NEIMME Transactions
Volume 33
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
TRANSACTIONS.
VOL. XXXIII.
1883-84.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE : A. REID, FEINTING COURT BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE HILL.
1881.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE : ASDMW REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE
HILL.
CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXIII
PAGE. |
Repobt of Council............... v
Repoet of Finance Committee vii
Report of Committee on prizes awarded for Papers viii
Account of Subsciiiptions ... x
Treasurer's Account............ xii
Geneeab Account.................. xiv
Patrons .............................. xv
HONORARY AND LIFE MEMBERS XA'i
Officers.............................. xvii
PAGE.
Original Members ............ xviii
Ordinary Members ............ xxx
Associate Membees ............ xxxi
Students........................... xxxiv
Subsceibers under Bye-Law 9 xxxvii
Charter.............................. xxxix
Bye-Laws ........................... xlv
Barometer Readings ......... 239
Index................................ 217
Abstracts of Foreign Papers end of vol.
GENERAL MEETINGS.
1883. _
page.
Oct. 13.—Paper " On the danger of sparks produced from Prickers and
Stemmers used for blasting purposes in Coal Mines, and sparks
otherwise produced," by Mr. Henry Lawrence ... ... ...
... ... 3
Discussed ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... 6
Paper " On Mining Coal by Compressed Lime," by Mr. Frank Murray
Still..............................13
Discussed ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... 16
Paper " On some Results of the Observations on Underground
Temperature during the Construction of the St. Gothard Tunnel,"
by Dr. F. Stapff.......................19
Appendix ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 31
Dec. 8.—Paper " Ou the Haswell Mechanical Coal-Getter : an Invention
for Working Coal without the Aid of Gunpowder or other Explosives,"
by Mr. W. F. Hall .....................37
Discussed ...........................55
Discussion on Mr. Frank Murray Still's Paper " On Mining Coal by Compressed
Lime" ... ... ... ••• ... ...
..'. 59
Discussion on Mr. Henry Lawrence's Paper " On the Danger of Sparks Produced
from Prickers and Stemmers used for Blasting Purposes in Coal Mines, and
Sparks otherwise Produced " ,.. ... ... ... Gl
Paper " On the Strength of Wrought Iron in Compression," by Mr. Wigham
Richardson ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 03
(iv)
1884. Feb. 9.—Paper "On a Great Fault at Armstead, in
Northumberland," by
Professor G. A. Lebour ... ..................69
Paper " Remarks on Lightning in the Pit at West Thornley Colliery,
on December 11th, 1883," by Mr. Henry White ... • ...... 81
Discussed ...........................83
Paper " Ventilation Tables," by Mr. P. H. Pearce .........93
Paper " On a Description of Thompson's Patent Centrifugal Pulverizer,"
by Mr. Thos. E. Candler.....................10?
Mar. 18.—Meeting- at Working-ton—
Discussion on Mr. J. D. Kendall's Paper " On the Structure of the
Cumberland Coal-Field," ...... ............121
April 12.—Paper " Notes on the Warwickshire Coal-Field," by Mr. E. F.
Melly... 151 June 14.—Paper " On the Breccia-Gashes of the Durham Coast,
and some recent
Earth-Shakes at Sunderland," by Professor G. A. Lebour ......165
Discussed ... ... ••• ••• ••• ¦••
••• ••• •¦• ¦*-'*
Paper " On the Observation of Earth-Shakes or Tremors, in order to foretell
the issue of sudden outbursts of Fire-damp," by Mr. M.
Walton Brown .................. ••• , ••• 179
Discussed ......................:.....I83
Aug. 2.—Paper " On the Endless Chain in Spain," by Mr. George
Lee......187
Paper " On the Bilbao Iron Ore District," by Mr. B. J. Forrest ....
213 Discussion on Mr. Thos. E. Candler's Paper " On Thompson's Centrifugal
rPulverizer" ... ... ... ••• •¦• •••
••• •¦• ^"^
§tptt
Your Council have pleasure in reporting that the year just closed has been a
fairly successful one. Considerable depression still exists in every branch
of mining industry, and it would have been strange if this had not been
reflected in a general way on the Institute, therefore no large increase of
members or income could have been expected. In spite of this the Financial
Report is a fairly average one, and the commercial aspect of the Institute
is in as sound a position as ever.
Whilst the members have thus to be congratulated on the excellent financial
position of the Institute, they have still more reason to be satisfied with
the very valuable nature of the papers read and published, many of which
have, by the minuteness of their detail and the profusion of their
illustrations, assumed the position of exhaustive treatises on the subjects
described. One such communication, which was read by Mr. J. D. Kendall at
the meeting at Barrow in July, 1883, " On the Structure of the Cumberland
Coal-field," has received additional importance from its having been
discussed at Workington in March last, in the presence of almost all the
engineers of the district. Here Mr. Kendall's communication was subjected to
every possible criticism, and many important facts elicited which materially
added to its value, and the paper with the discussion (which is still to be
continued) is probably the most exhaustive treatise of the geological
disposition of that part of the country that is at present published.
Mr. E. F. Melly's paper "Notes on the Warwickshire Coal-field" has filled a
gap in the proceedings as far as that district is concerned, and it is
satisfactory to know that, as soon as it was published, copies were eagerly
sought by professional gentlemen whose vocations led them to the district.
A highly scientific and exceedingly interesting paper on " Some Results of
the Observations on Underground Temperatures during the Construction of the
St. Grothard Tunnel" by Dr. F. Stapff has been communicated by Professor Cr.
A. Lebour, and is one which will probably be an authority upon the subject,
and prove of eminent value when the increase of explorations in the
structure of the earth will render it important that the laws regulating the
increase of temperature as its centre is approached should be more
thoroughly and properly understood.
Two very interesting papers have been read, one by Professor G-. A. Lebour,
and the other by Mr. M. Walton Brown, on some phenomena which
(vi)
have been observed in the County of Durham for some years past, and which
have now forced themselves more particularly into notice. These earth
tremors, or "earthshakes" as they have been called, have been explained in
different ways by these two gentlemen, and the discussion which will arise
will no doubt be of a "highly interesting nature.
Of the mechanical papers, the one by Mr. W. F. Hall, on a mode of breaking
down coal without the aid of explosives, will be probably found the most
interesting, since it touches a subject which is of vital importance to the
profession of the miner.
Scarcely less in importance is the one by Mr. II. Lawrence on a composite
metal, as a substitute for copper or brass in the manufacture of stemming
gear, and which is of such a nature that it greatly diminishes the
probability of giving out sparks.
Other papers of great interest have also been read but hardly call for any
special notice.
The abstracts from foreign mining and mechanical papers, which it was
decided some short time ago to add to the volume of proceedings, have been
made this year with much care by the gentlemen entrusted with this portion
of the Transactions, and will be found to contain much valuable information.
With regard to the general success of the Institute, which your Finance
Committee has set forth, your Council would remark that in the abstract it
is satisfactory, but they do not see any reason why in future years much
more satisfactory reports should not be obtained; in a society like this, to
stand still is practically a reverse.
In great industries, with ever increasing activity and extended operations,
like^ those which this Institute represents, it should advance every year
with rapid strides, and your Council feel certain that this would be the
case if every existing member would bear this in mind and use his utmost
endeavours to strengthen the influence of the Institute.
In conclusion, it may be interesting to the members to know that the Durham
College of Science, which was founded 14 years ago, very much through the
exertions of Mr. E. F. Boyd, who was then the President of the Institute,
has now decided to purchase a site in the cricket field and commence
building. The desire and earnest wish of the members to have a college where
the sons of professional gentlemen might be educated in scientific subjects,
has been so far accomplished, and the efforts that have been made for many
years by the Members and Council of this Institute, have at last ripened
into success.
Jimtucc §lcptl
The Income for the financial year 1883-84 has been £1,991 13s., and the
expenditure £1,804 Is. Id., leaving a surplus of income over expenditure of
£187 lis. lid. The excess of income over expenditure last year was £192 6s.
4d.
The total amount of subscriptions and arrears received from all classes of
members and subscribing collieries has been £1,615 17s., being £3 19s. more
than the amount received last year.
Arrears still continue to form an important item in the Balance Sheet, the
amount now outstanding being £468 6s., an increase of £36 15s.,
notwithstanding every effort that is made to diminish the amount.
There has been a decrease of 8 in the number of members, the total number of
all classes on the list now being 823. This is not satisfactory though it
may be accounted for by the wide-spread depression in every branch of mining
and engineering, but it is still much to be desired that each individual
member should use his interest and exertions to increase the usefulness of
the Institute by obtaining members from his professional and other friends.
The Committee recommend that £500 of the cash at bank be invested.
G. B. FORSTEB. JOHN DAGLISH. L. WOOD.
(viii)
AWARDS FOR PAPERS WHICH HAVE APPEARED IN" VOLUMES XXXI. AND XXXII. OF THE
TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE.
VOLUME XXXI.
Name. Title of
Paper. Amount.
£ 8. d. A. L. Steavenson ... Notes upon Messrs.
Pernolet and Aguillon's
" Report upon the Working and Regulation of Fiery Mines in England"
... ... 2 0 0
Charles Parkin ...... On Jet Mining ............ 100
G. A. Lehour ... ... On the Present State of our Knowledge of
Underground Temperature ... ... 200
W. J. Bird ... ... On the Comparative Efficiency
of Non-
conducting Coverings for Steam Pipes ... 10 0
Edwin Gilpin ...... On the Gold-fields of Nova Scotia ......
3 0 0
E. E. Melly ...... On the Anthracite Coal of South Wales ...
10 0
J.D.Kendall ... ... On the Haematite Deposits of Furness
... 5 0 0
15 0 0
VOLUME XXXII.
C. Tylden-Wright ... On the Channel Tunnel .........
3 00
W. J. Bird ... ... On the Comparative Efficiency
of Non-
conducting Coverings for Boilers and Steam Pipes ...
... ... ... 100
Charles Parkin ... ... On the Mineral Resources of the Rosedale
Abhey District ............ 10 0
Charles Hunting ... ... On the Feeding and Management of Colliery
Horses ............... 3 0 0
W. S. Gresley ... ... On Two Systems of Working the Main Coal
at Moira, in Leicestershire ... ... 10 0
E. B. Marten ... ... On Explosions of Boilers and other
Vessels... 2 0 0
W. Steadman Aldis ... On Internal Stress in Cylindrical
and
Spherical Dams ... ... ... ... 100
V. W. Corbett ... ... On Water-gauge, Barometer, and other Observations
taken at Seaham Colliery during the Time the Maudlin Seam was sealed up
5 0 0
J. D. Kendall ... ... On the Structure of the Cumberland Coalfield
.................. 4 0 0
21 0 0
ADVERTISEMENT.
The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the facts and opinions
advanced in the Papers read, and in the Abstracts of the Conversations which
occurred at the Meetings during the Session.
(X)
TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH THE NORTH OF ENGLAND
Dr.
For tjie Year ending
£ s. d.
To Balance at Bankers ... ..................... 668 3 9
To Balance in hands of Treasurer ... ... ...
... ... ... 27 2 2
To Dividend of 8 per cent, on 134 Shares of £20 each = £2,680...... 214
8 0
To Rent of College Class Rooms, less Borough Rates ... ...
... 51 18 1
To Literary and Philosophical Society (Wood Memorial Hall) ...
... 4 5 0
To Interest on Investment with River Tyne Commissioners... ...
... 39 3 4
To Wood Memorial Hall........................ 2 2 0
To Subscriptions for 1883-4 from 436 Original Members ... £915 12 0
To Do. do. 1 do. paid as Life Member
... 20 0 0
To Do. do. 24 Ordinary Members......
73 10 0
To Do. do. 1 do. paid as Life Member
... 2500
To Do. do. 96 Associate Members......
20112 0
To Do. do. 1 do. paid as Life Member
... 20 0 0
To Do. do. 87 Students .........
91 7 0
To Do. do. 2 do. paid as Associate Members
4 4 0
To Do. do. 7 New Ordinary Members ...
22 1 0
To Do. do. 5 New Associate Members ...
10 10 0
To Do. do. 5 New Students.........
5 5 0
To Subscribing Collieries :—
Ashington ... ... ... ... ... £2
2 0
Birtley Iron Company ... ... ... 660
Haswell ............... 4 4 0
Hetton ............... 10 10 0
Lambton ......• ......... 10 10 0
Londonderry ... ... ... ... 10 10
0
Marquess of Bute............ 10 10 0
North Hetton ............ 6 6 0
Ryhope ......... ... ... 4 4 0
Seghill ............... 2 2 0
South Hetton and Murton ... ... 440
Stella ...............' 2 2 0
Throckley................2 2 0
Victoria Garesfield ... ... ... 22 0
Wearmouth ... ... ... ... 440
------------- 81 18 0
1,470.19 0
To Members'Arrears ..................121 16 0
To Students' do. .................. 12 12 0
To Collieries' do. .................. 10 10 0
. *----------_ ii6i5 17 o
To Sale of Publications, per A. Reid ......... ... 54 7
10
Less 10 per cent. Commission ... ... ... ...
5 89
------------- 48 19 1
To Sale of Publications per Secretary ... ... ...
... 15 0 6
£2,686 18 11
Cxi) INSTITUTE OF MINING- AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
July 31st, 1884.
Cr.
£ s. d. £ s. d. By Paid A. Reid, Publishing Account ...
... ... ... 566 5 4
By Do. Covers for Parts and Stitching ... ...
17 12 6
By Do. Binding and Sewing Volumes ... ...
43 2 10
By Do. Postage ............... 32 5
6
By Do. Stationery and Circulars ... ...
... 99 0 3
By Do. Library ............... 15 17 10
------------- 774 4 3
By other Printing and Stationery ... ... ... ...
110
By Secretary's Incidental Expenses and Postage ... ...
198 17 5
By Sundry Accounts ... ... ... ... ...
... 21 14 10
By Travelling Expenses ... ... ... ... ...
... 5 8 4
By Secretary's Salary ..................
300 0 0
By Assistant's Do. ... ... ... ...
... ... 75 0 0
By Reporter's Do.................. 15 12
0
By Payments on Account of Furnishing ... ... ...
162 1 3
By Rent........................ 72 18 2
By Rates and Taxes .. ... ... ... ...
:. 11 13 5
By Fire Insurance ... ....... ... ...
... 906
By Water, Coals, and Gas ...............
24 11 7
By Books for Library in addition to Amount paid A. Reid ...
49 12 3
By Awards for Papers ... ... ... ... ...
... 29 1 6
By Abstracts of Foreign Papers ... .. ...
... 53 4 7
By Balance at Bankers ... ... ... ... ...
... 785 11 8
By Balance in hands of Treasurer ... ... ...
... 9762
Audited and Certified,
JOHN G. BENSON,
Chartered Accountant,
Newcastle-on-Tyne,
-----------------
2nd August, 1884.
£2,686 18 11
(xii) Dr. THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT
£ s. d. To 533 Original Members, as per List 1883-84. 10 of whom are
Life Members.
523
1 having paid as a Life Member ... ... ...
... ... 20 0 0
522 @ £2 2s............................1,096 4 0
To 33 Ordinary Members, as per List 1883-84. 1 of which is a Life Member.
32 1 having paid as a Life Member ... ... ...
... ... 25 0 0
31 29 @ £3 3s., and 2 @ £2 2s................... 95 11 0
To 119 Associate Members, as per List 1883-84. 5 of whom are Life Members.
114
1 having paid as a Life Member. ... ... ...
... ... 20 0 0
113 @ £2 2s............................ 237 6 0
To 112 Students as per list 1883-84.
2 paid as Associates ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 440
110@£lls............................ 115 10 0
To 15 Subscribing Collieries..................... 8118 0
To 8 New Ordinary Members @ £3 3s................ 25 4 0
To 9 New Associate Members & £2 2s................ 18 18 0
To 5 New Students @ £1 Is...................... 5 5 0
1,745 0 0 To Arrears, as per last Balance Sheet ... ...
... £431 11 0
Deduct—
To Irrecoverable 1883-84 List ............ 92 8 0
--------------- 339 3 0
Audited and Certified,
JOHN G. BENSON,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Chartered Accountant.
2nd August, 1884.
£2,084 3 0
(xiii) WITH SUBSCRIPTIONS, 1883-84.
Or.
PAID. UNPAID.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
By 436 Original Members paid @ £2 2s.......... 91.5 12 0
By 67 Do. unpaid .........
140 14 0
By 9 Do. dead, unpaid .........
18 18 0
By 3 Do. resigned, unpaid .........
660
By 6 Do. gone, no address .........
12 12 0
By 1 Do. struck off .........
2 2 0
522
By 1 Do. paid as Life Member ......
20 0 0
By 22 Ordinary Members paid @ £3 3s.......... 69 6 0
By 2 Do. paid® £2 2s.......... 4 4
0
By 7 Do. unpaid ............
22 1 0
81
By 1 Do. paid as Life Member ......
25 0 0
By 96 Associate Members paid @ £2 2s..........20112 0
By 16 Do, unpaid ............
33 12 0
By 1 Do. gone, no address ... ...
... 220
113
T Do. paid as Life Member ...... 20 0
0
By ~87 Students paid @ £1 Is................. 91 7 0
By 21 Do. unpaid ...............
22 1 0
By 2 Do. gone, no address ... ... ...
... 220
110
2 Do. paid as Associates ......... ... 4 40
By 15 Subscribing Collieries paid ............ 81 18 0
By 7 New Ordinary Members paid at £3 3s. ...... 22 10
By 1 Do. unpaid .........
330
1 '
By 5 New Associate Members paid at £2 2s. ... ...
10 10 0
By 4 Do. unpaid .........
'V 8 8 0
9
By ~5 New Students paid @ £1 Is............. 5 5 0
1,470 19 0 " 274 1 0
By Members'Arrears paid ............... 121 16 0 182 14
0
By Students' Do. ............... 12 12 0
11 11 0
By Collieries Do. ............... 10 10
°________
1,615 17 0 468 6 0 --------- 1,615 17 0
£2,084 3 0
Or. GENERAL STATEMENT, AUGUST,
1884. Cr.
HiaHIitiea. £ s. d.
None ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ,. „ ,,
Capital .....................10,961 10 10
Audited and Certified,
(Share Certificates and Bond produced),
JOHN G. BENSON,
Chartered Accountant.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
----------------
2nd August. 1884. £10,961 10 10
&%Mt%. A s. d.
Balance of Account at Bankers ...... 785 11 8
Balance in hands of Treasurer ...... 97 6 2
-------¦---------- 882 17 10
134 Shares of £20 each in the Institute and Coal Trade
Chambers Company (Limited)... ... ... .. 2,680 0
0
Invested with River Tyne Commissioners... ... ... 1,000 0
0
Arrears of Subscriptions ... ... ... ...
... 468 6 0
Value of 375 Bound Volumes of Transactions, @ lis. 6d. 215 12 6
Value of 4,138 Sewn Copies of Transactions, @ 9s. ... 1,862 2
0
Value of Sundry Sheets and Plates belonging to Vol.
XXXIII., unfinished at this date ......... 237 0 0
Value of 37 Copies of Mr. T. F. Brown's Map of the South
Wales Coal-field, @ 5s................ 9 5 0
Value of 390 Copies of General Index, @ 3s....... 58 10 0
Value of 755 Copies of Fossil Illustrations, @ 12s. 6d. ... 471 17
6
Value of 884 Copies of Fossil Catalogue, at 5s....... 221 0 0
Value of 840 Copies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. I., @ 5s. 210 0
0
Value of 348 Copies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. II., @ 5s. 87 0
0
Value of 1.500 Vols, of Borings and Sinkings, in Sheets 300 0 0
Value of Sundry Sheets of Borings and Sinkings belonging
to Vol. III., unfinished at this date......... 108 0 0
Value of Furniture and Office Fittings ... ... ...
450 0 0
Value of Books and Maps in Library ......... 1,700 0 0
£10,961 10 10
His Grace the DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND.
His Grace the DUKE OF CLEVELAND.
The Most Noble the MARQUESS OF LONDONDERRY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF LONSDALE.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF DURHAM.
The Right Honourable the EARL GREY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF RAVENSWORTH.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF WHARNCLIFFE.
The Right Reverend the LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM.
The Very Reverend the DEAN AND CHAPTER OF DURHAM.
WENTWORTH B. BEAUMONT, Esq., M.P.
iotwrarg ifmbm.
--------
Elkcthd.
* Honorary Members during term of office only. Mem.
Hon.
The Right Honourable the EARL OP HAVENS WORTH ...
1877
WILLIAM ALEXANDER, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow ...
1863
* Prof. P. PHILLIPS BEDSON, D. Sc. (Loud.), Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
... 1883
DE BOUREUILLE, Esq, Commandeur de la Legion d'Honnenr,
Conseiller d'etat, Inspecteur General des Mines, Paris ...
1853
* Prof. G. S. BRADY, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
... 1875
Dr. BRASSERT, Berghauptmann, Bonn-am-Rhein, Prussia ...
1883
Dr. H. VON DECHEN, Berghauptmann, Bonn-am-Rhein, Prussia...
1853
JOSEPH DICKINSON, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Manchester ...
1853 THOMAS EVANS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Pen-y-Bryn, Duffield
Road, Derby ..................... 1855
THEOPHILE GUIBAL, Esq., School of Mines, Mons, Belgium ...
1870
* HENRY HALL, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Rainhill, Prescott ...
1876
* Prof. A. S. HERSCHEL, M.A.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
... 1872
The Very Rev. Dr. LAKE, Dean of Durham ..........
1872
* Prof. G. A. LEBOUR, M.A., E.G.S., Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne .................. 1873 1879
* RALPH MOORE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow ......
1866
WARINGTON W. SMYTH, Esq., 28, Jermyn Street, London ...
1869
E. VUTLLEMIN, Esq., Mines d'Aniche, Nord, France ......
1878
* THOMAS E. WALES, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Swansea...... 1855
1866
* FRANK N. WARDELL, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Wath-on-Dearne,
near Rotherham ..................... 1864 1868
* JAMES WILLIS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 14, Portland Terrace,
Newcastle-on-Tyne .................. 1857 1871
THOMAS WY'NNE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Manor House, Gnosall,
Stafford ........................ 1853
Elected. Mkm. Line.
C. W. BARTHOLOMEW, Esq., Blakesley Hall, near Towcester ... 1875
1875
THOS. HUGH BELL, Esq., Middlesbro'-on-Tees ......... 1882 1882
DAVID BURNS, Esq., C.E., Clydesdale Bank Buildings, Bank
Street, Carlisle ..................... 1877 1877
E. B. COXE, Esq., Drifton, Jeddo, P.O., Luzerne Co., Penns., U.S. ...
1873 1874
JAMES S. DIXON, Esq., 170, Hope Street, Glasgow ...... 1878
1880
ERNEST HAGUE, Esq., Castle Dyke, Sheffield ......... 1872
1876
G. C. HEWITT, Esq., Coal Pit Heath Colliery, near Bristol ...
1871 1879 JAMES HILTON, Esq., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan
1867 1883 THOS. E. JOBBING, Esq., Bebside Colliery, Cowpen Lane,
Northumberland ........................ 1876 1882
HENRY LAPORTE, Esq., M.E., 80, Rue Royale, Brussels...... 1877 1877
W. MER1VALE, c/o Mackinnon and Mackenzie, Bombay ...... 1881
1884
NATHAN MILLER, Esq................... 1878 1878
H. J. MORTON, Esq., 2, Westbourne Villas, South Cliff, Scarborough 1856
1861 RUDOLPH NASSE, Esq., Konigl Bergwerks Director, Louisenthal,
Saarbriicken ..................... 1869 1880
ARTHUR PEASE, Esq., M.P., Darlington ............ 1882 1882
W. A. POTTER, Esq., Cramlington House, Northumberland ... 1853
1874
R, CLIFFORD SMITH, Esq., Parkfield, Swinton, Manchester ... 1874 1874 T.
H. WARD, Esq., Assistant Manager, East Indian Railway Collieries,
Giridi, Bengal. India.................. 1882 1882
OFFICERS, 1884-85.
JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., Marsden, South Shields.
ife-Dresibnits.
I. LOWTHIAN BELL, Esq., Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
T. J. BEWICK, Esq., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
WM. COCHRANE, Esq., Grainger Street West, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
JOHN MARLEY, Esq., Thomneld, Darlington.
J. B. SIMPSON, Esq., Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
A. L. STEAVENSON, Esq., Durham.
(tanril.
W. N. ATKINSON. Esq., Shincliffe Hall, Durham.
T. W. BENSON, Esq., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
WM. BOYD, Esq., 74, Jesmond Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
S. C. CRONE, Esq., Killingworth Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
T. DOUGLAS, Esq., Peases' West Collieries, Darlington.
GEO. C. GREENWELL, Jitn., Esq., Poynton, near Stockport.
W. H. HEDLEY, Esq., Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
THOS. HEPPELL, Esq., Leafield House, Chester-le-Street.
H. LAWRENCE, Esq., Grange Iron Works, Durham.
W. G. LAWS, Esq., Town Hall Buildings, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Prof. G. A. LEBOUR, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
GEO. MAY, Esq., Harton Colliery Offices, near South Shields.
R. S. NEWALL, Esq., Ferndene, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
A. M. POTTER, Esq., Shire Moor Colliery, Northumberland.
H. RICHARDSON, Esq., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
R. ROBINSON, Esq., Howlish Hall, near Bishop Auckland.
J. G. WEEKS, Esq., Bedlington Collieries, Bedlington.
J. WILLIS, Esq., 14, Portland Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
fSnt W. G. ARMSTRONG, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Jesmond, > Newcastle-on-Tyne. E.
F. BOYD, Esq., F.G.S.,Moor House, Leamside, Fence Houses. Sir GEORGE ELLIOT,
Bart., M.P., Houghton Hall, Fence
Houses.
past
LINDSAY \VOOD, Esq., Southill, Chester-le-Street. '
Presidents.
Ex-officio A a- C- GREENWELL, Esq., F.G.S., Elm Tree Lodge, Duffield, : "
' Derby.
G. B. FORSTER, Esq., M.A., Lesbury, R.S.O., Northum- j berland.
J
W. ARMSTRONG, Esq., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street. ~) T, 4. . „. J.
DAGLISH, Esq., Marsden, South Shields. I Retiring Vice-
{ T. DOUGLAS, Esq., Peases' West Collieries, Darlington.) l resideilts-
SmTtarg anft foasurrr.
THEO. WOOD BUNNING, Neville Hall. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
j$iai jof ^Ljembjer»?
AUGUST, 1884.
Original UUmbm.
Marked * are Life Members.
ELECTED
1 Adams, G. F., Guild Hall Chambers, Cardiff............Dec. 6,1873
2 Adams, W., Cambridge House, Park Place, Cardiff .........
1854
3 Adamson, Daniel, Engineering Works, Dukinfield, near Manchester Aug.
7, 1875
4 Aitkin, Henry, Falkirk, N.B...................Mar. 2,1865
5 Allison, T., Belmont Mines, Guisbro'...............Feb. 1,1868
6 Anderson, C. W., Cleadon House, Harrogate ... ... ...
... Aug. 21, 1852
7 Anders >n, William, Rainton Colliery, Fence Houses ......A^g.
21, 1852
8 Andrews, Huq-h, Felton Park, Feltou, Northumberland ......Oct.
5,1872
9 Appleby, C. E., Charing Cross Chambers, Duke St., Adelphi, London Aug.
1, 1861
10 Archer, T., Dunston Engine Works, Gateshead .........July
2,1872
11 Armstrong-, Sir W. G., C.B., L.L.D., F.R.S., Jesmond, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne ...... (Past President, Member of Council) May 3,1866
12 Armstrong, Wm., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street (Retiring Vice-
President, Member of Council) ... ... ... ...
... Aug. 21, 1852
13 Armstrong, W., Jun., Wingate, Co. Durham ... ... ...
... April 7,1867
14 Armstrong, W. L., Oaklands Rock, near Bewdley ... ...
... Mar. 3, 1864
15 Arthur, David, M.E., Accrington, near Manchester ......Aug.
4, 1877
16 Ashworth, James, Mapperley Colliery, West Hallam, Derby ...
Feb. 5,1876
17 Ashworth, John, Hanover Chambers, King Street, Manchester ... Sept.
2, 1876
18 Asquith, T. W., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Northumberland......Feb.
2,1867
19 Atkinson, J. B., Ridley Mill, Stocksfield-on-Tyne .........Mar.
5,1870
20 Atkinson, W. N., Shincliffe Hall, Durham (Member of Council) ... June
6, 186s
21 Aubrey, R. C, Wigan Coal & Iron Co. Ld., Standish, near Wigan ... Feb.
5, 1870
22 Austine, John, Cadzow Coal Co., Glasgow ............Nov. 4,1876
23 Aynsley, Wm., Brynkinalt Collieries, Chirk, Euabon.........Mar.
3,1873
24 Bailes, George, Murton Colliery, Sunderland .........Feb.
3,1877
25 Bailes, John, Wingate Colliery, Ferryhill ............Sept.
5,1868
26 Bailes, T., 6, Collingwood Terrace, Jesmond Gardens, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7,1858
27 Bailes, W., West Melton, Rotherham...............April 7, 1877
28 Bailey, Samuel, Perry Barr, Birmingham ............June 2, 1859
29 Bain, R. Donald, Newport, Monmouthshire............Mar. 3,1873
(xix)
ELECTED,
30 Bainbridge, E., Nunnery Colliery Offices, Sheffield.........Dec. 3,
1863
31 Banks, Thomas, Leigh, near Manchester ............Aug. 4,
1877
32 Barclay, A., Caledonia Foundry, Kilmarnock .........Dec.
6, 1866
33 Bahnes, T., Seaton Delaval Office, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Oct. 7,1871
34 Barrat, A. J.........................Sept. 11, 1875
35 Bartholomew, C, Castle Hill House, Ealing, London, W.......Aug.
5,1853
36*Bartholomew, C. W., Blakesley Hall, near Towcester ......Dec.
4,1875
37 Bassett, A., Tredegar Mineral Estate Office, Cardiff.........
1854
38 Bates, Matthew, Bews Hill, Blaydon-on-Tyne .........Mar.
3,1873
39 Bates, W. J., Old Axwell, Whickham. Gateshead-on-Tyne ......Mar 3,
1873
40 BateY, John, Newbury Collieries, Coleford, Bath .........Dec.
5,1868
41 Beanlands, A., M.A., North Bailey, Durham............Mar. 7, 1867
42 Beaumont, James, M.E., Nanaimo, Vancouver's Island ......Nov.
7, 1874
43 Bell, I. LowTiiiAN,RountonGrange, Northallerton (Vice-President) July
6,1854
44 Bell, John, Messrs. Bell Brothers, Middlesbro'-on-Tees ......Oct.
1,1857
45 Benson, J. G., Accountant, 12, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ..
Nov. 7,1874
46 Benson, T. W., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle (Member of Council) Aug.
2, 1866
47 Berkley, C, Marley Hill, Wlhckham R.S.O., Co. Durham......Aug. 21, 1852
48 Bewick, T. J., M.I.C.E., F.G.S., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland
(Vice-President).....................April 5,1860
49 Bidder, B. P. ...... ...............May
2,1867
50 Bigland, J., Bedford Lodge, Bishop Auckland .........June 4,
1857
51 Binns, O, Claycross, Derbyshire... ... ... ...
... ... July 6,1854
52 Biram, B., Peaseley Cross Collieries, St. Helen's, Lancashire
... 1856
53 Black, James, Jun., Portobello Foundry, Sunderland ...
... Sept. 2,1871
54 Black, W., Hedworth Villa, South Shields ............April 2, 1870
55 Bolt )N, H. H., Newchurch Collieries, near Manchester ...
... Dec. 5,1868
56 Booth, R. L., Ashington Colliery, near Morpeth .........
1861
57 Bourne, Thos. W., Babbington Coal Co., Nottingham ......Sept.
11, 1875
58 Boyd, E. F., Moor House, Leamside, Fence Houses (Past President,
Member of Council).....................Aug. 21, 1852
59 Boyd, R. F., Moor House,Leamside, Fence Houses ... ...
... Nov. 6,1869
60 Boyd, Wm., 74, Jesmond Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Member of
Council) ........................Feb. 2,1867
61 Breckon, J. R., 32, Fawcett Street, Sunderland ... ...
.. Sept. 3,1864
62 Brettell, T., Mine Agent, Dudley, Worcestershire.........Nov. 3, 1866
63 Bromilow, Wm., 18, Leicester Street, Southport, Lancashire ...
Sept. 2,1876
64 Brown, John, Priory Place, 155, Bristol Road, Birmingham ...
Oct. 5, 1854
65 Brown, J. N., 56, Union Passage, New Street, Birmingham ...
1861
66 Brown Thos. Forster, Guild Hall Chambers, Cardiff ......
1861
67 Browne, B. C, M.I.C.E., 2, Granville Road, Jesmond, Newcastle ...
Oct. 1, 1870
68 Bryham, William, Rosebridge Colliery, Wigan .........Aug.
1,1861
69 Bryham, W., Jun., Douglas Bank Collieries, Wigan
......Aug. 3, 1865
70 Bunning, Theo. Wood, Neville Hall, Newcastle-on-Tync
(Secretary and Treasurer) 1864
71*Bukns, David, C.E., Clydesdale Bank Buildings, Bank St., Carlisle... May
5, 1877
72 Burrows, J. S., Yew Tree House, Atherton, near Manchester ...
Oct. 11, 1873
(xx)
ELECTED.
73 Campbell, W. B., Consulting Engineer, Grey Street, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7, 1876
74 Carr, Wi. Cochran, South Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Dec.
3,1857
75 Chadborn, B. T., Pinxton Collieries, Alfreton, Derbyshire ......
1864
76 Chambers, A. M., Thorncliffe Iron Works, near Sheffield ......Mar.
6, 1869
77 Cheesman, I., Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne
......Feb. 1,1873
78 Cheesman, W. T., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Hartlepool ......Feb.
5, 1876
79 Childe, Rowland, Wakefield, Yorkshire ............May 15,1862
80 Clarence, Thomas, 10, Bentinck Crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Dec.
4, 1875
81 Clark, C. F., Grarswood Coal and Iron Co., near Wigan ...
... Aug. 2, 1866
82 Clark, R. B., Marley Hill, near Gateshead ............May 3,
1873
83 Clark, W., M.E., The Grange, Teversall, near Mansfield ......April
7,1866
34 Clarke, William, Victoria Engine Works, Gateshead ......Dec.
7,1867
85 Cochrane, B., Aldin Grange, Durham...... .........Dec. 6,
1866
86 Cochrane, C, The Grange, Stourbridge ............June 3,1857
87 Cochrane, W., St. John's Chambers, Grainger Street West, Newcastle
(Vice-President)............... ...... 1859
88 Cole, Richard, Walker Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
. April 5, 1873
89 Cole, Robert Heath, Lord Street, Basford, Stoke-upon-Trent ...
Feb. 5, 1876
90 Collis, W. B., Swinford House, Stourbridge, Worcestershire ...
June 6, 1861
91 Cook, J., Jun., Washington Iron Works, Gateshead ... ...
... May 8,1869
92 Cooke, John, 3, Cross Street, Durham ... ... ...
... ... Nov. 1,1860
93 Co j ksey, Joseph, West Bromwich, Staffordshire ......... Aug.
3,1865
94 Cooper, P., Thornley Colliery Office, Ferryhill............ Dec.
3,1857
95 Cooper, R. E., C.E., 8, The Sanctuary, Westminster, London, S.W....
Mar. 4, 1871
96 Cooper, T., Rosehill, Rotherham, Yorkshire ............April 2,
1863
97 Cope, James, 9 and 10, Glebe Buildings, Stoke-upon-Trent ...
... Oct. 5,1872
98 Corbetr, V. W., Chilton Moor, Fence Houses .........Sept.
3,1870
99 Corbitt, M., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead ......Dec.
4,1875
100 Coulson, F., 10, Victoria Terrace, Durham ............Aug.
1,1868
101 Coulson, W., 32, Crossgate, Durham.......'........Oct. 1, 1852
102 Cowen, Jos., M.P., Blaydon Burn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Oct.
5,1854
103 Cowey, John, Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ... ...
... Nov. 2,1872
104 Cox, John H., 10, St. George's Square, Sunderland ... ...
... Feb. 6, 1875
105*Coxe, E. B., Drifton, Jeddo, P. O. Luzerne Co., Penns., U.S.
... Feb. 1, 1873
106 Coxon, S. B., 23, Great George Street, Westminster, London
... June 5,1856
107 Craig, W. Y., Palace Chambers, St. Stephen's, Westminster, Loudon Nov.
3, 1866
108 Crawford, T., Littletown Colliery, near Durham ... ...
... Aug. 21, 1852
109 Crawford, T., 3, Grasinere Street, Gateshead-on-Tyne ...
... Sept. 3,1864
110 Crawford, T., Jun. Littletown Colliery, near Durham ...
... Aug. 7, 1869
111 Crawshay, E., Gateshead-on-Tyne ...............Dec. 4,1869
112 Crawshay, G., Gateshead-on-Tyne ............- ... Dec. 4,
1869
113 Crone, E. W., Killingworth Hall, near Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar. 5,
1870
114 Crone, J. R., Tudhoe House, via Spennymoor ... ... ...
... Feb. 1,1868
115 Crone, S. C, Killingworth Hall, Newcastle (Member of Council) ...
1853
116 Cross, John, 77, King Street, Manchester ............June 5,1869
117 Croudace, C. J., Bettisfield Colliery Co., Limited, Bagillt, N. Wales
Nov. 2, 1872
(xxi;
ELtCIED.
118 Croudace, John, West House, Haltwhistle .............June 7,1873
119 Croudace, Thomas, Lambton Lodge, New South Wales ......
1862
120 Daglish, John, Marsden, South Shields (President) ......
Aug. 21, 1852
121 Daglish, W. S., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne............ July 2,
1872
122 Dakers, J., Chilton Colliery, Ferryhill............... April 11,
1874
123 Dale, David, West Lodge, Darlington............... Feb. 5, 1870
124 D'Andrimont, T., Liege, Belgium ............... Sept.
3,1870
125 Daniel, W., Steam Plough Works, Leeds ............ June
4,1870
126 Darling, Fenwick, South Durham Colliery, Darlington ...... Nov.
6, 1875
127 Darlington, James, Black Park Colliery Co. Limited, Ruabon ...
Nov. 7, 1874
128 Darlington, John, 2, Coleman Street Buildings, Moorgate Street,
Great Swan Alley, London ... ... ... ... ...
... April 1,1865
129 Davey, Henry, C.E., Leeds ..................Oct. 11,1873
130 Davis, David, Coal Owner, Maesyffynon, Aberdare .........Nov.
7,1874
131 Day, W. H.........................Mar. 6,1869
132 Dees, R. R., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Oct.
7,1871
133 Dickinson, G. T.........................July 2,1872
134 Dickinson, R., Coal Ownei1, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham ...
... Mar. 4, 1871
135 Dixon, D. W., Lumpsey Mines, Brotton, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ...
Nov. 2,1872
136 Dixon, Nich., Dudley Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ...
... Sept. 1,1877
137 Dixon, R., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead ...
... June 5,1875
138 Dodd, B., Bearpark Colliery, near Durham ... ...
... ... May 3,1866
139 Dodds, Joseph, M.P., Stockton-on-Tees ............Mar.
7,1874
140 Douglas, C. P., Parliament Street, Consett, Co. Durham ......Mar.
6, 1869
141 Douglas, T., Peases' West Collieries, Darlington (Retiring Vice-
President, Member of Council)............... Aug. 21, 1852
142 Dove, G., Viewfield, Stanwix, Carlisle............... July 2,1872
143 Dowdeswell, H., Butterknowle Colliery, via Darlington ...
... April 5, 1873
144 Dyson, George, Middlesborough ... ... ...
... ... June 2, 1866
145 Dyson, O., Pooley Hall Colliery, near Tarn worth .........
Mar. 2, 1872
146 Eddison, Robert W., Steam Plough Works, Leeds ... ...
... Mar. 4, 1876
147 Elliot, Sir George, Bart., M.P., Houghton Hall, Fence Houses
(Past President, Member of Council) ............Aug. 21, 1852
148 Elsdon, Robert, 76, Manor Road, Upper New Cross, London ...
Nov. 4, 1876
149 Embleton, T. W., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds .........Sept.
6, 1855
150 Embleton, T. W., Jun., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds.........Sept. 2,
1865
151 Eminson, J. B., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour ...
... Mar. 2,1872
152 Everaud, I. B., M.E., 6, Millstone Lane, Leicester .........Mar.
6,1869
153 Parmer, A., South Durham Fitting Offices, West Hartlepool
... Mar. 2, 1872
154 Farrar, James, Old Foundry, Barnsley ............ July
2,1872
155 Favell, Thomas M., Etruria Jron Works, near Stoke-on-Trent ...
April 5,1873
156 Fenwick, Barnabas, 84, Osborne Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Aug. 2, 1866
157 Ferens, Robinson, Oswald Hall, near Durham ......... April
7,1877
158 Fidler, E., Piatt Lane Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire......... Sept.
1,1866
159 Fisher, R. C, 5, Pieton Place, Swansea ............ July
2,1872
(xxii)
ELECTED.
160 Fletcher, Geo.........................Aug. 1,1874
161 Fletcher, H., Ladyshore Coll., Little Lever, Bolton, Lancashire ...
Aug. 3, 1865
162 Fletcher, Jas., Manager Co-operative Collieries, Wallsend, near
Newcastle, New South Wales ............ ... Sept. 11, 1875
163 Fletcher, John, 79, Newby Street, Walton Lane, Liverpool ...
July 2,1872 161 Foggin, Wm., North Biddiek Coll., Washington Station, Co.
Durham Mar. 6, 1875
165 Forrest, J., Ass. I.C.E., Witley Coll., Halesowen, Birmingham :..
Mar. 5,1870
166 Forster, G. B., M.A., Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland (Past
President, Member of Council) ... ... ... ...
... Nov. 5,1852
167 Forster, J. R., Water Company's Office, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... July 2, 1872
168 Forster, J. T., Burnhope Colliery, near Lanchester, Co. Durham ...
Aug. 1, 1868
169 Forster, B., South Hetton, Fence Houses ... ...
... ... Sept. 5, 1868
170 Foster, Georg-e, Osmondthorpe Colliery, near Leeds ... ...
... Mar. 7,1874
171 France, Francis, St. Helen's Colliery Co. Ld., St. Helen's, Lancashire
Sept. 1, 1877
172 France, W., Lofthouse Mines, Lof tus-in-Cleveland B.S.O.......April
6,1867
173 Franks, George, Victoria Garesfield, Lintz Green, Newcastle-ou-Tyne
Feb. 6,1875
174 Galloway, T. Lindsay, M.A., Argyle Colliery, Campbeltown, N.B. Sept.
2, 1876
175 Gerrard, John, Westgate, Wakefield...............Mar. 5, 1870
•176 Gillett, F. C, Midland Road, Derby................July 4, 1861
177 Gilmour, D., Portland Colliery, Kilmarnock............Feb. 3, 1872
178 Gilpin, Edwin, 75, Birmingham Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia ...
April 5,1873
179 Gilroy, G., Ince Hall Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire ... ...
... Aug. 7,1856
180 Gilroy, S. B., Mining Engineer, Cheatham .Hill, Manchester
... Sept. 5, 1868
181 Gjers, John, Southfield Villas, Middlesbro' ............June
7,1873
182 Goddard, F. R., Accountant, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Nov.
7,1874
183 Gordon, James N., c/o W. Nicolson, 5, Jeffrey's Square, St. Mary
Axe, London, E.C......................Nov. 6,1875
184 Grace, E. N, Dhadka, Assensole, Bengal, India ... ...
... Feb. 1, 1868
185 Grant, J. II., District Engineer, Beerbhoon, Bengal, India ...
... Sept. 4, 1869
186 Greaves, J. O., St. John's, Wakefield...............Aug. 7, 1862
187 Green, J. T., Mining Engineer, Ty Celyn, Abercarn, Newport, Mon. Dec.
3, 1870
188 Greener, John, General Manager, Vale Coll., Pictou, Nova Scotia ...
Feb. 6, 1875
189 Greenwell, G. C, Elm Tree Lodge, Duffield. Derby (Past Presi-
dent, Member of Council) ... ... ... ... ...
