R
1f.
Millimetres. 1 , * * b
10 20
5 26 180 1,295 4,154 18,243 137,704 ^ST^^
Dia. of Pipes = 163 115 81 66 51
36 therefore InttpvU
10 15 103 721 2,259 9,685 72,946
not sufficient to
Dia. of Pipes = 230 163 115 94 73
51 ^ Jg™thranffh
25 8 50 349 1,069 4,504 31,721
fooo metres of
Dia. of Pipes - 364 258 182 149 115 82
^
50 5 32 209 648 2.581 18,017
Dia. of Pipes = 515 364 258 210 163
115
100 3 18 128 380 1,537 10,326
Dia. of Pipes = 729 515 364 297 230 163
2.—Br 0-l Atmospheres Peessure of the Air (1,033 Millimetres Water-gauge).
5 3 17 116 358 1,534 10,846
Dia. of Pipes = 321 227 160 131 101 | 72
'----------- Friction greater than
10 2 10 68 208 862
6.096 initial pressure;
Dia. of Pipes = 454 321 227 186 144 101
therefore latter is
25 1 5 35 106 424
2,877 not sufficient to
Dia. of Pipes = 718 508 359 293 227 161
force air through
50 1 3 21 66 261
1,713 1,000 metres of
Dia. of Pipes = 1,010 718 508 415 321 227
pipes.
100 0 2 13 42 164
1,046
Dia. of Pipes = 1,440 1,010 718 586 454 321
3.—By 0-025 Atmospheres Pressure of the Air (258 Millimetres Water-gauge).
5 2 17 107 335 1,420 10,140
Dia. of Pipes = 322 227 161 131 102 72
10 1 9 65 194 805 5,606
Action greater than
Dia. of Pipes = 455 322 227 186 144 102
l"ltmi Presfr^
25 1 5 34 99 381
2,688 therefore latter is
Dia. of Pipes = 719 509 360 294 227 161
"ot sum^ent ™
r _____
rorce air through
50 0 3 21 62 243
1,600 1:000 metres of
Dia. of Pipes = 1,010 719 509 415 322 227
pipeS'
100 0 2 13 39 153
969
Dia. of Pipes = 1,440 1,010 719 585 455 322
-----_,----.-------------------_---------------------_----------------------
-----------__
e
84
4—By O-OOl Atmospheres Pressure of the Air (10 Millimetres Water-gauge).
5 2 15 102 321 1,383 9,894
Dia. of Pipes - 326 230 163 133 103 73
——— Friction greater
than
10 1 9 60 182 786 5,536
initial pressure;
Dia. of Pipes = 464 325 • 230 188 145
103 therefore latter is
25 1 5 33 92 372
2,565 not sufficient to
Dia. of Pipes = 728 515 364 297 230 163
force air through
50 0 3 21 57 233 1,488
1,000 metres of
Dia. of Pipes - 1,030 728 515 420 326 230
pipes.
100 0 2 12 36 144
933
Dia. of Pipes - 1,450 1,030 728 594 464 326
C. Z. B.
FRENCH MINERAL STATISTICS FOR 1879.
Statistique de VIndustrie Minerale de la France. Production des
combustibles mineraux, des fontes, des fers, des idles et des aciers
pendant Vannee 1879. Annales des Mines, Ser 7. Memoires, Tome XVII., pp.
299-304. This paper consists of seven tables, showing the production of
coal, lignite, iron, and
steel in detail. Two of these are here given, viz., the production of
coal and lignite
for 1878 and 1879 :—
I.—Production of Coal and Anthracite.
.„-,„., ,„, _,. ,„¦,
Production, Production,
Name of Coal-field. Where Situated.
1879_ lg78
Tons. Tons.
Valenciennes.........Nord-Pas-de-Calais ...... 7,251,969 6,992,122
Loire............Loire-Rh6ne ......... 3,050,177 3,107,986
Alais ............Ardeche-Gard......... 1,797,873 1,682,325
Creusot et Blanzy ......Sa&ne et Loire......... 938,118
1,010,955
Commentry .........Allier............ 770,963 757,639
Aubin............Aveyron ......... 665,770 656,455
Carmaux ........Tarn ............ 293,800 291,620
Brassac ......... Loire (Haute) Pay-de-D6me... 228,099
218,560
Graissessac .........Herault............ 221,685 240,749
Decize............Nievre... ......... 173,739 183,362
"Ronchamp ........Saone-(Haute)......... 164,060 182,674
Ahun ...........Creuse............ 158,783 199,096
Saint-Eloy .........Puy-de-D6me......... 127,450 145,732
Epinac...........Sadne et Loire......... 121,411 131,074
LeDrac ......" ... Isere ............ 95,210
93,847
Hardinghen .........Pas-de-Calais......... 93,817 77,733
Le Maine .........Mayenne-Sarthe ...... 78,696
97,387
_ T . ( Loire-Inferieure—Maine
et | KO Qfin Kc QC-,
Basse-Loire ..... < Loire
/ 53,300 56,861
Bert ........... Allier ...... .'.'. ...
38,276 41,503
Vouvant et Chantonnay ... Sevres (deux) Vendee ...
36,212 49,638
Sainte Foy l'Argentiere ... Rh6ne............ 34,002
33,344
Buxiere-la-Grue ...... Allier ............ 33.382
33,210
Langeac ......... Loire (Haute)......... 27,823
36.206
La Chapelle-sous-Dun ... Sa6ne et Loire......... 24,973
22,923
Maurienne Tarentaise et I Alpes (Hautes)-Savoie ...
21,345 24,209
Briancon ... ... ) r '
Carried forward ......16,500,933 16,367,210
85
I.—Production of Coal and Anthracite.—Continued.
Name of Coal-field. Where Situated.
Production, Production, ________
lo/y. 1878.
r> T.J. st i Tons-
Tons-
. T„ Brought
forward...... 16,500,933 16,367,210
ie,Vlgan .........Gard ............ 13'!70 7,696
f°?ez............Aveyron ......... i2,881 11,708
Aubenas .........Ardeche ...
7153 5371
™i™ .........var ............ 7;106 7;670
*W .........Cote-d'Or ......... 6)839
7,639
^lttry............Calvados ......... 4,800 6,974
^oanne............Loire ............ 4,251 5,442
Lommunay .........Isere ............ 3,296 585
Terrasson .........Correze—Dordogne ...... 2,960
3 243
Bourg-Lastic.........Puy-de-D6me....... 2W9 2*797
Champagnac.........Cantal............ 2/L44 3'l61
Bourganeuf .........Creuse............ 1398 2*777
Saint Pierre-la-Cour......Mayenne ...
i'sh 3'on
Saint-Perdoux ......Lot ...........'.' {^58
L184
Meymac .........Correze............ 1,305 1039
Aubignez-la-Ronce ......C6te-d'Or ......... I,'l70
Other Coal-fields ... ...
1200 2 643
Total ......16,576,854 16,440,650
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------———_________________
____________________________,______________________________________
I_____________________________________________________________________
II.—Production of Lignite.
Name of Coal-field. Where Situated
Production, Production,
____________________________________________ '
1879. 1878.
a;,. _ .
, _, . Tons. Tons.
;"x ............Bouches-du-Rhone—Var ... 429,480
420,381
Manosque ........Alpes (Basses)—Vaucluse ... 39,818
44,198
£agnols .........Gard ............ 16,001 13,706
Gouhenans .........Saone-(Haute) ...... 10,914
9,179
Orange .........Vaucluse ......... 5^950
7^64
ft?,r,r°y............Vosges ......... 5,635
2,005
Milnau... ... ... ... Aveyron ...
4 057 4 547
Entrevernes.........Savoie (Haute) ... [''. 2',3U
4456
-La lour-du-Pm ......Isere ............ 2,110
2,021
^ar^ac"..........Gard .........." 2^048 2*291
LaCacLere.........Var ............ 1)456 ^gg
~efs............Gard ............ 1,452 1,827
tJr-fiVar. .........Pyrenees -Orientales...... 1439
676
Methamis .........Vaucluse ...... 1400
1212
Banc-Rouge.........Ardeche i'209
l'osq
Other Coal-fields (6 in 1879, I
...... ' '
8 in 1878 ...... ) ............... 2,328
3,752
Totals......... 527,631 520,266
J. H. M.
36
THE SAARBRUCK COAL-FIELD.
Les Houilleres et les XJsines Siderurgiques de la Saar. Extrait d'une notice
sur le district industriel de la Saar. Par A. Hasslacher ; Tradnit par M. A.
De Vatjx. Revue Univ. des Mines, Ser. 2, Tome VII., 1880, pp. 457-485.
A paper has already been read on this coal-field by Mr. A. R. Sawyer, and
published in Vol. XXVIII. of the Transactions.
PRODUCTION AND MEN EMPLOYED.
Tons. Men.
1744 ... 3.650 *1767 fl790 ... 50,000
1813 ... 83,350 ... 700 J1816 ... 100,319
... 917
1825 ... 142,962 ... 1,038
1850 ... 593,855 ... 4,580
1875 ... 4,481,834
1878 ... 4,980,648 ... 25,592
* Coke ovens erected. t France held the country from
1792 to 1814.
I Crown of Prussia holds the mines.