... Aug. 21, 1852
190 Greenwell, G. C, Jun., Poynton, near Stockport (Member of Council)
Mar. 6, 1869
191 Greig, D., Leeds........................Aug. 2,1866
192 Grey, C. G., 55, Parliament Street, London ............May 4,
1872
193 Grieves, D., Brancepeth Colliery, Willington, County Durham ...
Nov. 7,1874
194 Griffith, N. R., Wrexham ..................
1866
195 Grimshaw, E. J., 23, Hardshaw Street, St. Helen's, Lancashire ...
Sept. 5, 1868
196 Haggie, D. H., Wearmouth Patent Rope Works, Sunderland ...
Mar. 4, 1876
197 Haggie, P., Gateshead .....................
1854
19S*Hague, Ernest, Castle Dyke, Sheffield ............Mar.
2,1872
199 Haines, J. Richard, Adderley Green Colliery, near Longton
... Nov. 7, 1874
200 Halea, C, Nerquis Cottage, Nerquis, near Mold, Flintshire......
1865
201 Hall, M., Lofthouse Station Collieries, near Wakefield
......Sept. 5, 1868
(xxiii)
ELECTED.
202 Hall, M. S., Leasingthorne Colliery, near Bishop Auckland......Feb. 14,
1874
203 Hall, Wm., East Hetton Colliery Office, Coxhoe, Co. Durham ...
Dec. 4, 1875
204 Hall, William F., Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.........May 13, 1858
205 Hann, Edmund, Aberaman, Aberdare ... ......
......Sept. 5, 1868
206 Harbottle, W. H., Orrell Colliery, near Wigan .........Dec.
4, 1875
207 Hardy, Jos......................... June 2,1877
208 Hargreaves, William, Roth well Haigh, Leeds ...... ...
Sept. 5, 1868
209 Harle, Richard, Browney Colliery, Durham............April 7,1877
210 Harle, William, Pagebank Colliery, near Durham.........Oct. 7,1876
211 Harrison, R., Eastwood, near Nottingham ... ...
... ... 1861
212 Harrison, T. E., C.E., Central Station, Newcastlo-on-Tyne......May
6, 1853
213 Harrison, W. B., Brownhills ColMeries, near Walsall
......April G, 1867
214 Hay, J., Jun., Widdrington Colliery, Acklington .........Sept.
4,1869
215 Heckels, Matthew, Walker Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne......April 11,
1874
216 Heckels, W. J., Even wood, Bishop Auckland .........May
2,1868
217 Hedley, J. J., Consett Collieries, Leadgate, County Durham
... April 6, 1872
218 Hedley, J. L., Flooker's Brook, Chester ............Feb.
5,1870
219 Hedley, T. F., Valuer, Sunderland ...............Mar. 4,1871
220 Hedley, W. H., Consett Collieries, Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) ... ... ... ...
... ... 1864
221 Henderson, H., Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street .........Feb.
14, 1874
222 Heppell, T., Leafield House, Birtley, Chester-le-Street (Member of
Council) ........................Aug. 6,1863
223 Heppell, W., Western Hill, Durham...............Mar. 2, 1872
224 Herdman, J., Park Crescent, Bridgend, Glamorganshire ...
... Oct. 4, 1860
225 Heslop, C, Lingdale Mines, via Skelton, R.S.O., Yorks.......Feb.
1, 1868
226 Heslop, Grainger, Whitwell Colliery, Sunderland .........Oct.
5,1872
227 Heslop, J., Hucknall Torkard Colliery, near Nottingham ......Feb.
6, 1864
228 Hetherington, D., Coxlodge Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
... 1859
229*Hewitt, G. C, Coal Pit Heath Collie^, near Bristol
......June 3, 1871
230 Hewlett, A., Haigh Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire ... ...
... Mar. 7,1861
231 Higson, Jacob, 94, Cross Street, Manchester......... ...
1861
232*Hiltjn, J., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan ......Dec
7,1867
233 Hilton, T. W., Wigau Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan......Aug. 3,
1865
234 Hindmarsh, Thomas, Cowpen Lodge, Blyth, Northumberland ...
Sept. 2,1876
235 Hodgson, J. W., Dipton Colliery, via Lintz Green Station ...
... Feb. 5,1870
236 Holliday, Martin F., Langley Grove, near Durham......... May
1,1875
237 Holmes, C, Grange Hill, near Bishop Auckland ... ...
... April 11, 1874
238 Homer, Charles J., Mining Engineer, Stoke-on-Trent ......
Aug. 3,1865
239 Hood, A., 6, Bute Crescent, Cardiff ............... April 18,
1861
210 Hope, George, Newbottle Colliery, Fence Houses ......... Feb.
3,1877
241 Hornsby, H., Hamsteels Colliery, near Durham ... ...
... Aug. 1, 1874
242 Horsley, W., Whitehill Point, Percy Main, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Mar. 5, 1857
243 Hoskold, H. D., C. and M.E., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., M. Soc. A., &c.
... April 1, 1871
244 Howard, W. F., 13, Cavendish Street, Chesterfield .........Aug.
1,1861
245 Hudson, James, Albion Mines, Pictou, Nova Scotia.........
1862
246 Humble, John, West Pelton, Chester-le-Street .........Mar.
4,1871
d
(xxiv)
ELECTED.
247 Humble, Jos., Staveley Works, near Chesterfield .........June
2,1866
248 Hunter, J., Silkstone and Worsbro' Park Collieries, near Barnsley ...
Mar. 6, 1869
249 Hunter, W., Monk Bretton Colliery, near Barnsley.........Oct.
3,1861
250 Hunter, W. S., 34, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Feb.
1,1868
231 Hunting, Charles, Pence Houses ...............Dec. 6,1866
252 Hurst, T. G., P.G.S., Osborne Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Aug.
21, 1852
253 Jackson, C. G., Chamber Colliery Co., Limited, Hollinwood...... June
4,1870
254 Jackson, W., Cannock Chase Collieries, Walsall ......... Peb.
14, 1874
255 Jackson, W. G., Loscoe Grange, Normanton, Yorkshire ......
June 7, 1873
256 Jarratt, J., Houghton Main Colliery, near Barnsley......... Nov. 2,
1867
257 Jefpcock, T. W., 18, Bank Street, Sheffield ............ Sept.
4,1869
258 Jenkins, W., M.E., Ocean S.C. Colls., Ystrad, nr. Pontypridd, So.
Wales Dec. 6, 1862
259 Jenkins, Wm., Consett Iron Works, Consett, Durham ......
May 2,1874
260 Johnson, Henry, Dudley, Worcestershire ............ Aug.
7,1869
261 Johnson, John, M.I.C.E., F.G.S., 21, Grainger St. W., Newcastle Aug
21, 1852
262 Johnson, J., Carlton Main Colliery, Barnsley............ Mar. 7,
1874
263 Johnson, R. S., Sherburn Hall, Durham ............ Aug. 21,
1852
261 Joicey, J. G., Forth Banks West Factory, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 10,1869
265 Joicey, W. J., Urpeth Lodge, Chester-le-Street .........Mar.
6,1869
266 Joseph, D. D., Ty Draw, Pontypridd, South Wales.........April 6, 1872
267 Kendall, John D., Roper Street, Whitehaven .........Oct.
3,1874
26S Kimpton, J. G., 40, St. Mary's Gate, Derby ............Oct.
5,1872
269 Kirkby, J. W., Ashgrove, Windygates, Fife............Feb. 1,1873
270 Knowles, A., Swinton Old Hall, Manchester............Dec. 5,1856
271 Knowles, J ohn, Westwood, Pendlebury, Manchester ......Dec.
5, 1856
272 Lamb, R., Bowthorn Colliery, Cleator Moor, near Whitehaven ...
Sept. 2,1865
273 Lamb, R. O., The Lawn, Ryton-on-Tyne ............Aug.
2,1866
274 Lamb, Richard W., Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Nov. 2,1872
275 Lambert, M. W., 9, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......July
2,1872
276 Lancaster, John, Frankfort House, Fitzjohn's Avenue, London, N.W. Mar.
2,1865
277 Landale, A., Lochgelly Iron Works, Fifeshire, N.B..........Dec.
2,1858
278*Laporte, Henry, M.E., 80, Rue Royale, Brussels .........May
5,1877
279 Laverick, Robt., West Rainton, Fence Houses .........Sept.
2, 1876
280 Lawrence, Henry, Grange Iron Works, Durham (Mem. of Council) Aug. 1,
1868
281 Laws, H., Grainger Street W., Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Feb.
6,1869
282 Lebour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Durham College of Science, Newcastle,
(Member of Council) ..................Feb. 1,1873
233 Lee, George, Great Ayton, via Northallerton............June 4,1870
284 Leslie, Andrew, Hebburn, Gateshead-on-Tyne .........Sept.
7,1867
285 Lever, Ellis, Bowdon, Cheshire ...............
1861
286 Lewis, Henry, Annesley Colliery, near Nottingham ... ...
... Aug. 2,1866
287 Lewis, W. H., 3, Bute Crescent, Cardiff ............Aug.
4,1877
288 Lewis, William Thomas, Mardy, Aberdare............
1864
289 Liddell, G. H., Somerset House, Whitehaven .........Sept.
4,1869
290 Lindop, James, Bloxwich, Walsall, Staffordshire ... ...
... Aug. 1,1861
(xxv)
KLKCTED.
291 Linsley,.R., Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland ... ...
... July 2,1872
292 Linsley, S. W., Whitburn Colliery, Sunderland .........Sept.
4, 1869
293 Lishman, T., Jun., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses ... ...
...Nov. 5,1870
294 Lishman, Wm., Witton-le-Wear.................. 1857
295 Lishman, Wm., Bunker Hill, Fence Houses ............Mar. 7, 1861
296 Livesey, C, Bradford Colliery, near Manchester .........Aug.
3,1865
297 Livesey, T., Bradford Colliery, near Manchester .........Nov.
7,1874
298 Llewelyn, L., 2, Clarence Place, Newport, Monmouth ......May
4,1872
299 Logan, William, Langley Park Colliery, Durham .........Sept. 7,
1867
300 Longbotham, J., Norley Collieries, near Wigan ... ...
... May 2,1868
301 Longridge, J. A., 15, Great George Street, Westminster, London, S.W.
Aug. 21.1852
302 Lupton, A., F.G.S., 4, Albion Place, Leeds ............Nov.
6,1869
303 Maddison, Henry, The Lindens, Darlington............Nov. 6,1875
304 Maling, C. T., Ford Pottery, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct.
5, 1872
305 Mammatt, J. E., C.E., St. Andrew's Chambers, Leeds ......
1864
306 Marley, John, Thormield, Darlington (Vice-President)......Aug. 21,
1852
307 Marley, J. W....... ...................Aug. 1,1868
308 Marshall, F. C, Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Aug.
2, 1866
309 Marston, W. B., Leeswood Vale Oil Works, Mold .........Oct. 3,
1868
310 Marten, E. B., C.E., Pedmore, near Stourbridge .........July
2, 1872
311 Matthews, R. F., Ridley Hall, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.........Mar.
5,1857
312 Maughan, J. A., Nerbudda Coal and Iron Co. Limited, Garrawarra,
Central Provinces, India ..................Nov. 7,1863
313 May, George, Harton Colliery Offices, near South Shields (Member
of Council) ........................Mar- 6,1862
314 McCreath, J., 95, Bath Street, Glasgow ............Mar. 5,
1870
315 McCulloch, David, Beech Grove, Kilmarnock, N.B. ......Dec.
4,1875
316 McCulloch, H. J., 4, Finsbury Circus, London .........Oct.
1, 1863
317 McCulloch, W., 4, Finsbury Circus, London............Nov. 7, 1874
318 McGhie, T., Cannock, Staffordshire ...............Oct. 1,1857
319 McMurtrie, J., Radstock Colliery, Bath ............Nov.
7,1863
320 Meik, Thomas, C.E., 6, York Place, Edinburgh .........June
4,1870
321 Merivale, J. H., 2, Victoria Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......May
5, 1877
322 Miller, Robert, Beech Grove, Lock Park, Barnsley ......Mar.
2, 1865
323 Mills, M. H., Duckmanton Lodge, Chesterfield .........Feb.
4, 1871
324 Mitchell, Chas., Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........April
11,1874
325 Mitchell, Joseph, Bolton Hall, Rotherham...........Feb, 14, 1874
326 Mitchinson, R., Jun., Pontop Coll., Lintz Green Station, Co. Durham
Feb. 4, 1865
327 Moeeat, T., Montreal Iron Ore Works, Whitehaven
......Sept. 4, 1869
328 Monkhouse, Jos., Gilcrux, Cockermouth ... .........June
4, 1863
329 Moor, T., Cambois Colliery, Blyth ...............Oct,
3,1868
330 Moor, Wm., Jun., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........July
2,1872
331 Moore, R. W., Colliery Office, Whitehaven ............Nov. 5,
1870
332 Morison, D. P......................... 1861
333 Morris, W., Waldridge Colliery, Chester-le-Street .........
1858
334*Morton H. J., 2, Westbourne Villas, South Cliff, Scarborough ...
Dec. 5, 1856
(xxvi)
ELECTED.
335 Morton, H. T., Lambton, Pence Houses ............ Aug. 21,
1852
336 Moses, Wm, Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland............ Mar. 2,1872
337 Muckle, John, 11, Oxford Terrace, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......
Mar. 7,1861
338 Mulvany, W. T., Pempelfort, Dusseldorf-on-the-Rhine ......
Dec. 3,1857
339 Mundle, Arthur, 7, Collingwood Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
June 5, 1875
340 Mundle, W., Redesdale Mines, Bellingham ............ Aug.
2,1873
341*Nasse, Rudolph, Konigl Bergwerks Director, Louisenthal, Saar-
briicken, Prussia ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 1869
342 Nevin, John, Mirfield, Yorkshire ............... May 2,
1868
343 Newall, R. S., Perndene, Gateshead-on-Tyne (Member of Council)... May
2, 1863
344 Nicholson, E., jun., Beamish Colliery, Chester-le-Street ......
Aug. 7,1869
345 Nicholson, Marshall, Middleton Hall, Leeds ......... Nov.
7,1863
346 Noble, Captain, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......... Feb.
3,1866
347 North, F. W., F.G.S., Rowley Hall Colliery, Dudley, Staffordshire ...
Oct, 6,1864
348 Ogden, John M., Solicitor, Sunniside, Sunderland ......... Mar.
5,1857
349 Ogilvie, A. Graeme, 4, Great George Street, Westminster, London Mar.
3, 1877
350 Oliter, Robert, Charlaw Colliery, near Durham ......... Nov.
6,1875
351 Pacey, T., Bishop Auckland .................. April 10, 1869
352 Palmer, A. S., Usworth Hall, Washington Station, Co. Durham ...
July 2, 1872
353 Palmer, C. M., M.P., Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......... Nov.
5,1852
354 Pamely, C, Radstock Coal Works, near Bath............ Sept. 5,1868
355 PAnton, F. S., Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland .........
Oct. 5, 1867
356 Parkin, C, Hutton-le-Hole, Kirby Moorside, York.......... June
5,1875
357 Parrington, M. W., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland ......
Dec. 1, 1864
358 Parton, T., F.G.S., Ash Cottage, Birmingham Road, West Bromwich Oct.
2, 1869
359 Pattison, John, Engineer, Naples ............... Nov. 7,
1874
360 Peace, M. W„ Wigan, Lancashire ............... July 2,
1872
361 Peacock, David, West Bromwich ............... Aug. 7, 1869
362 Pearce, F. H., Bowling Iron Works, Bradford ......
...Oct. 1,1857
363 Pease, Sir J. W., Bart., M.P., Hutton Hall, Guisbro', Yorkshire
... Mar. 5, 1857
364 Peel, John, Wharncliff e Silkstone Collieries, near Barnsley
... Nov. 1, 1860
365 Peel, John, Horsley Colliery, Wylam-on-Tyne ......... Mar.
3,1877
366 Peile, William, Ellerkeld, Stainburn, Workington......... Oct.
1, 1863
367 Penman, J. H., 2, Clarence Buildings, Booth Street, Manchester ...
Mar. 7, 1874
368 Pickup, P. W., Rishton, near Blackburn ............ Feb.
6,1875
369 Pinching, Archd. E., South Indian Mining Co., Glenrock Estate,
Devala, Madras Residency, India ... ... ... ...
... May 5, 1877
370 Potter, Addison, C.B., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......
Mar. 6,1869
371 Potter, A. M., Shire Moor Coll., Northumberland (Member of Council)
Feb. 3, 1872
372 Potter, C. J., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........
Oct. 3,1874
373* Potter, W. A., Cramlington House, Northumberland ......
1853
374 Price, John, Messrs. Palmer & Co., Limited, Jarrow-on-Tyne ...
Mar. 3,1877
375 Price, J. R., Standish, near Wigan ............... Aug. 7,
1869
376 Priestman, Jno., Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......... Sept.
2,1871
377 Pringle, Edward, Choppington Colliery. Northumberland...... Aug.
4, 1877
(xxvii)
ELECTED.
378 Ramsay, J. A., Thornley House, by Trimdon Grange, Co. Durham ... Mar.
6, 1869
379 Ramsay, Wm, Tursdale Colliery, County Durham ......... Sept. 11,
1875
380 Reed, Robert, Felling Colliery, Gateshead......... ... Dec.
3,1863
381 Rees, Daniel, Glandare, Aberdare ...............
1862
382 Refeen, Wm., Teplitz, Bohemia.................. Oct. 5,1872
383 Reid, Andrew, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............... April 2, 1870
384 Richards, E. W., Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan, & Co., Middlesbro' ...
Aug 5, 1876
385 Richardson, H., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Member
of Council) ............ ............Mar. 2,1865
386 Richardson, J. W., Iron Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Sept.
3,1870
387 Ridley, G., Tyne Chambers, 38, Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Feb.
4,1865
388 Ridley, J. H., Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 6, 1872
389 Ridyard, J., Bridgewater Offices, Walkden, nr. Bolton-le-Moors, Lan.
Nov. 7, 1874
390 Ritson, U. A, 6, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct.
7,1871
391 Ritson, W. A., Tamworth Colliery Co., Tamworth .........April 2,
1870
392 Robertson, W., M.E., 123, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow ......Mar.
5, 1870
393 Robinson, G. C, Brereton and Hayes Colls., Rugeley, Staffordshire...
Nov. 5, 1870
394 Robinson, John........................Nov. 4,1876
395 Robinson, R., Howlish Hall, near Bishop Auckland (Mem. of Council) Feb.
1,1868
396 Robson, J. S., Butterknowle Colliery, via Darlington.........
1853
397 Robson, J. T., Cambuslang, Glasgow ...............Sept. 4,1869
398 Robson, Thomas, Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses .........Oct. 4,
1860
399 Rogerson, John, Croxdale Hall, Durham ............Mar.
6,1869
400 Roscamp, J., West View, Morpeth ...............Feb. 2,1867
401 Ross, J. A. G., Consulting Engineer, 13, Belgrave Terrace, Newcastle
July 2, 1872
402 Rossek, W., Mineral Surveyor, Llanelly, Carmarthenshire ......
1856
403 Rothwell, R. P., 27, Park Place, New York, U.S..........Mar. 5,
1870
404 Routledge, Jos., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland ......
... Sept. 11, 1875
405 Routledge, Wm., S. and L.C. and R. Co., Reserve Colliery, Sydney,
Cape Breton................ .........Aug. 6,1857
406 Rowley, J. C, Shagpoint Colliery, Otago, New Zealand ......Dec.
4,1875
407 Rutherford, J., Halifax Coal Co., Ld., Albion Mines, Nova Scotia...
1852
408 Rutherford, W., So. Derwent Colliery, Annfield Plain, Lintz Green Oct.
3, 1874
409 Rutter, Thos., Blaydon Main Colliery, Blaydon-on-Tyne ......May
1,1875
410 Ryder, W. J. H., Forth Street Brass Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Nov. 4, 1876
411 Saint, George, Vauxhall Collieries, Ruabon, North Wales ...
... April 11, 1874
412 Scarth, W. T., Raby Castle, Darlington ............April
4,1868
413 Scott, Andrew, Broomhill Colliery, Acklington .........Dec.
7,1867
414 Scott, C. F. ........................Aprilll, 1874
415 Scoular, G., Cleator Moor, via Carnforth ............July
2,1872
416 Shallis, F. W., Pritchard & Sons, 9, Gracechurch Street, London ..,
April 6, 1872
417 Shaw, W., Jun., Wolsingham, via Darlington ... ... ...
... June 3,1871
418 Shiel, John, Framwellgate Colliery, County Durham ...
... May 6, 1871
419 Shone, Isaac, Pentrefelin House, Wrexham ... ... ...
... 1858
420 Shortrede, T., Park House, Winstanley, Wigan .........April
3,1856
421 Shute, C. A., Westoe, South Shields ...............Aprilll, 1874
422 Simpson, J., Heworth Colliery, near Gateshead-on-Tyne ......Dec.
6, 1866
(xxviii)
ELECTED.
423 Simpson, J. B.,Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne (Vice-Peesident) Oct.
4,1860
424 Simpson, R., Moor House, Ryton-on-Tyue ............Aug. 21, 1852
425 Simpson, Robi\, Drummond Coll., Westville, Pictou, Nova Scotia ...
Dec. 4,1875
426 Sunn, T., 2, Choppington Street, Westmorland Road, Newcastle ...
July 2, 1872
427 Small, G., Duffield Road, Derby..................June 4, 1870
428 Smith, G. P., Grovehurst, Tunbridge Wells ............Aug.
5,1853
429 Smith, J., Bickershaw Colliery, Leigh, near Manchester
......Mar. 7, 1874
430*Smith, R. Cliefobd, Parkfield, Swinton, Manchester ......Dec.
5,1874
431 Smith, T., Sen., M.E., Cinderford Villas, nr. Newnham, Gloucester...
May, 5, 1877
432 Smith, T. E., Phoenix Foundry, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Dec. 5, 1874
433 Snowdon, T., jun., West Bitchburn Coll., nr. Tow Law, via Darlington
Sept, 4,1869
434 Sop with, A., Cannock Chase Collieries, near Walsall... ...
... Aug. 1,1868
435 Sop with, Tho3., 6, Great George St., Westminster, London, S.W. ...
Mar. 3, 1877
436 Southern, R., Burleigh House, The Parade, Tredegarville, Cardiff...
Aug. 3, 1865
437 Southwobtii, Thos., Hindley Green Collieries, near Wigan......May
2,1874
438 Spenceb, John, Westgate Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Sept.
4,1869
439 Spencer, M., Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Sept.
4,1869
440 Spenceb, T., Ryton, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Dec.
6,1866
441 Spencee, W., Southfields, Leicester ...............Aug. 21, 1852
442 Steatenson, A. L., Durham ... ... ...
(Vice-Peesident) Dec. 6, 1855
443 Stephenson, G. R., 9, Victoria Chambers, Westminster, London, S.W.
Oct. 4,1860
444 Stetenson, R., Janefield Place, Lylesland, Paisley, N.B.......Feb.
5,1876
445 Stobabt, W., Pepper Arden, Northallerton ............July 2,
1872
446 Stobey, Tiios. E., Clough Hall Iron Works, Kidsgrove, Staffordshire
Feb. 5, 1876
447 Steakeb, John, Stagshaw House, Corbridge-on-Tyne ...
... May 2, 1867
448 Sieakee, J. H., Willington House, Co. Durham .........Oct.
3,1874
449 Steatton, T. H. M., Tredegar, South Wales............Dec. 3,1870
450 Swallow, J., Bushblades House, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... May
2, 1874
451 Swallow, R. T., Springwell, Gateshead-on-Tyne .........
1862
452 Swan, H. F., Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne............Sept. 2,1871
453 Swan, J. G., Upsall Hall, near Middlesbro' ............Sept.
2,1871
454 Swann, C. G., Sec, General Mining Asso. Ld., 6, New Broad St., London
Aug. 7, 1875
455 Tate, Simon, Trimdon Grange Colliery, Co. Durham ...
... Sept. 11, 1875
456 Taylob, Hugh, King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
... Sept. 5, 1856
457 Taylor, T., King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........July 2,
1872
458 Tayloe-Smith, Thomas, Greencroft Park, Durham.........Aug. 2,1866
459 Thomas, A., Bilson House, near Newnham, Gloucestershire ... ...
Mar. 2,1872
460 Thompson, John, Boughton Hall, Chester ............Sept. 2, 1865
461 Thompson, R., Jun., Rodridge House, Wingate, Co. Durham ...
Sept. 7, 1867
462 Thompson, T. C, Milton Hall, Carlisle...............May 4, 1854
463 Thomson, John, Eston Mines, by Middlesbro'............April 7,1877
464 Thomson, Jos. F., Manvers Main Colliery, Rotherham ......Feb.
6, 1875
465 Tinn, J., C.E., Ashton Iron Rolling Mills, Bower Ashton, Bristol
... Sept. 7, 1867
466 Tylden-Weight, C, Shireoaks Colliery, Worksop, Notts.......
1862
467 Tyson, Wm. John, 15, Foxhouses Road, Whitehaven ......Mar.
3,1877
468 TyzACK, D. ........................Feb. 14, 1874
469 Tyzack, Wilfbed, So. Medomsley Coll., Lintz Green, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7,1876
(xxix)
FLECTED.
470 Vivian, John, Diamond Boring Company, Whitehaven ......Mar.
3, 1877
471 Wadham, E., C. and M.E., Millwood, Dalton-in-Furness ......Dec.
7,1867
472 Walkee, G. B., Wharncliffe Silkstone Collieries, Wortley, nr. Sheffield
Dec. 2, 1871
473 Walkeb, J. S., 15, Wallgate, Wigan, Lancashire .........Dec.
4,1869
474 Walkee, W., Saltburn-by-the-Sea ...............Mar. 5,1870
475 Wallace, Heney, Trench Hall, Gateshead ............Nov. 2, 1872
476 Waed, H., Rodbaston Hall, near Penkridge, Stafford.........Mar.
6,1862
477 Waedale, John D., Redheugh Engine Works, Gateshead ......May
1,1875
478 Waedell, S. C, Doe Hill House, Alfreton ............April
1,1865
479 Waerington, J., Cragwood, Rawdon, near Leeds .........Oct. 6,
1859
480 Watson, H., High Bridge Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
7, 1868
481 Watson, H. B., High Bridge Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
3, 1877
482 Watson, M., Dearham Main Collieries, near Maryport ......Mar.
7,1868
483 Weeks, J. G., Bedlington Collieries, Bedlington (Member of Council)
Feb. 4, 1865
484 Westmacott, P. G. B., Elswick Iron Works, Newcastle ......June
2, 1866
485 White, H., Weardale Coal Company, Tow Law, near Darlington ...
1866
486 White, J. F., M.E., Wakefield...... ............July 2,1872
487 White, J. W. H., Woodlesford, near Leeds ............Sept. 2,
1876
488 Whitehead, James, Brindle Lodge, near Preston, Lancashire ...
Dec. 4, 1875
489 Whitelaw, John, 118, George Street, Edinburgh ...
......Feb. 5, 1870
490 Whitelaw, T., Shields and Dalzell Collieries, Motherwell
......April 6, 1872
491 Whittem, Thos. S., Wyken Colliery, near Coventry ... ...
... Dec. 5,1874
492 Widdas, C, North Bitchburn Colliery, Howden, Darlington......Dec.
5,1868
493 Wight, W. H., Cowpen Colliery, Blyth...............Feb. 3,1877
494 Wild, J. G., Hedley Hope Collieries, Tow Law, by Darlington ...
Oct. 5, 1867
495 Williams, E., Cleveland Lodge, Middlesbro'............Sept. 2,1865
496 Williams, J. J., Pantgwyn House, Holywell, Flintshire ......Nov.
2, 1872
497 Williamson, John, Cannock, &c, Collieries, Hednesford ...
... Nov. 2, 1872
498 Willis, J., 14, Portland Terrace, Newcastle (Member of Council) ...
Mar. 5, 1857
499 Wilson, J. B., Wingfield Iron Works and Colliery, Alfreton......Nov.
5,1852
500 Wilson, Robert, Flimby Colliery, Maryport............Aug. 1,1874
501 Wilson, W. B., Kippax and Allerton Collieries, Leeds ...
... Feb. 6, 1869
502 Winter, T. B., Grey Street, Newcastle-ou-Tyne .........Oct.
7,1871
503 Wood, C. L., Freeland, Bridge of Earn, Perthshire .........
1853
504 Wood, Lindsay, Southill, Chester-le-Street (Past Pbesident, Mem-
ber of Council) .....................Oct. 1,1857
505 Wood, Thomas, Rainton House, Fence Houses ... ..,
... Sept. 3, 1870
506 Wood, W. H., Coxhoe Hall, Coxhoe, Co. Durham .........
1856
507 Wood, W. O., Durham .....................Nov. 7,1863
508 Woolcock, Henby, St. Bees, Cumberland ............Mar. 3,1873
509 Weight, G. H.........................July 2,1872
510 WBionTSON, T., Stockton-on-Tees ...............Sept. 13, 1873
511 Toung, Philip ........................Oct. 11,1873
(xxx)
©rbiirarg ^tmhm.
Marked * is a Life Member.
ELECTED.
1 Ackroyd, Wm., Jun., Morley Main Collieries, Morley, nr. Leeds .'..
Feb. 7, 1880
2 Bell, C. E., Park House, Durham ...............Dec. 3,1870
3 Beoja, Richard, Oberbergrath, Ostwall, Dortmund... ......Nov.
6,1880
4 Butler, W. F., C.E., Cymman Hall, near Wrexham.........Feb. 7,1880
5 Charlton, Henry, Hawks, Crawshay, & Sons, Gateshead-on-Tyne Dec. 9,
1882
6 Cochrane, John E., The North-West Provinces and Oude Ice Co.,
Limited, Lucknow Factory, India ... ... ... ...
... Dec. 9, 1882
7 Cross, W. A., Messrs. R. and W. Hawthorn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 12,1884
8 Dacres, Thomas, Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland .........May
4,1878
9 Dees, J. G., Floraville, Whitehaven ...............Oct. 13,1883
10*Dixon, James S., 170, Hope Street, Glasgow............Aug. 3,1878
11 Ellis, W. R., F.G.S., Wigan ..................June 1,1878
12 Forrest, B. J., Presser and Cia, Salesas 4, Madrid .........April
12,1884
13 Forrest, J. C, Witley Coal Co., Limited, Halesowen, Birmingham... April
12,1884
14 Geddes, George H., 142 Princes Street, Edinburgh.........Oct. 1, 1881
15 Gilchrist, Thomas, Eltringham, Prudhoe-on-Tyne.........May 4,1878
16 Goudie, J. H., 13, Lowther Street, Whitehaven .........Sept.
7,1878
17 Harbottle, John, Linlithgow Mines, Columbia Co., New York ... June
10, 1882
18 Jameson, John, Akenside Hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........April 12,1884
19 Johnson, Henry, Jun., Sandwell Park Colliery, West Bromwich,
South Staffordshire.....................Feb. 10, 1883
20 Johnson, William, West Stanley Colliery, Chester-le-Street ...
Dec. 9, 1882
21 Kellett, William, Wigan ... ...............June 1,1878
22 Knowles, 1., Wigan ....................Oct. 13,1883
23 Lancaster, John, Auchinbeath, Southfield and Fence Collieries,
Lesmahagow ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... Sept. 7, 1878
24 Laws, W. G., Town Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Member of Council)... Oct.
2, 1880
25 Leach, C. C, Bedlington Colls., Bedlington, R.S.O., Northumberland Mar.
7, 1874
26 Liddell, Matthew, Mickley Colliery Offices, Stocksfield-on-Tyne ...
Feb. 10, 1883
27 Llewellin, David Morgan, F.G.S., Glanwern Offices, Pontypool ... May
14, 1881
28 Martin, Tom Pattinson, Allhallows Colliery, Mealsgate, Carlisle ...
Feb. 15, 1879
29 Oldham, G. H., St. John D'El Rey Mining Co., Tower Chambers,
Finsbury Pavement, London ... ... ... ...
... Aug. 5, 1882
30 Potts, Jos., Jun., North Cliff, Roker, Sunderland .........Dec.
6,1879
31 Prior, Edward G., Victoria, British Columbia............Feb. 7,1880
32 Rhodes, C. E., Carr House, Rotherham ............Aug.
4,1883
33 Rogees, William, 19, King Street, Wigan ............Nov. 2,1878
34 Russell, Robeet, Coltness Iron Works, Newmains, N.B. ... ...
Aug. 3, 1878
35 Selby, Atheeton, Leigh, near Manchester ... ... ...
... Oct. 13,1883
36 Spencer, John W., Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
... May 4,1878
37 Topping, Walter, Messrs. Cross, Tetley, & Co., Piatt Bridge, Wigan Mar.
2, 1878
38 Walker, Sidney Fereis, 195, Severn Road, Canton, Cardiff ...
Dec. 9,1882
39 Walkee, William Edwaed, Lowther Street, Whitehaven......Nov. 19, 1881
40 Winstanley, Robt., M.E., 28, Deansgate, Manchester ......Sept.
7,1878
(xxxi)
Marked * are Life Members.
ELECTED.
1 Adamson, L. W., Whitley House, Whitley, Northumberland ... Feb.
9, 1884
2 Allan, John, 607 Erbische Strasse, Freiberg in Sachsen ......Feb.
10, 1883
3 Aemsteong, Heney, St. Hilda Colliery, South Shields ......April
14, 1883
4 Armstrong, T. J., Hawthorn Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Feb. 10,
1883
5 Arnold, Thos., Mineral Surveyor, Castle Hill, Greenfields, Llanelly
Oct. 2, 1880
6 Atkinson, Fred., Maryport ..................Feb. 14,1874
7 Audus, T., Mineral Traffic Manager, N.E. Railway, Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug.
7,1880
8 Ayivn, E. F., Heddon Colliery, Wylam-on-Tyne .........Feb.
5,1876
9 Ayton, Henry, Seaton Delaval Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland... Mar.
6, 1875
10 Bailes, F. T., Wingate, Ferryhill ...............June 7,1879
11 Barnes, A. W., Grassmore Colliery, near Chesterfield ...
... Oct. 5, 1872
12 Barrett, C. R,, New Seaham, Sunderland ............Nov. 7,1874
13 Bates, C. J., Heddon Banks, near Wylam-on-Tyne.........Dec. 11,1882
14*Bell, Thomas Hugh, Middlesbrough-on-Tees............Dec. 11,1882
15 Berkley, Frederick, Murton Colliery, near Sunderland ......Dec.
11,1882
16 Berklev, R. W., Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead .........Feb. 14,
1874
17 Bewick, T. B., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland .. ...
... Mar. 7,1874
18 Bied, W. J., 9, Prince Street, Sunderland ............Nov.
6,1875
19 Bouchee, A. S., La Salada puerto Bertio, E de Antioguia, United
States of Colombia, S.A. '..................Aug. 4,1883
20 Bowes, John, Streatlam Castle, Darlington ............Feb. 10, 1883
21 Brough, Thomas, Seaham Colliery, Seaham Harbour ......Feb.
1,1873
22 Beown, M. W., 7, Elswick Park, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Oct. 7, 1871
23 Beown, W. B., 101, Leadenhall Street, London, E.C..........Mar. 2,
1878
24 Beuce, John, Cannock Chase Colliery, near Walsall
......Feb. 14, 1874
25 Bulman, H. F., West Rainton, Fence Houses............May 2,1874
26 Bunning, C. Z., Warora Colliery, Central Provinces, India......Dec.
6,1873
27 Burdon, A. E., Hartford House, Cramlington, Northumberland ...
Feb. 10,1883
28 Burnley, C. E., Aybrigg Farm, near Wakefield .........April
11, 1874
29 Cabrera, Fidel, c/o H. Kendall & Son, 12, Gt. Winchester St., London
Oct. 6, 1877
30 Candlee, T. E., Canton Club, Canton, China............May 1,1875
31 Charlton, W. A., Tangye Bros., 25, Lincoln St., Gatesbead-on-Tyne Nov.
6, 1880
32 Clough, James, Bedlington Collieries, R.S.O., Northumberland ...
April 5,1873
33 Cobbold, C. H.........................May 3,1873
34 Cochrane, Ralph D., Hetton Colliery Offices, Fence Houses ...
June 1,1878
35 Cockson, Charles, King Street, Wigan ............April 22,
1882
36 Cooper, R. W., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ...
... Sept. 4, 1880
37 Crawford, T. W., Tees Hetton Coal Co., Limited, Evenwood, Bishop
Auckland ........................Dec 4,1875
38 Dakers, W. R., Croxdale Colliery, Durham ............Oct. 14,
1882
39 Dalziel, W. G., 2, Pembroke Terrace, Cardiff .........Sept.
7, 1878
40 Davison, Charles, Cornsay Colliery, near Esh, Durham ...
... Dec. 11, 1882
e
(xxxiij
ELECTED.
41 Dodd, M., Lemington, Scotswood-on-Tyne ............Dec. 4, 1875
42 Douglas, John, Seghill Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland......April 22,
1882
43 Douglas, John, Jun., SeghiU Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ...
April22, 1882
44 Douglas, M. H., Marsden Colliery, South Shields .........Aug.
2,1879
45 Doyle, Pateick........................Mar. 1,1879
46 Edge, J. O, Eckington Colliery, near Chesterfield .........Dec.
5, 1874
47 Edge, John H., Coalport Wire Rope and Chain Works, Shif nal, Salop
Sept. 7, 1878
48 Paieley, James, Craghead and Holmside Collieries, Chester-le-Street
Aug. 7, 1880
49 Faebow, Joseph, Brotton Mines, Brotton, R.S.O..........Feb. 11, 1882
50 Eeegu son, D., 124, New City Road, Glasgow............Dec. 8,1883
51 Fletcher, W., Brigham Hill, via Carlisle ... ...
... ... Oct. 13,1883
52 Fryae, Maek, Denby Colliery, Derby...............Oct. 7,1876
53 Gerrard, James, 19, King Street, Wigan ............ Mar.
3,1873
54 Greener, Henry, South Pontop Colliery, Annfield Plain ...... Dec.
11, 1882
55 Greener, T. Y., Rainford Collieries, St. Helen's, Lancashire......
July 2,1872
56 Greener, W. J., Pemberton Colliery, Wigan............ Mar. 2,1878
57 Gresley, W. S., Overseale, Ashby-de-la-Zouch .........
Oct. 5,1878
58 Guthrie, J. K., St. Thomas'Terrace, Blaydon-on-Tyne ......
Mar. 1,1879
59 Haggie, Peter Sinclair, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......... April
14, 1883
60 Hallas, G. H., Hindley Green Colliery, near Wigan......... Oct. 7,
1876
61 Hamilton, E., Rig Wood, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ......... Nov.
1,1873
62 Harris, W. S., Andrews House, near Gateshead-on-Tyne ...... Feb.
14,1874
63 Hedley, E., Rainham Lodge, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent ...
Dec. 2, 1871
64 Henderson, C. W. C, The Riding, Hexham............ Dec. 11, 1882
65 Henry, Geo. J., Stowmarket Gun Cotton Co., Stowmarket...... Nov. 19,
1881
66 Hill, William, Carterthorne Colliery Offices, Witton-le-Wear ...
June 9,1883
67 Humble, Ste ''HEN, 5,Westminster Chambers,Victoria St., London, S.W.
Oct. 6, 1877
68 Jeefcock, Charles E., Birley Collieries, Sheffield .........Feb.
10,1883
69 Jepson, H., 54, Old Elvet, Durham ...............July 2,1872
70*Jobling, Thos. E., Bebside Colliery, Cowpen Lane, Northumberland Oct.
7, 1876
71 Johnson, F. D., Aykleyheads, Durham...............Feb. 10, 1883
72 Johnson, W., Abram Colliery, Wigan...............Feb. 14, 1874
73 Jordan, J. J.........................Mar. 3,1873
74 Laverick, John Wales, Middridge Colliery, Shildon, via Darlington Dec.
11, 1882
75 Liddell, J. M., 21, Lovaine Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne
......Mar. 6,1875
76 Liddell, John, Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ...
... Dec. 11, 1882
77 Lisle, J., Washington Colliery, County Durham .........July
2,1872
78 Liveing, E. H., 6, Westminster Chambers, Victoria St., London, S.W.
Sept. 1, 1877
79 Maccabe, H. O., Russell Vale, Wollongong, New South Wales ...
Sept. 7, 1878
80 Maddison, Thos. R., Thornes, near Wakefield .........Mar.
3,1877
81 Makepeace, H. R., Bellshill, N.B................Mar. 3,1877
82 Markham, G. E., Howlish Offices, Bishop Auckland.........Dec. 4, 1875
83 Melly, E. F., Griff Collieries, Nuneaton ............Oct.
5, 1878
(xxxiii)
ELECTED.
84*Merivale, W., c/o Mackinnon and Mackenzie, Bombay ......Mar. 5,
1881
85 Miller, D. S., Neston Collieries, Cheshire ............Nov.
7,1874
86*Millee, N............................Oct. 5,1878
87 Monkhouse, G. Benson, St. Nicholas' Chambers, Newcastle-on-Tyne Oct. 14,
1882
88 Moore, William, Upleatham Mines, Upleatham, R.S.O.......Nov. 19, 1881
89 Moreing, C. A., 34, Clement's Lane, London, E.C..........Nov. 7, 1874
90 Morison, John, Newbattle Collieries, Dalkeith, N.B.
......Dec. 4, 1880
91 Oensby, R. E., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ..
Mar. 6,1875
92 Palmer, Heney, East Howie Colliery, near Ferryhill
......Nov. 2,1878
93 Peake, C. E., Sleaford, Lincolnshire ...............Nov. 3,1877
94*Pease, Aethur, M.P., Darlington ...............Dec. 11, 1882
95 Phillips, W. J., Ansley Hall Colliery, Atherstone .........June
9,1883
96 Peest, J. J., St. Helen's Colliery, Bishop Auckland.........May
1,1875
97 Prest, T., Peases WTest Collieries, Crook, by Darlington
.....June 14,1884
98 Prichard, W., Nav. and Deep Duffryn Colls., Mountain Ash, So. Wales Dec.
7, 1878
99 Pringle, Jos., Manager, Coxlodge Colliery, So. Gosforth, Newcastle
Mar. 5, 1881
100 Proud, Joseph, South Hetton Colliery Offices, Sunderland......Oct.
14, 1882
101 Rathbone, Edgae P., 2, Great George Street, Westminster, London
Mar. 7, 1874
102 Ridley, Sir Matthew White, Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Northumberland Feb.
10,1883
103 Robson, Haeey N., 3, North Bailey, Durham............Dec. 4,1875
104 Robson, T. O., Redheugh Colliery, Gateshead-on-Tyne
......Sept. 11,1875
105 Rowell, Robeet, Seghill Colliery Office, Newcastle-on-Tyne
... Feb. 10,1883
106 Saise, W., Manager E.I.R. Collieries, Giridi, Bengal, India......Nov.
3, 1877
107 Sawyer, A. R., Ass. R.S.M., Basford, Stoke-upon-Trent ......Dec.
6,1873
108 Scuefield, Geo. J., Hurworth-upon-Tees, Darlington ......Dec.
11,1882
109 Smith, J. Bagnold, Langwith Colliery, near Mansfield ......Nov.
2, 1878
110 SMiTn, Thos. Readee, M.E., Thorncliffe Collieries, near Sheffield ...
Feb. 5, 1881
111 Snowball, Joseph, Seaton Burn House, Northumberland ......Feb.
10,1883
112 Still, F. M., 3, Queen Street, Cheapside, London ........Dec.
8,1883
113 Spence, R. F., Cramlington ............ ......Nov. 2*,
1878
114 Stobart, F., Pensher House, Fence Houses ............Aug. 2. 1873
115 Stobbs, Frank, 1, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Oct.
1,1881
116 Stones, T. H., Wigan Coal & Iron Co., Westleigh, nr. Leigh, Lancashire
Nov. 7, 1874
117 Telford, W. H., Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland ......Oct.
3, 1874
118 Thomas, William, M.E., Mineral Office, The Castle, Cockermouth... Feb.
10, 1883
119 Thompson, Charles Lacy, Milton Hall, Carlisle .........Feb. 10,
1883
120 Turnbull, George, Seaham Colliery, Seaham Harbour ......Oct.
4,1879
121 Tyzack, B. C, Preston Road, North Shields ............Dec.
8,1883
122 Vitanoff, Geo. N., Sofia, Bulgaria ...............April 22,1882
123 Wallau, Jacob, Messrs. Black, Hawthorn and Co., Gateshead ...
Feb. 9,1884
124 Walters, Haegeave, Birley Collieries, near Sheffield
......June 4, 1881
125 Walton, J. Coulthaed, Writhlington Collieries, Radstock, via Bath Nov.
7, 1874
(xxxiv)
ELECTED.
126* Ward, T. H., Assistant Manager, E.I.R. Collieries, Giridi, Bengal,
India Aug. 7, 1882
127 Wabdle, Ed wabd, Craghead Colliery, Chester-le-Street ......Feb.
5,1881
128 Watson, Robebt, North Seaton, Morpeth ............Dec. 11, 1882
129 Webster, H. Ingham, Morton House, Fence Houses ......April 14,
1883
130 Weeks, R. L., Willington, Co. Durham ............June 10,
1882
131 Wilson, John R., Swaithe, near Barnsley ...... ,.....June
9,1883
132 Woemald, C. F., Cross House, Corbridge ... .........Dec.
8,1883
1 Andeeson, R. S., Elswick Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......June
9,1883
2 Atkinson, A. A., Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses ... ...
... Aug. 3, 1878
3 Baebass, M., Tudhoe Colliery, Spennymoor ............Dec. 10, 1883
4 Baumgaetneb, W. O., Trimdon Grange Coll., Co. Durham......Sept. 6, 1879
5 Bell, Geo. Feed., 25, Old Elvet, Durham ............Sept. 6,1879
6 Bied, Haeey, Fawler Iron Mines, Charlbury............April 7,1877
7 Blackett, W. C., Jun., Kimblesworth Colliery, Chester-le-Street ...
Nov. 4,1876
8 Blakeley, A. B., Hollyroyd, Dewsbury ............Feb. 15, 1879
9 Bbamwell, Hugh, 20, Beverley Terrace, Cullercoats ......Oct.
4,1879
10 Brown, C. Gilpin, Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........Nov.
4,1876
11 Chandley, Chaeles, Atherton Collieries, near Manchester...... Nov.
6,1880
12 Chapman, Abe. C, Silksworth Hall, near Sunderland ......
Oct. 4,1879
13 Child, H............................ Feb. 15, 1879
14 Cole, Collin, Simonside Cottage, Tyne Dock, South Shields ...
Oct. 18, 1882
15 Ceawfoed, James Mill, Murton Colliery, near Sunderland ...
Dec. 11,1882
16 Ceone, F. E., Killingworth House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ...
Sept. 2,1876
17 Citeey, W. Thos., Usworth Colliery, via Washington, R.S.O. ...
Sept. 4,1880
18 Davidson, C. C, Ore Bank House, Bigrigg, via Carnforth, Cumberland Nov.
4,1876
19 Davis, Kenneth M., Towneley and Stella Collieries, Ryton-on-Tyne April
5, 1879
20 Depledge, M. F.........................April 7,1877
21 Donkin, Wm,, Mohain Mines, Gadawara, C.P., India.........Sept. 2,1876
22 Douglas, A. S., Stanley Villa, near Crook, via Darlington......June
1,1878
23 Dunn, A. F., Poynton, Stockport, Cheshire ............June 2,
1877
24 Dubnpoed, H. St. John, Low Stublin Colliery, near Rotherham ... June
2,1877
25 Evans, David L., Messrs. Dalziel & Evans, Cardiff.........May 4,1878
26 Feeens, Feedeeick J., 220, Gilesgate, Durham .........Dec. 4,
1880
27 Foestee, C. W., 6, Ellison Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........June 10,
1882
28 Forsteb, Thomas E., Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland ......Oct.
7,1876
29 Fowlee, Robeet, Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.........Dec. 2, 1876
30 Gallwey, Aethue P., El Callao Gold Mine, Guiana, Venezuela, S.A. Oct.
2, 1880
31 Gilcheist, J. R., Durham Main Colliery, Durham .........Feb.
3,1877
32 Gobdon, Chas., Glebe Street, Stoke-on-Trent............May 5,1877
(xxxv)
EI.E0TEH.
33 Gould, Alex., 6, Ellison Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Dec. 1,1877
34 Geeen, Feancis W., Harton Colliery Offices, South Shietds
..'. April22, 1882
35 Gbeig, J., Brancepeth Village, Co. l3urham ... .........Feb.
5,1881
36 Haddock, W. T., Jun., Ry hope Colliery, Sunderland...... ...Oct.
7,1876
37 Haggie, Douglas, Harton Colliery, South Shields .........April 14,
1883
38 Haig, R. Noble ... .....................Feb. 10, 1883
39 Haee, Samuel, Broughton and Plas Power Coal Co., Ltd., Wrexham Aug.
2, 1879
40 Haerison, Robeet J......................May 1, 1875
41 Harbison, R, W., Public Wharf, Leicester ............Mar. 3,1877
42 Hay, W., Jun., Nostell Colliery, Wakefield ............Dec, 10,
1883
43 Hedley, Sept. H., Wardley, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Feb.
15,1879
44 Hendy, J. C. B., Middle Bitchburn Colliery, Howden-le-Wear, via
Darlington ........................Sept. 2,1876
45 Heslop, Septimus, Urpeth, Chester-le-Street... .........Dec.
4,1880
46 Heslop, Thomas, Storey Lodge Colliery, Cockfield, via Darlington... Oct.
2, 1880
47 Hill, Leonaed, Newport Wire Mills, Middlesbro' ......
..Oct. 6,1877
48 Hoopeb, Edwaed, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland... ...
.. June 4,1881
49 Howaed, Waltee, 13, Cavendish Street, Chesterfield
......April 13, 1878
50 Hudson, Joseph G. S., Albion Mines, Pictou County, Nova Scotia... Mar.
2, 1878
51 Humble, Joicey, 17, Westmorland Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Mar.
3,1877
52 Humble, Robeet, The Poplars, Ebchester, Co. Durham ......Sept.
2, 1876
53 Huest, Geo., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Northumberland ...
... April 14, 1883
54 Hutt, E. H, Usworth Coll., Washington Station R.S.O., Co. Durham Aug.
4, 1883
55 Kayll, A. C, Felling Colliery, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......... Oct.
7,1876
56 Kirkhouse, E. G., Medomsley, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Aug. 3,1878
57 Kiekup, Philip, Esh Colliery, near Durham............. Mar. 2,1878
58 Kieton, Hugh, Waldridge Colliery, Chester-le-Street ......
April'7, 1877
59 Lindsay, C. S., Usworth, via Washington R.S.O. .., ...
...Mar. 4,1876
60 Lishman, R. R., CelynenColliery, Abercarne, via Newport, Mon. ...
June 9,1883
61 Locke, E. G.........................Dec. 2,1876
62 Longbotham, R. H., Brynkinalt Colliery, Chirk, Wales ......Sept.
2,1876
63 Mackinlay, T. B., West Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street......Nov. 1,
1879
64 Maeston, Feank, Bromfleld Hall, Mold ............Aug. 7,1882
65 McLaeen, B., Bedlington R.S.O., Northumberland ... ....
... Deo. 10, 1883
66 Mitton, A. D., Sherburn House, Durham ............June 9, 1S82
67 Mueeay, W. C, Weed Park, Dipton, via Lintz Green Station ... Oct.
4, 187£
68 Mueton, Chaeles J., Jesmond Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar. 6,
188C
69 Nicholson, J. C, Wear Steel and File Works, Sunderland......Feb. 3,
.1877
70 Nicholson, J. H., Cambois Colliery, Blyth, Northumberland ...
Oct. 1, 1881
71 Noble, J. C, Usworth Hall, near Washington Station, Co. Durham... May
5, 1877
72 Oates, Robeet J. W., E.I.R. Collieries, Giridi, Bengal, India ...
Feb. 10,1882
73 Pattison, Jos. W., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour......Feb. 15,
187£
74 Peake, R. C, Highgate, Wallsall...............Feb. 7, 188C
(xxxvi)
ELECTED.
75 Peart, A. W., Lower Duffryn Collieries, near Mountain Ash ...
Nov. 4, 1876
76 Pease, J. T., Pierremont, Darlington............ ... June 9,
1883
77 Pike, Arnold, Kimblesworth Colliery, Chester-le-Street ......Feb.
5, 1881
78 Potter, E. A., Cramlington House, Northumberland ... ...
... Feb. 6, 1875
79 Price, S. E., Houghton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire ...
Nov. 3, 1877
80 Pringle, H. A., Peases' West Collieries, Crook, by Darlington ...
Oct. 2,1880
81 Pringle, Hy. Geo., Tanfield Lea Coll., Lintz Green Station, Newcastle
Dec. 4, 1880
82 Proctor, C. P., Shibden Hall Collieries, near Halifax, Yorkshire ...
Oct. 7,1876
83 Reed, R., North Seaton Colliery, Morpeth ............Feb.
3,1877
84 Richardson, Ralph, Field House, West Rainton, Fence Houses ... June
9, 1883
85 Richardson, R. W. P., Office of General Manager, Cedral Mining
and Smelting Co.'s Mines, Villa de Musquiz Coalmila, Mexico ... Mar. 4,
1876
86 Ridley, William, South Tanfield Colliery, Chester-le-Street ...
Dec. 11, 1882
87 Robinson, Frank, Norley Colliery, Wigan ............Sept. 2,1876
88 Robinson, Geo.........................Nov. 4,1876
89 Routledge, W. H., Staveley Coal and Iron Co. Limited, Chesterfield Oct.
7, 1876
90 Scarth, R, W., Dishforth, near Thirsk...............Dec. 4,1875
91 Scott, Joseph Samuel, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, Co. Durham Nov. 19,
1881
92 Scott, Walter, Cornsay Colliery, Lanchester, Co. Durham......Sept. 6,
1879
93 Scott, Wm., Brancepeth Colliery Offices, Willington, Co. Durham ... Mar.
4, 1876
94 Simpson, F. R., Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.........Aug. 4, 1883
95 Smith, Thos., Leadgate, Co. Durham...............Feb. 15, 1879
96 Smith, T. F., Jun., Cinderford Villas, near Newnham, Gloucestershire May
5, 1877
97 Southern, E. O., Breeze Hill, Whitehaven ............Dec. 5,1874
98 Southern, Thomas, Cwmaman Colliery, near Aberdare, South Wales Dec. 17,
1881
99 Steavenson, C. H., Durham ..................April 14, 1883
100 Stobart, H. T., Washington Colliery, Washington Station R.S.O.,
Co. Durham........................Oct. 2,1880
101 Stoker, Arthur P., Birtley, near Chester-le-Street ... ...
... Oct. 6,1877
102 Todd, John T., Hetton-le-Hole, Fence Houses............Nov. 4,1876
103 Todner, W. J. S., 33, Beaumont Street, Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne Sept.
6, 1879
104 Waugh, Charles L., Ffalda Steam Coal Colliery, Garw Valley, near
Bridgend ........................Nov. 19, 1881
105 White, C. E., Hebburn Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Nov.
4,1876
106 Wilson, J. D., Ouston House, Chester-le-Street .........Sept.
11, 1875
(xxxvii)
Subscribers nnbtx Ip-lnfo 9.
1 Ashington Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Birtley Iron Company, Birtley.
3 Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.
4 Hetton Collieries, Fence Houses.
5 Lambton Collieries, Fence Houses.
6 Londonderry Collieries, Seaham Harbour.
7 Marquess of Bute.
8 North Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
9 Ryhope Colliery, near Sunderland.
10 Seghill Colliery, Northumberland.
11 South Hetton and Murton Collieries.
12 Stella Colliery, Hedgefield, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
13 Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
14 Victoria Garesfield, Lintz Green.
15 Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
Stmtmarg of IJJtabtfs.
*Original Members ... ... ... ... 511
Ordinary Members ... ... ... ... 40
Associate Members ... ... ... ... 132
* Honorary Members ... ... ... ... 21
Students Class ... ... ... ... ... 106
Subscribers under Bye-law 9 ... ... ... 15
823
* Two Original are also Honorary Members
CHARTER
OP
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND
\milkk of fpmirjf mtir $n\mw& fagimn.
FOUNDED 1852. INCORPORATED NOVEMBER 28th, 1876.
3Mrf0OTt by tlie Grace of God> of tne United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, to all to whom these Presents shall
come, Greeting :
Whereas it has been represented to us that Nicholas Wood, of LTetton, in the
County of Durham, Esquire (since deceased); Thomas Emerson Forster, of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Esquire (since deceased); Sir George Elliot, Baronet
(then George Elliot, Esquire), of Houghton Hall, in the said County of
Durham, and Edward Fenwick Boyd, of Moor House, in the said County of
Durham, Esquire, and others of our loving subjects, did, in the year one
thousand eight hundred and fifty-two, form themselves into a Society, which
is known by the name of The North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, having for its objects the Prevention of Accidents in
Mines and the Advancement of the Sciences of Mining and EngineeriDg
generally, of which Society Lindsay Wood, of Southill, Chester-le-Street, in
the County of Durham, Esquire, is the present President. And whereas it has
been farther represented to us that the Society was not constituted for
gain, and that neither its projectors nor Members derive nor have derived
pecuniary profit from its prosperity; that it has during its existence of a
period of nearly a quarter of a century steadily devoted itself to the
preservation of human life and the safer development of mineral property;
that it has contributed substantially and beneficially to the prosperity of
the country and the welfare and happiness of the working members of the
community; that the Society has since its establishment diligently pursued
its aforesaid objects, and in so doing has made costly experiments
(si)
and researches with a view to the saving of life by improvements in the
ventilation of mines, by ascertaining the conditions under which the safety
lamp may be relied on for security; that the experiments conducted by the
Society have related to accidents in mines of every description, and have
not been limited to those proceeding from explosions; that the various modes
of getting coal, whether by mechanical appliances or otherwise, have
received careful and continuous attention, while the improvements in the
mode of working and hauling belowground, the machinery employed for
preventing the disastrous falls of roof underground, and the prevention of
spontaneous combustion in seams of coal as well as in cargoes, and the
providing additional security for the miners in ascending and descending the
pits, the improvements in the cages used for this purpose, and in the
safeguards against what is technically known as "overwinding," have been
most successful in lessening the dangers of mining, and in preserving human
life ; that the Society has held meetings at stated periods, at which the
results of the said experiments and researches have been considered and
discussed, and has published a series of Transactions filling many volumes,
and forming in itself a highly valuable Library of scientific reference, by
which the same have been made known to the public, and has formed a Library
of Scientific "Works and Collections of Models and Apparatus, and that
distinguished persons in foreign countries have availed themselves of the
facilities afforded by the Society for communicating important scientific
and practical discoveries, and thus a useful interchange of valuable
information has been effected; that in particular, with regard to
ventilation, the experiments and researches of the Society, which have
involved much pecuniary outlay and personal labour, and the details of which
are recorded in the successive volumes of the Society's Transactions, have
led to large and important advances in the practical knowledge of that
subject, and that the Society's researches have tended largely to increase
the security of life; that the Members of the Society exceed 800 in number,
and include a large proportion of the leading Mining Engineers in the United
Kingdom. And whereas in order to secure the property of the Society, and to
extend its useful operations, and to give it a more permanent establishment
among the Scientific Institutions of our Kingdom, we have been besought to
grant to the said Lindsay Wood, and other the present Members of the
Society, and to those who shall hereafter become Members thereof, our Royal
Charter of Incorporation. Now know ye that we, being desirous of encouraging
a design so laudable and salutary of our special grace, certain knowledge,
and mere motion, have willed granted, and declared, and
(xli)
do, by these presents, for us, our heirs, and successors, will, grant, and
declare, that the said Lindsay "Wood, and such others of our loving subjects
as are now Members of the said Society, and such others as shall from time
to time hereafter become Members thereof, according to such Bye-laws as
shall be made as hereinafter mentioned, and their successors, shall for ever
hereafter be, by virtue of these presents, one body, politic and corporate,
by the name of "The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers," and by the name aforesaid shall have perpetual succession and a
Common Seal, with full power and authority to alter, vary, break, and renew
the same at their discretion, and by the same name to sue and be sued,
implead and be impleaded, answer and be answered unto, in every Court of us,
our heirs and successors, and be for ever able and capable in the law to
purchase, acquire, receive, possess, hold, and enjoy to them and their
successors any goods and chattels whatsoever, and also be able and capable
in the law (notwithstanding the statutes and mortmain) to purchase, acquire,
possess, hold and enjoy to them and their successors a hall or house, and
any such other lands, tenements, or hereditaments whatsoever, as they may
deem requisite for the purposes of the Society, the yearly value of which,
including the site of the said hall or house, shall not exceed in the whole
the sum of three thousand pounds, computing the same respectfully at the
rack rent which might have been had or gotten for the same respectfully at
the time of the purchase or acquisition thereof. And we do hereby grant our
especial licence and authority unto all and every person and persons and
bodies politic and corporate, otherwise competent, to grant, sell, alien,
convey or devise in mortmain unto and to the use of the said Society and
their successors, any lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding with
the lands, tenements or hereditaments so purchased or previously acquired
such annual value as aforesaid, and also any moneys, stocks, securities, and
other personal estate to be laid out and disposed of in the purchase of any
lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding the like annual value. And
we further will, grant, and declare, that the said Society shall have full
power and authority, from time to time, to sell, grant, demise, exchange and
dispose of absolutely, or by way of mortgage, or otherwise, any of the
lands, tenements, hereditaments and possessions, wherein they have any
estate or interest, or which they shaP acquire as aforesaid, but that no
sale, mortgage, or other disposition of any lands, tenements, or
hereditaments of the Society shall be made, except with the approbation and
concurrence of a General Meeting. And our will and pleasure is, and we
further grant and declare that for the better rule
(xlii)
and government of the Society, and the direction and management of the
concerns thereof, there shall be a Council of the Society, to he appointed
from among the Members thereof, and to include the President and the
Vice-Presidents, and such other office-bearers or past office-bearers as may
be directed by such Bye-laws as hereinafter mentioned, but so that the
Council, including all ex-officio Members thereof, shall consist of not more
than forty or less than twelve Members, and that the Vice-Presidents shall
be not more than six or less than two in number. And we do hereby further
will and declare that the said Lindsay "Wood shall be the first President of
the Society, and the persons now being the Vice-Presidents, and the
Treasurer and Secretary, shall be the first Vice-Presidents, and the first
Treasurer and Secretary, and the persons now being the Members of the
Council shall be the first Members of the Council of the Society, and that
they respectfully shall continue such until the first election shall be made
at a General Meeting in pursuance of these presents. And we do hereby
FURTHER will and declare that, subject to the powers by these presents
vested in the General Meetings of the Society, the Council shall have the
management of the Society, and of the income and property thereof, including
the appointment of officers and servants, the definition of their duties,
and the removal of any of such officers and servants, and generally may do
all such acts and deeds as they shall deem necessary or fitting to be done,
in order to carry into full operation and effect the objects and purposes of
the Society, but so always that the same be not inconsistent with, or
repugnant to, any of the provisions of this our Charter, or the Laws of our
Realm, or any Bye-laAv of the Society in force for the time being. And
wte do further will and declare that at any General Meeting of the Society,
it shall be lawful for the Society, subject as hereinafter mentioned, to
make such Bye-laws as to them shall seem necessary or proper for the
regulation and good government of the Society, and of the Members and
affairs thereof, and generally for carrying the objects of the Society into
fall and complete effect, and particularly (and without its being intended
hereby to prejudice the foregoing generality), to make Bye-laws for all or
any of the purposes hereinafter mentioned, that is to say: for fixing the
number of Vice-Presidents, and the number of Members of which the Council
shall consist, and the manner of electing the President and Vice-Presidents,
and other Members of the Council, and the period of their continuance in
office, and the manner and time of supplying any vacancy therein; and for
regulating the times at which General Meetings of the Society and Meetings
of the Council shall be held, and for convening the same and regulating the
proceedings thereat, and
(xliii)
for regulating the manner of admitting persons to be Members of the .
Society, and of removing or expelling Members from the Society, and for
imposing reasonable fines or penalties for non-performance of any such
Bye-laws, or for disobedience thereto, and from time to time to annul,
alter, or change any such Bye-laws so always that all Bye-laws to be made as
aforesaid be not repugnant to these presents, or to any of the laws of our
Bealm. And we do further will and declare that the present Eules and
Regulations of the Society, so far as they are not inconsistent with these
presents, shall continue in force, and be deemed the Bye-laws of the Society
until the same shall be altered by a General Meeting, provided always that
the present Rules and Regulations of the Society and any future Bye-laws of
the Society so to be made as aforesaid shall have no force or effect
whatsoever until the same shall have been approved in writing by our
Secretary of State for the Home Department. In witness whereof we have
caused these our Letters to be made Patent.
Witness Ourself at our Palace, at Westminster, this 28th day of November, in
the fortieth year of our reign.
By Her Majesty's Command.
CARDEW.
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
BYE-LAWS
PASSED AT A GENERAL MEETING ON THE 16th JUNE. 1877.
1.—The members of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers shall consist of four classes, viz.:—Original Members, Ordinary
Members, Associate Members, and Honorary Members, with a class of Students
attached.
2.—Original Members shall be those who were Ordinary Members on the 1st of
August, 1877.
3.—Ordinary Members.—Every candidate for admission into the class of
Ordinary Members, or for transfer into that class, shall come within the
following conditions :—He shall be more than twenty-eight years of age, have
been regularly educated as a Mining or Mechanical Engineer, or in some other
recognised branch of Engineering, according to the usual routine of
pupilage, and have had subsequent employment for at least five years in some
responsible situation as an Engineer, or if he has not undergone the usual
routine of pupilage, he must have practised on his own account in the
profession of an Engineer for at least five years, and have acquired a
considerable degree of eminence in the same.
4.—Associate Members shall be persons practising as Mining or Mechanical
Engineers, or in some other recognised branch of Engineering, and other
persons connected with or interested in Mining or Engineering.
5.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
6.—Students shall be persons who are qualifying themselves for the
profession of Mining or Mechanical Engineering, or some other of the
recognised branches of Engineering, and such persons may continue Students
until they attain the age of twenty-three years,
(xlvi)
7.—The annual subscription of each Original Member, and of each Ordinary
Member who was a Student on the 1st of August, 1877, shall be £2 2s., of
each Ordinary Member (except as last mentioned) £3 3s., of each Associate
Member £2 2s., and of each Student £1 Is., payable in advance, and shall be
considered due on election, and afterwards on the first Saturday in August
of each year.
8.—Any Member may, at any time, compound for ail future subscriptions by a
payment of £25, where the annual subscription is £3 3s., and by a payment of
£20 where the annual subscription is £2 2s. All persons so compounding shall
be Original, Ordinary, or Associate Members for life, as the case may be ;
but any Associate Member for life who may afterwards desire to become an
Ordinary Member for life, may do so, after being elected in the manner
described in Bye-law 13, and on payment of the further sum of £5.
9.—Owners of Collieries, Engineers, Manufacturers, and Employers of labour
generally, may subscribe annually to the funds of the Institute, and each
such subscriber of £2 2s. annually shall be entitled to a ticket to admit
two persons to the rooms, library, meetings, lectures, and public
proceedings of the Society; and for every additional £2 2s., subscribed
annually, two other persons shall be admissible up to the number of ten
persons; and each such Subscriber shall also be entitled for each £2 2s.
subscription to have a copy of the Proceedings of the Institute sent to him.
10.—In case any Member, who has been long distinguished in his professional
career, becomes unable, from ill-health, advanced age, or other sufficient
cause, to carry on a lucrative practice, the Council may, on the report of a
Sub-Committee appointed for that purpose, if they find good reason for the
remission of the annual subscription, so remit it. They may also remit any
arrears which are due from a member, or they may accept from him a
collection of books, or drawings, or models, or other contributions, in lieu
of the composition mentioned in Bye-law 8, and may thereupon constitute him
a Life Member, or permit him to resume his former rank in the Institute.
11.—Persons desirous of becoming Ordinary Members shall be proposed and
recommended, according to the Form A in the Appendix, in which form the
name, usual residence, and qualifications of the candidate shall be
distinctly specified. This form must be signed by the proposer and at least
five other Members certifying a personal knowledge of the candidate. The
proposal so made being delivered to the Secretary, shall be submitted to the
Council, who on approving the qualifications shall determine if the
candidate is to be presented for ballot, and if it is so deter-
(xlvii)
mined, the Chairman of the Council shall sign such approbation. The same
shall be read at the next Ordinary General Meeting, and afterwards be placed
in some conspicuous situation until the following Ordinary General Meeting,
when the candidate shall be balloted for.
12.—Persons desirous of being admitted into the Institute as Associate
Members, or Students, shaU be proposed by three Members; Honorary Members
shall be proposed by at least five Members, and shall in addition be
recommended by the Council, who shall also have the power of defining the
time during which, and the circumstances under which, they shall be Honorary
Members. The nomination shall be in writing, and signed by the proposers
(according to the Form B in the Appendix), and shall- be submitted to the
first Ordinary General Meeting after the date thereof. The name of the
person proposed shall be exhibited in the Society's room until the next
Ordinary General Meeting, when the candidate shall be balloted for.
13.—Associate Members or Students, desirous of becoming Ordinary Members,
shall be proposed and recommended according to the Form C in the Appendix,
in which form the name, usual residence, and qualifications of the candidate
shall be distinctly specified. This form must certify a personal knowledge
of the candidate, and be signed by the proposer and at least two other
Members, and the proposal shall then be treated in the manner described in
Bye-law 11. Students may become Associate Members at any time after
attaining the age of twenty-threo on payment of an Associate Member's
subscription.
14.—The balloting shall be conducted in the following manner :-r-Each Member
attending the Meeting at which a ballot is to take place shall be supplied
(on demand) with a list of the names of the persons to be baUoted for,
according to the Form D in the Appendix, and shall strike out the names of
such candidates as he desires shall not be elected, and return the list to
the scrutineers appointed by the presiding Chairman for the purpose, and
such scrutineers shall examine the lists so returned, and inform the meeting
what elections have been made. JSTo candidate shall be elected unless he
secures the votes of two-thirds of the Members voting.
15.—Notice of election shall be sent to every person within one week after
his election, according to the Form E in the Appendix, enclosing at the same
time a copy of Form F, which shall be returned by the person elected,
signed, and accompanied with the amount of his annual subscription, or life
composition, within two months from the date of such election, which
otherwise should become void.
0
(xlviii)
1G.—Every Ordinary Member elected having signed a declaration in the Form F,
and having likewise made the proper payment, shall receive a certificate of
his election.
17.—Any person whose subscription is two years in an ear shall be reported
to the Council, who shall direct application to be made for it, according to
the Form G in the Appendix, and in the event of its continuing one month in
arrear after such application, the Council shall have the power, after
remonstrance by letter, according to the Form H in the Appendix, of
declaring that the defaulter has ceased to be a member.
18.—In case the expulsion of any person shall be judged expedient by ten or
more Members, and they think fit to draw up and sign a proposal requiring
such expulsion, the same being delivered to the Secretary, shall be by him
laid before the Council for consideration. If the Council, after due
inquiry, do not find reason to concur in the proposal, no entry thereof
shall be made in any minutes, nor shall any public discussion thereon be
permitted, unless by requisition signed by one-half the Members of the
Institute ; but if the Council do find good reason for the proposed
expulsion, they shall direct the Secretary to address a letter, according to
the Form I in the Appendix, to the person proposed to be expelled, advising
him to withdraw from the Institute. If that advice be followed, no entry on
the minutes nor any public discussion on the subject shall be permitted ;
but if that advice be not followed, nor an explanation given which is
satisfactory to the Council, they shall call a General Meeting for the
purpose of deciding on the question of expulsion ; and if a majority of the
persons present at such Meeting (provided the number so present be not less
than forty) vote that such person be expelled, the Chairman of that Meeting
shall declare the same accordingly, and the Secretary shall communicate the
same to the person, according to the Form J in the Appendix.
19.—The Officers of the Institute, other than the Treasurer and the
Secretary, shall be elected from the Original, Ordinary and Associate
Members, and shall consist of a President, six Vice-Presidents, and eighteen
Councillors, who, with the Treasurer and the Secretary (if Members of the
Institute) shall constitute the Council. The President, Vice-Presidents, and
Councillors shall be elected at the Annual Meeting in August (except in
cases of vacancies) and shall be eligible for re-election, with the
exception of any President or Vice-President who may have held office for
the three immediately preceding years, and such six Councillors as may have
attended the fewest Council Meetings during the past
(xlix)
year; but such Members shall be eligible for re-election after being one
year out of office.
20.—The Treasurer and the Secretary shall be appointed by the Council, and
shall be removable by the Council, subject to appeal to a General Meeting.
One and the same person may hold both these offices.
21.—Each Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member shall be at liberty to
nominate in writing, and send to the Secretary not less than eight days
prior to the Ordinary General Meeting in June, a list, duly signed, of
Members suitable to fill the offices of President, Vice-Presidents, and
Members of Council, for the ensuing year. The Council shall prepare a list
of the persons so nominated, together with the names of the Officers for the
current year eligible for re-election, and of such other Members as they
deem suitable for the various offices. Such list shall comprise the names of
not less than thirty. The list so prepared by the Council shall be submitted
to the General Meeting in June, and shall be the balloting list for the
annual election in August. (See Form K in the Appendix.) . A copy of this
list shall be posted at least seven days previous to the Annual Meeting, to
every Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member; who may erase any name or
names from the list, and substitute the name or names of any other person or
persons eligible for each respective office; but the number of persons on
the list, after such erasure or substitution, must not exceed the number to
be elected to the respective offices. Papers which do not accord with these
directions shall be rejected by the scrutineers. The Votes for any Members
who may not be elected President or Vice-Presidents shall count for them as
Members of the Council. The Chairman shall appoint four scrutineers, who
shall receive the balloting papers, and, after making the necessary
scrutiny, destroy the same, and sign and hand to the Chairman a list of the
elected Officers. The balloting papers may be returned through the post,
addressed to the Secretary, or be handed to him, or to the Chairman of the
Meeting, so as to be received before the appointment of the scrutineers for
the election of Officers.
22.—In case of the decease or resignation of any Officer or Officers, the
Council, if they deem it requisite that the vacancy shall be filled up,
shall present to the next Ordinary General Meeting a list of persons whom
they nominate as suitable for the vacant offices, and a new Officer or
Officers shall be elected at the succeeding Ordinary General Meeting. -
23.—The President shall take the chair at all meetings of the Institute, the
Council, and Committees, at which he is present (he being cx-officio a
member of all), and shall regulate and keep order in the proceedings.
'(1)
24.—In the absence of the President, it shall be the duty of the senior
Vice-President present to preside at the meetings of the Institute, to keep
order, and to regulate the proceedings. In case of the absence of the
President and of all the Vice-Presidents, the meeting may elect any Member
of Council, or in case of their absence, any Member present, to take the
chair at the meeting.
25.—The Council may appoint Committees for the purpose of transacting any
particular business, or of investigating specific subjects connected with
the objects of the Institute. Such Committees shall report to the Council,
who shall act thereon as they see occasion.
26.—The Treasurer and the Secretary shall act under the direction and
control of the Council, by which body their duties shall from time to time
be denned.
27.—The Funds of the Society shall be deposited in the hands of the
Treasurer, and shall be disbursed or invested by him according to the
direction of the Council.
28.—The Copyright of all papers communicated to, and accepted for printing
by the Council, and printed within twelve months, shall become vested in the
Institute, and such communications shall not be published for sale or
otherwise, without the written permission of the Council.
29.—An Ordinary General Meeting shall be held on the first Saturday of every
month (except January and July) at two o'clock, unless otherwise determined
by the Council; and the Ordinary General Meeting in the month of August
shall be the Annual Meeting, at which a report of the proceedings, and an
abstract of the accounts of the previous year, shall be presented by the
Council. A Special General Meeting shall be called whenever the Council may
think fit, and also on a requisition to the Council, signed by ten or more
Members. The business of a Special Meeting shall be confined to that
specified in the notice convening it.
30.—At meetings of the Council, five shall be a quorum. The minutes of the
Council's proceedings shall be at all times open to the inspection of the
Members.
31.—All Past-Presidents shall be ez-officio Members of the Council so long
as they continue Members of the Institute, and Vice-Presidents who have not
been re-elected or have become ineligible from having held office for three
consecutive years, shall be ex-officio Members of the Council for the
following year.
32.—Every question, not otherwise provided for, which shall come before any
Meeting, shall be decided by the votes of the majority of the Original,
Ordinary, and Associate Members then present.
(H)
3d.—Ail papers shall be sent for the approval of the Council at least twelve
days before a General Meeting, and after approval, shall be read before the
Institute. The Council shall also direct whether any paper read before the
Institute shall be printed in the Transactions, and notice shall be given to
the writer within one month after it has been read, whether it is to be
printed or not.
34.—All proofs of reports of discussions, forwarded to Members for
correction, must be returned to the Secretary within seven days from the
date of their receipt, otherwise they will be considered correct and be
printed off.
35.—The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the statements and
opinions advanced in the papers which may be read, nor in the discussions
which may take place at the meetings of the Institute.
36.—Twelve copies of each paper printed by the Institute shall be presented
to the author for private use.
37.—Members elected at any meeting between the Annual Meetings shall be
entitled to all papers issued in that year, so soon as they have signed and
returned Form F, and paid their subscriptions.
38.—The Transactions of the Institute shall not be forwarded to Members
whose subscriptions are more than one year in arrear.
39.—No duplicate copies of any portion of the Transactions shall be issued
to any of the Members unless by written order from the Council.
40.—Invitations shall be forwarded to any person whose presence at the
discussions the Council may think advisable, and strangers so invited shall
be permitted to take part in the proceedings but not to vote. Any Member of
the Institute shall also have power to introduce two strangers (see Form L)
to any General Meeting, but they shall not take part in the proceedings
except by permission of the Meeting.
41,—No alteration shall be made in the Bye-laws of the Institute, except at
the Annual Meeting, or at a Special Meeting for that purpose, and the
particulars of every such alteration shall be announced at a previous
Ordinary Meeting, and inserted in its minutes, and shall be exhibited in the
room of the Institute fourteen days previous to such Annual or Special
Meeting, and such Meeting shall have power to adopt any modification of such
proposed alteration of the Bye-laws.
Approved,
R. ASSHETON CROSS.
Whitehall,
2nd July, 1S77.
(lii)
APPENDIX TO THE BYE-LAWS.
[FORM A.]
A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and x\ddress in full], being
upwards of twenty-eight years of age, and desirous of being elected an
Ordinary Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, I recommend him from personal knowledge as a person in every
respect worthy of that distinction, because—
[Here specify distinctly the qualifications of the Candidate, according to
the spirit
of Bye-law 3.~\
On the above grounds, I beg leave to propose him to the Council as a proper
person to be admitted an Ordinary Member.
Signed___________________________Member.
Dated this day of 18
We, the undersigned, concur in the above recommendation, being convinced
that A. B. is in every respect a proper person to be admitted an ordinary
Member.
PKOM PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE.
--------------------------------f Five
--------------------------------[ Members.
[To be filled up by the Council^
The Counci], having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as a of the North of England Institute
of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed_____________________Chairman.
Dated this day of 18
dm) [FORM B.] A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in
full], being desirous of admission into the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, we, the undersigned, propose and recommend
that he shall become [an Honorary Member, or an Associate Member, or a
Student] thereof.
---------------------------------------/ Three*
¦---------------------------------------| Members.
* If an Honorary Member, five signatures are necessary, and the following
Form must be filled in by the Council.
Dated this day of 18
[To be filled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted, for as an Honorary Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed ._______________________Chairman.
Dated day of 18
[FORM C] A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in full],
being at present a of the North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers, and upwards of twenty-eight years of age, and
being desirous of becoming an Ordinary Member of the said Institute, I
recommend him, from personal knowledge, as a person in every respect worthy
of that distinction, because-—
[Here specify distinctly the Qualifications of the Candidate according to
the spirit
of Bye-law 3.J
On the above grounds, I beg leave to propose him to the Council as a proper
person to be admitted an Ordinary Member.
Signed_____________________Member.
Dated this day of 18
"We, the undersigned, concur in the above recommendation, being
(liv) -
convinced that A. B. is in every respect a proper person to be admitted an
Ordinary Member.
FHOM PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE.
¦-----------------------------------------. I Two
j Members.
[To be fdled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as an Ordinary Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed_______________________.Chairman.
Dated day of 18
[FORM D.]
List of the names of persons to be balloted for at the Meeting on , the
day of 18
Ordinary Members :—
Associate Members:— Honorary Members :—
Students :—
Strike out the names of such persons as you desire should not be elected,
and hand the list to the Chairman.
[FORM E.]
Sir,—I beg leave to inform you that on the day of
you were elected a of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, but in conformity with its Rules your
election cannot be confirmed until the enclosed form be returned to me
Civ)
with your signature, and until your first annual subscription be paid, the
amount of which is £ , or, at your option, the
life-composition
of£
If the subscription is not received within two months from the present date,
the election will become void under Bye-law 15.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary. Dated 13
[FORM P.]
I, the undersigned, being elected a of the
North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, do hereby agree
that I will be governed by the Charter and Bye-laws of the said Institute
for the time being; and that 1 will advance the objects of the Institute as
far as shall be in my power, and will not aid in any unauthorised
publication of the proceedings, and will attend the meetings thereof as
often as I conveniently can; provided that whenever I shall signify in
writing to the Secretary that I am desirous of withdrawing my name
therefrom, I shall (after the payment of any arrears which may be due by me
at that period) cease to be a Member.
Witness my hand this day of 18
[FORM G.]
Sir,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to draw your attention to Bye-law 17, and to
remind you that the sum of £ of your annual subscriptions
to the funds of the Institute remains unpaid, and that you are in
consequence in arrear of subscription. I am aiso directed to request that
you will cause the same to be paid without further delay, otherwise the
Council will be under the necessity of exercising their discretion as to
using the power vested in them by the Article above referred to.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary
Patcd :8
k
(hi)
[FOJiM H.]
Sir,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to inform you, that in consequence of
non-payment of your arrears of subscription, and in pursuance of Bye-law 17,
the Council have determined that unless payment of the amount £ is
made previous to the day of
next, they will proceed to declare that you have ceased to be a Member of
the Institute.
But, notwithstanding this declaration, you will remain liable for payment of
the arrears due from you.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FORM I.]
Sir,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to inform you that, upon mature
consideration of a proposal which has been laid before them relative to you,
they feel it their duty to advise you to withdraw from the Institute, or
otherwise they will be obliged to act in accordance with Bye-law 18.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FORM J.]
Sir,—It is my doty to inform you that, under a resolution passed at a
Special General Meeting of the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, held on the day
of
18 , according to the provisions of Bye-law 18 you have ceased to be a
Member of the Institute.
1 am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,,.
Secretary.
Dited 18
(Ivii) [FORM K]
BALLOTING LIST.
Ballot to take place at the Meeting of 18 at Two
o'Cloclc
President—One Name only to be returned, or the vote will be lost.
----------- President for the current year eligible for re-election.
_______> New Nominations.
Vice-Presidents—Six Names only to be returned, or the vote will be lost. The
Votes for any Members who may not be elected as President or Vice-Presidents
will count for them as other Members of the Council.
Vice-Presidents for the current year eligible for reelection.
New Nominations.
Council—Eighteen Naiies only to be returned, or the vote
will be lost. -----1
4 I Members of the Council for the current year cligille for S ^^
re-dec lion.
New Nominations.
Extract from Bye-law 21.
Each Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member shall he at liberty to
nominate in writing, and send to the Secretary not less than eight days
prior to the Ordinary General Meeting in June, a list, duly signed, of
Members suitable to fill the Offices of President, Vice-Presidents, and
Members of Council, for the ensuing year. The Council shall prepare a list
of the persons so nominated, together with the names of the Officers for the
current year eligible for re-election, and of such other Members as they
deem suitable fo.-the various offices. Such list shall comprise the names of
not less than thirty. The list so prepared by the Council shall be submitted
to the General Meeting Lu Jun?, and shall be the balloting list for the
annual election in August, (oea t\.rm K in the Appendix.) A copy of this
list shall le posted at least s^en davn
ij nab icoumeu wiui a greater number o± JNames than One Pbesident, Six
Vice-Pe.esidents, Eighteen Councii/loks, Will be rejected by the Scrutineers
as informal, and the Votes will consequently be lost,
(Iviii)
previous to the Annual Meeting, to every Original, Ordinary, and Associate
Mendier; who may erase any name or names from the list, and substitute the
name or names of any other person or persons eligible for each respective
office; but the number of persons on the list, after such erasure or
substitution, must not exceed the number to be elected to the respective
offices. Papers which do not accord with these directions shall be rejected
by the scrutineers. The votes for any Members who may not bo elected
President or Vice-Presidents shall count for them as Members of the Uouncil.
The Chairman shall appoint four Scrutineers, who shallreceive the balloting
papers, and after making the necessary scrutiny destroy the same, and sign
and hand to the Chairman a list of the elected. Officers. The balloting
papers may be returned through the post, addressed to the Secretary, or be
handed to him, or to the Chairman of the Meeting, so as to be received
before the appointment of the Scrutineers for the election of Officers.
Names substituted for any of the above are to be written in the bla:;k
spaces opposite those they are intended to supersede.
The following Members are ineligible from causes specified in Bye-law 19:—
AS PRESIDENT_________________________________________________________
As Vice-President______.______________________________
As COUNCILLORS___._______________________________________________—
[FORM L.]
Admit
of
to the Meeting on Saturday, the
(Signature of Member or Student)
The Chair to be taken at Two o'Clock. I undertake to abide by the
Regulations of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, and not to aid in any unauthorised publication of the
Proceedings.
(Signature of Visitor) Nofc transferable.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OP
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS,
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, OCTOBER 13th, 1883, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
GEORGE BAKER EORSTER, Esq., President, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously
nominated:—
Ordinary Members— Mr. James Gibson Dees, Civil Engineer, Floraville,
Whitehaven. Mr. Atherton Selby, Mining Engineer, Leigh, near Manchester. Mr.
Israel Knowles, Mining Engineer, Pearson and Knowles Coal
and Iron Company, Limited, Wigan.
Associate Member— Mr. William Fletcher, Brigham Hill, via Carlisle.
The following were nominated for election :—
Honorary Member— Herr Brassert, Chief Inspector of Mines, Germany.
VOL. XXXIII.-188B.
A.
2 PROCEEDINGS.
Associate Members— Mr. D. Feeghisson, Harrington Colliery, Cumberland. Mr.
Benjamin Tyzack, Preston Road, North Shields. Mr. Feank Mubbay Still, 3,
Queen Street, Cheapside, London. Mr. Chaeles Fbedeeick Wobmald, Cement
Manufacturer, Cross House, Corbridge.
Students— Mr. Benjamin McLaeen, Bedlington, Northumberland. Mr. William Hay,
Jun., Nostell Colliery, Wakefield.
Mr. Henry Lawrence read the following paper on "The Danger of Sparks
produced from Prickers and Stemmers used for Blasting purposes in Coal
Mines, and Sparks otherwise produced :"—
DANGER OF SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS. 8
THE DANGER OF SPARKS PRODUCED FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS USED FOR BLASTING
PURPOSES IN COAL MINES, AND SPARKS OTHERWISE PRODUCED.
By HENRY LAWRENCE.
Shortly before the Mines Regulation Act came in force a great demand was
made upon brassfounders to supply the copper prickers and stemmers that were
ordered to supersede the iron ones then in use. It was generally thought
that a great danger would be remedied by this introduction, as every one
connected with blasting knew that a spark from the iron rammer might at any
moment fire the powder in the act of ramming the charge ; the use of copper
instead of iron seemed to bring to all a feeling of safety; how many at that
time had any idea that the copper prickers and stemmers were very nearly, if
not quite, as dangerous as the iron ones? About two years ago the writer
received a letter from the manager of a large colliery stating that—"A
stoneman working in a whin drift had finished drilling a hole 14 inches
deep, and put in a shot one inch diameter and five inches long, and then
commenced to stem with black rolleyway dirt. He had only put in one
handful of dirt and commenced to use the beater when the powder exploded and
seriously burnt the miner." The writer at once proceeded to the colliery
and found that the stemmer in question when taken into a dark cabin and
struck on the stone slab of the fire-place, produced a spark at every blow.