An unsuccessful attempt was made at Gerhard Colliery in 1816-1819 to use a
locomotive steam-engine on a road about 2,000 yards in length laid down with
rails. The engine was built at Berlin, but it could noyjp made to work
regularly.
J. H. M.
THE MINERAL STATISTICS OP THE KINGDOM OP SAXONY FOR THE
YEAR 1880.
Statistische Mittheilungen ilber das Bergwesen itn Konigreiche
Sachsen, 1880.
Jahrbuch fur das Berg- und Hiitten-wesen im Konigreiche Sachsen,
1882, pp. 1-197.
Metalliferous Coal Lignite
Mines. Mines. Mines.
Number of mines in 1880 ...... 265 ...
61 ... 139
Persons employed ......... 8,426 ... 17,045
... 2,570
Total number of persons employed, 28,041, with a population depending upon
the same of 65.299.
Output in tons............ 45,414 ... 3,622,352 ...
590,118
Tons raised per man per annum ... 53 ...
212-5 ... 2296
Value of production .........£262,175 ... £1,270,369 ...
£93,417
„ per ton at pit's mouth ... ...£5 15s. 6d. ...
7s. ... 3s.
Deaths by accident ......... *22 ... f33
... %1
., per 1,000 employed ...... 2"61 ...
1-94 ... 272
Number of persons employed per death 383 ...
516 ... 367
490
Tons raised per death......... 2,064 ... 109,768 ...
84,302
v_________v________„;
105,312
* Of these 11 lost their lives through the breaking down of a man-engine at
the Himmelfahrt Mine on Feb. 29th, 1880, 5 by shot firing, 5 by other causes
underground, and 1 by feed-pump on the surface.
f Of these 3 by kirving in the coal, 1 by shot firing, 2 by fall of coal, 1
by a fall in the broken, 4 in shafts, 10 by fire-damp, 2 by machinery, 10 by
other causes.
\ Of these 1 by kirving, 1 in shaft, 1 by black damp, and 4 by other causes.
C. Z. B.
37
THE GREASING OF PIT TUBS WITH CLOSED AXLE BOXES.
TSinricMung zum Schmieren von Forderwagen mit gesclilossenen Radbiichsen auf
der Konigl. SteinJcohlengrube Friedrichsthal bei SaarbriicJcen. Von Herrn
Batjmann. Zeitschrift des Berg-, Hutten- und Salinen-wesen, Vol. XXIX., p.
65. Plate V.
The axles of the tubs run in a circular casing which forms the axle boxes,
and at the same time a receptacle for grease, for the casing or tube only
fits close round the axle at its ends, while the middle part is made larger
in diameter, so that it can hold a supply of grease which lubricates the
axles in the boxes readily.
The grease must be thin, and the thick tub grease is made thin by submitting
it to pressure, which at the same time forces the grease into the
grease-casing round the axle.
A small air-pump forces air into a vessel partially filled with grease. The
tub to be greased is run into the kickup, and while being emptied a hose
pipe attached to the bottom of the grease vessel is placed over an opening
in the axle-box casing, which is closed by a screw-cap, and on opening a tap
attached to the hose pipe grease is forced from the air vessel into the axle
casing.
Two minutes are occupied in greasing the tubs, which will run four weeks
without having to be re-greased.
At the Colliery Friedrichsthal Saarbriicken 500 tubs are greased with 3
cwts. of grease per month. The grease vessel holds 396 lbs. of grease, so
that when full it lasts more than a month, and the air pumped into the
vessel keeps sufficiently compi'essed for three weeks, falling in that time
from 2 atmospheres pressure to 1'4 atmospheres.
New tubs require to be greased more frequently, and a bad quality of grease
will require another atmosphere more pressure to force it into the axle
boxes.
C. Z. B.
ORE DEPOSITS OP KITZBUHEL IN TYROL.
Die Frzlagerstdtten von Kitzbiihel in Tirol und dem angrenzenden Theile
Salzburgs. Von F. Posepny. Archiv fur practische Geologie, Vol. I, pp.
257-440, with five large folding Plates.
This is a complete monograph of this mining district, giving every detail
respecting
the geology and the physical and mineralogical characters of the veins.
In descending
order the rocks of the region are:—(8) Glacial Drift deposits, (7) the
Partnach Beds
(Dolomite), (6) the Muschelkalk (Middle Trias), (5) Red Brecciated
Limestone, (4)
The " Grodner " Sandstone, (3) " Grauwacke " Slates, (2) Dolomitic
Limestone, and
(1) Clay Slate. No. 8 excepted, these rocks range from the Lower
Silurian to the
Permian and were formerly grouped together as " Grauwacke." In the
Eastern portion
of the district there are three mineral zones: a Northern clay-slate zone
with the
Mitterberg (copper) and Larzenbach mines, in Salzburg; a middle zone
characterised
by limestone with the mines of Brand in Pongau, Leogang in Salzburg, and
Pillersee
in Tyrol; and a Southern clay-slate zone in which is situated the Biirgstein
copper
mine in Pongau. In the Northern portion of the district are the
celebrated silver and
copper mines of Rohrerbiihel, in which not only metalliferous ores are
worked but also
rock-salt. The central portion, or that immediately surrounding
Kitzbiihel itself, is
made up of both slates and limestones, and comprises the Schattberg and
Sinnwell
mines. In the Southern portion are the iron mines of Foierling and
Lanner-Gebra, the
copper mines of the Kelchalp, Kupferplatten. and many others.
38
In all the veins copper pyrites is the prevailing ore, accompanied by iron
pyrites. Nickel and cobalt ores occur less frequently, galena rarely,
cinnabar and native mercury as traces only. In some lodes quartz is the
common vein-stuff, in others calcite, at Leogang and Roherbiihel gypsum, and
baryta at the Drathalp in Pillersee. In the year 1874, the production in
metrical tons was:—
Copper ore ..................... 4501-511
Nickel and Cobalt ores............... 156-201
Lead ore ..................... V'000
Iron ore ..................... 17668715
Plans and sections of the chief mir.es accompany the memoir, as well as
woodcuts of points of petrological and archa3ological interest. There is
also a coloured geological map of the whole district.
G. A. L.
THE GOLD DISTRICT OF THE TAUERN ALPS.
Die Goldbergbaue der ffohen Tauem mit besonderer Beruchsichtigung des
Rauriser Goldberges. By P. Posepnv. Archiv fur practische Geologie, Vol. I,
pp. 1-256. With four large folding Plates.
The geology of the glacier-covered chain of the Upper Tauern mountains
between the Salzburg district and the Tyrol and Carinthia consists chiefly
of gneiss, associated with micaschists and zones of metamorphic limestone of
considerable thickness, together with some masses of serpentine and
hypersthene rock, and overlying sedimentary deposit of Tertiary age. The
gold of the region occurs in the gneiss, in a great number of veins, the
principal of which run in a N.E. and S.W. direction, a few—more especially
near the Goldberg Glacier in the centre of the district—running in the
opposite direction, N.W. and S.E., and crossing the more ordinary lodes
almost at right angles. The auriferous areas described form a number of
separate groups of parallel lodes which may be enumerated as follows: 1. A
small group at Goldzeche, with the normal direction. This is the most
westerly locality mentioned. 2. A small group at Seebiihel. This is perhaps
a southerly extension of No. 1, but the direction is here more nearly N. and
S., especially at the Seeleiten mines. 3. A small normal group at Sonnblick.
4. A scattered group with the normal direction lying to the south of the
glaciers, and extending between the Sandkopf and the Eckberg. 5. The
Goldberg group already mentioned, in which the veins cross each other. 6. A
long series running nearly N. and S., with only a slight N.E. tendency in
its southern extension, from Mitterasten, by Silberpf ennig, to Siglitz. 7.
A thick cluster of parallel lodes, with the normal direction at
Rathhausberg, comprising the most easterly gold mines of the Tauern Alps.
Gold has been worked in this region for many centuries, and much of the
detailed description in this memoir is derived from the old mining plans,
some of which are reproduced. A geological map and general sections of the
whole region are given, as well as sections and plans on a larger scale,
illustrating the occurrence of the gold in the various mine districts above
enumerated.
The gold occurs in minute particles, invisible to the naked eye, filling up
interstices in the quartz which is the principal vein-filling substance of
the country, and also in the iron and other sulphides which accompany the
quartz. The mineral and chemical constitution of the lodes; yield of gold
from the year 1660; mode of working; etc., are all discussed at length.
G. A. L.
39
MINERAL RESOURCES OP PERSIA.
Neue Angaben fiber die Mineralreichthiimer Persiens und Notizen iiber die
Oegend mestlich von Zendjan. By General A. Hotjtttm Schindler. Jahrbuch der
Kais. Kon. Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Vol. XXXI., Part II, pp. 169-190,
with a folding Map.
This paper forms, in its first section, an appendix to the larger memoir on
the same subject, published in 1879, by Dr. Emil Tietze (Jahrbuch der K. K.
Geol. Reichs., Vol. XXIX., pp. 565-658), and enumerates several new
localities for the following minerals:—Alum, lead, bolus-earth, borax, iron,
edible earths, fire-clay, gold, gypsum, coal, kaolin, copper, magnesia,
manganese, marble, naphtha, porphyry, quicksilver, rock-salt, turquois,
silver, and surmeh (an antimonial sulphide used as a black colouring for the
eyes).
The second section is a full description of the region west of Zendjan,
between that city and the Tawileh Mountains, about one and a half degrees of
longitude in length. The yield of gold, silver, lead, and cinnabar in this
district is briefly discussed, the position of the mines being given in the
map, which is topographical only.
G. A. L.
BRAZOS COAL-FIELD, TEXAS.
By C. A. Ashburner. Trans. Amer. Inst. M.U., Vol. IX., pp. 495-506, eight
Figures
in text.
The Brazos Coal-field is the south-westernmost extension of the Missourian,
Fourth, or Western bituminous coal-basin of the United States. It extends
over 6,000 square miles within the State of Texas according to A. R.
Roessler, the thickness of the measures being 300 feet according to B. F.
Shumard, but considerably less according to the author. According to the
latter the coal-strata proper are 85 feet thick, and are included between an
upper sandstone and conglomerate, representing the Millstone grit or
Pottsville conglomerate, No. XII. of the Pennsylvania series, and a lower
grey limestone, which is the equivalent of the Mountain limestone or Chester
and St. Louis limestone of the Mississippi Valley. There are two principal
coal-seams, the Belknap seam above, 2^ to 4 feet thick, and the Brazos seam,
4 to 6 feet thick. The coals contain much ash and sulphur, but in the
absence of better fuel in this district would be valuable.
Besides the above Carboniferous coal-bearing series which occur chiefly in
Young and Stephens Counties, numerous lignitic deposits of Tertiary age are
said to exist in Rush, Harrison, Cass, Grayson, Bastrop, Fayette, Caldwell,
and Guadalupe Counties.
G. A. L.
AURIFEROUS SLATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN MINING REGION. By Prop. P. H.
Mell. Trans. Amer. Inst. M.P., Vol. IX., pp. 399-402. In the North Carolina,
Georgia, and Alabama gold belt, the gold lies for the most part disseminated
through the slate, the quartz seams or reefs running through the latter
often containing a much smaller percentage. The auriferous slate, which is
finegrained and talcose, occurs in zones sometimes several hundred feet in
width, and varying in length from a few hundred feet to several miles, and
extending to an unknown depth. The author having examined many of these
formations in the Southern States, and having found them to be generally
thoroughly decomposed and disintegrated, suggests that they could be worked
much more easily and profitably by making use of water (which abounds in
those regions) as the mining power, as is done
40
in the case of auriferous gravels; most of the gold mining at present
carried on in the country being on the crushing system necessary for quartz,
but superfluous for the soft easily-pulverised beds under consideration.
G. A. L.
THE SILVER SANDSTONE DISTRICT OF UTAH.
By C. M. Rolkeb. Trans. Amer. Inst. M.F., Vol. IX., pp. 21-33, with four
Figures
in text. This district lies about 320 miles south of Salt Lake City, in
Washington County, near the Arizona frontier. The Sandstone formation lies
in a horse-shoe belt upon the flanks of the granitic and trachytic
mountains, in the midst of which the chief mining camp, Silver Reef, is
situated. Sandstones and shales make up the argentiferous series, the former
standing out as so-called " reefs" by weathering. Their age is
uncertain—Triassic according to the author, Tertiary according to Mr.
Rothwell, and Permian according to Professor G. W. Maynard. Plant
remains—not very well defined—are the only fossils. The ore is chiefly
cerargyrite (horn-silver or chloride of silver), but below true water level
it is often sulphide of silver and native silver. The ore is disseminated in
the sandstone in a very variable manner, portions of one bed being
ore-bearing and others barren, and the former portions frequently being
faulted or nipped out in various ways within the same bed of apparently
homogeneous rock. There appears to be some relation between the presence of
rich ore and that of abundant plant remains. The various workings of the
region are briefly described, the monthly production being 135,000 to
150,000 dollars. G. A. L.
SOME COPPER DEPOSITS OF CARROLL COUNTY, MARYLAND.
By Peof. Pebsifob Feazee. Trans. Amer. Inst. M.E., Vol. IX., pp. 33-49,
with folding Plate and Woodcut in text.
This is practically a report on a copper ore property in New Windsor
district, belonging to Mr. A. A. Roop. The ore occurs impregnating limestone
beds of Silurian age at and near their junction with the "Hydro-Micaschists"
upon which they rest. The limestone beds, including the cupriferous band at
their base, lie in two parallel synclinals or troughs, the saddle between
which has been removed by denudation. The ore is of two kinds: 1st—A rich
band dividing the limestone from the schists, six to eighteen inches in
thickness, and consisting of mixtures of copper sulphides and a red
ferruginous earth. This band or bed of ore averages 23 per cent, of metallic
copper, and occurs everywhere on the property in the stratigraphical
position mentioned. 2nd.—Various kinds of copper carbonates — malachite and
azurite (chessylite) —• permeating the limestone for from five to fifteen
feet from the junction with the schists. Wherever selected for analysis
within this distance the limestone yielded 12 per cent, of copper.
Zinc blende, manganese oxide, and galena are occasionally associated with
the copper-bearing rocks of the place.
The length of the outcrop of the copper ores across the property is about
thirteen hundred feet. The length of the curve of the ore underground is
about fourteen hundred feet. The minimum thickness of the copper-bearing
rock is five feet. From these data and the specific gravities found, the
author gives 700,030 as the number of tons (of 2,352 pounds) of copper ore
on the property, the yield of metallic copper from which, on the lowest
computation, would be 84,004 tons (of 2,352 pounds), or 98,789 tons (of
2,000 pounds).
New Windsor is about forty miles from Baltimore.
G. A. L,
41
THE WHOPPER LODE, GUNNISON COUNTY, COLORADO.
By Peof. Pebsifob Feazer. Trans. Amer. Inst M.E., Vol. IX., pp. 249-258,
with
two Figures in text.
The Whopper mine is situated about eight miles N.W. of Gothic City, near the
eastern limit of the Ute Indian Reservation, and between Rock Creek and
Whopper Creek on the western flanks of the Elk mountains. The Whopper lode,
which is the same as that on which the Teller mine is placed, is a true N.W.
and S.E. fissure vein, both cheeks of which are generally of fine compact "
quartzite," this being the name locally given to what is really, it seems,
an orthofelsite. In one place the "country" is of a black trap-like rock.
The maximum observed width of the vein was 31 inches, the minimum 19 inches.
The gangue is quartz, about half of which is barren. The ore is mainly
pyritiferous in character. In the quartz gangue small and large crystals and
lumps of pyrite and chalcopyrite occur together with occasional particles of
galena. The assay value in silver of the average samples of ore from the
dump heaps was high. Two small coal-fields with workable coal of a
cannel-like character are situated near the Whopper claim.
G. A. L.
THE GOLD-BEARING MISPICKEL VEINS OF MARMORA, ONTARIO,
CANADA.
By R. P. Rothwell. Trans. Amer. Inst. M.E., Vol. IX., pp. 409-420, with
one folding Plate.
The township of Marmora is about thirty miles north of Belleville. The
district consists of low rounded hills of syenitic granite, overlain on the
flanks of the hills by Silurian limestones, which lie nearly flat and are in
places so fine in texture as to afford a lithographic stone of fine quality.
The gold-bearing veins run N. and S. through this belt of syenitic granite.
They are true fissure veins filled with quartz, and the walls and horses are
of micaceous and talcose slates, evidently the product of the chemical
decomposition of the syenite, from which also the vein-quartz has
segregated. Calcite and crystallized black mica also occur as part of the
gangue. The ore scattered through the vein stuff, sometimes in heavy bands
and sometimes in detached well-formed crystals, is mispickel (arsenical
sulphide of iron). In this mispickel is found, as free gold, most of the
gold for which the mines are worked, but some also occur in the quartz.
Gold was first found in the district in 1865.
On the combined properties owned by the Canada Consolidated Gold Mining
Company four or five parallel veins have been proved in a belt of 500 or 600
feet in width, with a proved length (beyond the company's ground) of about
three miles. The east or main vein has a width of 20 feet in many places and
averages 8 to 10 feet. Some three or four thousand tons of ore have been
mined upon this property, and the results of many assays are given by the
author. The chief results are as follows (tons of 2,000 pounds):—
Average 108 samples, 515 tons Gatling ore, $13*37 gold to the ton (by A.
Thies).
Check assays, by Prof. Richards, $14-75.
Average value, Gatling ore, east vein, $14"06 per ton.
Average samples, aggregating 63 tons, Tuttle shaft, east vein, $24-88.
Average samples, aggregating 12 tons, middle vein, $30'82.
The treatment of the gold-bearing mispickel is described briefly, but will
be dealt with more fully in a future paper.
G. A. L
/
42
GEOLOGY OF THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA CANAL.
Note sur la constitution geologique de VIsthme de Panama au point de vue de
Vexecution du Canal interoceanique. By E. Boutan. Annales des Mines, Sir. 7.
Memoires, Vol. XVIII., pp. 5-58. Two folding Plates.