As the stemmer appeared to be made of brass, it was thought that some-
brass turnings mixed with particles of iron turnings might have been used in
its composition and caused the sparks; a set was made entirely of copper,
when it was found from experiments made that it also struck fire by impact
with a piece of stone; ingot copper was tried with the like result, the fire
being clearly visible in a dark room. In case there might be impurities
in the copper ingot, a copper bolt was tried with no better success; some
stemmers in progress of manufacture were -also tried, and sparks were got
readily by the same means. The writer was forced to the conclusion that
copper would, and did, produce sparks. It transpired afterwards that the
new
4 DANGER OF SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS.
copper stemmer before alluded to had been tried in a whin drift and found to
strike fire at almost every blow. Several other cases could be mentioned
but it is unnecessary to describe them. Sets of stemmers made of copper,
of the usual cheap composition called brass or phosphor bronze, together
with a bolt or bar of copper, were produced; and if members tried them in a
small dark tent erected in the hall, they would find that all of them
produced distinct sparks from almost every blow on a piece of grindstone.
Having become fully aware of the danger of the instruments now in use, the
writer, in conjunction with his foreman brassfounder, made several trials
and experiments to discover a mixture of metal from which it would be
impossible to obtain a spark by impact with the hardest, or in fact any,
stone; and stemmers of this composition were also produced, so that members
might satisfy themselves as to their fulfilling these conditions.
For safety it is suggested that every pricker and stemmer should
be tried in a dark room in the manner described before being allowed to
enter a mine. In the last report of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Mines,
Mr. Henry Hall states that:—"The stemming of charges of gunpowder with
copper stemmers has again been proved to be attended with danger, sparks
being easily produced from this metal striking against hard substances, such
as pyrites, but of course not so readily as from iron and steel, the use of
which is forbidden. The remedy appears to be in the use of wooden
stemmers where it is practicable." If the remedy pointed out by Mr. Hall
is practicable, by all means let it be carried out, but the writer fears
wooden stemmers would not stand the hard usage they would be subjected to in
this district, although he has no doubt but that a safe and reliable metal
pricker and stemmer can be put into the hands of miners who may be engaged
in the dangerous practice
of blasting.
The following account of a recent accident that has occurred in the district
shows the great importance of the question, and would, perhaps, be worth
recording in the Transactions:—
Gttnpowdeb Accident. - On Friday, a coal miner named George Anderton,
employed at Shire Moor Colliery, met with an accident which it is feared may
result in the loss of one, if not both his eyes. It seems that Anderton was
stemming a hole in which he had inserted nearly a pound of powder
preparatory to shooting down his jud, when the powder unaccountably
exploded, the full force of it striking him in the face and forehead. He
was, of course, very seriously burnt, in addition to his other injuries. Dr.
Alexander, of Earsdon, at once rendered all the assistance the swollen
condition of the poor fellow's head would admit of, and he is progressing as
well as can be expected. It is well to add that the stemmer he was using was
the usual composite metal one, which renders the accident still more
inexplicable.
DANGER OF SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS. 5
With respect to the second part of this paper, " Sparks otherwise produced,"
the writer, having passed several nights in a coal mine in South "Wales
trying a compressed air locomotive engine with iron wheels, found that when
the engine sometimes stuck with its load on an incline, the wheels slipped
round with great velocity and threw off long streams of sparks; this was
considered a source of danger in case of an accumulation of gas (which
sometimes occurred in this mine) and the locomotive was condemned unless
tyres could be found from which it would be impossible to produce a spark
when they were slipping round on the rails. As a number of large horses
are used in South Wales for hauling the heavy trams from the face to the
main roads, the writer considered there was a large margin of saving in
favour of haulage by locomotives if the spark question could be
satisfactorily settled, and he therefore made a series of trials with tyres
composed of various mixtures of metal. A locomotive was packed up so that
the wheels were free to revolve, and an iron rail was placed under one wheel
in the form of a lever and weighted so as to take a great portion of the
weight of the locomotive; the engine was then started and run at a high
velocity. Copper tyres gave out long streams of sparks almost as bad as
iron, and instead of the iron rail cutting away the tyre, as was expected,
the copper tyre made a slight indentation on the iron rail. This was
probably caused by the high speed of the tyres. Other mixtures of various
white metals were found too soft, and were rapidly worn away by small
fragments flying off. At last a mixture of metal was fixed upon from
which the sparkless prickers and stemmers are now made. These tyres
produced no sparks, and the writer expects he has found a mixture of metal
that will wear sufficiently long to enable them to be economically and
safely used on air locomotives in fiery mines. The writer has asked
several mining engineers if sparks would ignite gas in a mine, and has
received "yes" and "no" in reply, and after calling attention to the old
method of using flint and steel, has been told that cases of explosion have
been known, or supposed, to have occurred from their use. He has seen
sparks produced in mines from the shoes of horses and ponies in striking the
rails; also from the iron tips on the miners' shoes, and has been told that
sparks are sometimes produced by the blow of the miner's pick. A gentleman
who owns some large wood-working machinery informed him that he had a large
room in which a number of saw-sharpening machines were at work which
produced large volumes of sparks when the emery wheels were in contact with
the saws. This room was lighted with gas, which sometimes escaped, and
thinking this dangerous, he tried in various ways to ignite gas elsewhere
with sparks but did not succeed, and he then came
6 DISCUSSION—SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS.
to the conclusion that it was impossible so to set fire to it. For some
considerable time the writer was under the same impression, but he has since
found that he could ignite gas from a burner with sparks from a piece of
flint and steel, struck over it. Again ; he also found that if the
gas-burner, with the gas turned on, is placed near an emery wheel placed in
a lathe running at about 120 revolutions per minute with a steel tool
against it, giving out a stream of sparks, the gas is easily ignited at the
spot where the sparks are the hottest; but it is necessary that the
brightest and hottest sparks should come near the end of the burner whence
the gas is issuing, just as a heated poker must be of a tolerably light red
heat and placed near the burner, before it will light gas.
The writer is aware that the gas with which he has experimented is different
to ihat which the mining engineer has to contend with, but hopes in the
discussion the following questions will be satisfactorily answered:—
Are sparks dangerous in coal mines ? If so. to what extent, and will they
ignite the explosive gas found therein ?
The Secretary read the following communication received from Mr. Sawyer,
Assistant Inspector of Mines:—
A small quantity of gas, the pressure of which was not known until it
ignited, was fired by a spark from the pick of a fireman who was ripping
down some hard piece of roof near a small pot-hole, at the Great Fenton
Colliery this year.
I made careful enquiries as to the circumstances of the case, and am fully
satisfied that what he stated is correct. He was not touched by the flame,
which was small; and had he ignited it in any other way he would not have
reported it.
I have, on several occasions, seen sparks fly off from the men's picks when
at work, which were very white in appearance; and I cannot help thinking
would have ignited gas had any been present.
This shows how necessary it is to completely remove any accumulation of gas,
and to keep the pit constantly free from it.
Professor Herschel said, the actual results of the careful and abundant
observations of Mr. Lawrence had been quite contrary to all he had gathered
from experiments made on a small scale for his own information. The very
severe blows and trials these metals had been subjected to by Mr. Lawrence
were far beyond the reach of small experimenters, and most clearly
demonstrated that the igniting properties of all metals that could be named,
under circumstances of mine work, rendered them serious sources of danger.
He suggested that the material which Mr. Lawrence had had the good fortune
to discover should be used also for the manu-
DISCCTSSION—SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS. 7
facture of tools as well as of stemmers. They might now, he thought, almost
look upon this as the bronze age; after reaching, as they supposed, the
perfection of the iron age, they nowr found a better age before them. He
hoped Mr. LawTence's metal might be found so serviceable as to come into
general use.
Mr. Lawrence said, sparks were given off phosphor-bronze quite as readily as
off copper.
Mr. Wm. Spencer said, about twenty years ago an explosion took place in
Cleveland which was supposed to have been caused by the ignition of the
powrder by the iron stemmer. He had tools made; one of steel, one of iron,
and one of copper, and, with the manager, tried them to a considerable
extent. A small quantity of powder was put on a table belowT, and sparks
were produced from the three different tools. He could quite corroborate
what Mr. Lawrence had. said, but he might add that copper was much safer
than iron or steel. Although copper was not absolutely safe, the experiments
proved it was a great protection and safeguard.
Mr. W. Cochrane asked Mr. Lawrence what was the relative degree of hardness
of his metal, and whether it was contemplated using it for any other purpose
than stemmers ?
Mr. Steavenson said the question asked by Mr. Lawrence, "Are sparks
dangerous in coal mines ? " seemed to him to be wrorth most serious
consideration. It depended very much upon circumstances—of what did sparks
consist ? They consisted of small particles struck off the materials in
contact with such force as to raise them to a w7hite heat. If the spark wras
of such a character as to give out sufficient heat, it would cause an
explosion, otherwise it would not be dangerous; for although some explosions
were attributed to the sparks issuing from the old flint and steel mill, yet
that system of lighting had been largely used without causing accidents. He
thought the value of a safe stemmer was of more impoitance in connection
with the use of powder than in respect of gas. In the Cleveland district a
large quantity of blasting powder was used. Three-quarters of a ton of
powder a day wras used in Bell Brothers' mines, and that large quantity had
to be put into holes and stemmed in four-ounce "tots;" and, although
accidents had been numerous, he had been surprised that they had not been
more so under the circumstances in which the men had been wrorking. If Mr.
Lawrence had found a material which would give absolute safety, he deserved
the thanks of every one present. He had examined the new stemmers
produced, and they appeared
8 DISCUSSION—SPARKS PROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS.
to be made of an exceedingly soft metal, which was perhaps the reason of its
increased safety, and which approximated more nearly to the hardness of wood
than any of the other stemmers on the table; if they tried it with a knife
they would find it was easily indented. Had Mr. Lawrence ever tried it
against emery in a lathe ? He had invited Mr. Toyn, the President of the
Cleveland Miners' Association, to be present, and would like to hear what
that gentleman had to say on the subject.
Mr. Toyn said, that as the question of stemmers was to be brought before the
meeting, Mr. Steaveuson had kindly invited him to attend. He thought that
great credit was due to Mr. Lawrence if he had discovered a material which
could be made into stemmers which would not create a spark. He could quite
understand that gentlemen who laboured in colliery districts, more
especially where they had to contend with gas in mines, would be desirous to
have every material of the safest and best kind. Although there was not so
much gas in the Cleveland mines, yet the men were continually handling
gunpowder. From 1,200 to 1,300 tons of blasting powder was used in the
Cleveland district every year; it was charged in holes to the extent of £
lb. to 2^ lbs. There had been several very serious cases where men had been
shot, and they tried to trace out the cause, which it was difficult to do in
many cases. In one of Bell Brothers' mines at Carlinhow, a few weeks ago, a
man was charging a hole in the ordinary way, without using any force; he
just put in the powder, and threw in dirt with one hand, and was stemming it
carefully down with the other, when it exploded. The man was injured, but
had since recovered. They were anxious to find out the cause of that
explosion, whether it was the powder or whether it was the stemmer. The
powder was sent to a public analyist, who analysed it, and declared it was
very safe. Bell Brothers, he believed, were having the stemmer tested, to
find out whether there was anything more dangerous in it than common. He had
had considerable correspondence with Colonel Majendie on this question, and
that gentleman had sent him a pamphlet containing a series of experiments
with copper, phosphor-bronze, and different kinds of material, and the
experiments showed that phosphor-bronze was the safest material to use.
Number 7 or 8 hard phosphor-bronze in experiments on a wheel of free grit
stone, turning at something like 1,200 revolutions per minute, gave off only
one spark. They met the Cleveland mine owners and asked them to take into
consideration the using of phosphor-bronze, and some of them had, he
believed, ordered sets of gear to make a trial. If Mr. Lawrence had
discovered a material
DISCUSSION—SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS. 9
even safer than the hard phosphor-bronze, it would be one of the best things
ever heard of; but the material must be durable, for it would have to be put
to a great test, especially in the Cleveland mines where the stemming was
hard and the holes frequently 4 feet deep; it must also be a material that
could be easily repaired. The Cleveland mine owners had said that cost was
no matter if a material could be obtained that was safe. He, as representing
the miners in the Cleveland district, thanked Mr. Lawrence for his
discovery, and hoped the material would be used throughout the mining
districts.
The President asked if the material was a casting, and, if broken, whether
it would be of any use or would have to be re-melted ? Was the composition
of it a secret ?
Mr. Steavenson said, one cause of danger in stemming the three-cornered
holes usually made in Cleveland is that after the powder and the hay plug
are put in, there is a considerable quantity of powder left on the bottom of
the hole when the stemming is commenced, and this formed a train which, when
ignited by a spark, fired the charge. If the men, after putting in the hay
plug, examined the hole and drew out all the loose powder it wrould
contribute much to their safety.
Mr. Bird said, it was a notorious fact that sparks could be produced
otherwise than by contact between metal and stone. They could be produced by
contact between stone and stone. If powder was being rammed down home and
stones were violently disturbed by the impact of the stemmer, the particles
of stone were brought into contact with each other, and sparks could be
produced in that way.
Mr. Lawrence said, the first question asked by Mr. Cochrane was as to the
hardness of the material; he also asked whether Professor Herschel was right
in imagining that the material was intended for tools other than stemmers.
The material was not intended, so far as he was concerned, to make anything
in the shape of miners' tools excepting prickers and stemmers. There would,
of course, be many other uses for it in gunpowder factories. The material
was not quite, but very nearly, as hard as copper; there was not so much
difference as might be inferred from Mr. Steavenson's remarks. Mr.
Steavenson had asked whether he had ever tried the material on an emery
wheel. He had tried a small disc in the lathe, in the same way that they
tested the other disc; but the greatest test was on the locomotive wheels.
The tyres were made and put on, and the engine was run at perhaps 300 or 400
revolutions a minute, and not a single spark was given out, whereas a long
stream of sparks was
VOL. XXXIII.—1888.
^
10 DISCUSSION—SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMEHS,
given off by the copper tyres. The President had asked whether the
stemmers were castings. They could be easily cast in moulds. They were
at present cast in sand in the ordinary way. The material was such that
the amalgamation or construction of the metal would not be altered by
re-melting. He did not know that it would be possible, as Mr. Toyn
suggested, that the stemmers could be mended. They could draw out copper
prickers by fire; but ordinary composition stemmers, generally speaking,
could not be mended by drawing them. He imagined this material would draw
out, although he had not tested it; but it could be put into the fire, burnt
together, and repaired the same as copper. He could easily imagine that
sparks could be produced as Mr. Bird suggested, but he certainly had been
astonished at the ignition of gas by such sparks and by those from a flint
and steel; in fact he must say it was a surprise to him to see an ordinary
street-lamp lighted with a red-hot poker. If instead of using the flint
and steel, an old file and a piece of flint stone were used, and the gas
burner held to them with the gas turned on, the sparks readily ignited the
gas. He tried this several times, and succeeded quite easily when he got
into the knack of doing it. When a wooden box was put over the emery wheels
and a piece of steel inserted, with a gas-pipe placed in one end of the box
at some distance from the sparks, the gas was not ignited; but when the
gas-pipe was put immediately underneath the emery wheel, so that the sparks
ran direct into the gas-pipe orifice, the gas was lighted as easily as with
a piece of
lighted paper.
The President asked whether any of these prickers and stemmers had been
tried in ironstone mines, or only in coal mines.
Mr. Lawrence said they had not been tried in ironstone mines, neither had
they been tried very much in coal mines. He sent a set to a gentleman who
stated that he had tried them in every way and could not get any spark, even
when put to all the severe tests possible. So far, he was satisfied it was
impossible to get a spark, unless it was produced with stone against stone,
which was very different from the ordinary bar of copper or phosphor-bronze,
which, when struck in a dark cabin, would produce sparks at every blow.
Mr. J Gl. Weeks said, they would almost imagine from the concluding remarks
of Mr. Lawrence, that the use of copper was highly dangerous. The very
contrary was found in practice. He had 300 men working in a pit, and 400
shots were fired in that pit every day, 100 stone shots (blue metal and post
girdles), and 300 coal shots; copper had been used for the last ten years,
and in all that time only one man had been burnt.
DISCUSSION—SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS. 11
In this case he had the hole cut with a saw, and found a piece of iron
pyrites on one side of it in which the powder had ignited; but whether it
was the copper beater against the pyrites, or two pieces of pyrites which
caused the accident, he was unable to determine. He was inclined to think
with Mr. Bird, it was the pieces of pyrites in the hole being brought into
contact with each other by the beater, which caused the man to be burnt, if
the workman was really "stemming" and not "unramming" the shot, which could
not be satisfactorily established at the time of its occurrence; so that,
after his experience, he felt there was very little clanger in continuing to
use copper beaters and prickers. He had experimented with Muntz's metal, and
found it gave sparks freely; but he found copper did not emit sparks nearly
so readily.
The President said, the reason he asked whether these stemmers were castings
or could be drawn, was that it was the great disadvantage of ordinary
castings of bronze or brass that, when broken, the stemmer was of no further
use. For that reason, after having tried many experiments, they adopted
Muntz's metal in 1872, as being much the same as copper; and it had been
used since. He did not think any accident had occurred. They had not these
things ready when the Act came into operation, and wood was used for a time
and found useful. He did not know whether it would not be well to use wood
stemmers in coal mines. As to firing gas, they knew that sparks would fire
gas. The old steel mill was not safe, and did fire gas. Their forefathers
thought that picks gave off sparks. In the explorations after the great
explosion at the Felling, it was necessary to drive a wall where some gas
had accumulated, and that wrall was driven by wooden picks, which showed
they were afraid of using iron or steel picks at that time. He moved a vote
of thanks to Mr. Lawrence for the paper.
Mr. John Marley seconded the vote of thanks and suggested that Mr. Lawrence
should present one or two sets of prickers and stemmers to Mr. Steavenson
for trial in the Cleveland mines.
Mr. Lawrence thanked them for the vote. He was sure that his Company would
be very pleased to send two or three sets of prickers and stemmers to Mr.
Steavenson for trial, if Mr. Steavenson would let him know the size of the
ones he used. He thought in the Cleveland mines, they put the powder in a
sort of copper tube, with a piston in it, which was put to the back of the
hole, and the powder pressed forward by the piston in the tube. That seemed
to him to be a good system, because it prevented the loose powder being in
any
12 DISCUSSION—SPAEKS FEOM PRICKEES AND STEMMERS.
part of the hole except the back part. As to wooden stemmers, they might be
made of some very hard wood, such as he had seen in Australia, called iron
wood; but even then they would not stand very many blows before they were
split up, although they would be tolerably cheap.
Mr. Steavenson said, the charging tubes Mr. Lawrence referred to could only
be used in round holes. In Cleveland the holes were three-cornered; and of
those driven by hand not one in a hundred was true.
The Seceetary read the following paper by Mr. Frank Murray Still, on "Mining
Coal by Compressed Lime:"—
MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME. 13
ON MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME.
By FRANK MURRAY STILL.
In bringing this method of coal-getting before the members of the Institute,
the writer will preface his remarks by stating that it is a system of mining
coal patented by Messrs. Sebastian Smith and Moore of the Shipley
Collieries, near Derby.
The system has for its objects ; firstly, to take the place of blasting by
gunpowder or other explosives, thereby giving absolute immunity from all
risk of accidents caused by the ignition of gas by a shot, and also by
superseding the arduous process of breaking down the coal by wedges, to
provide the collier with a system of coal-getting which will enable him to
avoid the numerous, and in many cases fatal, accidents which so constantly
occur from falls of coal and roof while he is working at the face; secondly,
to enable the coal owner to obtain a greatly increased percentage of large
coal from a given area; and, thirdly, to diminish in a great measure the
laborious work of the collier, where wedging is practised.
The present mode of operating is to employ nearly pure carbonate of lime.
The stone at present used, similar to that of Whitburn, contains !)8-40 per
cent, of carbonate, and after being carefully calcined is ground to a fine
powder. This is conducted to a hydraulic press, specially designed and
patented, having a die 2^ inches in diameter and 7 inches deep. A pressure
of 40 tons is applied simultaneously to both ends of the column of ground
lime, which reduces it from 7 inches to 4% inches in length, thus nearly
doubling its density. A projection in the die forms a groove on the side of
the cartridge about half-an-inch in diameter. These blocks or cartridges are
immediately packed into specially constructed air-tight boxes, and are then
ready to be conveyed to the mine for use.
The shot holes are first drilled by means of a light boring machine, and an
iron tube about half-an-inch in diameter, having a small external
14 MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME.
channel or groove on the upper side, and provided also with perforations, is
then inserted along the whole length of the borehole. This tube is enclosed
in a bag of calico, which covers the perforations and one end, and has a tap
fitted on the other end. The cartridges are then inserted and lightly rammed
so as to ensure their filling the borehole.
After the cartridges have been enclosed by tamping, in the same way as with
gunpowder, a small force pump is connected with the tap at the end of the
tube by means of a short flexible pipe, and a quantity of water, equal in
bulk to the quantity of lime used, is forced in. The water, being driven to
the far end of the shot hole through the tube, escapes along the groove and
through the perforations and the calico, flowing towards the tamping into
the lime, saturating the whole of the charge, and driving out the air before
it. The tap is then closed so as to prevent the escape of the steam
generated by the action of the water on the lime, and the flexible pipe
attached to the pump is disconnected.
Experience has shown that after introducing the water there is always an
interval before the steam attains a high pressure, so that all danger can be
avoided.
The action of the steam first takes place, cracking the coal away from the
roof, and this is followed by the expansive force of the lime.
The blocks, when slaked in an unconfined space, will occupy about five times
their original bulk.
It has been stated that the heat produced by the slaking of the cartridges
is sufficient to ignite paper should it be rammed into the hole, that it
often charred the coal itself, and that the heat was sufficient to ignite
gas. As to all these points, important as they assuredly are, Sir Frederick
Abel, one of the Royal Commissioners on Accidents in Mines, has, after
experiment, expressed himself as satisfied that this is impossible, and in
reference to the ignition of gas, it has been found that the maximum heat
produced by the slaking of the lime is 700 degrees, whereas it requires a
temperature of 2,000 degrees to ignite gas.
The sprags are left in under the coal so as to allow the force to exert
itself as far back as possible, and in many instances the coal is forced off
and falls for a distance of several inches behind the end of the drilled
holes. In some minutes, varying according to the hardness of the seam, on
the removal of the sprags, the coal falls clean from the roof in large
pieces ready for loading, making little small. The collier can, if
convenient, remove two or three sprags at a time, and let down as much as he
requires for loading, leaving the rest to remain spragged till wanted. In
places with bad roofs this is of course specially advantageous.
MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME. 15
The following are among the principal advantages claimed for the system:—
Absolute immunity from explosion from gas, there being no fire or
flame. There is no smoke. The roof is not shaken. No vacuum is created as
is the case with a
blown out shot. Skilled labour is unnecessary, and the coal can be got with
much less
exertion to the collier than by hand wedging.
The following statement of the comparative working of two stalls
adjoining one another, is given as a fair average specimen of the economy
of labour and the increased output of large coal resulting from the use of
this process, not only at the Shipley Collieries, but in many other
districts.
COMPARATIVE RESULT OF LIME PATENT AND WEDGING AT SHIPLEY COLLIERIES.
Hand Wedging. Lime Patent.
No. 2 Stall, No. 1 Stall.
Woodside Pits. Woodside Pits.
Date.----------------------------------------------------------------
2abour°f Tons«ot' Labour0' T°ns ^
Week ending Jan. 25,1882 ... 96J 225 58
274-Week ending Feb. 1,1882...... 100 178 71
230
Week ending Feb. 8, 1882...... 123 225 90
258
3191 628 219 768
140 tons more coal were thus got with 100 hours less labour by the use of
the Lime piocess.
Thus far, the writer has alluded principally to the commercial value of this
method of coal-getting, and the profit to all concerned resulting therefrom;
but it is the chief merit of the process, and certainly the claim, which of
all others, its inventors put forward with the greatest pride (a claim
recognised by the various Government Inspectors and those responsible for
the lives of miners) that it enables the collier to carry on his work with
much less danger than now.
Mr. Laverick, the manager of the Sainton Collieries, belonging to the
Marquis of Londonderry, will be happy to show the mode of working with the
lime to any of the members of the Institute.
16 DISCUSSION—MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME.
Mr. Still, in supplementing the paper, said, that lately experiments had
been made at the Shipley Collieries in ripping the roof, and had been
attended with great success. They did not think the lime had sufficient
strength to get the stone, which was very hard; but they found the
experiment was successful. He would be glad to answer any further questions
that might be asked.
Mr. J. (i. Weeks said, that about this time last year lime cartridges were
tried at Bedlington colliery. They were tried in long-wall, and board and
wall, and then in the bottom stone of the yard seam. Many viewers of
Northumberland were present, and none of them thought the lime suitable to
work either long-wall or board and wall, so far as that particular seam was
concerned. The time occupied in breaking down the coal was very great, and
the time the hewers were underground was too short to allow them to go into
another board for half or three-quarters of an hour while the lime was
operating; besides the cost of it was about three times the cost of powder,
so far as they had tried it. As to making less small, his experiments were
not as accurate as he wrould liked to have had them; but rather more small
coals were made with lime than with powder. He stated this with a certain
amount of reservation, because he would have liked to have had a longer
experiment to speak definitely. They tried lime on the bottom stone, and
there were, he thought, the elements of success in it; and it was his
intention to try lime again to see if he could not loosen the bottom stone
to make it easier for the men to hew out. That was where he expected lime
would be of the greatest use. The seam he was speaking of was hard, and
where they were allowed to use powder, having no gas.
Mr. Richard Forster said he did not know but that the lime process might in
some instances be eminently successful; but he would like some informntion
as to whether it was claimed for this process that, under all conditions, it
was absolutely successful in getting coal down. The writer stated that "in
many instances the coal is forced off, and falls for a distance of several
inches beyond the end of the drilled holes." Did that follow when there was
no nicking and kirving made ? As to immunity from danger, his experience
told him that if this process was put into the hands of unskilled men there
would be more accidents than in the using of powder. There might be no
smoke, but he was not satisfied, he spoke with reserve, that the smell
arising from it would not, in some instances, be more objectionable than
smoke itself. He asked whether, in all the instances in which the lime was
tried in Durham, it had removed all the coal specially prepared by kirving
and nicking ?
DISCUSSION—MTNING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIMB. 17
Mr. Weeks said, at Bedlington the lime did not remove the coal for several
inches behind the holes, but the reverse; three to five inches of hole were
left on.
Mr. Richard Forster—Are there not some instances known to the gentlemen
representing the Lime Cartridge Company where the coal was not removed at
all ?
Mr. Steavenson said, that with Messrs. Bell Brothers it had been quite a
failure. In a board of the ordinary character, at Tursdale Colliery, he
spent three or four hours watching, and the coal was quite untouched, and
the men admitted they could not do anything with it. He suggested that the
discussion of this paper be adjourned until the promised paper on "Wedging"
was before the members.
Mr. Logan said, this lime process wras a very old one. One of the oldest
managers in the county of Durham told him that fifty years ago men in the
colliery under him used lime to lift the bottom, which was damp, where they
were not allowed to use powder. They stemmed the bottom with dry lime at
night, and in the morning it did sometimes ease them in lifting the bottom.
It was also used by the manager in the coal; but its action was uncertain,
and when it did act the lime splashed all over. They did not find that the
use of lime cartridges was increasing in Durham. He would like to know from
the author of the paper whether all the collieries that adopted the process
were continuing it. They were told that at one colliery lime cartridges were
being used to a large extent, and that they resulted in a considerable
saving as compared with the use of the wedge. Was that the hand or machine
wedge ? An experiment had been made at a colliery, in a scam 4 feet, a wall
9 feet wide was nicked and kirved 3 feet C inches; four holes put in with
three cartridges in each hole, in all twelve cartridges, and they failed to
make the slightest impression on the jud. Another trial was made in a board
6 feet wide, nicked and kirved 3 feet 6 inches, three holes put in with
three cartridges in each hole; the jud gave slightly next the nicking, and
about two tubs of coal could be taken off with the pick, but the remainder
of the jud was unaffected. In all the experiments he had heard of that
seemed to be the result. There was no certainty of action. As Mr. Weeks
said, the hewer could not wait. They wanted something quicker. They wanted
something safe by all means; but they wanted something quicker than lime.
Mr. Still, in reply, said that, with respect to the percentage of large or
round coal got by the use of the lime, Mr. Laverick, the Manager of the
Rainton Colliery, told him on the previous day that the percentage
ri
VOL, XXXIII.—1883,
^
18 DISCUSSION—MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME.
of large coal was 15 to 20 per cent, more than that got by hand wedging. As
to coai being got beyond the depth of the hole, that frequently occurred at
Shipley and elsewhere, where they left the coal on the sprags and it came
down eighteen inches behind the hole itself. Another point, raised by Mr.
Richard Forster, was as to the steam from the lime being dangerous to the
men. That was an objection that was raised by the colliers at Rainton,
and the matter was brought before their council. At the request of Mr.
Laverick the council examined the place, and reported that there was nothing
to complain of in the matter. As to the cost, Mr. Laverick distinctly
told him on the previous day, and in fact authorized him to mention it at
this meeting, that the cost of the lime process was considerably cheaper
than the present system of wedging by hand. A gentleman present had spoken
of experiments made with three cartridges in each hole. He really did
not think it fair that a system, in connection with which it was distinctly
stated seven cartridges went to a shot, should be tried with not half the
power; and it was from trials of this class that the more unsatisfactory
results were obtained. In some places they could do with six cartridges
in a hole,
but they used seven as a rule.
Mr. Logan said that in the case he mentioned there were four holes,
each -with three cartridges, making twelve.
The President—Mr. Still says there should be seven cartridges in
each hole.
Mr. Richard Forster asked whether Mr. Still claimed for this system that it
was universally effective in getting coal under all conditions ? They could
not make their coal to suit the lime cartridges. They wanted the lime
cartridges to suit their coal.
Mr. Steavenson proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Still for the paper, and
said this was a matter which deserved their attention, even if they were not
satisfied one way or another.
Mr. May seconded the vote of thanks, and suggested that the further
discussion of the paper should be postponed until the next meeting.
Mr. Still thanked the meeting for the vote of thanks, and stated that the
best evidence he could give as to the use of lime as a means of coal-getting
was the number of letters he had received from various colliery managers in
that and other districts, all the letters having been written after
practical experiments with the cartridges. The meeting then concluded.
RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 19
SOME RESULTS OF THE OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE DURING THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL.
By Dr. F. STAPFF.
Communicated by Professor O. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.8. Taken as read at the
General Meeting held on Jnne 9th, 1883.
It is not the writer's intention to recapitulate here the observations of
nine years, which are registered in the " Geologische Durchschnitte des
Gothard Tunnels," nor the brief summaries and conclusions hitherto drawn
from these observations, but only to mention some few results obtained,
which seem to be worthy of attention. . .
The diagrams on the distribution of temperature in the great tunnel,
published as "Annexe" XIV. to Vol. VIII. of the "Rapports Trimestriels du
Conseil federal Suisse sur la marche de FEntreprise du chemiii de fer du
Gothard," show some curious irregularities, which may depend on the
considerable influences of cold water on the south side, on warm springs in
the neighbourhood of the serpentine, on the decomposition of rock near
faults, or on different heat conductivities of the different rocks, but
above all they should be ascribed to the configuration of the ground and to
its different surface temperatures at different points.
The surface temperatures of ground as determined by continued observations
on a certain class of springs up to 2,000 metres above sea level increase
southward and decrease upwards. The empirical relation is
6 = 6731 + 0-0001096 D - 0-001256 (H - 1,100),
where 0 = temperature of ground, 112 metres below surface, in degrees
Centigrade.
D = distance from northern mouth of tunnel southwards in metres.
H = height of point above sea level in metres. On the other hand the
empirical relation between temperature of air (T), D and H was found to be
T = 5-45 + 0-000075 D - 0-007021 (H - 1,100).
20 RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE
A combination of both formulas shows that the difference A = 9 — T increases
as the temperature decreases; that difference being about 1^° if 9 be 7° and
6° if 9 = 1°, or generally
A = 3-74 - 0-411 T- 0-0029 T2. A quite similar result was arrived at by
computing the observations on the temperature of air and of springs at
twenty-two localities between Lapland, Congo, and Cumana, viz.:—
A = 3-25 - 0-3348 T + 0-0039 T2. The observations on Gothard springs show a
remarkable difference of temperature dependent upon the exposure of the
ground to the sun; whilst the surface temperature of sunny ground is
expressed by the relation 9' = 1*32 (0 + 0-52), that of shaded ground finds
its expression by 0" = 0*97 (9 — 0*95). The mean error of 0, when computed
by the formula mentioned above, is ± 1'12°.
For eliminating the influence of uneven surface and of neighbouring masses
on a regular increase of temperature towards the interior, the writer has
tried to find out the height above sea of ideal horizontal planes which
would correspond to the broken surface above each point of observation. The
leading idea was that the temperature t in the centre of a sphere, Fig. 1,
must be equal to the average temperature t' on the
Fig 1.
surface of that sphere provided that it be situated below a horizontal
plane, that the rock be homogeneous, and possesses the same conductivity in
all directions, that the flow of heat has become steady, and that the
diameter of the sphere be small in comparison with that of the earth. If any
point of observation in the tunnel be supposed to be the centre of a sphere
which touches the uneven surface above without cutting it, and if the
average surface temperature of that sphere is found, in most cases it will
be seen that it is not equal to /, Fig. 2, and the difference t — i! gives
means to calculate the position of the equivalent horizontal plane, the
temperature of the ground at the surface being also known. The subsequent
observations on temperature along the line
DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ST- GOTHARD TUNNEL. 21
of tunnel permit a computation to be made of the average temperature in one
great circle of the sphere; but they are not sufficient for the tempera-
Ticf 2. ^—
tures in other sections as far as no suppositions are made with regard to
the uniformity of gradients in cross sections. This, and the unreliability
of the topographical maps, prevented the writer from beginning a tedious
computation of doubtful value, and another method was substituted, which,
under the given circumstances, might give quite as good results as the one
indicated, but with far less expenditure of time. Cross sections were made
at every 100 metres, each cross section having the extent of the diameter of
a sphere inscribed from the corresponding tunnel point as centre. The
average heights of these cross sections were used for the construction of a
longitudinal section. Successive portions of the latter, equal in length to
the diameters of the respective inscribed circles, were levelled anew; their
average heights should answer to the required heights of horizontal planes
which lie above the successive points of observation. A continuous line
drawn through the middle points of the successive horizontal planes
represents a new profile of the Gothard, extending from Andermatt to Airolo
without sensible asperities.*
The observations on rock temperature, etc., made up to 1877, and extending
to 4,400 metres from the northern and 4,100 metres from the southern mouth
of the tunnel, gave an average increase of temperature towards the interior
8 = 0*02068A; h being in metres, and 8 in degrees Centigrade.
The observations throughout the whole tunnel gave an average increase 8 =
0-02146/i; h being taken from the direct geometrical profile, and 9, the
temperature of the ground near the surface, being computed by the new
formula mentioned above. The coefficient 0*02146 has an average error
* It was not quite easy to construct reliable cross sections by means of the
topographical map to the 1: 50000 scale with contour lines at every 30
metres. Instead of a straight line of tunnel a broken one has to be drawn on
the map. passing through well-lcnown points of the direct profile. The cross
sections were taken perpendicularly to the polygonal lines; and finally they
had to be raised or lowered till they corresponded with the levelled points
of section.
22 RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE
of ± 0*00130, the average error of temperatures near surface being ± 1*120°,
that of temperatures of rocks in tunnel ± 0*23°, and of vertical
heights ± 0*83 metres.
The mean height above the sea of the directly surveyed line of section
between Goschenen and Airolo is 2,041 metres, and the average temperature
near the surface in that line is 3*55°, the mean height of the tunnel (top)
is 1,147 metres, and the average depth from surface to tunnel 894 metres.
For Alpine mountains of the shape and composition of the St. Gothard, and
under the conditions just indicated, the coefficient 0*02146 + 0*00130 is
available for future use. The average increase of temperature made out on
the basis of the ideal planed profile is £ = 0*02179A".
The rock temperatures calculated by this coefficient (and the heights and
surface temperatures belonging to this planed profile) differ but a trifle
in the middle part of the tunnel (5,000 N. to 6,000 S.) from the observed
ones; but beyond these limits there are differences amounting to + 10°
(Plain of Andermatt) and — 5° (south side), which cannot be accounted for by
topographical reasons, and must be ascribed to the physical properties of
the rocks, chemical processes, water, etc.
It was surprising to find that the average gradient for level ground
(0*02179) differed so little from the average gradient for broken ground
(0*02146), and the writer believes that the reason must be sought in the
circumstance that the cooling process in a high isolated mountain, with a
large surface surrounded by a cool and always changing medium, works
somewhat differently from that in any particular horizon of the earth's
crust.
Cordier, Herschel, and Bischof have long ago suggested that the
isotherms under mountains should bend upwards. The truth
of
their opinions can be proved theoretically if the earth is regarded
as a cooling body; but the empirical proof was rather incomplete,
and briefly based upon some observations of Humboldt and Bonpland,
in Mexico and Peru. Indeed observations throughout a wdiole long
Alpine tunnel were necessary to prove the point directly and in-
contestably. * The occasion offered by the Mont Cenis Tunnel passed
by unused. Eight observations on rock temperature were made in the
southern part of it, but they were made after the boring through,
when air passed freely and cooled the rocks. Two-and-a-half years after
the piercing of the St. Gothard Tunnel, the rock temperature in its
middle part decreased by from 6° to 7°. Nobody knows how much the
temperature in the Mont Cenis Tunnel had diminished (at least to a
distance of some miles from the mouth) before the observations there
DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL. 23
were made, and little more can be inferred from them than that the
temperature increased towards the interior. But, even if reliable, these
observations would not allow gradients of increase to be plotted, because
the surface temperatures on the Mont Cenis are unknown, and because the
estimate of Professor Ansted, that the temperature of the ground near the
surface was 1° higher than that of the surrounding air, is not correct, for
low temperatures, though it may be right enough for the English climate. The
writer had special reason to regret the deficiencies of the Mont Cenis
observations when the temperature in the Sfc. Gothard Tunnel, 300 metres
below the Plain of Andermatt, rose by 22° to 23°, and-no experience was
available to show what might be expected 1,700 metres below the Kartclhorn.
This was a practical question which the writer endeavoured to solve on the
basis of the observations which had been made in the St. Gothard Tunnel
itself (gradient mentioned above, 0'02068). That the calculation proved a
success is of some importance for all future Alpine tunnels.
Two of the empirical relations between increase of temperature (<5) and
vertical depth (h) or shortest distance to surface (n) then computed, viz.:—
8' rs s/ 41*6593 — 0-1517A + 0*000112A2+ 0*01058A + 6*454
and
8 = s/ 36*1682 — 0*1278^ + 0*000103«2 + 0*01016w + 6*014 lead to imaginary
values for li = 383 ... 969 metres, and n = 438 ... 800 metres. This means
that horizontal isotherms may be met with at certain depths in spite of the
undulating surface. This conclusion was verified by a computation of all
thermometrical observations made in 1878, between 4,600 and 5,900 metres
from the southern mouth. In that portion the absolute height of the surface
varies from 2410*5 to 2688*1 metres, the depth of the tunnel from 1250*5 to
1528*4 metres, the temperature near the surface from 1*8° to 0*5° (old
formula for 0), the temperature of rock from 30*8 to 28*1°.
If there be between the tunnel and the surface a horizontal isotherm of
temperature T and absolute height h; if 0 be the temperature near the
surface at a point at height H above sea level; if 7 be the coefficient of
increase of temperature from that point down to the tunnel, then the
relation T + h^ = 0 + H7 is arrived at. By substituting 13 consecutive
numerical values for 0, H, 7, as observed from 4,600 to 5,900 metres from
the south end, there was found to be T = 19*84 ± 0*4; h = 1621*3 metres.
It would be easy to calculate in the same manner the height
26 KESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE
It can be assumed that the influences of local superficial protuberances and
depressions on regular increase of temperature towards the interior
disappear in these local continuous isotherms, which are nevertheless
governed by the distribution of the overlying masses in their totality. The
question is then arrived at, may there not exist below these local isotherms
a continuous isotherm depending on the form of the mountain as a whole ?
Let the parameter of that (parabolic) isotherm be (j>) the distance of its
apex from northern entrance (&), the depth of its apex below sea level {a),
Fig 4,.
H
--------------------------------------L---------------------------,
Sea level
_±
a
_____________Nk___________
Fig. 4, the temperature in it (T), the coefficient of increase in it (7'),
further let H = (average) height of any of the five local isotherms above
sea; L = distance of its middle from northern entrance, t = temperature and
70 = coefficient of increase in the same; then there will be
T = t + ^ L-~-J (H + a + x), and x being = |- = —^—
2, + 7° H = [2 T -,<(« + !)]-[> + |]^-[V]H+ \
[ j] L (V + V) - [£] V (7° + V).
This equation is still indeterminable; before rendering it fit for solution
an endeavour must be made to find 70 or the increase of temperature in the
horizon of the five continuous local isotherms. The average absolute height
of the surface above each of them; the average temperature of ground near
surface; the average height of each isotherm and the tem-
DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL. 27
perature in the same; the average height of tunnel (top) and its temperature
are known. Consequently the coefficient of increase between the
Fig 5. ------K----,-------------------Surface____________^
-----j-—j£-------------------Local isotherm____?
____^__E5___________Tun n e I____________U
K
surface and the tunnel (7), Fig. 5, between surface and local isotherm (7"),
and between local isotherm and tunnel (7"') are also known, there will be
7V- + 7iv^
7 = —i—
0 . 7V- being coefficient of increase in the horizon of tunnel,
7 -J- ry '
7' = ~—o-----^ ^° *n tne ^oca^ continuous isotherm, 7iv-
near
o , v surface whence—
7 =7+7 — 7-7iv- = 7" + 7 - 7'"-
V. "' I
"
7=7 +7 — 7 • The following table contains the numerical values:—
TABLE II.
"h a S <«cs § I >m ? "• Average
Co-efficient Co-efficient
a ° S 3 °s» -S °o 5 "3 of
Increase from of Increase near
i! f|ll f « fB k |Ji 111 ii 1 I !
I. H _
" /// iv O
v
450 T 7 7 7 7
7 7
to 1950 1478-3 5-26 11296 1799 11222 1840 003651 0-05541 0-03690 001800
0 05502 0-05580
2050 to 3450 1435-8 561 1208-1 16'26 1131-2 20'43 0-04677 005423
0-04865 0-04119 0 05235 0-05611
3550 to 6050 19633 3'59 1882'2 5'98 I 1143-1 23"83 0'02947 0-02415
0-02468 0'03000 0'02894 001936
IV.
-------
6150 to 11270 25179 1-66 1259 7 2719 ; 1158-3 29'20 0'02029 0-01982
0-02026 002073 0 01985 0 01979
11370
to j
14470 20980 390 18947 7 68 ! 1154'4 2076 0'01859
0-01767 0'01787 0-01879 0'01839 0-01695
003491
28 RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE
The differences here shown between the coefficients of increase at different
depths in one and the same portion of section, are not in accordance with
the supposition as given above. The final result of this computation cannot
be sensibly changed by these differences, but, notwithstanding, they are of
some interest, showing that irregularities of the increase of temperature in
one and the same artesian well, must not always be ascribed to erroneous
observations or accidental convections. Going back to the equation presented
higher up, viz.:—
2t + 7° H= [2 T_y (« + ^ ) ]¦_ - [«.+ J~] 7° - LY] H +
• rA ~| l (7° + 7') - [~ ] L2 («v° + 7') it will be found that the
difference between its two last terms must be small; p being great,
L2
7° + 7' a small fraction, the products b L, and -^ limited. Therefore,
as a first approximation, these two terms could be omitted, and a
calculation, by help of the remaining ones, of an approximate value for 7',
could be made, which could be introduced in the two last terms, and then
solve the equation. Instead, the writer has introduced in the two last terms
an approximate value for 7', calculated and substituted a more correct
value, and then solved the equation. The following numerical values
entered:—
TABLE III.
Middle dis- Average Average Co-efficient
^aluefor&
Local continuous tance of it Height of it TWinera
of *ncrease O i '
Isotherm, from Northern above +,iviirTi+
of Temperature 7 T 7 i viz.,
Entrance. Sea Level. «"•»»• in it.
o ,
L H T 70
I.