The author is a member of the Commission sent out to report on the
feasibility of the proposed Canal. The rocks through which the Canal will
have to pass are as follows (in descending order) :—7.—Vegetable soil, soft
clays, mud, coral detritus, and alluvial matter generally. 6.—Compact clays,
soft tufaceous deposits, and soft sandstones. 5.—Hard and moderately hard
trachytic tuffs and grits. 4.—Limestones. 3.—Hard trachytic and doleritic
conglomerates. 2.—Compact doleritic and por-phyritic breccias. 1.—Compact
trachy-dolerites. The report is founded on a personal examination of the
region, on the details of the sections exposed along the line of railway
which almost coincides with that of the Canal, and on numerous borings made
specially for the projected Canal. The harder rocks, 1, 2, 3, occupy the
central portion of the Isthmus, 5 occurring only as isolated masses among
the softer deposits, 6 and 7, which fill up the flat land between the hard
rocks and the sea, both to the W. and to the E.; the limestones, 4, are of
very limited occurrence.
The Plates comprise a topographical map and a sheet of sections, showing the
relative altitudes and prevalence of the various rocks above enumerated,
both along the railway and the Canal routes.
G. A. L.
THE FORMATION OF GOLD NUGGETS AND PLACER DEPOSITS. By Dr. T. Egleston.
Trans. Amer. Inst. M.JE., Vol. IX., pp. 633-646.
The author thinks that the general theory, which regards the formation of
nuggets and placer deposits as the result of the destruction of pre-existing
vein-matter, does not accord with the facts as shown in the deep placer
deposits. These are, in California, invariably poor at the surface,
gradually growing richer in gold towards the bedrock ; the constant presence
of fossil wood and the large quantity of organic matter contained even low
down in these beds are also remarkable. Gold in veins is found, generally
speaking, to be less pure than placer gold in the same district. Nuggets in
drift deposits are mammillated in structure, and do not bear the appearance
which they would do if they had been water-worn. A number of other points of
difference between most placer gold and reef gold are given, and the
formation of the former is assigned by the author to chemical deposition
from solution. This theory, he points out, was proposed by Selwyn when he
held the post of Government Geologist in Victoria, but attracted little
attention at the time. Moreover, Selwyn did not state what he conceived the
cause of the solution to be. Experiments are detailed which tend to show the
effect of different organic substances on salts of gold in solution. In this
way solutions containing -50 gram, of chloride of gold with cork, leather,
and leaves, after being three months in a dark place, were found to be
colourless, but the organic substances were pseudomorphed into gold. With
petroleum a similar solution had also lost its colour, and '; there were
suspended in it a number of very fine and long crystals of gold distributed
nearly uniformly from top to bottom." A solution in which peat had been
placed " was also colourless, but the gold was precipitated in the form of
very small mammillary masses, recalling perfectly the form of nuggets."
Finally, the author accounts for the greater part of the gold occurring as
nuggets, etc., in the deeper portions of placer deposits by assuming that
water containing gold in solution, and being unable to pass the bed-rock, is
kept a sufficient time in contact with the organic mineral matter (lignites,
fossil wood, or pyrites, so common in deep placers) to allow the gold to be
precipitated. G. A. L.
43
ON THE LOWER COAL-MEASURES OF BELGIUM.
By De. J. C. Purves. Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg., Ser. 3, Vol. II, No. 12,
1881.
The author proposes five questions to himself which he answers more or less
fully in the present paper:—
1.—Does the coarse grit (Gres d'Andenne) of the Lower Coal-Measures form a
constant horizon in the Great Carboniferous series? This question is
answered in the affirmative and many detailed sections, etc., are given,
which prove that all the true Coal-Measure basins of Belgium are surrounded
by the outcrop of this marked bed.
2.—What is the succession of the beds between the coarse grit and the
Carboniferous Limestone ?
3.—What are the palseontological characters of the beds of the Lower
Coal-Measures ?
4.—-What were the conditions under which the beds constituting the Lower
Coal-Measures were deposited ?
5.—What are the foreign equivalents of the Belgian Lower Coal-Measures ?
The annexed Table will give the answer to this question and at the same time
show the author's views as to the preceding three questions :—
Correlation of English and Belgian Carboniferous Rocks from the
Coal-Measures proper to the Carboniferous Limestone proper.
England.
Belgium. Millstone Grit Series. Lower
Coal-Measures. Coarse felspathic grit.
Coarse grit of Andenne. Shales and sandstones with thin coal-
Shales and sandstones with thin coal-seams,
seams. Yoredale Beds. Shales,
sandstones, and grits. Shales with mytilus.
Dark shales with goniatites and posi- Shales and phthanites
(cherts) with donomyce.
goniatites and posidonomyce, passing Impure limestone, with
goniatites, posi- below into impure limestones with
donomyce, and brachiopods. brachiopods.
Carboniferous Limestone. Carboniferous
Limestone.
G. A. L.
RELATIONS OF THE GRAPHITE DEPOSITS OF CHESTER COUNTY, PA., TO THE GEOLOGY OF
THE ROCKS CONTAINING THEM.
By Prof. Persifor Frazer. Trans. Amer. Inst. M.E., Vol. IX., pp. 730-733.
There are two graphitic zones here; one, the richer of the two, extending
from Phcenixville past the town of Windsor, near which the most important
deposit of graphite occurs, to the Brandywine, the other parallel to the
first and running through Pughtown. The portion of the rock in the first
zone, sufficiently permeated by graphite to pay for -working, is from 12 to
15 feet from wall to wall, and is supposed—chiefly from the presence of the
graphite, however—to be of Laurentian or Lower Huronian age. In the mines of
the Pennsylvania Graphite Company, near Windsor, from 50 to 80 car loads of
half-a-ton were sent up per day (in August, 1880), the ore, or rather
impregnated rock, containing about 4 per cent, of graphite.
G. A. L.
44
ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE IN CONNEXION WITH THE SIMPLON TUNNEL IN THE ALPS.
Etude de la question de chaleur souterraine et de son influence sur les
projets et systemes d:'execution du Grand Tunnel Alpin du Simplon. By G. T.
Lommel. Rev. Univ. des Mines, Sir. 2, Vol. IX., pp. 1-55, three folding
Plates.
A controversial paper intended to prove the feasibility of a tunnel through
the base of the Simplon. The general results of observations on underground
temperature in various parts of the world are first given, and then the
readings obtained in the Mont Cenis and St. Gothardt Tunnels are quoted in
full and compared. The formulae used by Dr. F. M. Stapff to foretell the
probable temperatures to be met with in the St. Gothardt Tunnel are
especially criticised, and are said to be untrustworthy. The author's views
as to the best means of proceeding in the opening out of large tunnel works
are also given.
G. A. L.
ON THE INCREASE OP TEMPERATURE IN THE INTERIOR OF MOUNTAINS.
De Vaccroissement des temperatures a I'intirieur des Jiautes montagnes.
By Dr. F. M. Stappf. Rev. Univ. des Mines, Sir. 2, Vol. IX, pp. 56-72.
A reply to M. LommeFs strictures (see above). The author concludes with the
following indications, which may be regarded as a brief resume of his as yet
unpublished results:—
'; It must be well understood that, until a horizontal isotherm is reached,
the increase of temperature (putting aside for the moment other disturbing
influences) will be sensibly modified by the particular form of the
overlying ground; and that below this horizontal isotherm there will be
other co-efticients of increase of temperature independent of the
topographical details of the surface. At present the best observations made
on the temperature of the earth have given, in round numbers, 0-03 as the
mean coefficient of increase where the surface was level and of small height
above sea level.
" The observations made at the St. Gothardt Tunnel give a mean co-efficient
of 0*02 for a line 1,109 to 1,155 metres high in a mountain furnished with
summits attaining a height of 2,800 to 2,900 metres. It seems reasonable to
conclude from these two values that for lines drawn through mountains of
similar nature, between the heights of 0 to 1,150 metres, the co-efficient
of increase of temperature will be somewhere between 0-03 and 0-02, say, for
example, 0"024 for a line at a height of 750 metres.
" With such a co-efficient the temperature in the central portion of a
tunnel at the base of the Simplon might rise to 53° C. perhaps, instead of
46'9° C." The latter degree of temperature had been formerly arrived at by
Dr. Stapff by direct application of the St. Gothardt experiments.
G. A. L.
45
POWER, EFFECT, COST, AND WAGES EARNED, BY DRIVING WITH HYDRAULIC COMPRESSED
AIR AND HAND-POWER DRILLS.
Kraftbedarf Leistungen, Kosten und Lohnverdienste bei den Ortsbetrieben mit
Hydraulischen und mit Luftbohrmascliinen, soivie mit Handbohrung. Von B. R.
FoESTER. Jahrbuch fur das Berg-und HUttenwesen im Konigreiche Sachsen, 1882,
pp. 18-45.
At the Beihilfe Mine, near Freiberg, a series of experiments were made in
driving levels, in a vein of quartz from two to three yards thick, yielding
little and only poor galena, with Brandt's hydraulic, Schram's compressed
air and hand drills. The three systems were tried simultaneously in three
levels, which were driven uninterruptedly, except Sundays and holidays, with
six men in three eight-hour shifts per day.