450 to 1950 1200 1129-6 17*99 0 05502 0-08993
II.
2050 to 3450 2750 1208-1 16-26
0-05235 008726
III.
3550 to 6050 48C0 1882-2 5-98 0-02894 0-06385
IV.
6150 to 11270 8710 1259-7 2719 0-01985
0-05476
V.
11370 to 14470 12920 1894-7 7'68 0-01839 0-05330
003491
DURING- THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL. 29
The first approximations were:—
7' = 0'031G6
p = 132469 metres.
b = 3347 „
a = — 330'1 „ (above sea).
T = 53-13°
Instead of 0-03491 = 7' the value 0'03166 was now substituted in the two
last terms of the general equation, so that the figures in the last column
of the preceding Table change to 0-08668, 0-08401, 0-06060, 0-05151,
0-05005, whilst all others remain. The five equations then give :—
— = 0-00000275458; p = 181516 metres.
b
— = 0-01826; b = 3314-5 metres; 7' = 0-03167.
a + ^z~ — 298-35; a — — 328*6 metres (above sea).
2T— 7'(a+~ ) = — 9-45; T = 53-235°. These figures may yet
be capable of correction, the whole calculation having been based upon the
employment of simple arithmetical averages, and not upon direct substitution
of the observed data, the different weight attaching to the single
observations having also been neglected. Notwithstanding these
imperfections, the writer has good reason to consider the average
coefficient of increase 0-03167 to be one of the most reliable hitherto
deduced from any observations on underground temperature. It means that near
the surface (almost at sea level), and under level ground, the internal
temperature increases by 3*167° per 100 metres of vertical depth. Adopting
0*0058 as the mean conductivity of the outer crust of the earth (vide
Professor Everett, in "Nature," p. 591, October 12, 1882), the flow of heat
in a second across a square centimetre would be 0*0058 X 0*0003167 =
0*000001837; and the average number of gramme-degrees of heat that escape
annually through each square centimetre of a horizontal section of the
earth: 0-000001837 x 31500000 = 57*9. Furthermore, it has been shown from
the Gothard observations that the isotherms below that mountain swell up,
and that the highest continuous isotherm, with a temperature of 53^°, has a
radius of curvature of about 181516 metres, whilst the radius of the earth
in a latitude of 46^° is about 6462432 metres. The bow-formed isotherm has
its summit, not below the middle of the mountain, but northwards, between
the
30 RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.
hottest sections of the tunnel; it cuts the sea level about 650 metres from
the southern entrance and its summit is 397 metres above the sea.
Knowing the surface temperatures along the line of section, the rock
temperatures in the tunnel, the average temperatures of five local
continuous isotherms, and the temperature of a principal continuous
isotherm, it is easy to interpolate isotherms for whole degrees
throughout the whole section. These isotherms follow in upper levels all
the inequalities of the surface, whilst below they adjust themselves more
and more to the course of the continuous isotherms. They show at a glance
that the increase of temperature is more rapid below plains and valleys than
below summits, and that these local differences disappear more and more at
greater depths. They show irregularities on the south side, which clearly
depend on cold springs, they bend down rapidly and then run smoothly
inclined below the water-filled section of the mountain. Other local
irregularities can be explained by the decomposition of rock; but there is
no obvious explanation of the rapid increase in the granite rocks at the
northern end of the tunnel (2,000 metres), and it is probably to be
attributed to the influence of different thermal qualities of the rocks on
the coefficients of increase. For the rest these 200 metres of granite
belong to the massif of the Finsteraarhorn, and, geologically speaking, they
do not share in the composition of the St. Gothard. Perhaps these two
massifs belong to different geological periods (as supposed for geological
reasons long ago). What wonder then if one of them be cooler than the
other.
APPENDIX—OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 31
APPENDIX.
Temperature in the St. G-othard Tunnel beneath the Plain of Andermatt.
I j
Correction on
\
"° § S o -a ¦ 1 ' S Observations on
Temperature in 11 and 12 to g g
a£ 8 a ; & -jj "o a'S 2 ^'oS^ the Gallery.
reduce them . jq,-gjd
UUi ll| I|| IB Igl *aceotCanery-^,. Jg
g~ B* If f«jf
Sal fl§ w£g ss? IIS;8-s!' $ . » 4 . 6 35a i -J3
|s §a %%n% U %t s°! 3&1 I tilsf £ oti £j2 1* 9 IIS « l*r Ijj
~£ |s»s
H^s . * ° ^ a 1w^ ^ ^ as Is ^5
1 2 ! 3 4 5 ! 6 ! 7 8
9 10 11 12 ~jj 14 ~ 15 16
17
1800 to 1900 1850 1125-9 14240 2981 5X5 1834......19-54
19-99 19-43 _011 -Q-56 3X8 0-04656
2000 1950 1126-5 14392 \ 3127 5X0 •• •• 18 73
20X9 1978 19'32 13-94 _ol9 -0-46 1314 0-04298
2100 2050 11271 1433 6 j 306 5 553 •• ......2065
1946 19.24 _0-27 _0-36 13 71 004473
5200 2150 11277 14336 3059 5-54 .. ......2Q-56
2016 20.22 _0-34 _0-26 14 68 0-01799
to
------- ----------
----------
2300 2250 1128-2 1431X 3031 5-56 .. •• 2113 22-01 21'09 2089 20-7o
-0X6 —019 1514 0-04990 to
2400 2350 11288 14327 3C3'9 5-57 .. .. 2117
2219 21-58 21-09 20-99 _0-38 —012 1512 0-05074
2500 2150 11291 1433-2 303-8 5'58 .. •¦ 2177
21 "66 21 "72 21'94 2VU -010 - 004 16-26 0X5352
to
2600 2550 1129-9 14331 303X 5X9 .. •• 22X2
2310 2311:2271 22-73 _0-42 + 0X3 1714 0-05C47
to
2700 2650 11305 1434-2 3037 560 2119 •• 2068 2317
2203 2119 2l-59 -014 +010 1599 0-05265
to
I-------------------------------------
2800 2750 11311 14345 3031 5X1 j 21X5 22X0 21-65 2367
22-61 22X8 2215 —011 +007 1654 0X5452
2900 2850 11317 14350 303 3 5 62 12111 •• ••
2206 .. 2128 21-32 ^0-^ +0'04 1570 0X;i76
3000 2950 11323 1437'3 305X 5X2 19'59 .. 2113 22'28
2170 2015 20-56 _0.35 +001 1494 0X4898
3100 3050 1132-9 14378 304X 5X3 18'20 .. 18-20
21X0 19X0 19X2 lg.47 _0-32 _002 13X4 0-04539
to
3200 3150 11335 1437-6 3041 5X4..........19"46 1910 — 0X8
—006 1376 0X4525
to
3300 3250 11341 14382 304-1 5X5 .. 19'28 18X5
20X7 1917 19X1 i9-22 _025 —0-09 13X7 0 04462
to--------------------------—
3400 3350 1134 X 14392 ! 304X 5X5 .. .. 18X5
2013 1924 1918 1907 —028 — 010 1312 0X4406
to
3500 3450 11352 1445X j 309X 5X4 .. .. 1770
19-70 1870 18-04 1797 —0X1 —012 12X3 0X3980
0 04823
Cols. 3 and 5.—The depths are reckoned to the top of the tunnel, because the
observations were made in the little gallery, which was driven close below
or above the top.
Col. 6.—The temperatures of the ground near the surface are calculated by
the formula 0=6-734 + 0-0001096 D—0-004256 (H—1,100); D being
32 APPENDIX—OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE
distance from northern mouth (Col. 2), H height of surface above sea level
(Col. 4). This formula differs a little from that made out in 1877, because
the observations on springs have been continued ever since, and extended to
springs in higher levels. The mean error of a single observation is ± 1*12,
the mean error of the mean ± 0'17. There is a sensible difference between
the temperatures of sunny and shady ground. The former (sunny) was found to
be & = 1-32 (0 + 0*52); the latter (shade) &' = 0-97 (0 — 0*95). The depth
below the surface (1-12 metres), in which 6 is assumed to prevail, is
deduced from a special series of observations on the temperature of water
running through a narrow iron pipe, 500 metres long, imbedded 77 centimetres
below the surface, and simultaneous observations on the temperature of the
ambient air.
There was found for gravel -j- = 1*77 (one year and 1 metre), and
*N A*
this constant was made use of to compute the depth of springs on the
Gothard, which had been observed all the year round.
Col. 7.—Compare with Col. 13. Underground temperatures observed in
water-filled narrow wells can but accidentally agree with rock temperatures,
the influence of convection being neglected.
Cols." 8, 9, and 10. —These figures are the averages of all single
observations respectively made in the lengths indicated in Col. 1. The
single observations are registered in the " Geologische Dursohnitte des
Gotthard Tunnels" (scale 1 : 200), and in the text to the same, edited by
the Swiss Confederation, together Avith the " Kapports Trimestriels sur la
marche de 1'Entreprise clu Gothard, etc."
Col 11.—These average temperatures of air before the face of the
S (Col. 9) S (Col. 10)
little gallery are computed by the formula:— n'__________n" ;
or
2
S (Col. 8) S (Col. 9) s (Col. 10)
n° n' n" (n = number of respective
single
~~ 3
observations).
Col. 12.—On the occasion of the monthly geological surveys of the gallery,
that is to say, of the length opened during each preceding month, slow
acting thermometers were suspended at all fixed points, the average distance
between them being about 10 metres. This series of observations gave very
reliable results, showing that the mean temperature of air, 50 to 150 metres
behind the face, was rather stationary, and that it
DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OE THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL. 33
differed but little from the temperature of the rock (Col. 15;. The figures
of Col. 12 are the averages of all single observations at every 100 metres
(registered in the reports mentioned above).
Col. 13.—The figures underlined are direct observations on the temperature
of rock, as measured in holes of 1-1 metre in depth, with slow acting, i.e.,
protected thermometers. Most of these observations were made in the face of
the little gallery; none in the finished tunnel; the observations begun this
year are not included; some few in the excavations behind, but always in
fresh walls.
Cols. 14 and 15 give the differences between the direct observations on rock
temperatures and the mean temperatures of air before the face (Col. 11), and
behind (Col. 12), always at the same distances from the mouth of the tunnel.
The figures between the underlined ones in the same columns arc
interpolated. By the help of these corrections the temperatures of air have
been made fit for completing the scries of direct observations on rock
temperature (Col. 13, figures between the underlined ones). The weight of
the figures in Col. 11 ± corrections as compared with those in Col. 12 ±
corrections, was found to be 8*1 (in the northern part of the tunnel). For
instance 3,450: temperature of air at the face of the gallery 18*70; gives
temperature of rock 18*70 — 0*31 = 18*39; temperature of air behind the face
of gallery 18*04; gives temperature of rock 18*04 — 0*12 = 17*92; average
temperature of rock at
3,400 to 3,500 8 X 17'9l + 18'3<J = 17*97. 9
It has been shown that the temperatures of rock, by direct and indirect
observations, as put together in Col. 13, throughout the whole tunnel
approach the truth to ± 0,23°; that the mean error of the difference between
the temperature of the ground near the surface and the temperature of rock
vertically beneath is 1*14°; and that the mean error
1 • 1 C I
of each particular gradient (Col. 17) is —-—; (h = vertical depth). It
would be wrong to regard the arithmetical mean of gradients between each 100
metres to be a true average gradient: the values of gradients deduced from
observations to great depths being much greater than those of the gradients
from shallow observations; henee it is indispensable that the average
gradient should be computed by the minimum method. The depths from the Plain
of Andermatt down to the tunnel differ so little (298 to 310 metres) that
the weights of the successive gradients (Col. 17) may be considered to be
the same; of course the simple arithmetical mean of all particular gradients
(Col. 17) will suffice in that particular case.
VOL. XXXIII.—1863.
E
34 APPENDIX—OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.
The writer thinks it is not the configuration of surface alone which makes
the temperature rise below the Valley of Andermatt from 19° to 23°, and then
descend to 18°. There is a well-known local focus of heat (decomposition of
rock) below that valley, which seems to exercise a sufficient influence.
Slight differences (0*i° or so) between the figures of Col. 18 and the
corresponding ones as published in 1877 depend on some new direct
observations of rock temperature since made below the Plain of Andermatt, on
the introduction of variable corrections (Cols. 14 and 15) instead of an
average constant, as was done in 1877, and on the introduction of other
values for the temperatures observed i efore and behind the face of the
gallery.
PROCEEDINGS. 35
PROCEEDINGS.
r
---------------------
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 8th, 1833, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
GEORGE BAKER FORSTER, Esq., President, is the Chaib.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously
nominated:—
Honorary Member—¦ Here Beassert, Chief Inspector of Mines, Bonn-am-Rhine;
Germany.
Associate Members—
Mr. D. Feegusson, Harrington Colliery, Cumberland. Mr. Benjamin Tyzack,
Preston Road. North Shields. Mr. Feank Mureay Still, 3, Queen Street,
Cheapside, London. Mr. Charles Frederick Wormald, Cement Manufacturer, Cross
House, Corbridge.
Students—
Mr. Benjamin McLaren, Bedlington.
Mr. William Hay, Jun., Nostell Colliery, Wakefield.
The following wrere nominated for election :—
Associate Members—
Mr. Lawrence W. Adamson, Whitley House, Whitley, Northumberland. Mr. Jacob
Wallau, Messrs. Black, Hawthorn, & Co., Gateshead.
Student— Mr. Matthew Baeeass, Tudhoe Colliery, Spennymoor.
The Secretary read the following paper by Mr. W. F. Hall," On the Haswell
Mechanical Coal-getter: an Invention for Working Coal without the aid of
Gunpowder or other Explosives :"—
¦vol. xxxiii.—vm,
V
THE HASWBLL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER. 37
THE HASWELL "MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER: AN INVENTION FOE WORKING COAL WITHOUT
THE AID OF GUNPOWDER OR OTHER EXPLOSIVES.
By W. P. HALL.
Coal mining, understood in its restricted sense of working the coal, differs
considerably in the methods employed, and the extent to which manual labour,
directly applied, must be supplemented by other and more powerful means.
This is true of any one seam in a colliery, and it is much more so from the
difference of the coal seams in the same colliery, or of the same coal in
different parts of a district; while at the same time each district presents
its own problem in the nature and position of the coal to be won. But by far
the principal operation in all cases is the breaking down, or it may be the
breaking up, of the coal after a space has been made at the top or bottom of
the seam for this purpose.
By working the coal in a manner to take the fullest advantage of the natural
lines of cleavage the additional aid required is minimized, and in some
cases altogether dispensed with; but even in these favourable cases the mine
has to be laid out systematically to secure this advantage; and to do so a
portion of the coal must be wron under circumstances which require
extraneous help, as in headways courses, winnings, walls, and crosscuts. But
in general not merely the developing stages have to be assisted, but the
process throughout calls for the operation of other forces than merely the
hewer's unaided strength and skill.
The general use of gunpowder and other explosives in coal mining has,
therefore, not arisen so much from choice as from the absence of any other
agent so efficient, either chemical or mechanical; and wrere it not for the
serious defects that are developed in its use, probably it would long
maintain its position. Unfortunately these defects are too great to be
overlooked.
The first charge against it is that it shatters the coal, producing a large
percentage of small, and affecting the cohesion of the round to such an
extent that it falls to pieces in transit, and is thereby materially reduced
in value.
38 THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER.
The second is that it vitiates the atmosphere in which the miner has to
work. The grains of solid powder when exploded suddenly resolve themselves
into a volume of gas that is inimical to human life. If the explosion takes
place in the open air, the action of natural laws would soon restore a
healthy atmosphere; but as it is, a further burden is thrown upon a
complicated and expensive system of ventilation which can ill afford the
additional task.
But the most serious charge of all is that it tends to increase the
possibility of a colliery explosion. This is the worst form of evil that can
overtake a mining engineer; but happily it is rare, when the vast operations
that are going on are taken into consideration. Still, every care is
required, and it is the interest of all concerned to reduce the risk to the
lowest factor.
The tendency to regard gunpowder as an element of danger in a coal mine, has
of late increased to such an extent as to cause those interested to look
with some concern upon the future. The number of restrictions and
regulations which official authority has imposed upon its use, and is still
imposing, mark that tendency very clearly ; and it is felt that if this is
carried much further, large areas of coal will be rendered unprofitable to
work, unless some efficient substitute is found.
On these grounds the writer asks the patient consideration of an invention
which he hopes may prove of service to the coal mining industry, by largely,
if not entirely, taking the place of gunpowder in working coal The Haswell
Mechanical Coal-Getter, shown in Plate I., figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, is a
combination of screw, lever, and wedge, e e, figs. 3 and 4, are two
expanding blocks; / is a wedge to expand them; g is a bar for thrusting in
the wedge; h h are straps uniting each end of the machine together, which
can be disconnected at the coupling box i, fig. 2; 7c 7c Jc Jc are four
pairs of links; the front pair are connected by a pin p to the straps h h;
and the other pair next the face of the coal are connected to a movable
block or crosshead I, thrusting against the bar g, in contact with the wedge
/. The screw m, fig. 1, works in a nut at n, and in a loose collar at o,
and when made to turn by a ratchet brace attached to the square end m, it
brings the levers Jc together and forces the rod g and wedge/into the blocks
ee.
From the above description of the machine it will be seen that the bursting
action is accomplished by a wedge, as in the old " stub and feather," to
which it has been compared; and in this, as in the old instrument, the
initial power which drives the wedge is manual force. But beyond these two
simple facts all resemblance ceases ; for while in the one case
THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTEP. 39
the man's power was measured by the amount of force he could deliver in the
blow of a mallet, in this case his force is immensely multiplied by a
special combination of mechanical forces. Further, the bursting action of
the wedge in the old instrument commenced at the face of the jud where it
was least required. This increased its inefficiency by breaking away the
front of the coal, which ought to have remained to assist in bringing down
the jud in a body to the back of the kirving by its weight and leverage. In
the case of this machine, the bursting force is placed at the very point
where of all others it can be most effective, and where it commands every
advantage that can be gained in the operation, without a single drawback in
regard to position.
Appended to this paper is an account of a number of experiments made in the
Low Main Seam at Haswell Colliery in the presence of various mining
engineers. These accounts are taken from the notes made by one of the party
at the time, and in most cases have been compiled by the person who took the
notes. It is further to be observed that these experiments were not made
specially in carefully selected and prepared places, but were made while
following the daily routine of work done by the machine.
The Low Main Seam at Haswell Colliery is a hard steam coal from 3 feet 4
inches to 3 feet G inches thick, and is found at about 135 fathoms below the
surface. The record gives a list of twelve juds taken down in long-wall
working, and the length of juds range from 21 to 33 feet, with a kirving of
from 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 6 inches, giving an average on the twelve
juds of 26 feet by 3 feet 5 inches. In each case, as is usual, the jud has
one loose end.
The mode of operation in ordinary cases is to bore a hole about 4 inches
from the roof, and at from 3 to 5 feet from the fast side, after the coal
has been kirved by the hewer. This gives a length of above 20 feet of coal,
along which the bursting force must travel before it reaches the loose end.
The straps are first put into the hole, followed by the blocks and the
wedge, each of which are firmly driven home by the wedge bar before it is
put into its position against the wedge. The machine is then linked upon the
straps, and a few turns of the screw secures the whole firmly in position.
All this is the work of a few minutes. The sprags are then looked after, if
not already in their place; for on the judicious manipulation of sprags much
of the success depends. The duty of the sprags is to assist the motion of
the force along the jud from the machine to the loose end, as the action of
the machine at a distance of above 20 feet depends on the cohesion of the
coal being maintained throughout the jud. This explains the reason why in
one case (No. 5 experiment) two holes were put in,
40 THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER.
the unity of the coal having been broken up by a hitch. Although the time is
given in each case—and though a typical case will not last more than twelve
minutes (see experiment No. 9)—yet the work is not a question of speed, for
it is well understood by practical miners that time must be given for the
coal to work. After seeing that the sprags are all right, the workman places
himself at the ratchet and alternately screws aud pauses as in his judgment
the case requires. After the first cracking sounds are heard the burden of
screwing is lightened; and when it has reached the loose end, the " wedger"
knows that his work is done. He then knocks out the sprags, when the jud
comes away in a mass, breaking into large pieces as
it falls.
Wide boards have also been regularly worked with the machine in the Low Main
Seam at Haswell Colliery; and Nos. 8 and 10 experiments may be taken as
fairly representing the results. The boards are 16 and 18 feet wide; and are
kirved in 3 feet 6 inches and 3 feet 4 inches deep respectively. A hole is
bored at the top of the jud about 2 feet from each fast side, and sprags are
used. A machine is put into each hole, and if in the judgment of the
operator the jud is more likely to work from one side than the other, that
side is pushed away first; then the machines are worked alternately until
the coal is brought down. In these two cases the time was twenty-seven and
twenty-nine minutes respectively.
Experiment No. 16 shows a headways place taken down. It was 18 feet wide and
kirved in 3 feet 6 inches. Three holes were bored in the jud—one at each
fast side and one in the middle. The machines were put into the right hand
and middle, or Nos. 2 and 3 holes. After twenty-seven and a half minutes'
operation the notes say:—" The whole of the coal from right-hand nook up to
No. 1 hole fell down, and the remainder to left nook loosened, so that it
was easily pulled down."
Since then most of the headways places have been worked similarly to boards,
that is, with two holes only.
In some collieries it is more convenient and economical to kirve at the top
or middle of the seam, and break up the coal by explosives. In view of this,
experiments were tried in the Low Main and Main Coal Seams at Haswell
Colliery to raise the jud instead of breaking it down. Nos. 17 and 18
experiments refer to this.
Experiment No. 17, Low Main Seam.—The coal was kirved at the top
of the seam, and a hole drilled for the machine in the bottom, at about the
middle of the jud. The whole of the coal was lifted square off by the
back of the jud tapering away a little at the fast side. Length of j ud 18
feet.
Experiment No. 18, Main Coal Seam.—In this experiment the kirving
THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER. 41
was in a 1 foot 6 inch ramble, which was kirved 3 feet in. The holes for the
machine were drilled at the bottom. The first two holes were put in next the
loose side, and two machines were worked simultaneously, when the coal was
lifted to within three yards of the fast side. Another hole was then put in
one yard from the fast side, which lifted the remainder of the jud. The coal
next the ramble is a little tender, and in ordinary working yields too much
small; but in this experiment it was found to come away in large pieces
without any waste. Total length of jud 30 feet.
The machine is in regular use at Byhope Colliery taking down top canches, or
lifting bottom ones. No. 19 is one of the earliest of the experiments made
there in stone canches. The trial was in grey metal with iron girdles, to
make wagonway height. The canch was 24 inches thick by 8 feet 6 inches wide.
A plank was fixed, by two props, underneath the line of hole before wedging
commenced. The hole was bored 3 feet 2 inches deep. After forcing the wedge
up to its full extent the props were withdrawn, when a large quantity of the
stone came down, the remainder hanging ready for pinching down. This cleared
a space 6 feet in length by 8 feet in width. Time occupied in boring and
wedging seventy-five minutes.
Experiment No. 20 shows similar good effects in bottom canches.
The same method of work will apply in long-wall gateways.
The question of cost.of operation depends largely on the nature of the coal
and the thickness of the seam, but it will be found to compare favourably
with gunpowder, the cheapest of all present agencies. In a colliery where
the machines are put into regular and systematic use, it will be found
advisable to divide the work between the hewer and the man with the machine,
who may be called the "wedger," as follows :—
The hewer will prepare the jud by kirving it, and afterwards fill the coals.
The "wedger" will follow round as the juds are prepared, drill his holes,
and wedge down the coal. In this way a man becomes familiar with the
machine, acquires the "knack" of using it to purpose, and obtains the best
results. In a thin seam like the Low Main at Haswell a "wedger" will bring
down above 40 tons per shift. In a thicker seam the quantity would be
proportionately more, and the cost, therefore, less. By dividing the "
wedger's" wage by the coal produced, the cost per ton is arrived at. This
must be compared with the value of the time occupied by the hewer in
drilling his holes, and the gunpowder he uses.
The condition of the coal obtained by this process is all that can be
42
THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER.
desired. Unlike the action of gunpowder, which spends its force in a sudden
shock, in this case the bursting power is applied gradually, and to the
extent desired, so that the main lines of cleavage are alone affected, and
the coal is found in large, square and unshattered blocks. Not merely is
there a less percentage of small, but the natural cohesion of the round is
in no way destroyed, so that it does not fall to pieces in transit as in the
case of coal brought dowu by explosives.
The ventilation of the mine is also in no way affected by this mode of
getting coal. This is the second point in which it contrasts very favourably
with gunpowder and other explosives, the effects of which the writer has
already noticed.
Other points of contrast readily occur, such as simplicity and safety of
application, freedom from anxiety as to storage, absence of injury to roof,
etc.; but the one point which outweighs all others is its perfect immunity
from danger. Without venturing to express an opinion as to the cause of
colliery explosions, as there are other sources of danger besides gunpowder,
yet the absence of explosives in coal mines would no doubt be regarded with
satisfaction throughout the entire mining community ; and if to attain this,
and the kindred advantage of an unaffected atmosphere, some sacrifice was
called for, the objects to be gained would justify it; but the trials
already made by this machine leave the hope that these will be attained
without such sacrifice, and an additional benefit secured of having a more
marketable coal to dispose of.
The wrriter may be allowed to add that this is in no sense a difficult or
complicated machine to deal with; nor one that requires what may be called
"skilled hands" to manage it. Ordinary intelligence and powers of
observation, and a knowledge of the mode in which coal works, which is
familiar to every miner, combined with ordinary care, is all that is
required in its use.
42
THE HASWBLL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER.
desired. Unlike the action of gunpowder, which spends its force in a sudden
shock, in this case the bursting power is applied gradually, and to the
extent desired, so that the main lines of cleavage are alone affected, and
the coal is found in large, square and unshattered blocks. Not merely is
there a less percentage of small, but the natural cohesion of the round is
in no way destroyed, so that it does not fall to pieces in transit as in the
case of coal brought down by explosives.
The ventilation of the mine is also in no way affected by this mode of
getting coal. This is the second point in which it contrasts very favourably
with gunpowder and other explosives, the effects of which the writer has
already noticed.
Other points of contrast readily occur, such as simplicity and safety of
application, freedom from anxiety as to storage, absence of injury to roof,
etc.; but the one point which outweighs all others is its perfect immunity
from danger. Without venturing to express an opinion as to the cause of
colliery explosions, as there are other sources of danger besides gunpowder,
yet the absence of explosives in coal mines would no doubt be regarded with
satisfaction throughout the entire mining community; and if to attain this,
and the kindred advantage of an unaffected atmosphere, some sacrifice was
called for, the objects to be gained would justify it; but the trials
already made by this machine leave the hope that these will be attained
without such sacrifice, and an additional benefit secured of having a more
marketable coal to dispose of.
The writer may be allowed to add that this is in no sense a difficult or
complicated machine to deal with; nor one that requires what may be called
"skilled hands" to manage it. Ordinary intelligence and powers of
observation, and a knowledge of the mode in which coal works, which is
familiar to every miner, combined with ordinary care, is all that is
required in its use.
Mr. Richardson asked what amount of force can be exerted by the screw ?
Mr. Hall—It altogether depends upon the strength of the machine. In the
machine described a force of 140 tons can be exerted against the sides of
the hole, but he had made one which would have double that force.
Mr. Richard Forster said, he was present at some experiments at Has-well
Colliery, and could fully bear out what Mr. Hall had stated. At the Low
Main, Haswell, the machine was an absolute success. In juds it did ifs work
more efficiently than powder could have done; in fast places it was
wonderful to see how two wedges could force the coal out. He had tried
experiments with it in very much thicker seams, up to 6 feet, and it
satisfied him that all that was required was to increase the power of the
machine according to the strength of the coal. In a 5 feet 11 inches seam,
in board and wall working, writh kirving and nicking to a depth of 3 feet 6
inches, coal was brought down by this machine, but not so effectually as at
Haswell, because the men did not know the seam so well, and consequently did
not know so well where to place the machine. In another
56 DISCUSSION—THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER.
case, in a 5 feet 11 inches seam, a jud in a four-yard place was wedged down
almost in a solid block with one hole. A similar experiment was made in the
same seam with the kirving on the top, but whilst the coal was beginning to
give way, the pressure and weight of it proved too great and the machine
broke, not from any defect in the principle, but from want of power. As this
machine could be used in a place where powder could not be used, it would be
a very useful instrument in making height for rolleyways in seams where it
was deemed inadvisable to use powder. He considered Mr. Hall had expressed
himself too severely on gunpowder. In certain conditions he thought powder
could be used as safely in mines as it could be in that room ; and in other
conditions it was undesirable to use it. If they had, in this machine, got
something which could be substituted for manual labour in places where
powder could not be used, then Mr. Hall had conferred a great boon on the
coal trade.
Mr. Steavenson said, he must congratulate Mr. Hall upon having, to a great
extent, overcome the difficulties attendant on the use of machinery in
substitution of powder in mines, if the wedge was successful it would
contribute greatly to increase the safety of mining operations. He would
like to compare the pressure afforded by this machine with that of their old
friend, blasting powder, for in approaching the consideration of such
questions as the exchange of a wedge for a well tried explosive, it seems
natural to ascertain as closely as possible, what work was done or what
pressure was exerted by the medium it was proposed to supplant.
There are few explosives which he had not at some time practically tested,
and as an instance of the great difference in result accordingly as pressure
is applied suddenly or the reverse, he might mention that in the case of
nitro-glycerine, the very suddenness of its explosion prevents it in some
cases doing useful work, thus, for Cleveland stone it was of no use, while,
on the other hand, explosive pressure applied too slowly allows an expansion
which virtually wastes the work done.
The explosive force of blasting powder naturally varies with its quality,
and—when trying, as he had done at various times, wedges of different kinds,
amongst others the hydraulic—he had sought out various authorities on the
subject, and all seemed to agree that the temperature of the gas of powder
at the time of explosion in a shot-hole, varies from 2,000° to 2,200°
Centigrade (3,990° Fahrenheit), and that the volume of the gas is 2,000 to
3,000 times the volume of the powder. Bunsen and Schishkoff, experimenting
with sporting powder containing about 79 per cent, of
DISCUSSION—THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER. 57
saltpetre, found that the temperature in a close vessel reached 3,340°
Centigrade (6,043° Fahrenheit), and a corresponding pressure of 4,500
atmospheres, or 67,000 lbs. per square inch.
But of course mining powder, with say 66 per cent, of saltpetre, gives a
less temperature, with large grains it burns more slowly, and in the
shot-hole the gas is more rapidly cooled.
Professor Abel and Captain Noble, with perhaps more accurate means of
testing, have given a pressure of 6,400 atmospheres or 94,000 lbs. or 42
tons per square inch; and here it may incidentally be mentioned that on the
Continent, from calculations based on Mariotte's Law, Dr. Gurlt has sought,
by giving the explosive space for expanding in the shot-hole to three times
its bulk, to lower the temperature of the gases after explosion to, say,
666° Centigrade (1,231° Fahrenheit), which would be a heat too low to
explode the gas of the mine, since according to the experiments of Mallard
and Le Chatelier, the temperature required to fire any mixture of fire-damp
is not below 780° Centigrade (1,436° Fahrenheit), which is increased when,
as is generally the case, carbonic acid is present.
Interesting researches on the decomposition of explosives and composition of
gases evolved were also given by MM. Sarsow and Vielle, in 1880.
He had himself, in the last twenty years, tried at least twenty different
explosives, and none had approached the efficiency of powder. Although in
experiment powder exerted 42 tons per inch, he thought in practice not more
than 20 tons pressure could be obtained; but still, with 20 tons pressure,
it would be interesting to compare the action of the wedge with it. He
understood from Mr. Hall that there was a pressure of something like 140
tons on the wedge or about If tons per square inch. He would like to know
how this had been arrived at, and whether any actual test had been made.
With a wedge in which he had lately taken some interest, he got a pressure
of 40 tons at the time the coal came down. He took the area of the hole at
about 44 inches, and that would give something like one ton to the square
inch. It might be a question how a wedge, with only one ton to the inch,
could effect the same work that blasting powder, with a pressure of 20 tons
to the square inch, could do. The difference must be found, he thought, in
the fact that the wedge continued its pressure after the coal began to move;
whilst the powder was sudden in its action. On the other hand there had been
powder tried which was much too slow; some which he had tried a few years
ago propelled the gases after explosion through the pricker hole, and made a
tremendous noise, like a whistle; but there could be no doubt that the
pressure of powder was beyond anything they could hope to apply with a
wedge.
58 DISCUSSION—THE HASWELL MECHANICAL COAL-GETTER.
The pressure of powder might also be ascertained from the chemical changes
which take place. 130 grains of powder equals in bulk 0*3 cubic inches of
water, and its gaseous volume at atmospheric temperature equals 236 cubic
inches; being an expansion of 1 volume into 787*3; but as the temperature of
gas must be at least that of incandescence, this volume might be estimated
at three times as much, or more than 2,000 times the bulk of the solid
powder.
Further information on such subjects may be found in the Proceedings of the
South Staffordshire Engineers for 1878, and in the "Engineer," of
April 13th, 1883.
Another proposal in substitution of powder in mines, was that of M. Reuss,
who put water into cartridges made of cast iron, about 14 inches long and 3
inches diameter, fitted at the end so as to receive a tube, and when the
cartridge was inserted in the hole, a pressure of 20,000 lbs. per square
inch was put upon it by means of a pump, at which pressure the cartridge
(calculated on a basis that ^ an inch thickness will burst at 6,700 lbs.
pressure, and Ty more or less, varies its strength 1,000 lbs.) burst,
bringing down the coal.
Next comes the lime process. Mr. Paget Mosley, in his paper before the Iron
and Steel Institute, puts the pressure of steam generated at 2,850 lbs., and
if this is the highest which can be obtained in practice, it is easily seen
how far it falls short of powder at 67,000 lbs.
But it may be compared another way, the theoretical heat evolved by one
equivalent of lime (CaO) with one of water (H20) is per one part of lime
244*6 Cal. or equal to the heat required to raise 2*446 parts of water from
0° to 100° C, and on this basis for 1 lb. in English measures 180° x
2*446x772 _no foot tong fa obtained whereas powder is equal
2,240 to 480 foot tons.
As to the distribution of labour, he was inclined to think that instead of
allowing the hewer to fill, he should get men to act as fillers. They found
this division of labour to answer in Cleveland, where there was a great
amount of drilling. With three mechanical drills they got about 630 tons in
the two shifts, and that was about 105 tons from each machine in the shift.
They had a skilled man with the drill, and an assistant not a skilled man,
the shot firer, followed him; then there are the fillers, who had about 3s.
a day, and so the valuable time of skilled men is economised as far as
possible.
Professor Merivale asked Mr. Steavenson how he carried on the experiments
with the wedge ?
DISCUSSION—MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME. 59
Mr. Steavenson said, in this case he had a length of lever—suppose three
feet—on which were hung weights which, when multiplied by the various
leverages afforded by the screw, the wedge, and the length of lever, gave
the total pressure available to bring the coal down.
Mr. Lawrence said, that with regard to the pressure exerted by the
apparatus, the screw was f th pitch, and If to 2 inches diameter. Mr.
Steavenson was quite wrong if he imagined that the pressure was got by this
screw alone. The 140 tons pressure was got by the addition of the several
mechanical advantages gained by the screw, the levers, and the wedge, in
addition to the length of the lever worked by the man. All these taken
together gave about 182 tons as the pressure exerted by the wedge. Allowing
J-th for friction, this leaves 142 tons available for bringing down the
coal.
Mr. W. F. Hall said, in reply to Mr. Steavenson's question as to the
pressure of the wedge, compared with gunpowder, it had not been a question
with him whether a machine could be produced that would exert as much
pressure as gunpowder, only would it exert enough to bring down coal; he did
not see that the pressure of powder, however interesting in itself, had any
practical bearing on the question.
Mr. J. B. Simpson proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Hall for his valuable
paper. He hoped Mr. Hall would be able to carry out his improvements, which
would cause quite a revolution in the system of working coal in this and
other parts of the world, for if the use of gunpowder in mines could be
dispensed with a great desideratum would be attained. He understood the
principal experiments had been made in the Low Main; had experiments been
made in such a seam as the Hutton Seam, or anywhere where the coal was much
softer ?
Mr. Hall—Yes; in Eyhope Colliery, where equally satisfactory results were
obtained.
Mr. Bewick seconded the vote of thanks, and it was agreed to. The
President—The paper will be open for discussion at the next meeting.
The paper by Mr. Frank Murray Still, on "Mining Coal by Compressed Lime,''
was announced for discussion.
Mr. Still said, Mr. Smith happened to be in Newcastle that day, and he had
asked him to attend the meeting, in order to give any information on
technical or other points which might be required.
VOL. XXXIII.-1884.
*
60 DISCUSSION—MINING COAL BY COMPRESSED LIME.
Mr. Sebastian Smith thanked them for giving him the privilege of saying a
few words on this subject. At the previous meeting Mr. Logan called
attention to the fact that the lime process was a very old one. He (Mr.
Smith) knew that many years ago miners were accustomed to put dry lime into
shot holes at night, and in the morning they found it had absorbed
sufficient moisture to be of some little use. He might be allowed to say
that in the patents taken out by himself and Mr. Moore, they specially
disclaimed the idea of being the originators of the endeavour to use lime
for coal-getting; because they were aware that great numbers connected with
mining had tried to use it for he did not know how many years. If they
turned to pages 11 and 13 of the Abstracts of Foreign Papers in Yol. XXXIII.
of the Proceedings of the Institute relating to experiments made with
explosives, they would find the following reference to experiments made with
burnt lime:—"The increased diameter of bore-holes, the difficulty of the
manufacture of cartridges, and the transport of the same, and the difficulty
of pumping effectually the water into the lime, are obstacles which are not
conducive to its general or even partial introduction." These happened to
be the very identical points which he and his co-inventor, Mr. Moore, turned
their attention to; and these were the difficulties they claimed, in a great
measure, to have got over. By the introduction of more handy boring
tackle they had been able to form the larger boreholes required—some three
inches in diameter—with great ease; and, after a very great deal of delay,
they had got over the important difficulty, that of manufacturing
cartridges. It was exceedingly difficult to obtain a machine which would
exercise sufficient pressure and work at sufficient speed to make the
cartridges of such commercial value as to let them be generally adopted.
Messrs. Fielding & Piatt, of Gloucester, had that week turned out a machine
which would make upwards of 20 blocks a minute, which was very satisfactory.
The most important point, however, of the invention was the method of
introducing the water into the charge after it has been tamped up. The
experiments were nearly completed at Woolwich Arsenal to determine the
pressure exerted on the square inch. He spent three days last week at
Woolwich, and the fact was established that the pressure of the steam alone
was upwards of 42 cwts. to the inch; but from the want of sufficiently
strong cast-iron cylinders, the effects of the expansion of the lime, which
came after the steam was made, were not yet ascertained.
DISCUSSION—SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMF.P.S. 61
Mr. Henry Lawrence's paper " On the Danger of Sparks produced from Prickers
and Stemmcrs used for Blasting purposes in Coal Mines, and Sparks otherwise
produced" was then discussed.
Mr. Lawrence said, a great many experiments were being made, and he had had
very good reports as to the results. The difficulty he had had to contend
with up to the present time was that the stemmers and prickers were rather
soft, and rather weaker than the mixture of copper and brass; but he was
gradually getting over that. He had the satisfaction of knowing that
wherever they had been tried—although they had not answered the purpose so
far as strength was concerned—no one had been able to get a spark from them.
He must endeavour to make them a little stronger, and he thought it could be
done. They could be strengthened a great deal by hammering. Mr. Potter had
several in use at the present time, and gave a good report of them; he had
tried in every way and could not get a spark; and the managers of several
other collieries gave the same report.
Mr. Bird said that, granting Mr. Lawrence's metal would not itself produce a
spark, there would still be the danger of sparks being produced between
stone and stone in the hole. If Mr. Lawrence could introduce water in the
hole during drilling, all danger of sparks would be removed.
The President said, he was very glad Mr. Lawrence saw his way to making them
stronger. A pricker and stemmer were sent to him by Mr. Lawrence, and both
of them broke before they had been many days in use. Unless Mr. Lawrence
would make them stronger, the wear and consequent expense would be very
great; because he considered that nothing could be done with them after they
were broken.
Professor Merivale—Would not it be possible to make some inner core of
stronger metal ?
Mr. J. G-. Weeks said, he had recently read that a steamer, made of
compressed paper, was afloat on one of the American lakes, and if that was
so, would not compressed paper, moulded into proper shape, answer the same
purpose as the new metal ?
The President—At the last meeting he referred to wooden stemmers. Mr. Bewick
and he were at a large lead mine the other day where wooden stemmers were
successfully in use. He thought that the expense of wooden stemmers, owing
to their breaking, would not be so great as the expense of Mr. Lawrence's
stemmer from the same cause.
Mr. Lawrence said, that Mr. Bird's suggestion about introducing water into
the hole when being stemmed meant that it would make
62 DISCUSSION—SPARKS FROM PRICKERS AND STEMMERS.
the sides of the hole so smooth that stemmers would not give off any sparks
at all; but if they took a common stemmer, in a perfectly smooth hole, they
would get a spark at every blow. He did not think the use of water would
do. He was sorry that the sample stemmer which he sent to the President
had turned out so bad; but he hoped to get over all the difficulties which
had presented themselves up to the present time. He thought if they could
get a stemmer that would not strike fire, the pricker must be used as in the
old cases. There was no blow given on the pricker; and therefore the
pricker formed a small portion in the work. The whole danger was the
rammer coming in contact with the sides of the holes. He had no doubt
they might get vulcanite or iron wood, which would answer the purpose; but,
so far, he saw no reason why the improvements he had made in the stemmers
should not effectually answer all the purposes.
Mr. Bird said, that by the saturation of the dust and parts of stone in the
drill hole by water, there would be safety against sparks.
ON THE STRENGTH OE WROUGHT IRON IN COMPRESSION. 63
ON THE STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON IN COMPRESSION.
By WIGHAM RICHARDSON.
The following letter from Mr. Wigham Richardson was read, in reference to
some notes by Kim "On the Strength of Wrought Iron in Compression," which
were published in Vol. XXXII. of the Transactions,
page 180 :—
Neptune Woeks (Ship and Engine Building), Near Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
November 15th, 1883. Theo. Wood Bunning, Esq.,
Dear Sir,—Referring to the note on page 180, Vol. XXXIL, of your
Transactions, I now have the pleasure to send you the tests made by Mr.
Kirkaldy upon the strength of steel in compression. For convenience I give
the former results also:—
EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH IN COMPRESSION.
Ayebage of Sevekal Pieces.
1.—TuDHOE IltOJV.
Stress Elastic Diameter in Inches. Length in Inches.
per Square Inch.
Tons.
li ...... 2 ...... 14-895
1 ...... 2 ...... 13-958
I ...... 1J ...... 14-047
i ...... £ ...... 13-988
II. — Siejxexs-Maetin Steel.
1 ...... 2 ...... 15-893
f ...... 1J ...... 15-312
\ ...... h ...... 16T01
These have been followed up by more experiments made by the same person on
specimens selected at random from material constantly used in our works. It
may be of interest to print the full sheet of tests as well. I enclose them
accordingly, but beg you will return them when done with.
64 ON THE STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON IN COMPRESSION.
The experiments upon steel fully confirm those made upon the Tud-hoe iron,
and show that the theory which I set up is not tenable, but at the same time
it is evident that the formula? in current use as to the strength of hollow
pillars must be received with the very greatest caution. Indeed the whole
subject requires experimental investigation.
Another point of interest is, that in compression, Siemens-Martin steel is
only slightly stronger than irou.—Yours truly,
WIGHAM RICHARDSON.
TUDHOE IRON.
Results op Experiments to Ascertain the Resistance to Depression, under a
Gradually Increased Thrusting Stress, of Twelve Cylinders, received prom
Messrs. Wigham Richardson & Co.
Dimensions. Depression.
T t ~
Stress
v° Description. Elastic
At At At Remarks.
I Dia Area Leneth »er B<1-In- 50,000 100,000
150,000
_ Dia. Area, iwengtn. lbs. per lbs. per
lbs. per
l Sq. In.