The air-compressing machinery consisted of a Brandt-Sulzer, with a plunger
9'85 inches in diameter and 7"88 inches stroke, a Paschke-Kastner
compressor, with a 11*82 inches plunger and 15"76 inches stroke, and a
reserve small compressor, driven by a water turbine, having a 9'85 inches
plunger with a 13"396 inches stroke. The air was pressed to four atmospheres
and conducted in gas pipes, about 1^- inches in diameter (inside),
underground to the machines, a distance of about 900 yards. At first
Frohlich's drilling machine was used, but the Schram machine was liked
better by the men, and, consequently, came into use, and No. 1 size, with
2-!*!7 inches diameter cylinder, was afterwards replaced by No. 2, with 323
inches cylinder. Repairs were seldom necessary; a machine working for weeks
together without requiring repairs.
The water pressure necessary for the Brandt's drill was got from a head of
water equal to the depth at which the machine was at work, together with a
pressure derived from Brandt's water pressure accumulator; this amounted to
83-5 atmospheres, of which 26'9 was owing to the head of water.
The water service pipes were 1^ inches inside diameter, and were "18 inch
thick, ¦with screwed ferrule joints and copper face rings, and were laid a
distance of about 725 yards.
The total cost of the machine drilling plant, consisting of one Brandt's,
two Schrain's drills with compressors, pipes, etc., amounted to £2,500.
All the levels driven had holes driven in advance on account of expecting
water, and for this purpose the air drills were found the best. The men were
paid for such holes up to three metres long, Is. 6d. per metre, and above
three metres in depth, 2s. 6d. Before the machine drills were introduced the
amount paid was from 5s. to 6s. per metre. Four yards was easily reached
with the air drills. The Brandt's drill, on account of the great diameter of
the hole, viz., 2*67 inches, was considered not quite safe to approach water
with.
To arrive at the power required to drive the mechanical drills elaborate
experiments were made with a friction dynamometer, in order to find:
1st.—The mechanical work necessary to crush the stone by percussion or
drilling. 2nd.—The power exerted by the drill on the stone. 3rd.—The power
necessary to drive the water or air through the pipes. 4th.—The power
exerted by the air or water on the machine. 5th.—The power exerted by the
steam engine, or other mechanical power, on the air-compressor. And 6th.—The
power exerted in the steam engine. To compare the results with hand
drilling, experiments were made to find the work necessary to drill a hole
by hand, and allowances had to be made on account of the different sized
holes drilled. By hand-drilling the holes were *9 inch diameter, compressed
air drills 1*47 inch, and by Brandt's drills 2-68 inches diameter. These
sizes are in the ratio of 1 .' 2'44 " 8-05, taking the diameter of the
hand-drilled holes as unity; the power necessary to drive them was as 1 .'
3-26 ." 8"04 respectively.
46
The following will show the distribution of power necessary for the machine
drills:—
Air compressor No. 1 (Paschke Kastner) was driven by a turbine exerting a
power of 9*68 horses. The useful effect of the compressor, using no
expansion, was 21*7 per cent., giving "230 cubic metres of air per minute at
a pressure of four atmospheres, equal in power to 2'10 h.p. This air entered
the service pipes on the inbye side of the air reservoirs into which Nos. 2
and 3 air compressors delivered.
No. 2 air compressor (Brandt Sulzer) and No. 3 (Paschke Kastner) were both
worked from a Schnsamkrug turbine which, with a head of water equal to 63-3
h.p., delivered to the two air compressors and a water press 31*3 h.p.,
showing a useful effect of 49 per cent.
The two air compressors got together 12*4 h p., No. 2 giving a useful effect
of 18*2 per cent., and No. 3 of 21-8 per cent. Both of these were never
worked together, one being always held in reserve. No. 2 delivered *247
cubic metres of air per minute at a pressure of four atmospheres (without
expansion) equal to 2'26 h.p., while No. 3 delivered "295 cubic metres of
air at four atmospheres pressure (without expansion) equal to 2"7 h.p. The
compressed air from Nos. 1 and 3 (No. 2 being generally in reserve) amounted
to 0*295 + 0*230 = 0*525 cubic metres per minute at four atmospheres
pressure, equal to 2*7 + 2*1 = 4'8 h.p. Deduct from this 0-048 cubic metres
of air from loss in pipes there remains '477 cubic metres of air per minute
for the drills. The loss of pressure in the pipes amounted to *3
atmospheres, so that the '477 cubic metres of air delivered to the drills
was pressed to 3-7 atmospheres and equal to 4*04 h.p. This air worked two
Schram drills, each placed in a level, the large one of which by 300 strokes
per minute required *396 cubic metres of air per minute, which exerted a
power of 3-3 h.p. without expansion, and which gave *84 h.p. duty in
drilling equal to 25 per cent. The small drill took by 300 strokes per
minute *266 cubic metres of air per minute, exerting 2-2 h.p, on the drill
without expansion, and giving a useful effect of -56 h.p., or 25 per cent.
duty. Each drill worked 7 hours 14 minutes per day.
As said before, the turbine working the air compressors Nos. 2 and 3
delivered also 18'9 h.p. to a water press which exerted 13*4 h.p., giving
thereby a duty of 71 per cent.; this delivered 1*73 litres per second of
water at a pressure of 56'5 atmospheres equal to 13*4 h.p. of which *3
litres per second was surplus amount and which flowed into an accumulator,
the rest, 1*45 litres per second equal to ll'l h.p., found its way into the
pipes. While descending to the drills, the water increased its pressure
owing to its head, 26*9 atmospheres, equal to a height of 277 metres, but
owing to friction only 77'8 atmospheres pressure, or 15*3 h.p., found its
way to the Brandt's drilling machine. Of this 71'5 per cent, was lost in
friction and 20 per cent, in loss of water, giving a useful effect of 1*3
h.p. only, or a duty of 8*5 per cent. The machine worked daily 2 hours 22
minutes.
The reason of Brandt's drill working less time than Schram's, was that the
former, owing to the large size of hole drilled, required a less number of
holes and depth of same per metre of drift driven. Brandt's machine drilled
6*2 holes per metre driven with a total depth of 6*60 metres. Schram's
drill, on the other hand, drilled 339 holes per metre driven with a total
depth of 25-58 metres. By hand drilling these figures were respectively 45*7
and 22*30 in one drift, and 38-7 and 19-60 respectively in another drift.
The speed of driving by hand, taking an average of five levels, was 0'021
metres per man per shift, including boring in advance, or "0236 without
advance boring, or it took 48*9 shifts of one man each to drive one metre,
of which 6*6 shifts of one man each were required for advance boring. The
Schram drill advanced the drift -132 for the large drill, and "111 metres
for the small drill, per man per shift, or 7*55 and 9*00 shifts
47
per man respectively, for one metre driven, including advance boring. The
Brandt drill was even quicker, advancing at the rate of *144 metres per man
per shift, or 6*92 shifts per man for 1 metre driven.
The cost is given in the following Table. Under " hand drilling" the total
and average of five levels driven is taken into account:—
Hand Schram Schram n„n^Ai-
Drilling. No. 1. No. 2. -Brandt.
Duration of experiment, weeks ... ... 179 39
8 29
Distance driven, metres ......... 171*1 182
32 144
Dynamite and gelatine dynamite per metre
driven in kilogrammes ... ... ... *5"77 9*71
8*05 9*72
Wages per metre driven, including ad- £ a. d. £ s. d.
£ a. d. £ s. d.
vance boring ............ 25 5 2 2 19 10 2 12 0 2
13 8
Expenditure per metre driven paid out of wages—
Dynamite and powder ...... 1 16 8 1 6 2 1 1
0 1 5 0
Smith's costs and loss of steel ... +5 17 6 60
79 28
Leaving net wage .........23 8 6 1 7 8 1 3 3
1 6 0
Other costs per metre driven—
Attendance and maintenance to machinery ..................
6 10 6 10 6 10
Repairs to machinery ... ... ......... 40
41 40
Total of all costs ............31 2 8 3 10 8 3 2 11
3 4 6
To this add 10 °/o for interest and amortization .....................
72 72 72
Also cost of steam power, if water power
had not existed .................. 74 74 28
Total .........31 2 8 4 5 2 3 17 5 3 14 4
Net wages per man per shift of 8 hours ... 20 38
36 39
* Also 38'51 kgs. of powder. f Not
deducted from wages.
C. Z. B.
NOTES ON THE SOUTH REWAH GONDWANA BASIN.
By Theo. W. H. Hughes. Records Geol. Survey of India, Vol. XIV., Part 1,
pp. 126-138.
A brief description of the geology of the region between the rivers Johilla
and Gopat, tributaries of the Son. The rocks examined all belonged to the
great Gond-wana series, and are reported on group by group under the
following heads:—8, Trap; 7, Lameta ; 6, Jabalpur; 5, Maleri; 4, Mahadeva;
3, Ranigan j; 2, Barakar (Karhar-bari); 1, Talchir. Except in the
last-mentioned and lowest rock-group, where a dip of 5 deg. was observed,
the beds throughout the district are practically flat.
In the Barakar group (No. 2) coal was seen, of which a detailed section is
given showing it to be unpromising by reason of the many stone-bands
separating from each other the several thin layers of coal constituting the
seam. Coal is also reported from a few localities in the Raniganj group (No.
3), but in seams too thin to be workable except near Guraru, in the Son
River, where a seam at least 5 feet thick was found. An analysis of this
coal by Mr. Mallet is given as follows;—
48
" Moisture ... ... ... ... ...
... 2-7
Volatile (exclusive of moisture) ... ... ... 9'5
Fixed carbon ... ... ... ... ... ...