Sq. In. Sq. In.
Q Wrought Iron.1 Inch. Sq. In. Inch. Lbs. %
% %
1176 H" dia. 1'50 1767 2'00 33,600 22 19"8
407 Barrel shaped.
1175 Do. ......... 33,400 2-4 20'5
41-8 Do. cracked.
1174 Do. ......... 33,100 2-6 20"8
420 Do. cracked.
Mean 33,366 2'4 20'3 4D5
1173 1" dia. 1-00 0785 2'00 31,400 29 2V3
424 Barrel shaped.
1171 Do. ......... 31.300 3-0 21-5
42'5 Do.
1172 Do. ......... 31,100 3 0 2L6
42"6 Do.
i Mean 31.266 j 3-0
21-5 425
1168 f" dia. 075 0"441 1"50 32,500 26 207
40-6 Do.
1169 Do. ......... 31,200 3-0 2L4
41*3 Do.
1170 Do. ......... 30,7CO 3-2 217
41*6 Do.
Mean 31,466 2'9_ 213 412
1167 i" dia. 0-25 0-049 0-50 31,500 36 22"4
41*0 Do.
1165 Do. ......... 31,300 4-0 22'8
42"6 Do.
1166 Do. ......... 31,200 4'2 23'2
43"0 Do.
Mean JftjSjJ^ 39 22'8 42'2
Messrs. Wigham Richardson & Co.,
Neptune Works, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
(Signed) DAVID KIRKALDY.
99, Southwark Street, London, S.C., 18th April, 1882,
ON THE STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON IN COMPRESSION. 65
SIEMENS-MARTIN STEEL (Sometimes called, and perhaps more correctly, Ingot
Iron). Results op Experiments to Ascertain the Resistance to
Depression, under a Gradually Increased Thrusting Stress op Nine Cylinders,
received prom Messrs. Wigham Richardson & Co.
Dimensions. Depression'.
Test
Stress
jj0 Description.
Elastic At At At Remarks.
Dia Area Leneth Per S<*-In' 50,000 100,000 150,000
Dia. Area. L,engtn. lbs per lbg lbs
per
Sq. In. Sq. In. Sq. In.
R MarthTsteel'' Inoh- Sq- In- Inch- Lbs-
°>° °!° °>°
3912 J" dia. ' 250 '049 0-488 36,500 2*6
18-4 35*8 Barrel shaped.
3913 Do. ......... 35.800 2-6 184
35"8 Do.
3914 Do. ......... 35,600 2-6 18-0
35"4 Do.
Mean 35,966 2-G 18-2 356
3915 |" dia. \ -750 "441 1-481 34,300 39 21'6
41*8 • Do.
3916 Do. ......... 34,300 39 216
41'8 Do.
3917 Do. ......... 34,300 4-0 21-7
407 Do.
Mean 34,300 3-9 216 41-4
3918 l"dia. L-00 '785 1-989 35,700 31 18*9
38'0 Do.
3919 Do. ......... 35,700 31 19-0
38-1 Do.
3920 Do. ......... 35,500 32 19*3
38'6 Do.
Mean 35,600 31 190 38"2
The ends of all the specimens required to he refaced here, as they were not
true.
Messrs. Wigham Richardson & Co.,
Neptune Works, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
(Signed) DAVID KIRKALDY & SON.
99, Southwark Street, London, S.C., 6th October, 1883.
PROCEEDINGS. 67
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 9th, 1884, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
GEORGE BAKER FORSTER, Esq., President, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated :—
Associate Members— Mr. Lawrence W. Adamson, Whitley House, Whitley,
Northumberland. Mr. Jacob Wallah, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
Student— Mr. Matthew Barras, Tudhoe Colliery, Spennymoor.
The following were nominated for election :—
Ordinary Members— Mr. John Jameson, Consulting Engineer, Akenside Hill,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr. Benjamin James Forrest, Mining Engineer, Calle de ras
Infantas No. 18,
Madras. Mr. J. C. Forrest, Witley Coal Company, Limited, Halesowen, near
Birmingham. Mr. William Assheton Cross, Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Professor Gr. A. Lebour read the following paper " On a Great Fault at
Annstead, in North Northumberland:"—
vol. xxxnr.-i8H4
.1
ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD.
69
ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD, IN NORTH NORTHUMBERLAND.
By G. A. LEBOUK, M.A., F.G.S.,
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE DURHAM COLLEGE OF SCIENCE,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
The object of this paper is two-fold: first, to draw attention to and
describe one of the most complete natural sections, and one of the greatest
dislocations, in the County of Northumberland; and, secondly, to give, in
some detail, an example of the kind of reasoning by means of which an unseen
fault may often be inferred with certainty. In order to attain this object
it will be necessary, in the first place, to describe the rocks exposed
along more than three miles of sea coast; to prove the existence of a
concealed fault from the evidence supplied by those rocks; and, lastly, to
show how far the probable characters of hade, throw, etc., pertaining to
that fault may be estimated. The paper may, in fact, be regarded as being in
part a contribution to local geology, and in part also a kind of exercise in
practical geology.
INTRODUCTION.
Beginning at Ebba's Snook, as the northern point of Beadnell Bay is called,
and proceeding along the coast, at low water, northwards (or, more properly,
to the north-west), there is an absolutely continuous section of beds
visible for a mile and a half, as far as the Annstead Rocks. After a short
break at the mouth of Annstead Burn,* there is another continuous section
from North Sunderland Point to the Tumblers Rocks, due east of Shoreston
Hall. For the purposes of this paper these two continuous sections, together
with the sandy beach intervening between them, are all that need be
considered.
The beds exposed within these limits all belong to the great Bernician
Series of Northumberland, and the uppermost among them at least to the
* Mr. N. Wood calls this stream Swinhoe Burn. The name adopted in this
paper is the one given on the Ordnance Map.
70 ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD.
Upper Bernician or Yoredale Rocks; but, as has been repeatedly shown
elsewhere by the writer, there is nothing in this part of England to enable
one to draw a line separating the Yoredale from the rest of the
Carboniferous Limestone Series—hence, indeed, the chief utility of the
term Bernician.
So perfect a section could not fail to attract the attention of geologists.
It has been referred to by several,* but the late Mr. George Tate, F.Gr.S.,
of Alnwick, has alone attempted to describe its minor details."]"
Unfortunately, however, the measured section given by him is not taken
altogether from the coast outcrops, but is made up, to a considerable
extent, from information derived from more or less distant pit-sections
inland. This being the case, and considering how great is the variability
as regards detail of the Lower Carboniferous beds of the North of England,
the value of Mr. Tate's section, for the particular purpose of this paper,
is much reduced. Moreover, Mr. Tate's object in publishing his section was
chiefly to give a general idea of the nature of what he called "the middle
group of the mountain-limestone rocks," and the only reference made by him
to the dislocations of the district is purely incidental. Under these
circumstances the writer will, in the present paper, describe and figure the
succession of the rocks from his own notes taken on the spot in the years
1879, 1881, and 1882, merely acknowledging as he proceeds such facts
(principally thicknesses of coal-seams) as he finds it advisable to quote
from the earlier observer. It may be mentioned that Mr. Tate's
description refers only to the southern half of the coast-line treated of in
the present paper. SECTION FROM EBBA'S SNOOK TO ANNSTEAD BURN. The following
are the chief rock-divisions exposed between tide-marks along this portion
of the coast. As the dip is to the south-east, and the section runs to
the north-west from Ebba's Snook, the first stratum mentioned (No. 43) is
the highest seam:—
43.—Limestone.—This is Tate's "Ebb's Nook" Limestone, the well-known Great
Limestone of the southern part of the county. Here it contains a
considerable and unusual amount of carbonate of magnesia.
* See especially the late Mr. Nicholas Wood's paper " On the Geology of a
part of Northumberland and Cumberland."—Transactions of the Natural History
Society of Northumberland and Durham, Vol. I., 1831, p. 309. This paper, so
far as it describes this portion of the coast, is remarkably accurate.
The Geological Survey Maps of this district are, unfortunately, not yet
published.
t See " Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club," Vol. IV., 1858,
p. 96, and a reprint of the same paper in "The Geologist," Vol. 11.. 1859 p.
59.
ON A GRNAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD. 71
42.—Principally Shale, reddish and passing into sandstone above, blackish
below, and with a coal-seam about one foot thick at its base. This coal is
the Dryburn Coal of the Lowick district.
41.—Sandstones, thin-bedded and shaly, passing to underclay above.
40.—Shales and imderclays.
39.—Sandstone, reddish and very coarse in places, coarse and yellow above.
38.—Shale.
37.—Limestone.—This is the "Eight-yard Limestone" of Central and the "
Four-fathom Limestone" of South Northumberland. A thin coal-seam, six inches
thick only, occurs at the base of this limestone.
36.—Sandstone.—Micaceous at the base, massive above, reddish, and in parts
gannister-like.
35.—Black Shale, with ironstone nodules. This is the same as the Brinkburn
ironstone shale of the Coquet.
34.—Limestone.—This is the "Six-yard Limestone" of the Shil-bottle district,
and its outcrop forms the Blythe Rocks at Benthall. (See Fig. 1, Plate II.)
There is another thin coal (six inches thick) immediately underlying this
limestone.
33.—Shale.—Black, with ironstone nodules below, grey and micaceous above,
and passing into underclay beneath the coal. The beds here grouped together
under No. 33 are differently described in Tate's section.*
32'.—Coal.—One foot thick. This represents the "Shilbottle Seam" worked near
Alnwick, where it is more than double this thickness.
32.—Underclay, passing to shale below, sandy above.
31.—Shale, with ironstone nodules.
30.—Sandstone, thinly bedded, shaly.
29.—Shale.
28.—Limestone.—A thin bed, in two courses or "posts."
27.—Sandstone, with thin intercalations of shale.
Ft. In. * ''16.—Grey shales, with ironstone nodules .,. ...
... 10 0
17.—Blue shales .................. 15 0
18.—Grey slaty sandstone ... ... ... ... ...
5 0"
—See "Geologist" for 1859, Vol. II.. p. 60.
72 ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD.
26.—Shale, thin, calcareous below, and full of fossils. This bed should
more properly perhaps be regarded as the upper portion of the next (No.
25).* 25.—Limestone.—This is the "Beadnell Limestone" of this portion of
coast, and the same, as will presently be seen, as the "North Sunderland
Limestone," a little further north. A thin coal, of variable thickness
(eight inches, according to Tate) and sometimes absent altogether, with its
underclay, immediately underlies this limestone. 24.—Sandstone, much
false-bedded, and containing irregular intercalations of shale. This
stone is reddish, and gives its name to the Red Brae.t (See Map, Plate
II.) 23.—Shale.—This is a very inconstant bed, sometimes altogether wanting
and sometimes seven feet thick in the same section of twenty or thirty
yards. 22.—Limestone.—A thin single-post bed.
21, 20,19.—Sandstone and Shale.—A greyish yellow thick stone, very hard and
compact in places, with irregular intercalations of shale. The lines of
junction between the hard rock referred to and the shales are, at first
sight, so unlike lines of bedding, as to simulate a series of small faults.
Beadnell Haven is enclosed by this division. No. 20 assumes greater
importance in the North Sunderland portion of the coast. Two coal seams
occur in the upper part of these beds. The " Beadnell Coal," averaging
about a yard in thickness, is the higher of the two, and has been much
worked in the neighbourhood. The lower coal, though little more than a
foot thick, has also been sometimes worked. 18.—Shale, argillaceous below
and micaceous above. 17.—Limestone.—-A thin single-post bed. 16.—Sandstone,
micaceous and flaky, with a seam of coal at its base.
This is the " Stone-close Coal," one foot four inches thick. 15.—Sandstone,
passing to gannister-like underclay above, immediately beneath the coal. *'
This is the " Black Dent, full of Cockle Shells," of Mr. Wood's section. ¦\
Messrs. Henry Witham and Francis Forster remarked the colour of this
sandstone in 1830, when they showed how many red beds of this character
occurred in the Carboniferous Limestone Series between North Sunderland and
Dunbar.— See Witham's paper " On the Red Sandstones of Berwickshire," in the
Transactions of the Natural History Society of Northumberland and Durham,
Vol. I., 1831, p. 176.
on a great fault at annstead. 73
14.—Shale. 13.—Sandstone.
12.—Shale, thinly laminated, black, non-micaceous. 11.—Limestone.—A marked
bed consisting of three "posts." The lowest of these is much broken up by
veinlets full of calcite. Two bands of fossiliferous calcareous shales
intervene between the courses of limestone. A thin coal, a few inches
thick, occurs directly below this bed. 10.—Sandstone, yellow.
9.—Limestone.*—A two-post bed; the upper one massive and compact, and the
lower thin, hard, rubbly, and weathering yellow externally. The " Swinhoe
Coal," one foot four inches thick, lies, according to Tate, directly under
this bed. The writer has, however, not been fortunate enough to see it in
place, probably owing to its being concealed—as indeed most of the
coal-seams in this section are apt to be—by accumulations of sand or by
seaweed. 8.—Sandstone, thick yellow, brown, and reddish, much false-bedded.
7.—Shale, thinly-laminated, black.
6.—Limestone.—A bed made up of eight thin "posts," some of which are full of
crinoids. A thin coal underlies this limestone. 5.—Shale.—A thin
calcareous bed.
4.—Sandstone, brown, massive, gannister-like, and white in parts.
This is the horizon of the "Fleetham Coal," which, again,
the writer has been unable to find. Its thickness, as given
by Tate, is one foot six inches.
3.—Shale, bluish-grey and micaceous.
2.—Limestone, in thick posts (two ?). Very fossiliferous. A thin
coal occurs at the base. 1.—Sandstone, brown, massive, false-bedded,
rolling; white, hard, and gannister-like at the top.
* From this point it is not possible to correlate the beds as mapped on the
ground tid shown in the plan and section illustrating this paper with those
given by Mr. Tate. his is jjrobably not due to any inaccuracy on the part of
that writer, but to the fact lat his details were, as already mentioned, to
a considerable extent taken from pit-ictions at various distances from the
coast. This discrepancy is the more to be ;gretted that there are one or two
coal-seams of some local importance in this portion : the Bernician
Series—such, for instance, as the "Swinhoe" and "Fleetham" seams. -See "
Geologist," loc. cit., p. 61.
74 ON A GRKAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD.
The above include all the beds shown in continuous succession from Ebba's
Snook northwards. Next conies the sandy flat, through which meanders the
Annstead Burn, and where the Carboniferous rocks are concealed. They
re-appear, however, after a short interval, a few yards south of North
Sunderland Point, and from thence to the Tumblers Rocks there is another
perfect section. The beds shown at first dip to the south like those of
the Beadnell Section, and, in the ordinary course of things, would be
regarded as lying some hundreds of feet below the latter. But even a
rapid examination of the limestone at North Sunderland Point, and its
accompanying beds, would soon lead one to recognize in them a set of strata
already well seen in part of the Beadnell Section, and a careful collation
of the available evidence on the subject would tend to confirm this view in
every particular. The south-easterly dip does not continue far—not
farther than the Braidcarr. The little bay formed at low-water between
Braidcarr End and Southrock End coincides in fact with the east and west
axis of a low-pitched anticlinal which brings about a reversal of the dips
(which from that point to the Tumblers Rocks are north-west and north) and a
consequent repetition of the beds shown in the southern half of this portion
of the section. That the Tumblers Rocks are formed of the same beds as
North Sunderland Point does not admit of any doubt, since the change of dip
is quite obvious, and every bed is perfectly exposed, without a break, at
low water. But that the beds thus repeated by an anticlinal fold are a
further repetition of some of those described in the Beadnell Section,
although clear enough to any one examining them in the field, may require
some proof. This proof will best appear from a brief description of the
North Sunderland Limestone and its associated deposits.
THE NORTH SUNDERLAND LIMESTONE.
This Limestone is, with the exception of the "Great" and "Four-fathom"
Limestones, perhaps the most unmistakable limestone of the Bernician Series;
it is also one of the best known in the northern half of the county. At
North Sunderland it was formerly very extensively worked, the lime it
yielded being considered quite the best in the district, and shipped to
Perth, Aberdeen, and other distant ports. The quarries here have been given
up, the writer is informed, solely because the Trustees of Lord Crewe's
Charities, who are Lords of the Manor, refuse to allow any more coal-pits to
be sunk about North Sunderland. The
ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD. 75
bed is about 24 feet thick on an average, but being very irregularly bedded
and much given to rolling and contortions, the thickness varies
considerably. The irregularities referred to are well shown in Figs. 1 and
2, which are drawings made to scale from points in the old quarries very
near the line of section in Plate II. The irregular bedding is not
confined
to this locality, but is characteristic of this limestone at a distance, as
in the Eelwell Quarries, at Lowick, for instance. (See Fig. 3.) In a former
paper it has been stated that the Great Limestone is very frequently found
rolling heavily in the south of the county ;* this is the case, but this
rolling is unaccompanied by the singular irregularities of bedding which are
so constantly present in the North Sunderland Limestone, and more especially
in its lower beds.
* See Transactions of the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers. Vol. XXIV., 1875. p. 110.
VOL, XXXIII.—1884,
-K
76 ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD. '
Mr. Tate enumerates 46 species of fossils from this limestone, and the
writer has found a few more. It is true that none of these, taken
separately, can be said to be specially characteristic of this horizon in
particular, but the assemblage of forms taken together is decidedly
peculiar. There is, as the Map will show (Fig. 1, Plate II.), at the top of
the limestone, a calcareous shale of small thickness. This little bed is
very remarkable. It consists chiefly of a mass of small shells of the genera
Productus and Spirifer (Pr. longispinus and Sp. trigonalis), mixed with
isolated specimens of other fossils, among which some Trilobites and
crinoidal calyces are the most noteworthy. Once seen this Productus and
Spirifer bed cannot be mistaken, and it therefore affords a valuable means
of recognizing the limestone upon which it rests.
A little way beneath the North Sunderland Limestone is another calcareous
bed—a thin four-feet limestone in two "posts." Now this bed, like the larger
one above, is capped by calcareous shale, also literally crammed with
Productus longispinus and Spirifer trigonalis.
A little way above the North Sunderland Limestone there is yet another thin
bed of limestone, in two "posts," separated by shaly sandstones from the
first-mentioned shell bed.
Here there are several marked peculiarities, enabling one to fix the North
Sunderland Limestone when it is met with, and to distinguish it from others,
viz.:—
1.—It is about 24 feet thick, and is of exceptionally good quality for
agricultural and other purposes.
2.—It very commonly rolls.
3.—Its lower posts are very irregularly bedded and mixed up with
intercalated shales, which are constantly thickening and thinning within
certain limits.
ON A GREAT FAULT AT.ANNSTEAD. 77
4.—The next limestone beds above and below it are both very thin
and easily recognizable. 5-—The assemblage of fossils in this, the most
fossiliferous limestone
in North Northumberland, is peculiar. 6.—It is associated with two very
remarkable shell-bands, one immediately above it, and the other a little way
below it. To these points, which would be more than sufficient for the
identification of a thick limestone in the Bernician Series, add the fact
that several well-known coals occur below the underlying thin limestone, and
are or have been largely (or, more properly speaking, widely) worked,
wherever the North Sunderland Limestone is known, and there should be no
difficulty in knowing this bed wherever it and its associated strata are
exposed.
THE BEADNELL LIMESTONE.
This bed, No. 25 in the Beadnell Section (Plate II.), fulfils all the above
conditions.
It is about 24 feet thick; it yields the same quality of lime; it rolls and
is irregularly bedded; it lies between two thin limestones; its fossils are
those of the North Sunderland Limestone; it is capped by a Productus and
Spirifer bed, and another like it caps the lower thin limestone beneath it;
and in the beds below the latter the " Beadnell Coals" are known and worked,
and are of the same quality, thickness (generally speaking), and relations
to their associated strata, as the coals at North Sunderland.
In a word, the Beadnell Limestone of Red Brae Point is the same bed as the
North Sunderland Limestone of North Sunderland Point and of the Tumblers
Rocks, and the beds are numbered in the Map and Section accordingly.
THE ANNSTEAD FAULT.
It remains to be shown how this repetition of the beds 19 to 28, north of
the Annstead Sands, has been brought about. A fold of the rocks will not
serve one's purpose. A glance at the Map will show such a fold, synclinal or
anticlinal, or even an inversion, to be impossible. Nothing, therefore, is
left to account for the undoubted facts but a fault. Within certain limits,
the place of that fault or faults (for, on the evidence given, it cannot be
proved that there is but one fault, though, from other considerations, it is
probable that this is the case), is plainly marked out. It must run
somewhere beneath the Annstead Sands, between No. 1 of the Beadnell
78
ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD.
Section and No. 28 of the North Sunderland Section. There is no reason for
placing it at any particular point within these limits rather than at any
other, and, therefore, the central point has been chosen for it on Plan and
Section (Plate II.) as that least liable to error. Of the exact direction of
this fault there is little indication in the evidence brought forward in
this paper, except that in a general way it is east and west.* Of its hade
nothing can be known from the facts given, and it has, therefore, been drawn
vertical, to avoid marking anything on the Section for which there was no
warrant from surface observations; but it may be guessed that since the
downthrow is to the north the fault will incline probably in that direction.
That the downthrow is to the north needs no proof, since on that side high
beds (Nos. 28, etc.,) are brought down to the level of lower beds (Nos. 1,
etc.,) on the south side.
With regard to the amount of the downthrow a little more discussion is
requisite. The degree of accuracy to which it can be arrived at depends
chiefly upon two points, viz.:—the dip observations of the exposed beds in
the Beadnell Section, and the behaviour of the beds concealed beneath the
Annstead Sands on either side of the fault. The former point is a matter of
care and of the personal equation of the observer, the latter is confessedly
a matter for shrewd guesswork based on experience.
First, as to the dips of the Beadnell Section. They are beautifully shown
all the way from Ebba's Snook (Beadnell Point) to the Annstead Rocks. They
are nearly uniform as far as the Linkhouse. (See Map, Fig. 1, Plate II.) As
to the direction of the dip there can be no question. It is south-easterly.
As to its amount there should be no question either, nevertheless, Mr. Tate
makes it 15 degrees, and the writer 8 to 10 degrees.j As Mr. Tate does not
mention having taken any special care in taking the dips, as he does not
even mention the change of dip both in direction and amount beyond the
Linkhouse, and as the ground covered by his paper did not extend to the
fault, or make the consideration of the question of dips of any particular
importance, the writer prefers to stand by his own reading. At the Annstead
Rocks, opposite the Linkhouse, however, the dip very rapidly changes from
south-east to south and then
* Inland observations prove this view to be correct.
f The Hon. Henry G. Bennet, in a paper describing the basaltic dyke at
Beadnell (Transactions of the Geological Society, Vol. IV., p. 102), gives
the dip of the beds here as one yard in six, which is 10 degrees; Mr. N.
Wood makes it 7 degrees. Both observations are accurate for various parts of
the Section. The mean dip being somewhat nearer 10 degrees than 7 degrees,
Mr. Tate's 15 degrees is certainly much too high.
ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD.
79
to south-west. It is south-west where the sands begin and the last rocks
south of the fault are seen. In a section drawn in the line selected in
Plate II. the change of dip is shown by the gradual flattening of the dotted
line representing the unseen base of No. 1. This does not mean that the beds
are here really horizontal, but that the line of section being here, owing
to the altered dip, coincident with the line of strike, no dip is apparent
in the section.*
The element of doubt, as has been admitted above, lies in the ignorance one
is left in with regard to the continuation or alteration of the observed
dips. On the north side of the fault, that is, on the downthrow side, the
beds 25 to 28 are dipping very regularly towards the fault at 10 degrees
where last seen. There is no sign of change of direction here as there is at
the Annstead Eocks, and since this, the arrangement so common in the
Newcastle Coal-field, namely, dip to an upthrow or "dip to a riser" though
not that usually found described in text-books, there is no reason for not
continuing the lines of the beds beneath the sands with the same direction
and amount of dip as far as the fault. It must be confessed that it is not
so safe to proceed in a similar manner on the south side; nevertheless,
since there is no evidence at hand respecting the behaviour of the dips
between the last seen slope of the Annstead Rocks and the fault, which,
after all, may be quite close to that point, there is no reason for
disturbing the horizontal dotted line which shows the apparent dip of the
base of No. 1 in the Section, and for not continuing that line to the fault.
It may be noted that if one be right in continuing the dips on either side
of the fault towards it as they are last seen, the position of the fault
becomes of material importance in discovering the exact amount of its throw,
since wherever it be shifted to within its possible limits the level of the
beds on the south side remain unchanged, whereas that of those on the other
deepens the more southerly in the fault's position. In the extreme possible
case a difference of 300 feet in the throw might thus take place without
surface evidence thereof.
* Mr. N. Wood noticed this change of dip. He says, referring to the bed
numbered 43 above, " Hard reddish sandstone rock, stretching along the coast
for about a quarter of a mile, the inclination of which gradually alters,
and finally becomes quite flat, probably the effect of some " Slip Dykes."
He also evidently regarded the rocks about North Sunderland as being some of
those forming the Beadnell Section repeated, for he proceeds: "After passing
a flat sandy beach of about a quarter of a mile, we find a series of beds of
sandstone, shale, and limestone, apparently part of the preceding thrown
doion by the Slip Dykes previously noticed."—Loc. cit., p. 310. The italics
in the quotation are the writer's, not Mr. Wood's. The latter, however, not
having attempted to identify the beds, could naturally have no reason to
suspect the great throw of the fault causing the repetition.
80 ON A GREAT FAULT AT ANNSTEAD.
Producing the line of the base of bed No. 25 (the Beadnell Limestone) at the
same dip as that observed at the Red Brae, until it reaches the line of
fault produced upwards at z, the throw would be x z = 1,200 feet. But in
doing this no notice has been taken of the change of dip and consequent
apparent flattening of the beds past the Linkhouse northwards. Rectifying
this, the produced base of No. 25 would reach the fault at y, giving a throw
of little less than a thousand feet, or, more exactly, 980 feet. This is the
most probable throw of the Annstead Fault, where it underlies the Annstead
Sands, from the evidence brought forward in this paper.*
The President said he was sure they must all have been very much interested
in hearing Professor Lebour's paper, and he was certain that if anyone chose
to spend a day, between now and the time of the discussion, in inspecting
the section, they would find it in a very pleasant neighbourhood, and would
see some interesting geological features.
Mr. John Marley proposed a vote of thanks to Professor Lebour for the paper,
the publication of which would, he said, induce not only young students, but
perhaps some of the older members also, to visit the place and see for
themselves the beautiful panorama of strata there illustrated.
The motion was agreed to.
The Secretary read the following " Remarks on Lightning in the Pit at West
Thornley Colliery," written by Mr. Henry White:—
* If Mr. Tate's dip of 15 degrees be adopted, the amount of throw would he x
z' = 1,700 feet. That the throw should be so abnormally great would in
itself, in the absence of confirmatory evidence, tend to prove the dip as
being much overestimated.
LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLEY COLLIERY. 81
REMARKS ON LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLEY COLLIERY, ON DECEMBER 11th,
1883.
By HENRY WHITE.
As it seems the belief of many people that lightning cannot descend into the
workings of a pit, the writer has thought that it might be desirable to add
another well authenticated record of the presence of the electric fluid in a
mine during a thunderstorm to the one at Tanfield Moor already recorded in
page 31, Vol. XXX. of the Transactions of the Institute.
West Thornley Colliery (which has three times been the site of electrical
discharges) is situated about a mile from Tow Law, which is 1,000 feet above
the sea level; it is 25 fathoms deep, and is sheltered by a hill on the
south side 50 feet high, which commences to rise about 50 yards from the
pit, the ground on all other sides being fairly level.
The steam boiler chimney was 46 feet high, 12 feet south-west from the
engine house, and 68 feet south-west from the centre of the pit.
The pulleys are 53 feet from the surface. The ropes are made of plough
steel, the cages of steel, the guides or skeats are made of iron rails,
secured by wrought iron buntons, and there are four rapper ropes in the pit,
two of which only reach to the bottom seam. There are three ranges of pipes
in the pit, viz., a sett of 5-inch steam pipes a, Plate TIL covered with
patent composition, which lead into a receiver x at the pit bottom, and from
it to the underground hauling engine y, which is 40 yards on the south side
of the pit bottom. A second range consists of an 8-inch rising main b, which
rests upon a large balk at pit bottom, and a third range c of 10-inch pipes,
which goes into the sump about 15 feet below the flat sheets, and is now
used for conveying exhaust steam to bank.
About 10 p.m. on Tuesday, December 11th, 1883, there was a violent wind,
with heavy rain, accompanied with much thunder and lightning. About 10*15
the winding engine brakesman, Mark Adams, who was watching the storm out of
the engine house east window, saw a flash of forked lightning about the
pulleys, and heard a heavy peal of thunder,
82 LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THOBNLEY COLLIERY.
and about five minutes afterwards, at 10*20, when still looking out of the
window, saw another brilliant flash of forked lightning strike the pulleys
and light everything up in a blaze, almost blinding him, instantly
accompanied by a terrific clap of thunder. Hearing a great noise on the
other or west side of the engine house, he opened the door and found the
boiler chimney had been struck at the top on the north-west side, and a
large zigzag rent made on the west side, varying in width from a few inches
to two feet and reaching to within about 15 feet from the bottom, and bricks
and lime were falling all over the place.
Eobert Emery, the master shifter, who was engaged about three yards from the
shaft bottom, said he heard brattles of thunder about 10 o'clock, and
between that and 10'20 he heard a very heavy one, when at the same time a
flash of lightning came down the pit on the south-west side, and apparantly
down the rapper rope r', glancing from the rapper handle, which pointed at
an angle of 45 degrees towards the 5-inch steam pipes a, which were about
three feet off and uncovered at that point, and producing a brilliant light
and a noise like that of the firing of a gun.
There are metal flat sheets on both sides of the pit.
There were no marks of damage about, but the flash seemed to have left
behind a sort of vapour which appeared to pass along the steam pipes inbye,
and it may be assumed that the lightning struck the pulleys and went down
the winding rope to the cages, which were standing in the shaft, and then
passed to the rapper rope.
John Craggs, shifter, who was also working at the pit bottom, confirmed the
above statement.
This occurrence the writer has investigated with great care, and puts it
forth as a statement entitled to every credence; the following statements
refer to the two previous discharges that had been noticed :—
About three years ago, in the summer, and during the middle of the day, W.
Newton, onsetter, said a flash of lightning came down the pit and appeared
to strike the flat sheets on the north-west side, making a very brilliant
light, and a report louder than any gun. Those at the pit bottom also saw it
and were very much frightened.
At the same time the underground hauling engineman had his hand on the
throttle valve handle and felt a strong shock in his wrist and arm, and saw
the lightning most distinctly. Two shifters who were working about 15 yards
from him saw the lightning most distinctly through a stenton at right
angles, but there were no rails or pipes to conduct it to them through the
stenton.
LIGHTNING} IN THE PIT AT WEST THOENLEY—DISCUSSION. 83
About fifteen years ago, at mid-day, when W. Newton was then banking out,
and had his hand on the cage sneck, there was a very vivid flash of
lightning, and he experienced a very severe shock in his arm and feet, and
considerable pain and numbness for the remainder of the day.
It would appear in this case, too, as if the lightning had struck the
winding rope, passed through the cage, which was at bank, to the skeats, and
gone down the pit, at the bottom of which it was most distinctly seen. It
then struck one of the flat sheets, and broke it into several pieces,
passing probably along the rails to the face of the south stone drift, which
was then about 80 yards from the pit bottom, and was most distinctly seen
there by two stonemen who were getting their baits, who said that it lighted
up the wrhole place.
Having had some conversation with Mr. Massingham, Dean Street, Newcastle,
who has had large experience in putting up lightning conductors, etc., the
writer asked him if he knew of any local reasons why this pit should have
been so often struck, and he replied that when once a place had been struck
by lightning it was rendered more liable to be struck again for some time
after, and that some parts of the earth, owing to the nature of the soil,
etc. (which at West Thornley was a wet bluish clay probably with metallic
veins running through), had a greater affinity for lightning than a dry soil
of sand, chalk, or granite.
When asked as to the area or space a conductor would protect, he. said it
was now generally agreed that the area protected was in the form of a cone
whose base was equal to its height, so that it would appear all chimneys or
buildings a certain distance apart should have a separate conductor; and he
was of opinion that the lightning, being forked, had struck the West
Thornley chimney and pulleys simultaneously, and that a conductor on the
chimney would not in all probability have prevented the hghtning going down
the pit.
The pit being an upcast, the warm current of air would offer a great
inducement to the lightning. All lightning conductors should be tested about
once a year, as, owring to alterations, repairs, and earth connections being
disturbed, they are apt to get out of order.
Mr. S. F. Walker said, he thought the thanks of every person interested in
this question were due to the author of this paper for the very careful way
in which he had given them all the details. The action of lightning was the
most difficult branch of electrical study that he knew of; and its
difficulty was principally due to the fact that lightning was
VOL. XXXIII.—1884.
k
84 LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THOENLEY—DISCUSSION.
always doing something they did not expect. Lightning apparently acted in
a promiscuous sort of way, and went where it liked, and did as much damage
as it could, and there was no guarding against it; but he thought if they
carried the matter back to first principles they would find the whole thing
was simple enough; in fact, the difficulties were due entirely to the
enormous tension at which the charge—which was the force through which
lightning acted—was generated. He thought the same kind of difficulty was
experienced in regard to the smelting of iron. So far as he knew, in
regard to smelting, there were enormous heats, and up to very recently, he
believed, there was no method of testing the actual degree of heat which was
required to complete the process, and still less the heat that was necessary
economically to do so; simply because nobody could get near enough to
measure the heat in the furnace with any degree of certainty. So they were
under the same difficulty with lightning, because they had no lightning
test. If they could know the conditions which were present in the
lightning discharge, they could possibly find out all it could do, and all
it could not do; but they could not have that knowledge, because the
tension, so far as they were able to judge by reasoning upon the actual
facts under which the lightning acted, was enormously in excess of any
tension they could possibly experiment with. Dr. Spottis-woode, the late
President of the Royal Society, and Dr. De la Rue, had spent many years in
experimenting on this subject, and built up a battery of some 10,000 cells;
but they did not get anything near the tension, not the hundredth part of
the tension perhaps, developed in the ordinary lightning flash. When they
knew the difficulty of setting up 10,000 cells, and keeping up the
insulation, they could imagine the immense difficulty of finding out what
really took place in a case such as now reported. They could only judge by
reasoning as closely as they could upon what took place from time to time,
and from a careful comparison of the different results they knew.
Lightning was merely a very powerful electric spark; it was only a
discharge from a cloud very highly charged. It was little matter how
the cloud gathered it, or generated it; the charge would be increased by
its friction with the atmosphere as it blew along by the action of the wind.
The air had an enormous resistance. The current equalled the force
divided by the resistance. If the resistance was one million Ohms (and it
might easily be many millions) it was necessary that there should be a
hundredth part of that force between the cloud and the object which it was
to strike, for it to deliver the current necessary to pass the spark; and so
long as it did not get that difference in the tension, and satisfy that
condition, no current could pass. The
LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLEY—DISCUSSION. 85
action of a cloud probably was that it would acquire higher and higher
tension as it passed along, and he thought he was right in stating that in
the case of thundery weather, the cloud came lower and lower, and the
atmosphere between the cloud and the earth became more impregnated with
moisture than on an ordinary day, and, therefore, the conditions of
discharge became more and more favourable. As the cloud passed along, any
elevated object, such as a chimney stack or a head stock, or anything high
would reduce the resistance very considerably. A chimney 200 feet high
would reduce it enormously; because the resistance of 200 feet of air would
be enormously in excess of the resistance of 200 feet of dry brickwork, or
perhaps wet brickwork. Bricks were porous, and when exposed to
the atmosphere they would probably fill to a certain extent with moisture;
while deposited inside the chimney there was usually a very compact layer of
^arbon, mth it might be some salts, so that the chimney itself might be by
no means a bad conductor, and the mere approach of a cloud might determine
the conditions of the discharge, and it might be that when a cloud arrived
within a certain distance of a certain chimney the resistance might be
sufficiently low to enable it to pass the required current. But in
determining the resistance they had to consider the whole of the parts of
the chimney. The outside brickwork was one part, and the inside of the
chimney leading to the furnace, and more or less in metallic connection with
the boiler, was another. The heated air and smoke from the chimney would
also lessen the resistance. If there was a lightning conductor on the
chimney it would deliver the whole of the charge, no matter how great it
might be, silently into the earth, provided it was carried sufficiently
above the chimney, and was in such a position that the resistance offered by
the lightning conductor was very much less than any other resistance. It
would be useless for a lightning conductor to be at such a distance from the
object it was intended to protect, that the resistance offered by the
distance between it and the cloud left a fair path in some other direction
not protected. There was another law in electricity which said that when
a current had two or more paths open to it, it divided in the inverse
proportion to the resistance, the largest portion went to where the smaller
resistance was, and the smaller portion to where there was the largest
resistance. In this case the lightning appeared to have divided, so far
as he could see, into five or six different paths. There were two
parts in the chimney itself—the brickwork of the chimney, and the
inside of the chimney leading to the furnace—where the discharge would
take place naturally. Whatever
86 LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLET—DISCUSSION.
the cause, the share of the charge which the chimney itself took was
sufficiently great to do considerable damage. There was another law, and
that was, that where a current encountered resistance it did damage in exact
proportion to the resistance it encountered. If the current was large it
developed heat according to the square of the current. If the current was
small and the force large, the damage would be as the square of the force.
In this case the current going down the chimney might be very small, but the
force would be so large as to be sufficient to do the damage that was done.
Then another portion would strike the pulleys. The head stocks were of
wood but the pulleys would be iron, and would be in connection with the
rope, but not in perfect electrical connection, because there was always a
good deal of grease, and grease was not a good conductor; consequently the
current would again split, and part would go down the rope. Another law was,
that when there was a charge of electricity, involving a very small
quantity, but at very high tension, if any other object were brought in
connection with it, or near it, as a conductor, it would take a portion of
that charge. In this case the rope and engine would relieve the charge of
a large portion of its intensity and another part would pass on to the
boiler, and to the feed place or pond where the water was drawn from. It was
his opinion that if the ropes were in perfect electrical connection with the
pulleys and the pond made good earth no charge would have found its way down
the pit. It was owing to the imperfect connection between the ropes
and the pulleys, and again, probably, the drums and the ropes, owing to
the layer of grease which offered a certain resistance to the passage of
the charge, that a portion went down the rope leading into the pit and to
both cages. The cages, he presumed, would be in connection with the
guides, and the guides would take a portion of the charge, and the cages a
portion. The guides would carry the charge into the sump, where still
more of it would be dissipated. If the sump were making perfect earth,
and able to dissipate the whole of the charge, there would be no flash
going to the rapper handle, but the sump took only a certain portion of the
charge, the sides of the shaft another portion, the pipes another portion,
and still there was enough left to get to the rapper wire. He thought
most probably the original flash struck at the same time the pulley and
something in connection with the rapper wire. Then the charge going down
this wire apparently could find only one outlet, and flashed across to the
pipes which led away to the hauling engine, in connection with which there
was always a massbf metals, rails, and rope in addition to the whole
LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLEY—DISCUSSION. 87
mass of coal. A gentleman made experiments in South Wales, about two
years ago, on this subject—which, however, he had not had time to verify —to
prove that coal, although an imperfect conductor, would, if the tension was
high, accept a charge. If that were so, and if the charge did find its
way into the mine, the enormous surface of the mine would lead the charge
away, and it would be dissipated. So far as he could learn, in every case
he knew of, that seemed to be the course the lightning adopted. In one of
the other cases mentioned, the man at the underground hauling engine saw the
lightning and received a shock in his hand or arm, and men some distance
off, round a corner, saw the lightning, as well. There were two
explanations of this. One was that it was an optical effect, and the
other that it was electrical. He was inclined to think that what the men
saw was the remainder of the charge distributing itself harmlessly over the
coal, and he was borne out in this opinion by the fact that no harm seemed
to have been done. In no case where lightning penetrated into a pit had
any man been seriously injured by what was left. It had been said that
explosions had occurred, but he had seen no conclusive proof of that. The
mere fact of a charge with all these paths open to it still finding its way
down, and then only hurting a man's arm and doing no serious injury, was
conclusive proof that the charge must have been considerably dissipated.
He believed the cases in which lightning descended a pit were very few
indeed, and he did not know of any properly authenticated instance in a
working mine of an.explosion occurring through lightning. He did not say
it could not take place; but to be safe, a properly fixed lightning
conductor, as large and with as many points in as many different directions
as possible, should be carried above the head stock as high as possible, and
the end carried into good damp ground or a river. If such a
lightning conductor were placed over every colliery in the kingdom
they would not hear of lightning going underground into workings. The
first office of a lightning conductor was to discharge the cloud long before
it arrived at the object which the conductor was to protect. What was
known as the first discharge took place at the points of a lightning
conductor, and the area over which it was discharged would be very great.
They had in Germany, or they had some years ago, a very large machine, and
the brush discharge from that machine was, he thought, 30 feet. If that
were so with the comparatively small tension they were able to get with the
largest and most perfect machine they could make, then the brush discharge
from a point with a charge of far higher
88 LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLEY—DISCUSSION.
tension must be very much greater than that. The second office of the
conductor was this—It might happen that, notwithstanding the brush
discharge, the charged cloud would be driven along by a strong wind, and
arrive at the object before the conductor had time to discharge it, in that
case the conductor would take it harmlessly to earth. If the conductor was
properly fixed, and had the capability of conducting the highest current and
the greatest tension, then it ought to be possible to take that conductor
through a powder magazine without doing any harm. The human body—the object
most sensitive to electricity he knew of—would probably not feel it, always
provided the conductor were perfect. Conductors required to be looked at
occasionally, for it became a serious matter if the conductor were tampered
with, and the defect not found out. He understood there had been a
controversy in the North as to whether lightning went from the earth to the
cloud or from the cloud to the earth, and that there were no such thing as
discharges, but only thunderbolts. So far as he could understand he could
see no difference, whether it went from the earth to the cloud or from the
cloud to the earth, in the effects produced. As to thunderbolts, he
remembered many years ago seeing an object which he was told was a
thunderbolt. It was a small ball which had been broken open, and had a
beautiful crystalline structure inside. With the knowledge which he had
acquired since, he imagined that if that was a thunderbolt, it would be
formed simply by the sudden condensation of metallic vapour held in
suspension in the atmosphere—supposing that it was metallic vapour. If, from
disturbance in the atmosphere, such a bolt fell it would kill any man it
struck, and injure a building, but that was very different from the damage
done by lightning.
Professor Lebour said, the thunderbolts alluded to by Mr. Walker were
undoubtedly lumps of iron pyrites, and were common in the South of England.
They certainly had not come from above, bat from the chalk and the green
sand, and other formations.
Professor Herschel said, he did not think a discussion had ever been raised
in the North as to whether lightning went up or down. The question of its
going up or down would not affect the danger of its action; but the question
of what road it took was a far more important point. This subject had
already been placed before the Institute at considerable length in papers
contained in Vol. XXX., where there was a carefully described instance of
the lightning's course in a pit; and therefore they could not doubt that it
did enter the pit, and ramify about the wagonways
LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLEY—DISCUSSION. 89
for the long distance of 800 yards, and always continuing to have great
intensity and tension. So far from diffusing itself in the coal, as they
hoped and wished it would without risk, it had been attended with reports
and flashes which could not but be attended with risk in a fiery mine.