40*5
Ash ..................... 47-3
Total ............100-0
" Does not cake. Ash reddish." Manganese ore, apparently psilomelane,
occurs in botryoidal masses in clays of Maleri age (No. 5).
At Umaria coal is found in the Jabalpur division (No. 6), the analysis of
which gives, as percentages, of fixed carbon 45'8, and of ash 135, with 11'3
for moisture, thus resembling a lignite.
G. A. L.
NOTES ON THE SOUTH REWAH GONDWANA BASIN.
Note II.
By Theo. W. H. Hughes. Records Geol. Survey of India, Vol. XIV., Part 4,
pp. 311-320. In this second note several additional coal-seams are noticed
in the Barakar group (No. 2), viz., in the Sohagpur coal-field, which
stretches into the Korea State at Bichia, a seam more than 5 feet thick, the
analysis of the better part of which gives: Moisture 5'8, volatile matter
29-5, fixed carbon 55"0, ash 9"7 (does not cake); in the bed of the Eiwai
River near Belha-Piari a seam about 5 feet 6 inches thick, and of fairly
good quality, and another nearly as thick near Bhalmuri; but the finest in
the coal-field is a 7 feet 2 inches seam on the banks of the Kulharia-nala,
the coal of which does not Cake, and yields the following analysis: Moisture
6-7> volatile matter 28-2, fixed carbon 59'6, ash 5"5.
G. A. L.
ARTESIAN BORINGS IN INDIA.
By H. B. Medlicott. Records Geol. Survey of India, Vol. XIV., Part 3, pp.
205-238.
After discussing the rationale of artesian wells, and certain new
experiments illustrating the matter, the author describes the numerous
trials that have been made to adapt such sources of water supply to India,
and to discuss the various causes of the failure which has hitherto attended
them. The Older and Secondary rock-basins in India are both dismissed as
unsuitable for artesian wells, and only one well of the kind is known to the
author to have been attempted in rocks older than the Alluvium; this was in
Tertiary Rocks, at Gogah (Gogo), in Guzerat, and was unsuccessful. The great
alluvial deposits of the plains of India, however, offer a fair prospect of
success, although results have so far been disappointing. The special
characteristics of all the chief borings which have been put down in the
plains of Upper India are given. At Sabzalkot success could not reasonably
be expected; at Bhiwani the ground is presumably out of reach of the
northern sources of supply, which are the only hopeful ones. " The Anibala
trial is the only one for which success could have been predicted, and as
the ultimate condition of that success—to reach the base of the alluvial
deposits — has not been accomplished, the prospect remains [in 1881]
unaffected, save by the knowledge that the depth of the deposits is greater
than might have been expected, or at least hoped for." Sections are given of
most borings referred to, including those at Pondicherry—the only successful
artesian wells in India—the peculiar circumstances of which are given in
detail.
G. A L.
INDEX TO VOL. XXXI.
" Abs." signifies Abstracts of Foreign Papers at End of the Volume.
Abstracts of Foreign Papers; Secretary's report, 75.—Abstracts, end of
volume.
Academy of Mining; Freiberg, abs. 12.— Pennsylvania, abs. 13.—New York, abs.
13.
Accidents : Explosions in England, 1851-1878, 8.—From gas in England, 13.—
Welsh anthracite coal-field, 184.
Account of a new ventilating fan, by T. J. Bowlker, 93.—Friction of air,
94-101.—Results of experiments, 95-96.— Do. Rockingham fan, 98.—Comparison
of fans, 100. — Mode of calculating the friction of air at Byron,
103.—Discussed, 238.
Plate.—12. Bowlker and Watson's ventilator, plan and sections.
Accounts, xii.
Address, G. B. Forster. (See President's Address.)
Advertisement, xi.
Aguillon and Pernolet; review of their report on the working of fiery mines
in England. (See Report, &c.)
Air; compressed-air and hand power drills, abs. 45.—Compressed air machinery
at Skelton Park, 105.—Friction of. 94,101, 126; abs. 29, 33.
Air-blast; cleaning coal by air, abs. 11.
Air-compressors; Prussia, abs. 28.— Friction, &c, abs. 29.
Allanshaw; pillar working at, 16; and plate 2.
Allenheads; experiments, underground temperature, 66.
Alps; Simplon tunnel, temperature, abs. 44.
Alps (Tauern); gold district of, abs. 38.
Alteration of days of meeting, 31, 49.
Alum works in England, 56.
VOL. XXXI.—: 882,
I America; fire-damp explosions. (See Fire-damp, &c.)—Bureau of mines and
mining,&c.,abs. 16.—Pennsylvania. (See Pennsylvania).—New York, a summer
school of practical mining, abs. 13.— Brazos coal-field, Texas, abs.
39.—Auriferous slate deposits of the Southern Mining region, abs. 39.—Utah,
silver sandstone district of, abs. 40.—Maryland, copper deposits of Carroll
county, abs. 40.—Colorado, the Whopper lode, Gunnison county, abs. 41.
Analyses : Nova Scotia gold, 169.—Newcastle bituminous and American
anthracite coal, 177. — Black muck, 225.— Indian coal, abs. 47.—Coal from
the South Rewah Gondwana Basin, abs. 47, 48. Anthracite coal of South Wales,
by E. F. Melly, 175.—Definition of anthracite, 175.—History, 176.—Mode of
occurrence, analyses, Newcastle bituminous and American anthracite compared,
177. —The anthracite deposit divided into districts, 178.—Quantity of
anthracite worked, 179.—Mode of working, 181. —Working by contract,
182.—Cost of working, 183.—Accidents, 184.—Uses of anthracite, 185.—Steam
experiments, 188.—Prices, 189.—Coking, 190.—Discussed, 191.—Remarks on
smoke, by the Secretary, 191.
Plates.~29. Map of the South Wales anthracite district.-- 30. Sections at
Moreton colliery, near Saundersfoot, and in the Gwendraeth Valley.—31.
Workings, single road stall and double road stall.—32. Domestic stove for
burning anthracite, and Perkin's furnace. J J
258 INDEX.
Anthracite coal-tields of Pennsylvania; new method of mapping, abs. 12.
Apparatus; for breathing in noxious gases, 197.—For cleaning coal by means
of air-blast, abs. 11.
Artesian borings in India, abs. 48.
Associate members, xxxiii.
Balloting list, lix.
Barometer readings, 249.
Barometric variations; influence of on ventilation, 25.
Beanlands, A.; quotation from his paper On surveying, 35.
Belgium; explosions in, abs. 7-—Hainaut coal-fields, statistics, abs.
4.—Lower coal-measures of, abs. 43.
Bewick, T. J.; paper On diamond rock boring discussed, 40.
Bird, W. J.; On coverings for steam pipes. (See Comparative efficiency of,
&c.)
Boldon; experiments, underground temperature, 66.
Boring; discussion as to direction of dip of strata, 45.
Borings (artesian) in India, abs. 48.
Bowlkeb, T. J., ventilating fan. (See Account of, &c.)
Brazos coal-field, Texas, abs. 39.
Breakage of colliery ropes; French report on, abs. 17.
Bunning, T. W., On Fleuss' apparatus, 197.
Bye-laws, xlvii.
Byron colliery; ventilating fan at. (See Account of &c.)
Canada; gold-bearing mispickel veins of
Marmora, Ontario, abs. 41. Candler, Thomas E., On surveying with
the loose needle among rails, &c. (See
Description of &c.) Celynen; air-crossings at, 15, and plate 1.
—Workings at, 9, and plate 9. Charter; copy of, xli. Cleaning Coal. (See
Dry, or wind, method
of)
Cleveland; meeting at, 1, 105.
Coal; analysis of Indian, abs. 47.—
Gases produced by the combustion of,
191. Coal-cleaning. (See Dry, or tvind, method
of)
Coal-cleaning by an air-blast, abs. 11.
Coal-dust; an element of danger in mining, abs. 7.—French report. 27.—Use of
salt for laying, 145.—W. Galloway on, 147.—John Pattinson on, 149.—French
Commission on, abs. 14.
Coal duty; report of a Committee of the Chamber of Deputies on, abs. 15.
Coal-measures (lower) of Belgium, abs. 43.
Coal working in England; French report on, 5.
Colliery rules; French Commission, abs. 14.—Loire coal trade, abs. 15.—North
of France Committee, abs. 15.
Colorado; whopper lode, Gunnison county, abs. 41.
Comparative efficiency of non-conducting coverings for steam-pipes, by W. J.
Bird, 77.—Various materials described and compared, 77.—Tables showing
results of experiments, 78-81.—Discussed, 83.
Compass; fixing needle, 45.
Compressed-air and hand-power drills, abs. 45.
Compressed-air machinery at Skelton Park, 105.
Contents of volume, v.
Copper deposits of Carroll county, Maryland, abs. 40.
Council report, vii.
Coverings for steam-pipes. See Comparative efficiency of, &c.)
Darcy's Table for iron pipes, abs. 30.
Description of a method of surveying with the loose needle among rails and
other ferruginous substances, by Thomas E. Candler, 33. — Compared with
other methods, 34. — Quotations from Mr.
INDEX. 259
Beanland's paper, 35.—Specimen pages of books, 37.— Formula? for finding
bearings, distances, &c, 39.
Woodcut.—Showing the geometrical principle by which the measurements are
obtained, 40.
Diamond rock-boring; Mr. T. ,T. Bewick"s paper discussed, 40.
Drilling; cost of machine compared with hand drilling, abs. 24.
Drilling machines; Walker's, 108.—Improvements in (Prussia), abs. 26.
Drills; power, effect, cost, and wages earned by driving with hydraulic
compressed-air and hand-power drills, abs. 45.
Dry, or wind, method of cleaning coal, by E. P. Rathbone, 245.—The system
described, 245.—Conditions for satisfactory working, Advantages of the dry
over the wet methods, 247.
Plates.—51. Arrangement of blower and hopper.—52, 54. Elevational sections
of apparatus —53. Plan of ditto.
Dijnn, J. T., gases produced by the combustion of coal, 191.
Dust. (See Coal-dust.)
Dynamite used at Lumpsey, 112.
Election of members, 8, 31, 50, 76, 121, 173, 209.
Electric gin, Peronniere Colliery, abs. 10.
Electric safety-lamp: Swan's, 117, and plate, 21.
Electricity; transmission of power by, abs. 9.
Eppleton; ventilation at, 25.—Workings at, 16, and plate, 4.
Experiments : Underground temperature, 60, 63, 66.—Coverings for steam
pipes, 77.—Ventilating fans, 94.—Do. in Germany, abs. 9.—Fan at Rockingham,
98.—Anthracite coal, 188.— Cleaning coal by an air-blast, abs. 11. —Winding
ropes, abs. 21.—Air-compressors, abs. 29.—Drills, abs. 47.
Explosions. (See also Fire-damp.)—Albion Mines, Nova Scotia, abs.
7.—Prevention of, abs. 7.—Belgium, abs. 8.—Velocity of propagation of, abs.
8.—Prussian Royal Commission on, abs. 13.
Explosives; improvements in (Prussia), 27.
Fans; Bowlker. (See Account of, &c.)— Pelzer, abs. 9.
Finance Committee's report, ix.
Fire-damp; explosions in the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania, Abstract
of Dr. Chance's analysis of, by Prof. Merivale, 87.—Tabular statements of
explosions in the various months, 87,88. —Explosions in Belgium,
89.—Discussed, 90.—French Commission on, abs. 14.
Fleuss apparatus for breathing in noxious gases, by T. W. Bunning,
197.—Apparatus and lamp described, 197-—Mode of providing oxygen,
201.—Discussed, 202. —Remarks by S. H. Hedley, 202.
Plates.—33, 34, 35. Sketches showing the different portions of the
apparatus.—36. Section of the lamp.
Foreign papers, abstracts of; Secretary's report, 75.—Abstracts, end of vol.
Formation of gold nuggets and placer deposits, abs. 42.
Forms, liv.
Foester, G. B., Address. (See President's Address.)
France : Rive-de-Gier coal-field statistics, abs. 2.—Fire-damp commission,
abs. 14. —Loire Committee, report of, rules foi fiery mines, abs. 15.—North
of France Committee, report of, rules for fiery mines, abs. 15.—Blanzy
mines, transmission of power by electricity, abs. 9.— Peronniere colliery,
electric gin at, abs. 10.—Committee of the Chamber of Deputies on the coal
duty, abs. 15.— Breakage of ropes, report on, abs. 17.— Mineral statistics,
1879, abs. 34.
Freiberg, Royal Mining Academy of, abs. 12.
260 INDEX.
French Commission on fire-damp, abs. 14. Furness, haematite deposits
of. (See Scematlte.)
Galloway, W., On coal dust, 147.
Gas; outbursts of, 9.
Gases; apparatus for breathing in noxious, 197.—Produced by the combustion
of coal, 191.
General statement of accounts, xvi.
Geology of the Isthmus of Panama Canal, abs. 42.
Gilpin, Edwin, On the gold-fields of Nova Scotia. (See Gold-fields?)
Gold; Auriferous slate deposits of the Southern mining region (America),
abs. 39.—Whopper lode, Gunnison county, Colorado, abs. 41.
Gold-bearing mispickel veins of Marmora, Ontario, abs. 41.
Gold district of the Tauern Alps, abs. 38.
Gold-fields of Nova Scotia, by Edwin Gilpin, 151.—Extent and area of the
district, Description of the granite rocks, 153.—Age of the gold-bearing
rocks,155.—Alluvial gold,161.—Mining, 163.—Milling, 165.—Cost of crushing,
166.—Assays, 167, 170. — Analyses of gold, 169.—Yield, and average earnings
of workmen, 1862 to 1881,171.—Ditto for the year 1881, 172.
Plates.—22. Sketch map of the Nova Scotia gold-fields.—23. The Waverley gold
district.—24. Sketch of corrugated lode, Moose river.—25. Sketch of "
Angling" lodes, Oldham.—26. Section of "Bull" vein and "Belt" lode. —27.
Plan of " Belt" lode, Montagu. —28. Ten-stamp mill, 750 lbs.
Gold nuggets and placer deposits; formation of, abs. 42.
Graphite deposits; Pennsylvania, abs. 43.
Greasing of pit tubs, abs. 37.
Guibal fan at Eockingham, 93.
Hainaut coal-field; statistics, abs. 4. Haswell; ventilation at, 16, and
plate 3.
Haulage by endless rope, 110.
Haematite ore; specimen exhibited, 47.
Haematite deposits of Furness, by J. D. Kendall, 211.—Introductory, 211.—
Geological structure of the district, 212.—Section of borehole between
Dunnerholm and Ireleth, 213.—Do. at Windhills, 215.—Do. at Crossgates,
216.—Form, position, and inner nature of the deposits, 219.—Analysis of
black muck, 225.—Puddling ore, its composition, 227-—Soft dark ore, its
composition, 228.—Age of the deposits, 229.— Origin of the deposits,
230.—Discussed, 237.
Plates.—37. Map showing the relations of the different geological formations
in the district described.— 38. Map showing the superficial extent of the
various rocks found in the district described.—39. Section showing the
comparative depth and the succession of the rocks described.—40. Sections of
district shown on plate 38. —41. Cavern at Stainton.—42. Sections of
Carboniferous Limestone.— 43. Lindal Moor Mines.—44. Stank Mines, Yarlside
Mines.—45. Tytup Mines.—46. Park Mines.—47. Askam Mines.—48. Various
sections showing formations of deposits.—49. Piece of ore, magnified.—50.
Form and mode of occurrence of small loughs.
Hedley, S. H., Remarks on Fleuss' apparatus, 202.
Honorary members, xviii.
India; Notes on the South Rewah Gond-wana Basin, abs. 47, 48.—Artesian
borings in, abs. 48.
Jet mining, by Charles Parkin, 51.—Jet mines subject to the Mines Act;
Geological description, 51.—Mode of working, 52.-—Means of ventilation,
timbering and blasting, Royalty charges, yearly production, and
commercial
INDEX. 261
value, 53.—Locality of mines, manufacture, 54.—Combination of enamel and
jet, 55.—Alum works, 56.—Discussed, 57, 205.
Kendall, J. D., On the haematite deposits of Furness. (See Ilcematite
deposits.)
Lamps. (See Safety-lamps.)
Langley Barony lead mines, visit to, 207.
Leboue, Professor; On jet, 57.—On underground temperature, 59.—His paper On
the mineral resources of the country between Rothbury and Wooler discussed,
203.—His paper On the present state of our knowledge of underground
temperature discussed, 204.
Life members, xviii.
Life-saving apparatus; French Commission on, abs. 14.—Fleuss', 197.
Llwynpia; air crossings at, 15, and plate 1.
London smoke nuisance, 191.
Long-wall working; French report on, 5.
Lumpsey; sinking operations at, 1. (See also Remarks on, &c.)
Lundhill; coal working at, 17, and plates 3,6.
Meetings; alteration of, 31, 49.
Melly, E. F., On the anthracite coal of South Wales. (See Anthracite
coal.)
Members, Honorary, xviii.—Life, xviii.— Original, xx.-—Ordinary,
xxxiii.—Associate, xxxiii.— Students, xxxv.
Merivale, Professor; fire-damp explosions in Pennsylvania. (See Firedamp,
&c)
Mineral resources of the country between Rothbury and Wooler; Professor
Le-bour's paper discussed, 203.
Mineral resources of Persia, abs. 39.
Mineral statistics; France, 1879, abs. 34. —Saxony, 1879, abs. 2.—1880, abs.
36.
Mining Academy; Freiberg, abs. 12.— New York, abs. 13.—Pennsylvania, abs.
13.
Mining industry of Prussia, 1880, abs. 1.
Mining machinery in Prussia; improvements in, abs. 26.
Mountains; temperature in the interior of, abs. 44.
Nomination of members; forms for, liv.
Nova Scotia; gold-fields of. (See Gold-fields.)—Explosion at the Albion
Mines, abs. 7.
Officers, xix.
Ordinary members, xxxiii. Ore deposits of Kitzbiihel, in Tyrol, abs. 37.
Original members, xx. Oxygen; mode of providing for Fleuss' lamp, 201.
Panama Canal; Geology of, abs. 42.
Pakkin, Charles; On jet mining, 51, 205.
Patrons, xvii.
Pattinson, John; On coal dust, 149.