The course which the lightning pursued in this case might certainly be too
difficult for them to enter upon without much more full details as to the
metallic parts of the connection between the point of the stroke of the
lightning above ground, and where it was received and perceived below
ground. Such probabilities as that the grease would affect the direction
the lightning would take, could not possibly be entertained. Mr. Walker
spoke about the tension of lightning, and instanced that of 10,000 cells as.
below the mark. If 50,000 cells were necessary to produce a spark a
quarter of an inch long, what would be necessary when they had lightning
flashes of a mile or more long ? They could not describe the tension by
thousands of thousands of cells; and grease would present no obstacle to
such an electric force. He believed the evidence brought before the
Institute on former occasions of lightning strokes in mines, and those which
had now been freshly introduced, all pointed to this: that the stroke of
the lightning must be warded off, and not guided into the mine in any
manner. Mr. Walker was right in saying that a good lightning conductor
should be provided about all the prominent parts of a colliery, and have a
good earth connection. In page 43, Vol. XXX. of the Proceedings of the
Institute, Mr. Heaviside wrote a letter in which he gave three instances of
earth being unsuitable for electrical purposes—at the Ballast Hill, North
Shields, at Throckley, and at West Stanley, when they were unable to find
earth for the electric telegraph wires. At the North Shields Ballast
Hill the return wire had to be taken down to the Eiver Tyne. There
was no doubt they would not get a good earth for a lightning conductor at
all collieries; but at most collieries there was a stream of running water,
to which the conductor must be taken, no matter how distant. This was
really the point in the matter of protecting mines. It was unnecessary to
enter into elaborate details what route the lightning took on one
occasion or another. They could not foretell or foresee what direction it
would take. The supposed probability that it would repeat its stroke a
second time at the same place was perhaps ideal. The lightning did not
strike the chimney on the previous occasion. A long iron rope leading
into the sump was a suitable channel for the lightning to take, but whether
it would take the same channel another time one could not say.
90 LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THORNLEY—DISCUSSION.
Colonel Parnell said that the matter required careful study. There had been
a good deal of controversial matter mentioned which had no connection with
this incident at all, and he hardly thought this the time or place to enter
into these matters. He thought Mr. White's paper very interesting, and he
hoped they would soon be able to obtain some light as to the best means of
protecting collieries in regard to lightning strokes.
Mr. Massingham said, he had been courteously invited to attend the meeting,
not as a scientist, but as a practical man. He had advanced the theory, that
after a chimney or other building had once been struck by lightning, that it
had a greater affinity for the electric fluid than it had before, and was
thereby rendered more liable to be struck again. He had no scientific
authority for this assertion, although he had carefully searched all the
books that he could find bearing upon the subject, but could not find that
this particular fact had been noticed at all. The suggestion was based
solely on his own personal observation and knowledge of the fact, that
numerous cases of spires, chimneys, etc., had been struck by lightning
several times over (although previous to the first stroke they had stood for
years unharmed), whilst others in the immediate vicinity had escaped
uninjured, and he thought that there must be some particular reason for
this. He knew that this had been the case in a great many local instances,
and no doubt there were hundreds of similar cases which he knew nothing of.
He was inclined to think that when a building or chimney had been struck by
lightning it remained charged with electricity, the same as a piece of
magnetised iron, for an indefinite time, and being in this charged state,
the chimney or building would have a greater affinity for lightning than it
had before, and be more liable to be struck again.
Professor Merivale said, that as to a place once struck being struck again
by lightning, he supposed it would not be a matter of wonder; because the
conditions which would make the place liable to be struck once, would make
it liable to be struck again.
Mr. Walker said, he could fall in with the view of the last speaker, and not
with those of Mr. Massingham, that the chimney remained in a charged
condition. An object was struck because the meterological and electrical
conditions were favourable to discharge by that path; and if these
conditions remained the same, the object might be again struck.
Mr. Massingham said, he could not agree to the remarks of Professor
Merivale, for he had known a chimney built on a certain spot
lightning in the pit at west thorxley—discussion. 91
of earth fifty years ago, on a certain spot which would presumably remain
the same during the whole fifty years. For the first forty years the
chimney was not visited by lightning, but in its fortieth year it received a
stroke, and in the ensuing ten years several other strokes. What is to be
inferred from this ? Did the conditions remain the same as they always
were, or were they altered ? If altered, in what way ? May not the
building and its surroundings have become charged as suggested? He did
not pretend to be able to solve this question, but certainly considered that
such cases as this, of which he had numerous instances, will go a long way
to prove, at least, the consistency of the theory advanced. Mr. Walker
said that he could fall in with the views of the last speaker, but would not
admit "that the chimney remained in a charged condition," but as he did not
give satisfactory reasons for saying so, he (Mr. Massingham) could not
accept his opinion as final or conclusive. Professor John Murray, F.S.A.,
F.L.S., F.H.S., F.G.S., &c, in his work entitled, "A Treatise on
Atmospherical Electricity, Lightning Rods, and Paragreles," said:—" Once
struck, we should presume that the same spot is always liable to a revisit,
as there are several instances of buildings in this country having been
similarly visited." This exactly coincided with his own observations and
experience, and, coming from so eminent a scientist, he submitted that it is
a theory that should receive a full and free investigation, as it must be a
point of great importance, more particularly in the protection of collieries
and their surroundings. Mr. Walker also said, that in the case of the
West Thornley pit, if the rope and the pulley had been electrically
connected, the lightning would not have gone down the pit! Where would it
have gone ? He was of opinion that whilst the rope was running over the
pulley, both were electrically connected, the bright parts of the rope
coming in contact with the bright parts of the inside of the pulley, forming
a perfect electrical connection, and yet the stroke went down the pit. There
is but one way of preventing lightning strokes from going down pit shafts,
and that is, to have properly constructed lightning conductors erected
considerably higher, and independent of the head gearing of the shaft, and
carried to a perfect and good earth contact; indeed this, the earth contact,
is the principal part of a lightning conductor, and the neglect or ignorance
of this fact, is the most frequent cause of their failure. It still remains
to solve the question or theory, as to whether a place having been once
struck is thereby rendered more liable to be struck again; and as this very
important point in the subject of lightning strokes,
VOL XXXIII.—1884.
M
92 LIGHTNING IN THE PIT AT WEST THOENLEY—DISCUSSION.
appears hitherto to have received very little attention at the hands of our
great scientists, it could not fail to be both useful and instructive, if it
were more specially considered by experts.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. White for his paper, and said
that it showed one of the many dangers to which coal-mining was liable; and
the use of such an Institute as this was to bring these matters before the
members for discussion.
The motion was agreed to.
The following communication from Mr. F. H. Pearce, containing calculations
and tables on ventilation, was taken as read, and ordered to to be printed:—
VENTILATION TABLES. 98
VENTILATION TABLES.
By F. H. PEARCE.
These tables were calculated out in a simple way some years ago, and as they
have often proved to be very useful they are now submitted to the members of
the Institute.
TABLE I.—THE RELATIVE VENTILATING POWER OF AIR-WAYS. This table shows the
relative ventilating or discharging power of airways, that is to say, the
relative quantities of air that will pass through air-ways in a given time;
the air-ways being of the same length and subject to the same ventilating
pressure.
The relative ventilating or discharging power of air-ways is found by
multiplying the area of the air-way by the relative velocity of the air in
such air-way. The relative velocity is calculated from the established
law—"That the velocity is in inverse proportion to the square root of the
frictional resistance." The frictional resistance for any form of airway is
represented by the perimeter of the air-way divided by the area of the
air-way.
Perimeter ,.,.-,.,
------------= motional resistance.
Area
But as the velocity is in inverse proportion to the square root of the
frictional resistance the relative velocity is found thus—
A -=:—;—;— = relative velocity. ^ Perimeter
And the relative ventilating power of any form of air-way may be represented
thus—
Area x J----------- = relative ventilating power.
Perimeter
94 VKNTILATION TABLES.
In dealing with or comparing square air-ways only, where the perimeter is
always four times the square root of the area, the above formula may be
simplified and the relative velocity can be represented by the square root
of the side of the air-way.
Thus, if a = side of air-way, then a? = area of air-way. and Va = relative
velocity. Therefore a2 x V a = relative ventilating power. An air-way 1 foot
square will have a ventilating power of 1.
Thus l2 x *J~1 = 1 relative ventilating power. An air-way 4 feet square
will have a ventilating power of 32.
Thus 42 x -y/4 = 32 relative ventilating power. The relative ventilating
power of circular shafts of the same depth and subject to the same
ventilating pressure is found thus— Area x s/ diameter = relative
ventilating power.
TABLE II.—RELATIVE VENTILATING POWER OF LONG AND SHORT AIR-WAYS.
In this table the ventilating power of an air-way 1760 yards, or one mile
long, is taken as one or unity, and the relative ventilating powers for
other lengths of air-ways of the same area are found thus—
J:=------—y—:---------:-------r = relative ventilating power.
^ Length of air-way m yards
An air-way of 440 yards long is passing 5000 cubic feet of air per minute;
required the quantity of air that will pass each of two air-ways of
respectively 110 and 880 yards long, all the air-ways being of the same size
and subject to the same ventilating pressure.
By the table, No. 1 air-way, ventilating power = 2. » 2
„ „ = 4.
3 „ „ 1-41421.
Then to find the quantity of air for the air-way, 110 yards long, or No. 2
air-way—
------------- = 10000 cubic feet per minute,
m
and for No. 3 air-way, 880 yards long—
5000 x 1-41421 OKO, , . - , • .
---------------------3= 3535 cubic feet per minute.
VENTILATION TABLES. 95
TABLE III.—QUANTITIES OF AIR DISCHARGED PER MINUTE BY SQUARE AIR-WAYS ONE
MILE LONG.
This table is based on the co-efficient of friction adopted by the late Mr.
Atkinson for the air-ways of a mine. The water-gauge pressure given in the
tables is the pressure required to overcome the frictional resistance.
This table was calculated out as follows :—One calculation was made by the
late Mr. Atkinson's formula for an air-way one foot square and one mile
long, with a ventilating pressure of one-half inch of water-gauge, which
gives 75*32 cubic feet per minute for this air-way. Then, by using Table No.
1, the quantities for the different sized air-ways are found. Then, having
thus found the quantities for one-half inch water-gauge pressure, the
remaining columns of the table for different water-gauge pressures are found
by using Table No. 6 of square roots.
By using the multipliers in Table II., the quantity of air for any length of
square air-ways may be found.
TABLE IV.—SHOWING THE VELOCITY AND PRESSURE OF AIR DUE COLUMNS OF AIR UP TO
384 FEET IN HEIGHT.
In this table a column of air 64 feet in height is taken as being equal to a
water-gauge pressure of 1 inch, so that -^ part of an inch water-gauge
pressure is equal to an air column of 1 foot, and ^ of an inch water-gauge
pressure is equal to an air column of 8 feet. This rule is easy to remember
and agrees very nearly with the weight of dry air at 32 degrees Fahrenheit,
and 30 inches barometrical pressure.
The theoretical velocity in the table is calculated from the following
formula—
s/ Height of air column in feet x 481*2 = the velocity of air in feet
per minute.
TABLE V.—VENTILATING PRESSURE OBTAINABLE BY FURNACE
SHAFTS.
This table is arranged for shafts 100 yards deep, with an average
temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit in the downcast shaft. Air at a
temperature of 40 degrees expands T^ part for an increase of temperature of
1 degree, so that for an increase of temperature of 5 degrees it will expand
-g^ parts, or jfo part, which is an expansion of 1 per cent, for every 5
degrees of increased temperature.
In the table a column of air 100 yards in height, at 40 degrees Fahrenheit
and 30 inches barometrical pressure, is taken as weighing 23*8554 lbs., or
equal to a water-gauge pressure of 4*587577 inches.
96 VENTILATION TABLES.
The table is calculated as follows:—A furnace shaft 100 yards deep having an
average temperature of 160 degrees, with an average temperature of 40
degrees in the downcast, will give a water-gauge pressure of •887918 inches.
Thus 160 — 40 = 120 degrees increase of temperature,
120 and -jr- = 24 per cent, increase in volume of air by expansion,
then 4-587577 — (^4-587577 x —^-^^ = -887918 inches of water-V
100 + 24y
gauge or ventilating pressure.
To use the table for any depth of shaft, multiply the ventilating pressure
given in the table corresponding with the average temperature of furnace
shaft by the depth of shaft in yards, and divide by 100.
A furnace shaft 400 yards deep, with an average temperature of 140 degrees,
and an average temperature of 40 degrees in the downcast, will give a
ventilating pressure of 3'0584 inches of water-gauge.
By the table 140 degrees gives '7646 inches of water-gauge for a shaft 100
yards deep.
"7646 x 400 Then-----——-----= 3'0584 inches of ventilating or water-gauge
pressure for shaft 400 yards deep.
When the average temperature of downcast shaft is above 40 degrees. A
furnace shaft 300 yards deep, with an average temperature of 120 degrees,
and with an average temperature of 50 degrees in the downcast shaft.
By table, 120 degrees = -6328 inches water-gauge, and 50 degrees = '0900
„ „
Difference ... -5428 „ „
'5428 X 300 Then------——------ = 1-6284 inches of ventilating or water-gauge
pressure for shaft 300 yards deep, with the average temperatures as stated.
TABLE VI.—SQUARE ROOTS OP WATER-GAUGE PRESSURES.
This is a table of square roots arranged for water-gauge pressures, the
ordinary published tables of square roots not being arranged for this
purpose.
Since this table was arranged some tables of this sort have been published,
but they are not so extensive as the table now given.
VENTILATION TABLES. 97
TABLE I.-THE RELATIVE VENTILATING POWER OP DIFFERENT SIZED AIR-WAYS.
Square Air-Ways. Circular
Shafts.
Side of Area of Ventilating
D^metota First Ventilating
Square. Square. Power.
Column Power.
Ft. In. Feet.
Feet.
10 1- 1-
-785400 -785400
1 li 1-265625 1-342398
-994021 1-054319
1 3 1-5625 . 1-746928
1-227187 1-372037
1 4$ 1-890625 2216954
1-484896 1-741196
1 6 2-25 2-755676
1-767150 2-164308
1 7i 2-640625 3-366150
2-073946 2-643774
1 9 3-0625 4-051307
2-405287 3-181897
1 10$ 3-515625 4-813968
2-761171 3-780890
2 0 4- 5-656854
3-141600 4"442893 2 1$ 4-515625
6-582598 3-546571 5"169972 2 3
5-0625 7-593750 3-976087
5-964131 2 4$ 5-640625 8-692787
4-430146 6-827315 2 6 6-25
9-882118 4-908750
7'761415 2 7$ 6-890625 11-164088
5-411896 8'768275 2 9 7-5625
12-540988 5-939587 9"849692
2 10* 8-265625 14-015049
6-491821 11-007419
3 0 9- 15-588457
7-068600 12"243l74 3 1$ 9-765625
17-263349 7'669921 13-558634 3 3
10-5625 19-041818 8-295787
14-955444 3 4| 11390625 20-925914
8-946196 16-435213 3 6 12-25
22-917652 9-621150 17999524 3 71
13-140625 25-019005 10-320646
19649927 3 9 140625 27-231914
11-044687 21-387945
3 10$ 15-015625 29-558287
11-793271 23215079
4 0 16- 32-
12-566400 25-132800 4 1$ 17-015625
34-558898 13-364071 27142558 4 3
18-0625 37-236798 14-186287
29-245781 4 4$ 19-140625 40-035490
15-033046 31-443874 4 6 20-25
42-956737 15-904350 33-738221 4 7k
21-390625 46-002728 16-800196
36-130543 4 9 22-5625 49-173828
17-720587 38-621125
4 10t 23-765625 52-473079
18-665521 41-212356
5 0 25- 55-901700
19-635000 43"855195 5 It 26-265625
59-461338 20-629021 46-700935 5 3
27-5625 63-153621 21-647587
49-600854 5 4i 28-890625 66-980158
22-690696 52-606216 5 6 30-25
70-942538 23-758350 55718269 5 7$
31-640625 75-042332 24-850546
58-938248 5 9 33-0625 79-281089
25 967287 62-267367
5 10$ 34-515625 83-660350 27108571
65 706839
6 0 36- 88-181629
28-274400 69'257851 6 1$ 37-515625
92-846435 29-464771 72-921590 6 3
39-0625 97-656250 30-679687
76-699219 6 4$ 40-640625 102-612548
31-919146 80-591895 6 6 42-25
107-716787 33-183] 50 84-600765 6 7\
43-890625 112-970410 34-471696
88-726960 6 9 45-5625 118-374847
35784787 92-971605
6 10$ 47265625 123-931514 37-122421
97335811
7 0 49- 129-641814
38-484600 101-820681 7 1$ 50-765625
135-507138 39-871321 106-427306 7 3
52-5625 141-578862 41-282587
111-196038 7 4$ 54-390625 147-708355
42-718396 116-010142 7 6 56-25
154-046969 44-178750 120-988489 7 7\
58-140625 160-546048 45-663646
126-092866 7 9 600625 167-206925
47'173087 131-324319 7 10$ 62-015625
174-030916 48707071 136-683881
98 VENTILATION TABLES.
TABLE I.—Continued.—THE RELATIVE VENTILATING POWER OP DIFFERENT SIZED
AIR-WAYS.
Square Air-ways.
Circular Shafts.
Side of Area of Ventilating
rifampin First Ventilating
Square. Square. Power.
CJolumn Power-
Ft In Feet.
Feet.
8 0 64- 181-019334.
50-265600 142-172585
8 U 66-015625 188-173483 51-848671
147-791454
8 3 68-0625 195-494646
53'456287 153-541495
8 41 70-140625 202-984109 55-088446
159-423719
8 6 72-25 210-643137
56745150 165-439120
8 71 74-390625 218-472993 58-426396
171-588689
8 9 76-5625 226-474930
60-132187 177-873410
8 10Jf 78-765625 234-650187
61-862521 184-294257
9 0 81- 243-
63-617400 190-852200 9 U 83-265625
251-525594 65-396821 197-548202 9 3
85-5625 260-228183 67-200787
204-383215 9 41 87-890625 269-108981
69-029296 211-358194 9 6 90-25
278-169182 70-882350 218-474076 9 7i
92-640625 287-409981 72-759946
225-731800
• 9 9 95-0625 296-832561
74-662087 233-132293
9 10^ 97-515625 306-438100 76'58877l
240-676484
10 0 100- 316-227770
78-540000 248-365291
10 3 105-0625 336-364118
82-516087 264-180378
10 6 110-25 357-250831
86-590350 280-584803
10 9 115-5625 378-896993
90-762787 297-565698
11 0 121- 401-311601
95-033400 315-190131 11 3 126-5625
424-503528 99-402187 333-405071 11 6
132-25 448-481570 103-869150
352-237425
11 9 138-0625 473-254357
108-434287 371-693972
12 0 144- 498-830630
113-097600 391-781577 12 3 150-0625
525-218750 117-859087 412-506806 12 6
156-25 552-427173 122'718750
433-876302
12 9 162-5625 580-464227
127-676587 455'896604
13 0 169- 609-338171
132-732600 478-574200 13 3 175-5625
639-057147 137'886787 501-915483 13 6
182-25 669-629258 143-139150
525-926820
13 9 189-0625 701-062514
148-489687 550-614498
14 0 196- 733-364850
153-938400 575-984753 14 3 203-0625
766-544124 159-485287 602-043755 14 6
210-25 800-608147 165-130350
628'797639
14 9 217-5625 835-564631
170873587 656-252461
15 0 225- 871-421242
176-715000 684-414243 15 3 232-5625
908-185598 182-654587 713-288969 15 6
240-25 945-865197 188-692350
742-882526
15 9 248-0625 984-467523
194-828287 773-200793
16 0 256- 1024-
201-062400 804249600 16 3 264-0625
1064-469962 207-394687 836-034708 16 6
272-25 1105-884727 213-825150
868-561865
16 9 280-5625 1148-251522
220'353787 901-836745
17 0 289- 1191-577527
226-980600 935-864990 17 3 297-5625
1235-869887 233-705587 970-652209 17 6
306-25 1281-135665 240-528750
1006-203951
17 9 315-0625 1327-38191
247-450087 1042-525753
18 0 324- 1374-615554
254-469600 1079-623057 18 3 333-0625
1422-843616 261-587287 1117-501376 18 6
342-25 1472-087310 268-803150
1156-177373
18 9 351-5625 1522-310273
276-117187 1195-622488
19 0 361- 1573-562504
283-529400 1235-875991 19 3 370-5625
1625-836373 291-039787 1276-931887 19 6
380-25 1679-138534 298'648350
1318-795405
19 9 390-0625 1733-475664
306-355087 1361-471787
20 0 400- 1788-854400
314-160000 1404-966246
___________________________________________
VENTILATION TABLES. 99
TABLE .IX-THE RELATIVE VENTILATING POWER OF LONG AND SHORT AIR-WAYS.
Length. Length. Ventilating
Length. Length. Ventilating
Miles. Yards. Power.
Miles. Yards. Power.
100 4-19524 2 3520
-70711
tV 110 4-
3600 -69914
200 2-96648 3700
-68971
# 220 2-82843
3800 -68051
300 2-42074 3900
-67179
400 2-09762 2£ 3960
-66663
i 440 2-
4000 -66332
500 1-87617 4100
-65513
600 1-71172 4200
-64730
700 1-58430 4300
-63977
800 1-48324 2 J 4400
-63246
i 880 1-41421
4500 -62538
900 1-39642 4600
-61855
1000 1-32665 4700
-61188
1100 1-26491 4800
-60548
1200 1-20830 2f 4840
-60299
1300 1-16190 4900
-59925
f 1320 1-15326
5000 -59330
1400 1-11804 5100
-58745
1500 1-08167 5200
-58172
1600 1-04881 3 5280
-58060
1700 1-01489 5300
-57619
1 1760 1-
5400 -57088
1800 -98879 5500
-56569
1900 -96245 5600
-56054
2000 -93808 5700
-55561
2100 -91543 3£ 5720
-55471
H 2200 -89443
5800 -55082
2300 -87476 5900
-54617
2400 -85633 6000
-54157
2500 -83905 6100
-53759
2600 -82274 3£ 6160
-53451
1£ 2640 -81646
6200 -53273
2700 -80734 6300
-52849
2800 -79278 6400
-52440
2900 -77904 6500
-52029
3000 -76590 3f 6600
-51633
If 3080 -75591
6700 -51245
3100 -75346 6800
-50872
3200 -74162 6900
-50498
3300 -73027 7000
-50140
3400 -71944 4 7040
-50000
3500 -70908
VOL. XXXIII.-1884.
^
100 VENTILATION TABLES.
i
TABLE III.—QUANTITIES OF AIR DISCHARGED PER MINUTE BY SQUARE
AIR-WAYS ONE MILE LONG.
<L>
ni . Water-Gauge Pressure in Fractional and
Decimal parts or an Inch.
jg1 g Area of
___________|________________________________________________________________
_____________
„_, 7 Square
°t_ Air-way. 1 1 J^ i
A. A _5_ 3 7
1
I -015625 -03125 -0625 -125 -1875 -25
-3125 -375 -4375 -5
Ft.In Square Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic
Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft.
1 0 1- 13 18 26 37 46
53 59 65 70 75
1 3 1-5625 23 33 46 66 80
93 104 114 123 132
1 6 2-25 36 52 73 104 127
147 164 179 194 208
1 9 3-0625 54 76 108 152 186
216 241 264 285 305
2 0 4- 75 106 150 213 261
301 337 369 398 426 2 3 5-0625 101
143 202 286 350 404 452 495
535 572 2 6 6-25 131 186 263 372
455 526 588 644 696 744
2 9 7-5625 167 236 334 472 578
668 747 818 883 945
3 0 9- 207 293 415 587 719
830 928 1017 1098 1174 3 3 10-5625 253
358 507 717 878 1014 1134 1242 1341
1434 3 6 12-25 305 431 610 863
1057 1220 1364 1495 1614 1726
3 9 14-0625 362 512 725 1025 1256 1450
1621 1776 1918 2051
4 0 16- 426 602 852 1205 1478
1704 1905 2087 2254 2410 4 3 18-0625 495
701 991 1402 1767 1983 2217 2429 2623
2805 4 6 2025 572 809 1144 1618 1981
2288 2558 2802 3026 3236
4 9 22-5625 654 926 1309 1852 2268 2619
2928 3207 3464 3704
5 0 25- 744 1152 1488 2105 2578 2977
3328 3646 3938 4211 5 3 27-5625 840 1189
1681 2378 2913 2363 3760 4119 4449 4757
5 6 30-25 944 1335 1889 2671 3272 3778
4224 4627 5048 5343
5 9 33-0625 1050 1492 2111 2985 3656 4222
4721 5171 5586 5971
6 0 36- 1174 1660 2348 3321 4067 4696
5250 5752 6213 6642 6 3 39-0625 1300 1838
2600 3677 4504 5201 5815 6370 6880 7355 6
6 42-25 1434 2028 2868 4056 4968 5737
6414 7026 7589 8113
6 9 45-5625 1588 2229 3177 4458 5460 6354
7048 7721 8340 8916
7 0 49- 1726 2441 3452 4882 5979 6904
7719 8456 9134 9765 7 3 52-5625 1885 2666
3770 5332 6530 7540 8433 9235 9975 10664 7
6 56-25 2051 2900 4102 5801 7105 8204
9173 10048 10853 11603
7 9 60-0625 2226 3148 4452 6297 7712 8905
9956 10906 11780 12594
8 0 64- 2410 3408 4820 6817 8349 9641
10779 11807 12754 13634 8 3 68-0625 2603 3681 5206
7362 9017 10412 11641 12752 13774 14725 8 6 72-25
2804 3966 5609 7933 9715 11218 12543
13740 14841 15866
8 9 76-5625 3015 4264 6031 8529 10446 12062
13485 14722 15957 17058
9 0 81- 3235 4575 6471 9151 11208 12942
14469 15850 17120 18303 9 3 85-5625 3464 4900 6929
9800 12002 13859 15545 16974 18334 19600 9 6 90-25
3703 5238 7407 10476 12830 14815 16564 18144
19598 20952 9 9 95-0625 3952 5589 7905 11178
13691 15809 17675 19354 20913 22357
10 0100- 4210 5954 8421 11909 14585 16842
18830 20627 22273 23818
10 6H0-25 4756 6727 9513 13454 16478 19027
21272 23303 25170 26908
11 0121- 6343 7556 10686 15113 18510 21373
23896 26177 28274 30227
11 6132-25 5971 8445 11942 16890 20685 23885
26705 29254 31598 33780
12 0144- 6641 9393 13283 18786 23008 26567
29698 32538 35145 37572
12 6156-25 7355 10402 14711 20804 25476 29422
32894 36034 38921 41609
13 0 169- 8113 11473 16226 22947 28105 32453
36283 39746 42931 45895
13 6182-25 8903 12609 17807 25218 30886 35614
39873 43679 47160 50436
14 0 196- 9764 13809 19529 27618 33825 39058
43669 47837 51670 55237
14 6 210-25 10659 15075 21319 30151 36927 42639
47673 52223 56407 60302
15 0 225- 11602 16408 23205 32817 40193 46411
51889 56342 61391 65635
15 6 240-25 12594 17810 25188 35621 43627 50376
56322 61698 65941 71243
16 0 256- 13634 19282 27268 38564 47230 54537
60975 66794 72146 77128
_____________________________________________________
VENTILATION TABLES. 101
TABLE III.—Continued.—QUANTITIES OF AIR DISCHARGED PER MINUTE BY SQUARE
AIR-WAYS ONE MILE LONG.
Water-Gauge Pressure in Fractional and Decimal parts of an Inch. ig11
Area of „_, 7 Square o.5_ Air-way. 9 a
11 a 13 _ 15
1 11 1 j,
_¦<! To" 8 TB
4 Te 8 Tf L x8
J-4
I -5625 -625 "6875 -75 -8125 -875 -9375 1-125 1-25
Ft. In Square Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic
Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft.
1 0 1- 79 84 88 92 96 99
103 107 111 119
1 3 1-5625 139 127 154 161 167
174 180 186 198 208
1 6 2-25 220 232 243 254 264
274 284 294 312 328
1 9 3-0625 324 341 358 373 389
403 416 432 456 482
2 0 4- 451 476 499 522 543
563 533 603 639 674 2 3 5-0625 606
639 670 700 729 756 783 809
858 904 2 6 6-25 789 832 873
911 949 984 1019 1053 1116 1177
2 9 7-5625 1002 1056 1107 1157 1204 1249
1293 1336 1416 1494
3 0 9- 1245 1312 1377 1438 1496 1554
1607 1660 1761 1856 3 3 10-5625 1521 1603
1682 1756 1828 1897 1964 2028 2151 2268 3
6 12-25 1837 1930 2024 2114 2200 2283
2363 2441 2589 2729
3 9 14-0625 2175 2293 2405 2512 2614 2713
2808 2901 3075 3243
4 0 16- 2556 2694 2826 2957 3072 3188
3300 3409 3615 3811 4 3 18-0625 2974 3135
3288 3435 3575 3710 3840 3966 4206 4435
4 6 20-25 3432 3617 3794 3962 4124 4330
4430 4576 4854 5116
4 9 22-5625 3928 4141 4343 4536 4721 4899
5071 5238 5556 5856
5 0 25- 4465 4707 4937 5157 5367 5570
5765 5955 6315 6657 5 3 27-5625 5044 5318
5578 5826 6063 6292 6513 6727 7134 7521
5 6 30'25 5667 5974 6265 6544 6811 7068
7311 7557 8013 8448
5 9 33'0625 6333 6676 7002 7313 7611 7899
8176 8445 8955 9442
6 0 36- 7044 7426 7788 8134 8466 8786
9094 9393 9963 10501 6 3 39-0625 7801 8224
8625 9008 9376 9730 10072 10402 11031 11630 6 6
42-25 8605 9071 9513 9936 10342 10733 11109
11474 12168 12828
6 9 45-5625 9532 9968 10455 10920 11365 11794
12208 12609 13374 14097
7 0 49- 10356 10917 11450 11959 12447 12917
13370 13809 14646 15439 7 3 52-5625 11310 11922 12504
13060 13593 14107 14602 15081 15996 16866 7 6 56-25
12306 12972 13605 14210 14791 15349 15888 16409
17403 18346
7 9 600625 13357 14081 14768 15424 16054 16661 17345
17811 18891 19913
8 0 64- 14461 15243 15987 16698 17380 18036
18669 19282 20451 21558 8 3 68-0625 15618 16463 17267
18034 18770 19479 20161 20824 22086 23282 8 6 72-25
16877 17738 18604 19431 20225 21988 21725 22437
23799 25086
8 9 76-5625 18093 19071 20002 20892 21745 22565 23357
24124 25587 26971
9 0 81- 19413 20463 21462 22416 23331 24212 25062
25884 27454 28939 9 3 85-5625 20788 21914 22988 24005
24985 25929 26844 27719 29400 31091 9 6 90-25 22222
23424 24568 25660 26708 27716 28689 29630 31428
33128 9 9 950625 23713 24997 26217 27382 28500 29576
30614 31618 33535 35350
10 0100- 25263 26629 27929 29171 30362 31508 32614 33684 35727 37660
10 6110-25 28540 30084 31552 32956 34300 35596 36845 38054 40362 42545
11 0121- 32059 33794 35444 37020 39042 39986 41389 42747 45340 47793
11 6132-25 35829 37767 39609 41371 43061 44686 46254 47771 50670 53410
12 0144- 39850 42006 44057 46016 47889 49703 51447 53135 56358 59396
12 6156-25 44133 46520 48798 50952 53091 55043 56975 58844 62413 65789
13 0169- 48678 51312 53817 56210 58505 60714 62844 64906 68842 72567
13 6182-25 53421 56389 59142 61772 64294 66721 69063 71328 75654 79747
14 0196- 58587 61757 64771 67651 70408 73071 75636 78117 82855 87338
14 6 210-25 63958 67419 70710 73854 76870 79771 82571 85279 90453 95346
15 0 225- 69616 73383 76964 80386 83669 86727 89875 92822 98452 103779
15 6 240-25 75564 79651 83539 87254 90812 94245 97553 100752 106864 112644
16 0 256- 81805 86231 90440 94461 98319 102030 105611 109075 115692
121950
102 VENTILATION TABLES.
TABLE III.—Continued.—QUANTITIES OP AIR DISCHARGED PER MINUTE BY SQUARE
AIR-WAYS ONE MILE LONG.
§ , Water-Gauge
Pressure in Inches. ,£ cs Area of
2 ? Square -----------------------------------------'---------------------
°-~ Air-way.
%* H H 2 21 21 2f 3 3i
31 3|
33
Ft In Square Ft Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft.
Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft. Cubic Ft.
10 1- 18° 141 151 159 168 176 184 192
199 206
1 3 1-5625 228 246 264 279 294 309 322 335 348
360
1 6 2-25 359 388 416 441 464 487 508 529
549 568
1 9 3-0625 529 571 610 648 682 716 747 778 807
833
2 0 4- 738 797 852 903 953 999 1044 1086 1127 1067 2 3
5-0625 991 1070 1144 1212 1279 1341 1401 1458 1513 1566 2 6
6-25 1289 1392 1488 1578 1664 1746 1823 1898 1969 2038
2 9 7-5625 1636 1767 1890 2004 2112 2215 2314 2408 2499
2587
3 0 9- 2034 2197 2348 2490 2625 2754 2876 2993 3108 3215 3
3 10-5625 2484 2683 2868 3042 3207 3364 3513 3657 3794 3928 3 6
12-25 2990 3229 3452 3675 3860 4048 4228 4401 4567 4727
3 9 14-0625 3553 3837 4102 4350 4586 4810 5024 5229 5427
5617
4 0 16- 4175 4509 4820 5112 5389 5652 5904 6145 6377 6601 4
3 18-0625 4858 5247 5610 5949 6271 6577 6870 7151 7420 7681 4 6
20-25 5604 6053 6472 6864 7235 7588 7925 8249 8660
8861
4 9 22-5625 6415 6929 7408 7857 8282 8686 9072 9443 9799
10143
5 0 25- 7293 7877 8422 8931 9415 9875 10314 10735 11140
11531 5 3 27-5625 8239 8899 9514 10089 10636 11156 11652 12127
12585 13027 5 6 30-25 9255 10097 10686 11334 11948 12531 13089
13623 14136 14633
5 9 33-0625 10343 11172 11942 12666 13352 14004 14627 15222 15799
16353
6 0 36- 11504 12426 13284 14088 14852 15577 16269 16933
17573 18189 6 3 39-0625 12740 13761 14710 15603 16448 17250 18017
18753 19461 20144 6 6 42-25 14053 15178 16226 17211 18142 19027
19873 20685 21466 22219
6 9 45-5625 15443 16680 17832 19062 19937 20910 21840 22731 23589
24417
7 0 49- 16913 18268 19530 20712 21834 22900 23918 24895
25835 26741 7 3 52-5625 18470 19950 21328 22620 23845 25009 26121
27187 28214 29204 7 6 56-25 20097 21707 23206 24612 25945 27211
28421 29582 30698 31776
7 9 60-0625 21813 23561 25188 26715 28162 29536 30849 32109 33321
34690
8 0 64- 23615 25508 27268 28923 30487 31975 33397 34761
36073 37339 8 3 68-0625 25504 27548 29450 31236 32926 34335 36068
37541 38958 40323 8 6 72-25 27480 29682 31732 33654 35477 37208
38863 40450 41977 43450
8 9 76-5625 29545 31913 34116 36186 38143 40005 41784 43490 45131
46715
9 0 81- 31701 34241 36606 38826 40926 42924 44832 46663
48425 50124 9 3 85-5625 33949 36669 39200 41577 43828 45977 48011
49971 51858 53688 9 6 90-25 36289 39197 41904 44445 46849 49136
51321 53417 55433 57378 9 9 95-0625 38708 41827 44714 47427 49994
52434 54764 57000 59152 61229
10 0100- 41254 44547 47636 50526 53259 55859 58343 60725 63017
65229
10 6110-25 46606 50341 53816 57081 60168 63105 65912 68600
71192 73691
11 0121- 52354 56549 60454 64119 67589 70888 74040 78084
79973 82779
11 6132-25 58508 63196 67560 71655 75534 79219 82743 86122
89372 92509
12 0144- 65076 70291 75144 79701 84013 88114 92032 95779
99406 102895
12 6156-25 72069 77843 83218 88266 93040 97581101920 106182
110087 113950
13 0169- 79493 85862 91790 97356 102625 107634 112420
117011121428 125689
13 6182-25 87359 94320 100872 106842 112779 118284 123544 128588
133442 138126
14 0196' 95674 103340 110474 117174 123514 129542 135303 140817
146143 151273
14 6 210-25 104446 112814 120604 127917 134839 141420 147709 153740
159543 165143
15 0 225- 113684 122783 131270 139233 146766 153929 160773 167339 173455
179750
15 6 240-25 123396 131883 142486 151128 159303 167079 174508 181624
188490 195106
16 0 256- 133589 144293 154256 163611 172463 180881 188923 196638 204061
211223
____________________._________,_________________________. __
VENTILATION TABLES. 103
TABLE III.—Continued.—QUANTITIES OP AIR DISCHARGED PER MINUTE BY SQUARE
AIR-WAYS ONE MILE LONG.
Water-Gauge Pressure in Inches.
Side of Area of
Square
Square----------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------•------.—
Air-way. Air-way.
4 ins. 4^ ins. 5 ins. 6
ins.
Ft. In. Square Feet. Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet.
Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet
[ 0 1-0 214
226 238 260 '
1 3 1-5625 372 396
416 456
1 6 2-25 588 624
656 718
1 9 3-0625 864 913
964 1058
2 0 4- 1206 1278
1348 1476 2 3 5-0625
1618 1716 1808
1982 2 6 6-25 2106
2232 2354 2578
2 9 7-5625 2672 2835
2988 3272
3 0 9- 3320 3522
3712 4068 3 3 10-5625
4056 4302 4536
4968 3 6 12-25 4882 5178
5458 5980
3 9 14-0625 5802 6153
6486 7106
4 0 16- 6818 7230
7622 8350 4 3 18-0625
7932 8415 8870 9716
4 6 20-25 9152 9708
10232 11208
4 9 22-5625 10476 11112
11712 12830
5 0 25- 11910 12633
13314 14586 5 3 27-5625
13454 14271 15042
16478 5 6 30-25 15114 16029
16896 18510
5 9 33-0625 16890 17913
18884 20686
6 0 36- 18786 19926
21002 23008 6 3 39-0625
20804 22065 23260 25480 6 6
4225 22948 24339
25656 28106
6 9 45-5625 25218 26748
28194 30886
7 0 49- 27618 29295
30878 33826 7 3 52-5625
30162 31994 33732 36940 7
6 66-25 32818 34809
36692 40194
7 9 600625 35622 37782
39826 43626
8 ° 64- 38564 40902
43116 47230 8 3 68-0625
41648 44175 46564
51008 8 6 72-25 44874 47598
50172 54960
8 9 76-5625 48248 61174
53942 59090
9 0 81- 51768 54909
57878 63402 9 3 85-5625
55438 58800 62182 67898 9 6
90-25 59260 62856
66256 72578 9 9 95-0625 63236
67071 70700 77416
10 0 100- 67368 71454
75320 82508
10 6 110-25 76108 80724
85090 93212
11 0 121- 85494 90681
95586 104708
11 6 132-25 95542 101340
106820 117016
12 0 144- 106270 112716
118792 130152
12 6 156-25 117688 124827
131578 144138
13 0 169- 129812 137685
145134 158986
13 6 182-25 142656 151308
159494 174718
14 0 196- 156234 165711
174676 191348
14 6 210-25 170558 180906
190692 208892
15 0 225- 185644 196905
207558 227368
15 6 240-25 201504 213729
225288 246792
16 0 256- 218150 231384
243900 267178
104 VENTILATION TABLES.
TABLE IV.—SHOWING THE VELOCITY AND PEES SURE DUE TO COLUMNS OF AIR FROM 1
TO 384 FEET IN HEIGHT.
Height of Air Water ftaii^ PrP^m-p
Pressure Velocity of Air
Column. water uauge Pressure,
per Square Foot. per Minute.
Feet. Fractional Parts Decimal Parts of
,. Feet
of an Inch. an Inch.
•LlDS-
1 ¥V -015625
-08125 481
2 ^l -031250
-16250 680
3 X -046875
-24375 833
4 ^ -062500
-32500 962
5 & -078125
-40625 1076
6 i\ -093750
-48750 1179
7 J¥ -109375
-56875 1273
8 i -125000
-65000 1361
9 -g\ -140625
-73125 1444
10 -J>2 -156250
-81250 1522
11 ff -171875
-89375 1596
12 & -187500
-97500 1667
13 f| -203125
1-05625 1735
14 -g\ -218750
1-13750 1801
15 if -234375
1-21875 1864
16 i -250000
1-30000 1925
17 H -265625
1-38125 1984
18 3% -281250
1-46250 2042
19 1$ -296875
1-54375 2098
20 1% -312500
1-62500 2152
21 |f -328125
1-70625 2205
22 h -343750
1-78750 2257
23 |f -359375
1-86875 2308
24 f -375000
1-95000 2357
25 |f -390625
2-03125 2406
26 |f -406250
2-11250 2453
27 |f -421875
2-19375 2500
28 £ -437500
2-27500 2546
29 |f '453125
2-35625 2591
30 i| -468750
2-43750 2636
31 H -484375
2-51875 2679
32 | -500000
2-60000 2722
33 If -515625
2-68125 2764
34 \l -531250
2-76250 2806
35 |f -546875
2-84375 2847
36 fe -562500
2-92500 2887
37 %i -578125
3-00625 2927
38 H -593750
3-08750 2966
39 ft -609375
3-16875 3005
40 f -625000
3-25000 3043
41 U -640625
3-33125 3081
42 |J -656250
3'41250 3118
43 If -671875
3-49375 3155
44 ft -687500
3-57500 3192
45 fj -703125
3-65625 3228
46 || -718750
3-73750 3263
47 %\ -734375
3-81875 3299
48 | -750000
3-90000 3334
49 ft -765625
3-98125 3368
50 ft -781250
4-06250 3403
51 %\ -796875
4-14375 3436
52 if -812500
4-22500 3470
53 ft -828125
4-30625 3503
54 || -843750
4-38750 3536
55 8£ -859375
4-46875 3569
VENTILATION TABLES. 105
TABLE IV.—Continued.—SHOWING THE VELOCITY AND PRESSURE DUE
TO COLUMNS OF AIR FROM 1 TO 384 FEET IN HEIGHT.
Height of Air WDtpv Gaii^p Pre<5«mrp
Pressure Velocity of Air
Column. Water Gauge Pressure,
per Square Foot. per Minute.
-cQ„t- Fractional Parts Decimal Parts of
T ¦__ ¦„ .
Feet- of an Inch. an Inch.
Lbs- Feet-
56 f -875000
4-55000 3601
57 ff -890625
4-63125 3633
58 || -906250
4-71250 3665
59 ft -921875
4-79375 3696
60 f| -937500
4-87500 3728
61 U -953125
4-95625 3758
62 |i -968750
5-03750 3789
63 ff -984375
5-11875 3819 Inches. Inches.
64 1 1- 5-20000
3850 100 Iff 1-562500 8-12500
4812 128 2 2- 10-40000
5444 192 3 3- 15-60000
6668 256 4 4- 20-80000
7700 320 5 5- 26-00000
8608 384 6 6-
31-20000 9430
TABLE V.—SHOWING THE VENTILATING PRESSURE IN INCHES OF WATER OBTAINABLE BY
UPCAST SHAFTS.
Calculated for Upcast Shafts 100 Yards Deep, with an Average Temperature of
40 Degrees iist Downcast Shaft.
Average Average
Average Average
T»a- Water Gauge TZeh?' Water Gauge T^^r Water Gauge TM?*-
Water Gauge
TJpcaTt pressure- UpS Pressure- TJ^cas"
Pressure- Upcast P*^™-Shafts.
Shafts. Shafts.
Shafts.
Deg. F. Inches. Deg. F. Inches. Deg. F. Inches. Deg. F.
Inches.
40 -0000 110 -5632 180 1-0035 245 1-3340
45 -0454 115 -5985 185 1-0304 250 1-3569
50 -0899 120 -6328 • 190 L0587 255 L3795
55 -1336 125 "6666 195 1-0856 260 1-4018
60 -1764 130 "6998 200 1*1121 265 L4237
65 -2185 135 "7325 205 1-1383 270 1-4454
70 -2597 140 '7646 210 1-1640 290 1-5292
75 -3001 145 -7962 215 1-1894 300 1-5694
80 -3398 150 -8273 220 1-2144 350 1-7558
85 -3788 155 -8578 225 1-2390 400 1-9204
90 -4] 70 160 -8879 230 1-2632 450 2-0669
95 -4546 165 -9175 235 1-2872 500 2-1982
100 -4915 170 -9466 240 1-3107 540 2-2938 105
-5278 175 -9753
106 VENTILATION TABLES.
TABLE VI.—SQUARE ROOTS OP WATER GAUGE PRESSURES.
Inches. Square Roots. Inches. Square Roots.
Inches. Square Roots.