Pendlebury; coal working at, 17, and plate 5.
Pennsylvania; fire-damp explosions in. (See Fire-damp, &c.) —New method of
mapping the anthracite coal-fields of, abs. 12.—Industrial school for miners
and mechanics, abs. 13.—Relations of the graphite deposits of Chester County
to the geology of the rocks containing them, abs. 43.
Pernolet and Aguillon; Review of their report on the working of fiery mines
in England. (See Report, &c.)
Persia; mineral resources of, abs. 39.
Pillar and stall working; French report on, 5.
Pipes; Darcy's Table for, 30.
Placer deposits and gold nuggets; formation of, abs. 42.
President's address (G. B. Forster), 123.— Accidents in mines,
123.—Ventilation, 124.—Safety lamps, 126.— Testing lamps, coal dust,
127.—Use of salt for laying dust, fire-damp, 128.—Pressure of gas, colliery
warnings, 129.—Gun-
262 INDEX.
powder, blown-out shots, 130.—Lime cartridges, number of shafts, working
large areas of coal, 131, 132.—Fleuss' life-saving apparatus, 133.—Minor
accidents, ambulance, 134.—Electric lighting, &c, 134.—Scientific training
for mining engineers, 136.—Methods of working coal, 137.—Sinking, 138.—
Winding machinery, 139.—Boilers and coke ovens, compressed air, safety
hooks, &c, 140.—Underground haulage, coal-cutting machines, drilling, &c,
141.—Conclusion, 142.
Prussia : Mining industry of, 1880, abs. 1.—Royal Commission on explosions
in mines, abs. 13.—Mining machinery, &c, improvements in, 1880, abs.
26.—Saar-bruck coal-field, abs. 36.
Puddling ore; composition of, 227.
Pumping (Prussia), abs. 27.
Rail guides, steel, (France), abs. 28.
Railway, wire-rope, (Prussia), abs. 27.
Rathbone, E. P., O.n the dry, or wind, luethod of cleaning coal. (See Dry,
or wind, method.)
Remarks on the points of interest at the Skelton Park and Lumpsey Mines, by
A. L. Steavenson, 105.—Compressed air machinery, 105.—Error in using high
pressure, 106.—Mechanical drilling, 107. —Walker's drilling machine
described, 108.—Haulage by endless rope, 110.— Lumpsey shafts, difficulties
encountered in sinking, description of tubbing and cribbing, 111.—Use of
dynamite, 112. —Strata at Lumpsey, 113.
Plates.—13. Walker's drilling machine.—14. Phidless rope haulage attaching
arrangement.—15. Do. detaching hook.—16. Single and double cribs.—17.
Tubbing.—18. General arrangement of sinking machinery at the surface.—19.
Mode of hanging the sets. —20. Mode in which the pumps and cisterns are
supported by the tubbing. Report of Council, vii.
Report of Finance Committee, ix. Report on the working and regulation of
fiery mines in England, by Messrs. Per-nolet and Aguillon: Reviewed by A. L.
Steavenson. Introduction, 5.—Accidents, 8.—Exceptional outbursts of gas,
9.—Sudden outbursts from the thill, 10. —Eruption of gas from old workings,
12.—Accidents from gas in England, 13.—Management and working, extension of
underground works, 14.—Interior arrangements, methods of working,
15.—Ventilation of the broken, separation of broken districts, mode of
setting out the face, 16. — Ventilation of long-wall in course of working,
17.— Ventilation of single or double stall, 18. —The long-wall system,
general description, 19.—Working the thick coal in South Staffordshire,
general remarks on the methods of working in England, 20.—Ventilation and
ventilating appliances, 23.—Volumes of air in mines, 24. —Subdivision of
air, division of air at Eppleton, distribution of air, influence of
barometric variation. 25.—Working arrangements and superintendence,
underground lighting, work with powder, 26.—Dust, 27.—Discussed, 27.
Plates.—1. Air crossings at Llwynpia and Celynen.—2. Broken workings at
Ryhope and Allanshaw.— 3. Broken workings at Haswell, mode of working the
broken at Lundhill.—4. Broken workings of panel at Eppleton.—5. Mode of
working the broken in the Doe Mine seam, and in the Rams Mine seam,
Pendlebury.-—6. Arrangement of the broken workings at Lundhill, and mode of
setting out the works in the pillar and single-stall system, Wales.—7. Do.
in the wicket system of North Wales.—8. Do. in the pillar and double-stall
system in Wales.—9. Arrangement of the broken in the double-stall workings
in the Black Vein seam at Celynen, arrangement
INDEX. 263
of the workings in the Black Vein
seam at Celynen.—10. Arrangement
of long-wall, working outwards and
home.—11. Arrangement of the
working faces in the Silkstone seam
at Rockingham. Rive-de-Gier coal-field statistics; abs. 2. Rockingham; coal
workings at, 19, and
plate 9.—Guibal fans at, 93, 98. Ropes; French report on the breakage of
j
abs. 17.—Testing by hydraulic power,
abs. 20.—Winding, abs. 21. Royal charter, xli. Royal Commission on
explosives in Mines
(Prussia), abs. 13. Royal Mining Academy of Freiberg,
abs. 12. Rules, xlvii. Rules for collieries; French Commission,
abs. 14. Rules for fiery mines; Loire coal trade, !
abs. 15.—North of France Committee,
abs. 15. Ryhope; broken workings at, plate 2.
Saarbruck coal-field, abs. 36.
Safety-lamps; Swan's electric lamp, 117, and plate 21.—Tin-can lamp, 127.—
Fleuss', 133, 201.—French Commission on, abs. 14.
Salt for laying dust in mines, 145.
Saxony; mineral statistics of, 1879, abs. 2, 1880, abs. 36.—Royal Mining
Academy of Freiberg, abs. 13.
Schools, Mining. (See Academy.)
Scrutineers appointed, 209.
Sections : Strata at Lumpsey, 113.— Section in ascending order from the axis
of the anticlinal, Mount Uniacke gold-field, 154.—Borehole between
Dun-nerholm and Ireleth, 213. —Borehole at Windhills, 215.—Borehole at
Cross-gates, 216.—"Bull" and "Belt" lode, Nova Scotia, plate, 26—Comparative
depth and succession of rocks, Furness district, plate 39.
Silver sandstone district of Utah, abs. 40.
Siinplon Tunnel; temperature, abs. 44.
Sinking at Lumpsey, 1, 111.
Skelton Park Mines; meeting at, 1. (See also Remarks on, &c.)
Smoke statistics, 191.
Soft dark ore; its composition, 228.
South Hetton; experiments, underground temperature, 63. : South Rewah
Gondwana Basin; Notes on, j 47, 48.
South Staffordshire; working the thick coal, 5.
Statistics :—France, mineral, 1879, abs. 34.—Hainaut coal-field, abs.
4—Prussia, Mining industry of, 1880, abs. 1.— Rive-de-Gier coal-field, abs.
2.—Saxony, mineral statistics, 1879, abs. 2; 1880, abs. 36. I Steam pipes;
coverings for. (See Comparative efficiency of, &c.) \ Steavenson, A. L.;
Review of Messrs. Pernolet and Aguillon's report on the working fiery mines
in England, 5.— Description of machinery, Ac., at Skelton Park and Lumpsey,
105.
Stevenson, Robert ; On the use of salt for laying dust in mines, 145.
Strata; discussion as to dip of, in boring, 45.
Students, xxxv.
Subscribing collieries, xxxix.
Subscriptions, xii.
Surveying with the loose needle. (See Description of, &c.)
Swan's electric safety lamp, 117, and plate 21.
Table for iron pipes (Darcy's), abs. 30.
Temperature in the interior of mountains, abs. 44.
Temperature underground. (See Underground temperature, &c.)
Treasurer's accounts, xii.
Tubbing at Lumpsey, 111.
Tubs; greasing of, abs. 37.
Tyrol ore deposits of Kitzbiihel, abs. 37.
2(54 INDEX.
Underground temperature in connection with the Siraplon Tunnel in the Alps,
ahs. 44.
Underground temperature, On the present state of our knowledge of, with
special reference to the nature of the experiments still required in order
to improve that knowledge, hy Prof. G. A. Lebour, 59.—British Association
Committee, 61. — Opinions of eminent men quoted, 62-66.— Difficulties
encountered in making experiments.—Experiments at South Hetton. 63.—Boring
at Sperenberg, 64. —Experiments at Boldon and Allen-heads, 66.—Method of
lowering and raising thermometer, 68.—Tables showing results of experiments,
60, 63, 65, 68.—Discussed, 204.
Use of salt for laying dust in mines, by Knhprt Stevenson. 145.
Utah; silver sandstone district of, abs. 40.
Ventilating fan, Bowlker's. (See Account
of, &c.)—Pelzer's, abs. 9. Ventilating instruments, abs. 7. Ventilation of
mines; French Commission,
abs. 14. Ventilation of mines in England; French
report on, 5.—Jet mines, 53. Ventilation; cost of separate, abs. 31.
Ventilators (Prussia), abs. 28.
Wales; coal working in, 17, and plates,
6, 7, 8. Walker's drilling machine, 108. Wind method of cleaning coal.
(See Dry.
or tvind, method.) Winding ropes, abs. 21. Wire-rope railway (Prussia), abs.
27.