0-05 -22360680 2-75 1-65831240
5-45 2-33452351
•10 -31622777 -80 1-67332005
-50 2-34520788
•15 -38729833 -85 1-68819430
-55 2-35584380
•20 -44721360 -90 1-70293864
-60 2-36643191
•25 -50000000 -95 1-71755640
-65 2-37697286
•30 -54772256 3"00 1-73205081
-70 2-38746728
•35 -59160798 -05 1-74642492
-75 2-39791576
•40 -63245553 -10 1-76068169
-80 2-40831891
•45 -67082039 -15 1-77482393
-85 2-41867732
•50 -70710678 -20 1-78885438
-90 2-42899156
•55 -74161985 -25 1-80277564
-95 2-43926218
•60 -77459667 -30 1-81659021
6-00 2-44948974
•65 -80622577 -35 1-83030052
-05 2-45967478
•70 -83666003 -40 1-84390889
-10 2-46981781
•75 -86602540 -45 1-85741756
-15 2-47991935
•80 -89442719 -50 1-87082869
-20 2-48997992
•85 -92195445 -55 1-88414437
-25 2-50000000
•90 -94868330 -60 1-89736660
-30 2-50998008
•95 -97467943 -65 1-91049732
-35 2-51992063
1-00 1-00000000 -70 1-92353841
-40 2-52982213
•05 1-02469508 -75 1-93649167
-45 2-53968502
•10 1-04880885 -80 1-94935887
-50 2-54950976
•15 T07238053 -85 1-96214169
-55 2-55929678
•20 1-09544512 -90 1-97484177
-60 2-56904652
•25 1-11803399 -95 198746069
-65 2-57875939
•30 1-14017543 4"00 2-00000000
-70 2-58843582
•35 1-16189500 -05 2-01246118
-75 2-59807621
•40 1-18321596 -10 2-02484567
-80 2-60768096
•45 1-20415946 -15 2-03715488
-85 2-61725047
•50 1-22474489 -20 204939015
-90 2-62678511
•55 1-24498996 -25 2-06155281
-95 2-63628527
•60 1-26491106 -30 2-07364414
7-00 2-64575131
•65 T28452326 -35 208566536
-25 2-69258240
•70 1-30384048 -40 2-09761770
-50 2-73861279
•75 1-32287566 -45 2-10950231
-75 2-78388218
•80 1-34164079 -50 2-12132034
8-00 2-82842712
•85 1-36014705 -55 2-13307290
-25 2-87228132
•90 1-37840488 '60 2-14476106
-50 2-91547595
•95 1-39642400 -65 2-15638587
-75 2-95803989
2-00 1-41421356 -70 2-16794834
9'00 3-00000000
•05 1-43178211 -75 2-17944947
-25 3-04138127
•10 1-44913767 -80 2-19089023
-50 3-08220700
•15 1-46628783 -85 2-20227155
-75 3-12249900
•20 1-48323970 -90 2-21359436
10-00 3-16227766
•25 1-50000000 -95 2-22485955
-25 3-20156212
•30 1-51657509 5'00 223606798
-50 3-24037035
•35 1-53297097 -05 2-24722051
-75 3-27871926
•40 1-54919334 -10 2-25831796
11-00 3-33166625
•45 1-56524758 ' -15 2-26936114 -25
3-35410196
•50 1 -58113883 -20 2-28035085
-50 3-39116499
•55 1-59687194 -25 2-29128785
-75 3-42782730
•60 1-61245155 -30 2-30217289
12-00 3-46410162
•65 1-62788206 -35 2-31300670
•70 1-64316767 -40 2-32379001
Mr. Thomas E. Candler read the following paper on "A Description of
Thompson's Patent Centrifugal Pulverizer":—
THOMPSON'S PATENT CENTRIFUGAL PULVERIZER. 107
DESCRIPTION OP THOMPSON'S PATENT CENTRIFUGAL PULVERIZER; INCLUDING AN
ACCOUNT OF ITS COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES FOR CRUSHING AND PULVERIZING MINERAL
ORES, COAL, AND OTHER SUBSTANCES.
By THOMAS E. CANDLER.
In mining operations, both at home and abroad, the great difficulty of
selecting and fitting up at the mines efficient and suitable machinery,
taxes to the utmost the skill of the mining engineer; and as the future of
the mine depends entirely upon the successful and economical character of
the machinery used in the treatment of the mineral worked, it is scarcely
necessary for the writer to say how important it is that the most efficient
and suitable machinery procurable should be used for this purpose.
The considerable sums spent by mining companies in the purchase of the
machinery for the treatment of their minerals in most cases forms a large
percentage of their working capital, and its wieldy and bulky nature often
causes serious delay in its transport, more especially to those foreign
mines in remote districts to which access is difficult.
In such cases the cost of transport is of necessity a very expensive item,
increasing proportionately with the weight of the machinery selected for the
work.
By the ordinary process of crushing with stamps a protracted and lengthened
delay often occurs before a suitable position can be fixed upon for the
erection of the mill, and when this is done the cost of excavating and
making the required foundations is usually excessively high, and in cases
where the property is extensive and has a mountainous and rugged character,
additional sums have to be spent on the erection of tramways, inclines,
shoots, etc., for conveying the ore found on the various parts of the
property to the mill for treatment; this is an important consideration, as
the transit of the mineral generally forms a material charge in the cost of
working a mine.
For some length of time the mining profession generally, and more especially
those who are, or have been, engaged in the extraction of the
VOL. XXXIII.-1884.
^
108 Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer.
precious metals, have pointed out the extent of the expenditure required for
this purpose, and the numerous defects apparent in the present mode of
crushing the ore by the ordinary application of stamping machinery; many
suggestions have been made and numerous inventions patented with a view of
both improving the efficiency of the work done and reducing to a minimum
cost the necessary outlay for purchasing, erecting, and maintaining a mill
capable of performing the work required for the successful treatment of the
ores containing the precious metals.
Some of these inventions have been tried with more or less success, but the
writer had recently the opportunity of viewing in operation at Messrs. W.
Pope & Co.'s Barley Field Iron Works, in Bristol, a machine of English
invention lately brought over from the United States, where, in the
Californian, Colorado, Mexican, and Vera Cruz mining districts, some 300 or
400 are in use.
Finding on inquiry that this machine, known by the name of " Thompson's
Patent Centrifugal Pulverizer," had overcome many of the objections made to
the ordinary machinery used for crushing purposes, the writer thought a
short descriptive account of the same, and its comparative advantages, might
be of some interest to the members of this Institute, and therefore has
great pleasure in giving them the following account of its application and
use.
It seems that in Thompson's machine the old illustration of Newton as to the
enormous power of a weight attached to a string and whirled round the head,
has been applied with success in the effective and economical crushing and
pulverizing of soft and hard substances.
The writer finds that attempts have been made, as far back as 1853, to apply
the force resulting from the centrifugal motion imparted to a ball moving in
a circular direction, for the pulverizing of animal and mineral substances,
but hitherto little or no success has been met with owing to the intense
friction involved in these applications, compared with the easy movement
obtained by the simple flexible driving action for rolling the ball in
Thompson's machine; for whereas in Thompson's machine the ball has a free
motion, the other machines, while utilizing centrifugal force to some
extent, waste considerable power in friction caused by the skidding action
applied for imparting motion to the ball.
Plate IV., Figs. 1 and 2, will convey an accurate idea of the general
character of this pulverizer.
The ore fed in at t is crushed between the hammered steel ball b, and the
steel shoe ring c of equal hardness, the ball b being grasped between the
flexible discs d d.
Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer. 109
The discs d d, kept the proper distance apart by the springs qq grasping the
ball b, are caused to revolve rapidly, and the centrifugal motion thus given
the ball causes it to press against the steel shoe ring, while it is being
carried around by the discs, crashing any ore that may be between the ball
and the shoe ring. At the same time that the ball is being-carried around
the inner circumference of the machine, it is free to revolve on an axis
which is continually changing.
As it is loosely grasped at two opposite points only, there is little or no
scraping motion against the ring c, and the ball always presents new
surfaces against the ore, preserving its spherical form until worn down too
small for further use.
The ore, broken to a suitable size, mixed with water, is fed into the hopper
/, and the pulverized ore passes out through screens at the side of the
machine, or through a series of blades Jc Jc so arranged as to prevent the
substance getting away from the ball until it is sufficiently reduced. Any
ore which is not crushed sufficiently fine at the first revolution of the
ball is brought back under the ball and crushed sufficiently fine by
succeeding revolutions.
The following advantages of this pulverizer are especially worthy of note:—
1.—The large area of crushing surface presented by a plain steel ball, which
exerts enormous crushing power and presents the whole of its surface for
useful work.
2.---The friction, wear, and driving power are reduced to a minimum.
3.—Excessive speed and its attendant evils are dispensed with.
4.-—Its suitability for crushing ores and other minerals, either coarsely or
to an impalpable powder.
5.—Small quantity of water required in wet crushing.
6.—The inexpensiveness of the foundations, combined with the compactness and
portability of the mill (an essential feature in unproven mines).
7.—Small first cost of the machinery and erections and reduced cost
in the maintenance of the mill. 8.—Proper feeding and sifting, combined with
a rapid and uniform
output.
9.—The suitability of the mill as an amalgamator, thus saving the cost of
regrinding the concentrates and pyrites, a process necessarily adopted in
ordinary quartz crushing, owing to the coarseness of the ore after leaving
the stamps.
110 Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer.
10.—Keeping back rust gold when present, it being brightened owing to the
peculiar action of the ball, and thus prevented from escaping.
11.—Its simplicity and few working parts; the only wearing parts consist of
the ball, shoe ring, and the discs, which when worn unfit for further use
can be speedily replaced.
12.—The adaptability of the mill for either wet or dry, hard or soft
crushing, including such rocks as flints, coprolites, slags, cement, coal,
iron ores, pottery, glass, etc.
It was explained to the writer, while seeing a machine at work that was
manufactured in America, that the American machines were liable to have some
of the pulverized mineral find its way into the bearings, but that this had
been effectually overcome, in the English-made machines.
This machine had an internal diameter of only 30 inches, and carried a ball
8j inches in diameter, weighing 75 lbs., and during the time it was in
operation it crushed with wonderful ease a quantity of rock known as
Jasper.*
The action of the ball is concussive and rolling, and this action is such
that the ball always retains the form of a sphere, and, presenting an always
changing position, keeps the outline or contact face of the discs perfectly
regular and defined.
The ball was perfectly round, and the path of the ball in the ring
appearedJ;o be exceedingly regular and uniform.
It is interesting to note that the area of crushing surface presented by a
ball 8£ inches in diameter is 213 square inches, and that in this small
30-inch machine, revolving at 300 revolutions per minute (this being about
the speed required for the mill), the centrifugal force is equal to 2,079
lbs.
In a large mill, say 6 feet in diameter, with an 18-inch ball, weighing 780
lbs., the revolutions being 200 per minute, the force of the ball, obtained
by its centrifugal motion, would be equal to 23,868 lbs., or nearly 11 tons,
and the area of crushing surface would be 1,018 square inches.
These figures are worthy of note, inasmuch as in this later machine it will
be observed that the area of crushing surface presented by the rolling ball
is equal to over 7 square feet, and the original weight of the ball,
although only 780 lbs., when travelling at a velocity of 200 revolutions
* Samples in both a crushed and uncrnshed state were exhibited and inspected
by the members.
Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer. Ill
a minute, attains the enormous crushing power of over 10 tons; this
stupendous force so rapidly excited will explain why a machine on this
principle and of the same size, viz., 6 feet, will pulverize the same
quantity of rock as can be turned out by a 40-stamp battery.
The weight of the 30-inch mill is only 3 tons, and of the 6-foot machine 10
tons; stamping machinery of the same capacity as this latter mill would
weigh between 100 and 120 tons.
In comparing the crushing power of this latter sized mill with the results
obtained by edge runners, it should be remembered that this force of 10 tons
is exerted around the periphery of the machine 200 times in each minute,
while edge runners of weight sufficient to equal this force, could only
travel twelve times per minute, and as this crushing force is acquired from
the dead wreight moved, it requires heavy and ponderous machinery of a
power-absorbing nature; these remarks apply in a greater or less degree to
rolls and burr stones.
The following extract, taken from the "Scientific American," in speaking of
"Thompson's Pulverizer," will explain more clearly than the writer can, the
great advantages of this mill, especially in places wdiere scarcity of water
exists :—
The fineness of the ore depends on the number of meshes of the screen and
the quantity of water used; the more water used, up to a certain quantity,
the more pulp will be washed out.
With very little water a less quantity will be done, but it will be very
much finer. To give the mill all the water that can be used requires but 400
gallons per ton of pulverized ore. This compares very favourably with the
amount of water used by the stamp mills. In the Black Hills, where they must
economize water, they use 2,500 gallons per ton of ore; at the Kara Avis
mine just enough water to carry the pulp over the plates was found to be all
sufficient. This mill, which has used the machine (Thompson's) longest, is
doing satisfactorily from 3 to 4 tons per hour with but little wear.
There is no wear of note on any part of the mill except on the ball and shoe
ring. The latter is made of rolled steel; the ball is made of the very best
coal blast charcoal iron, deeply chilled, which gives it a degree of
hardness not exceeded by the best tool steel.
The amount of slime made is but a small percentage of that made by a stamp
mill, and from the peculiar form of the pulp, it is more readily
concentrated, as shown by actual workings on a very large scale.
The mill in its construction is very simple and easily set up, and any
wearing parts can be replaced in an hour.
The lower half of each screen frame is supplied with a door which is hung on
hinges, so that it can be raised and the mill cleared out while it is in
operation if necessary.
It is not possible for rust gold to escape, as it is brightened by the
rubbing it receives while in the mill.
A great point in the mill is its very low speed and small power required.
112 Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer.
In a paper read before the Franklin Institute on January 18th, 1882, by 0.
Henry Roney, M.E., the following remarks, in reference to this pulverizer,
and the following Table of Comparative Results will be found:—
Disregarding minor details, such as the driving pulleys, screens, bolts, and
bearings, the entire pulverizer is composed of six pieces—the bottom, top,
discs, ring, and ball.
The machine is divided directly through the middle, and requires no
expensive foundation upon which to place it, three ordinary timbers
answering all purposes, and but four bolts being required to hold it
together, These removed in a few moments, the machine can be taken away
bodily.
The wearing parts of the machine, such as the ring, in which the ball
revolves, the rolls, the discs, and the ball itself, are made of the best
chilled charcoal iron, much harder than the best tool steel, such tools as
cold chisels having been ground in this pulverizer to demonstrate the
hardness of the metal and effectiveness of the motion .
The hardest rock may be ground with very little motive power, the largest
machine —they are made of three sizes—requiring but ten horse-power to
pulverize 60 to 75 tons of ore per day, a quantity equal to the work of a
35-ton stamp mill; the next smaller size will pulverize about two-thirds,
and the other about one-half of the amount done by the larger machine, with
a proportionately small amount of power. The screen used is No. 60 mesh, and
on testing the pulverized ore which passes through, it was found that 75 per
cent, of it would pass through a 100 mesh screen, which is much finer than
gold or silver ore crushed by ordinary stamp mills.
In order to compare the results obtained by this pulverizer with those given
for stamp mills in California, Colorado, Lake Superior copper mines, etc.,
by llossiter W. Raymond, U.S. Commission of Mining Statistics, Prof. T. H.
Eggleston, C. M. Rolkes, M.E., A. J. Bowie, jun., Prof. H. S. Monroe (Trans.
Am. Inst. Mining Engineers), and E. P. Althaws, U.S. Centennial Report, I
have prepared a Table giving the maximum results obtained with stamps in
different localities, together with those obtained with this machine.
In the large machine, the ball, originally measuring about 11 inches in
diameter, weighing 180 lbs., is used until reduced to about 9 inches in
diameter, weighing 100 lbs., losing 80 lbs. of metal, during which time it
crushes about 320 tons of a hard Lauren -tian rock, giving a loss of about
¦% lb. of iron to each ton of ore crushed, while with ordinary stamps, one
shoe, weighing from 300 to 320 lbs., is estimated to crush 40 tons of quartz
rock before it is discarded, and loses from one to several pounds of metal
to each ton of ore crushed.
The amount of water required per ton of ore for the pulverizer is also
claimed to be less than one half of that required for a Californian stamp
mill, a very important consideration when we understand the great difficulty
in obtaining water which frequently exists in mining regions.
The ore receiver and elevator are not necessary where the rock breaker is
placed on the floor above and the broken ore fed directly into the hopper,
which is the most economical mode of feeding, and the plan recommended by
the manufacturer.
TABLE OF COMPARATIVE RESULTS, FRANKLIN INSTITUTE TRANSACTIONS, BY C. H.
RONEY, M.E.
Stamps. u ¦ t. m 9
S3 Coarseness of Sands.
---------------- g f £g £§ s *¦*
-----------=------------- I
S« g S M* £* a« i-S .3 .9
2*s £g»»§a3 S Character
Location or Mill. Character. -g . A g
2 S g« £ g Sf gg S| 8s «| J «| if <s|
O of0«
v to o* I » gp, Sg S 1° 5g
5g ta g-s-S g-|-i |
"
f rt i-H ft(
Lbs. Ins.
Lbs. Gals. Feet.
California—Eldorado County ... Californian 665 10 80 No. 6
... 3-93 ...... 5"282.................. Quartz.
pattern
Do. Nevada County ... Do. 1,000 11 60'
...... 2-00 ...... 5"282.................. Do.
Colorado—Gilpin County ... Do. 900 15 50
...... 3"30 .........................'.. Do.
Nevada—Virginia City...... Do. ... 8 100
......... 4£ ........................ Do.
Dakota—Deadwocd ' ...... Do. 758 9 85 No. 6
...... 3TV............... ......... Do.
Utah—Ontario District...... Do. 800 8 92 „ 30
...... 2± ... Dry .................. Very hard.
Michigan—Lakes Superior, Cala- Ball steam 4,500 20 90 ^ 60
2"00 120 1 7'925 28 20 52 ...... 15|xl2J
Conglomerate.
mut, and Hecla hammer
stamp
Michigan—Lakes Superior and Atmospheric 270 16 120 .........
6| ........................ Do.
Phoenix stamp
Brazil—Mono Velho, St. John Cornish 640 12 73
...... T41 ........................... .........
del Rey pattern
Australia (Clunes)—Port Philip Do. 800 8 75
...... 3-30 ............... ............ .........
Company
Australia (Clunes)—Port Philip Do. 800 8 75
...... 2'42 .......................... .........
Company
Ball.
Thompson's Pulverizer, size B ...Centrifugal 180 ... 230 No. 60
10 6 to 1\ 60 \ 625 ......... 25 75 7x4 Very hard
& tough
hall
Laurentian rock.
Do. ,, C ... Do. 120 ...
300 „ 60 6 6 30 A 625 ......... 25
75 5 x 4 Do.
Do. „ D ... Do. 70 ...
400 „ 60 4 6 15 i 625 ......... 25
75 4 x 3 Do." .
- 114 THOMPSON'S PATENT- CENTRIFUGAL PULVERIZES.
In order to make the Table of Comparative Eesults, given by Mr. Roney, as
clear as may be, the writer has taken the following " Table of Dimensions
and Duty" from the recent and comprehensive book on "Gold: its Occurrence
and Extraction," by Alfred G-. Lock, F.R.Gr.S.
Mr. Lock says:—"The annexed Table reveals at a glance the dimensions and
working results of a number of mills in various parts of the world,
including some that may be considered representative."
TABLE OF DIMENSIONS AND DUTY.
See " Gold : its Occurkence and Extraction," by A. G. Lock, F.R.G.S.
A(tTTT ™ Weight Drops Depth Crushed *S P. Duty
;Wti Holes per i Water per
TWptot of »er of per24
o! Per 'stamr, S(l-In'of ; StamP
District. Stamp. Minute. Drop, hours. g| Stamp.
&tamP- Grating. - per 24 hours.
___________,________________._________________________|_________
Lbs. Ins. Tons. Tons.
Gallons.
Grass Valley ... 850 61 10 40 20 2
......
Do. ... 700 68 10 32 20 1*12
Eureka ... 950 80 9 ... 60 2$-3
Brunswick ...... ... ... 160 56 3
Regstone ... 750 75-80 ... 75-80 24 2
......
Idaho...... 950 80 9 ............
Metaloni ... 900 90 10 ...... ......
Port Philip ... 672 75 ......... 2-2 1
Do. ... 896 75 ......... 3 1±
Nova Scotia ... 650 55 6-9 ...... 1 -1J
......
Cwt.
Ballarat ... 4 -8£ 50-85 7-10 ...... 1-4 1-2
40-200 950- 8,640
Buckworth ... 4£-7f 40-90 5-14 ... ... J-4 f-lj
60-140 720-11,520
Sandhurst ... 5-8 25-75 6-18 ...... 1 -3f f-2
64-140 4,000-8,640
Maryborough... 4£-8 50-75 6-22 ...... 1-3 A-2£ 70-144
900-8,640
Castlemain ... 4J-8 35-75 6-15 ...... 1 -3i J-2
40-144 4,800-12,960
Ararat ... 5 -6| 60-72 7|-10 ...... li-L] |
90-120 4,320-12,960
Gippsland ... 6 -7| 60-80 7-10 ...... 1^-2 f-l£
70-250 1,600-25,000
Tn the same work the following appears, in reference to Thompson's
pulverizer:—
The action of Thompson's pulverizer consists in the use of a heavy ball
within a revolving drum, the ball being thrown by centrifugal force against
the material to be crushed.
The size weighing 5 tons, and running with a 190-lb. ball, requires 10
horse-power, and pulverizes 60 tons per twenty-four hours to a degree that
allows it to pass through a 60 mesh sieve.
Allowing the latter part of the paragraph to be correct, the explanation of
the principle of the machine is here not yery clear. The ball and discs
while revolving on different axes necessarily take the same direction, but
the shoe ring around which the ball travels is stationary.
By referring to Mr. Roney's " Table of Comparative Results," and to Mr.
Lock's "Table and Dimensions of Duty," it will be observed that
THOMPSON'S PATENT CENTRIFUGAL PULVERIZER. 115
whereas the mineral pulverized is made to pass through screens with 3,600
holes to the square inch in "Thompson's Pulverizer," the size of the screens
in the others in no case exceeds 900 holes to the square inch.
It should also be noted that Mr. Roney states that on testing the pulverized
ore 75 per cent, was found to pass through a mesh containing 10,000 holes to
the square inch.
Many mining engineers have frequently pointed out that the evil of the
present system of treating gold quartz consists in the fact that the meshes
used on the boxes of the stamps have too few holes to the square inch, and
consequently allow the crushed material to pass over the mercury tables
without being of sufficient fineness to liberate all the free gold; this was
found to be so in the case of the Indian gold mines, and screens with meshes
of from 2,000 to 3,500 holes per square inch were sent out to be introduced
on to the boxes of the stamps, but they would not answer, as the boxes
immediately filled with the crushed mineral, the stamps not being able to
pulverize the ore to a sufficient fineness.
With stamps weighing 900 lbs. each, and screens fixed at both the front and
back of the boxes, it was found that not 10 per cent, of the original output
could be maintained with these screens.
It is well known that in ordinary stamping, duplicate stamps and shoes are
required to replace those discarded or thrown out, and the writer can
corroborate the figures given by Mr. Roney as to the loss of metal in
stamps, and the waste occasioned by the wear of the stamp heads and shoes,
which after a short use are of no further commercial value; it is,
therefore, important to mark the figures given of the wear of Thompson's
machine, which shows in exceptionally hard rock a wear of only ^ lb. of
metal for each ton of ore crushed.
It is also stated that as the ball always retains its spherical form there
is practically no waste, as the ball, although rendered useless for the
original machine by its wear, can be further used for smaller machines,
which, in many cases, may be on the premises.
Reference has been made at the commencement of this paper to the bulky
nature of the machinery used for ordinary crushing purposes, and also to the
expensiveness of the foundations required. It is no uncommon occurrence in
foreign mining enterprises to find that two or three years are spent in
getting the mill to the mine and having it fitted up for work, where not
unfrequently it remains without doing any work whatever, the property having
been proven in the meantime to be quite valueless.
p
VOL. XXXIII,—1884.
*
11.6 Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer.
It occurs to the writer that it would be much better, in all cases where the
mine is not thoroughly proven, that some suitable but inexpensive and
portable machinery should in the first instance be erected, which would be
able without any appreciable delay to prove the value of the
property.
That this is what is wanted everyone has admitted, but it has always been
contended that there was no suitable machinery for this purpose; as,
however, a small mill like the one described can crush the hardest rocks,
the writer considers this difficulty has been overcome.
It may be contended that it would be unwise to erect a mill which would be
unequal to the output of a successful mine, but it must be noted that a
small sized 30-inch machine is capable of turning out as much crushed ore
(the meshes containing 3,600 holes to the square inch) as a mill of fifteen
head of stamps weighing 900 lbs. each with meshes containing only 900 holes
to the square inch; it is also natural to suppose that the former of these
mills would, by crushing the ore finer, give a truer insight into the value
of the property.
Unless a mine is thoroughly proven it is always unwise to erect a permanent
mill in any particular position, because it is impossible to say where the
majority of the ore may possibly come from, and it has already been pointed
out that the cost of transit of the material should be kept as low as
possible. In ordinary stamping machinery, when once the mill is erected, the
transit of the ore must be made subservient to the position of the mill,
while in using "Thompson's Pulverizer," the machine could be moved from
place to place with comparatively small
cost.
In the silver mines of Mexico it is found that the finer the ore is crushed
the more perfect is its transformation into chloride by roasting, and,
doubtless, in the treatment of most minerals which occur either in chemical
or mechanical combination with other substances, the finer they are
pulverized the cheaper and more effective will be their subsequent
treatment.
The tin ore of Cornwall in many cases has to be finely ground, and by the
application of pneumatic stamps the pulverized material is able to pass
through meshes with 1,296 holes to the square inch, and it would be
interesting to learn whether the treatment might not be still further
improved if the ore were pulverized finer.
"With respect to the suitability of this machine as an amalgamator, it may
be remarked that in many mines where the concentrates and pyrites are rich
they undergo a further re-grinding process in wheelers, pans, or
Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer. 11'J
other appliances, in order that they may be reduced to as fine a pulp as is
possible before amalgamation; this requires considerable additional motive
power, which is saved in Thompson's machine, owing to the fineness of the
ore already crushed, so that instead of having to operate still further on
the concentrates and pyrites, the mercury can be either placed in the mill
itself, or the concentrates can be treated in a similar machine specially
designed for that purpose.
Another important consideration in treating minerals is the cost of the
machinery and its maintenance, and here again this pulverizer shows a
considerable advantage over other mills.
Mr. Lock, in his book, gives the total cost of an eighty head gravitation
stamp mill, capable of crushing 120 tons in twenty-four hours, including
freight, foundations, buildings, etc., delivered in India, as £7,190, and of
twenty head of Elephant stamps, crushing the same quantity of rock, £3,455.*
These figures appear if anything to be within the mark, as the writer knows
of instances where forty stamp batteries, capable of crushing only 80 tons
in twenty-four hours, have cost between £9,000 and £10,000 inclusive of
freight, buildings, etc.
It is estimated that" Thompson's Pulverizer" would, with a guaranteed
capacity of 60 tons in twenty-four hours, doing up to 75 tons, cost £1,800
including freight, erections, and buildings.f
It will be observed on reference to the aforesaid tables that the motive
power required for the various mills ranges from one to two horse-power per
ton of ore crushed, while this pulverizer gives from 6 to 1\ tons J per
horse-power, with the ore passing through meshes of a degree of fineness
impracticable in ordinary stamping machinery.
In one of these 30-inch dry mills erected in America for grinding hard
phosphate rocks, twelve horse-power crushed 2,900 lbs. per hour, much finer
than formerly twenty-five horse-power crushed 1,000 lbs, per hour with burr
stones.
Having somewhat fully discussed the suitability of this pulverizer for the
crushing of mineral ores, the writer would now wish to shortly point out the
merits of the machine for the grinding of coal.
Fig. 2 is a section through A A Fig. 1 of the same machine, and shows the
active principle of the machine without any of its exterior fittings. Fig. 1
represents the transverse section of a complete mill fitted up in
* These figures are given by the maker of the Elephant stamps.
f Estimate made to the Indian gold fields.
% See Mr. Honey's Table of Comparative Results.
118 Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer.
its entirety, which, with certain modifications that might be necessary
under varying conditions, seems admirably suited for the grinding of coal
with very small motive power.
The ordinary coal disintegrators are acknowledged to be very great consumers
of power, owing to the excessively high velocity at which they have to run;
a velocity necessary not because of the force required to break or
disintegrate large masses of coal, but because the smaller the particles are
broken, the greater is the velocity or force that must be imparted to reduce
them still finer.
In. other words the action on the coal is irregular, too much power being
applied to the coal as it is fed into the mill, in order that there may be
power sufficient to reduce the coal to a uniformly fine dust; for the
present class of disintegrators, if running at low velocities, does not
sufficiently reduce the coal to the size required for coking purposes, but
by the adoption of a machine such as that illustrated, modified according to
the conditions of the mine, the coal would be ground to any desired fineness
with small motive power.
The action of this machine is entirely different to other disintegrators,
for the crushing and grinding force is perfectly equal and regular, and is
maintained at a low velocity.
The substance to be acted on falls from the hopper t into the feed wheel y,
forming one end of the rotatory sieve x, and taking its bearing on the neck
of the standard e. This wheel is constructed with an incline troughlike rim
fitted with feeding buckets, so that the substance falling into the rim
passes through the open spaces between the arms / into the buckets, which,
in course of their rotation with the wheel, elevate and feed it into the
mill hopper g, from which it passes through the channels h h into the
circular mill ring c, where it is operated upon by the centrifugal force of
the ball b.
For coal grinding, instead of using the screens, a series of blades k k, are
so arranged as to prevent the substance from getting away from the ball
until it is sufficiently reduced.
The mill is so encased that the substance, after passing through the spaces
between the blades, falls into the receptacle m, which is constructed with a
door n, so arranged as to accumulate and retain a quantity of the substance
passing from the mill, while a given quantity is under the process of
sifting by the rotating sieve which is fitted with a collector 0, at every
revolution, the sieve gathers and returns to the mill hopper for re-grinding
such quantity of the substance as may be too coarse to pass the meshes.
THOMPSON'S PATENT CENTRIFUGAL PULVERIZER. 119
• The collector having passed the outlet of the receptacle in course of its
revolution, a projection p in the wheel r, forming the sieve end, comes in
contact with the roller s, lifting it up in such a manner as to open the
door of the receptacle and retain it open sufficiently long to admit of the
ground or pulverized substance accumulated therein being deposited on to the
meshes of the sieve.
The projection passed, the door again closes to retain or accumulate another
quantity of substance while that it has just deposited is being sifted.
The rotary motion is imparted to the feed wheel and sieve by their
connection with the wheel r, which receives a slow motion from the shaft I,
by means of gear z as shown. The casing u prevents the escape of dust, and
the substance falling from the sieve passes through the open space w, to
which any suitable shoot or receptacle may be attached.
The degree of fineness required can be regulated by the pitch and distance
apart of the propellers h It.
The use of this pulverizer is not confined to mining, it can be applied
under very favourable circumstances for the pulverizing of fireclay and
other substances used for brick-making; the fineness of the fireclay after
treatment would probably render the bricks of greater value than they are at
present, and the cost of production would be considerably cheapened.
In many manufactures, ganister, spiegeleisen, slag, glass, pottery, and
various chemicals, are required to be ground, and' as the cost of this is
considerable, it is worth while to inquire whether the application of
Thompson's Pulverizer would not be an advantage and effect a considerable
saving,- this remark would doubtless apply with even greater force to the
important industry of cement manufacture, to the crushing of many of the
hard rocks used for making the various kinds of paints, and to the crushing
of phosphate rock for farming purposes; in all of which cases the finer the
substance is ground the better.
The following .extract taken from "Chemistry of the Farm," by Mr. James
Macfarlane, analytical chemist, will show the use of this machine for
treating coprolites:—
Coprolites; owing to their animal origin we reasonably expect to find the
exterior crusted or indurated, through having been acted upon by atmospheric
agencies, and necessarily poorer than the interior and softer portion, and
hence the advisability of using a machine for grinding them which will
effectually separate the two qualities, the outer or poorer portion and the
inner or richer, such a machine for instance as Thompson's pulverizer.
120 Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer—discussion.
In concluding this paper the writer would remark that after seeing this
pulverizer at work, his wish has heen to bring before the members of this
Institute a description of a machine which appeared to him to have merits
worthy to be placed on record.
The President said, the machine seemed to be a very beautifully designed
one, and no doubt was very efficient in its working; but it would be
required to be studied before the subject could be discussed. He proposed a
vote of thanks to Mr. Candler.
The motion was agreed to, and the meeting concluded.
PKOCEEDINGS.
MEETING, TUESDAY, MARCH 18th, 1884, AT THE GREEN DRAGON INN, WORKINGTON.
GEORGE BAKER FORSTER, Esq., Pkesident, in the Chaie.
A meeting of members of the Institute interested in the geology of the
Cumberland Coal-field was held at the Green Dragon Inn, Workington, for the
purpose of discussing Mr. J. D. Kendall's papers "On the Structure of the
Cumberland Coal-field" and "On the Haematite Deposits of Furness."
Between forty and fifty members were present.
The President said, that at the meeting held at Barrow it was suggested
that, as the time then at the disposal of members was far too short to
exhaustively discuss the subjects of Mr. Kendall's papers, a supplementary
meeting should be held at which members living in the neighbourhood of the
district described could fully and fairly discuss the points raised
respecting the local geology. They had now assembled to hear what was to be
said.
Mr. Kendall said, he did not think that he had anything further at present
to add to his papers, but he would call attention to a few corrections he
wished to make in the paper "On the Cumberland Coal-field." At page 340,
Vol. XXXIL, in the tenth line from the bottom, it should read "Ten-quarter
Band of Ellenborough," instead of "White Metal Band of Ellenborough." On
Plate XXXII. the outcrop of the Yard Band at Aspatria, and Old Brayton
Domain, was marked Main Band. Although, according to his correlation, it was
equivalent to the Main Band at Bolton and Mealsgate, it should not be marked
Main Band at those collieries, because it was there called the Yard Band,
that is, at Aspatria and Old Brayton Domain. On Plate XXXVL, in Section
Xo. 7, at the Harrington Colliery, "Three-feet Seam" was written twice
over, but the top one should read "Two-feet Seam." On page 356, in the
seventh line from the bottom, for "towards the east" read "towards the
west." He might mention there was a seam which he had
VOL. XXXIII.-1884.
Q
122 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
not taken any notice of in the paper, which was known in one part of the
district—Studfold Colliery, near Gilgarran—as the China Band. He correlated
this band with the Yard Seam of Gilgarran and the Six-quarter of Whitehaven,
which, he believed, would be considered a piece of heresy; but probably some
of the members present would show where he was wrong.
Mr. Fletcher said, it was only due to Mr. Kendall that some one who had had
a long practical experience like himself (Mr. Fletcher) of the coal-field of
West Cumberland should make some observations upon this very excellent
paper. They would all agree with him in complimenting Mr. Kendall on the
great pains and research he had taken to put the matter clearly before them.
The paper showed that the writer had a scientifically constituted mind
and a great amount of scientific training. There were, however,
some errors to which he would draw attention. In the section
given by Mr. Kendall of the Aspatria No. 1 Pit, at page 337, he
gave the thickness of the Little Main Coal at 2 feet 2 inches. On
reference to the actual boring journal he (Mr. Fletcher) found that this
thickness of the seam included impurities, the greatest part being what was
called "Rattler" in this district— that was bituminous shale. Therefore,
the seam, which might appear to be workable according to the paper, was in
reality unworkable. On page 350, Mr. Kendall gave the thickness of the
Six-quarter Band at Melgramfitz Colliery at 2 feet 11 inches; this was only
part of the seam. The upper coal was 1 foot 10 inches, shale or thill 10
inches, lower coal 2 feet 11 inches, making altogether 5 feet 7 inches of
coal, instead of 2 feet 11 inches. On page 344, Mr. Kendall stated that
he considered the Crow Band and the Ten-quarter or Master Band of the
Mealsgate district both lie in the Whitehaven sandstone. In this he was
quite sure, from his experience, that Mr. Kendall was mistaken. He (Mr.
Fletcher) had a pit which went right through these bands or seams near to
Mealsgate, and they were found in the ordinary coal measures and some
fathoms below the base of the Whitehaven sandstone, they were conformable
with other seams of coal of the Carboniferous series, and were not
conformable with the Whitehaven sandstone. On page 349, Mr. Kendall
correlated the Thirty-inch Seam in the Aspatria and Mealsgate districts with
the Crow Coal of the Workington and Whitehaven districts. In this, he
believed, Mr. Kendall was mistaken also. From the experience he had had
of these seams both at Mealsgate and near to Workington, he thought there
was little doubt that this was a seam which, at Clifton and Greysouthen, was
called the Black Metal Band, and lies nine or ten
CUMBERLAND COAL-EIELD. 123
fathoms above the Main. At Aspatria and Mealsgate it thickened to about
three feet, and went by the name of the Thirty-inch Seam. On page 340, Mr.
Kendall pointed out that in his opinion the Lickbank or Six-quarter Seam
that was worked at Broughton Moor and Dearham did not correspond with the
same seam in other parts of the district. That he (Mr. Fletcher) thought
was an error. According to the borings, and according to the actual
working of this seam at Dearham, it no doubt represented the Lickbank Seam
throughout the Workington part of the district. Mr. Kendall had omitted
in his paper to refer to the coal in the east part of Cumberland; but he
had, no doubt, intentionally confined himself to the west part of
Cumberland. It was worth while mentioning that at Na worth Colliery, in
the neighbourhood of Midgeholme and Tindal Fell, there was a seam three feet
thick, which lies within the Carboniferous limestone. So far as he knew
there was no other instance of coal being worked in the Carboniferous
limestone. The President—In Northumberland there is. Mr. Fletcher—It is
probably a continuation of this limestone. The President—Yes, it is.
Mr. Peile—Coal is also worked in the Burgh district, at Towcet, not far from
Lowther, near Penrith.
Mr. Fletcher—In Scotland there is some worked. In regard to the
correlation which Mr. Kendall argued existed between the Battler Band,
worked at Maryport and Workington, with the Bannock Band at Cleator Moor, he
(Mr. Fletcher) entirely agreed with the theory he had propounded. Without
wishing at all to detract from the merits of Mr. Kendall's remarks on the
subject, it was only right to mention that the late Mr. Isaac Fletcher,
almost thirty years ago, when he was consulting viewer for some collieries
at Cleator Moor, found, to his own satisfaction, that the Bannock Band there
worked correlated with the Battler Band in the Workington and Maryport
districts. Mr. Isaac Fletcher communicated his view on the subject to
the late Mr. Thomas Emerson Forster—the worthy sire of a worthy son—and also
to Mr. Peter Bourne, who at that time was Lord Lonsdale's viewer, and at
first they were doubtful, but they came round to Mr. Fletcher's view; and it
was established, as shewn in this paper, that the seams were identical.
Mr. Kendall pointed out the correlation of the Cleator Moor Five-feet Seam
with the Ten-quarter Seams in other parts of the district, and in this he
thought he was perfectly right; but he thought Mr. Kendall was entirely in
the wrong in attempting to correlate the Six-quarter Seam with what he
called the China Band at Oatlands. He (Mr. Fletcher) thought it was
beyond
124 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
question that this China Band was the same as the Five-feet or Ten-quarter
Seam at Cleator Moor and other parts of the district, as it there lies above
the Bannock and Main Band as well as the Lower Seam that has been spoken of.
In fact, at Oatlands Pit they had actually proved the existence of the
Bannock Band 12 fathoms under this China Band. Lower down they ought to
have found the Main Coal. The roof was there, and the sill was there; but
the coal itself was wanting, they had reason to believe, in consequence of
the extension in that direction of a nip found in another colliery a little
to the rise. He pointed this out with great respect for Mr. Kendall's
superior knowledge, but at the same time with great certainty that, upon
practical grounds, he (Mr. Fletcher) was right. As to the Bannock Band,
there was, he believed, little doubt that the Upper Seam that had been
worked at the new colliery near to Siddick was the Bannock, or what, in the
more eastern part of the district, was called the Battler Band. At that
point, he believed, the Ten-quarter Seam, which usually lies above the
Bannock or Battler was wanting. There was one part of the district where
the two seams were found in an unusual state of perfection, and that was at
the "William Pit at Clifton Colliery, now belonging to the "West Cumberland
Iron Company, and sunk under his direction about twenty years ago. There
was the Upper Seam, the Ten-quarter, about 5 feet 10 inches of almost clean
coal, and 7 fathoms below that there was this Bannock or Battler Seam, as
follows:—Battler, on the top, 8 inches; pure coal, an extraordinary fine
quality, 3 feet 2 inches, and cannel below 5 inches, making a total
thickness of 4 feet 3 inches. He regretted to say, however, that the
Bannock or Battler Seam in this state of unusual perfection extended only a
small distance from the pit; perhaps it did not cover more than 8 or 10
acres; and in the rest of the Clifton-Greysouthen district it was not more
than 18 inches thick on the average. Mr. Kendall alluded to some great
nips found in the coal-field, especially to one at "Workington,
and to another in the neighbourhood of Camerton. Mr. Kendall seemed to be
of the opinion that the one nip was a continuation of the other coming down
the valley of the Derwent. In this view he thought Mr. Kendall was
mistaken; because the Main Band Seam, in an unusual state of perfection, 9
or 10 feet in thickness, had actually been worked between the two points
mentioned by Mr. Kendall— between Camerton and "Workington—showing that the
two nips must be entirely distinct. Unfortunately, there was a nip of
great magnitude in the Camerton district, and it had played great havoc with
the coal-field, as he knew to his cost; because where he expected to have
nearly 1,000 acres of Main Band Coal there was actually nothing. The nip
at Working-
CUfUBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 125
ton was probably quite as extensive, and it had been a source of great loss
and also of grief to the late Mr. John Christian Curwen, who sunk the deep
Isabella Pit; and it was the disappointment caused by this and other nips
that used to make Mr. Curwen say that " two hitches and a roll were better
than one nip." After sinking the Isabella Pit at a cost of £80,000 down to
the position of the Main Band, which in that district was 10 feet thick, Mr.
Curweu found the coal absolutely denuded, and he drove a drift a good
distance before he came to the coal. It would perhaps have been better if
Mr. Curwen had closed the colliery when he came to the nip, because
afterwards the sea got in and drowned a great part of the Workington
Colliery. The nip, in the Camerton, Bibton, and Seaton districts
altogether, probably covered an area of l£ square miles. There were 1,000
or 1,200 acres there in which the Main Band was, as far as they knew yet,
absolutely wanting; and many researches had been made at different times in
these royalties. The deepest boring was put down by the West Cumberland
Iron Company two or three years ago, and it went as far as 48 fathoms below
the Ten-quarter Seam without finding anything, not even a trace of the Main
Band, the place of it and of the shales which . usually enclose the Main
Band having been taken by freestone. Of course it was barely possible
that the failure of the holes to find the Main Band might be due to the
thickening of the cover. No doubt the cover did vary very much in
different parts of the district. For instance, within a space of
three-quarters of a mile at Clifton, the thickness increased from 16 or 17
fathoms at one point to 30 fathoms at the Lowther Pit. He believed twenty
or thirty holes had been bored in the three manors in search of the Main
Coal. He entirely agreed with Mr. Kendall's remarks respecting the
unproved district, marked red in the plans, lying north of the Maryport and
Carlisle Railway. The Mealsgate coal-field, and also the Aspatria
district, was bounded by an enormous down-throw fault to the north, and over
that fault only two attempts had been made to find the Main Coal, and he
need not refer to them as both were explained by Mr. Kendall. Both
attempts were unsuccessful. One went down 1,100 feet, and only got to the
top of the Wliitehaven sandstone. There was no doubt in his mind that
most of the seams in this district did extend over the whole of that
country, which goes much further than shown on the plan; it included some
score of square miles. In his opinion—though it might be after all of
them had passed away—the future prosperity of this district would be very
much based upon the development of that coal-field. Mr. Kendall did not,
he thought, say anything in his paper as to the quality of the coals in
Cumberland, and therefore, for the benefit of their friends who had come
from ¦
126 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
a distance, he might briefly speak of one or two coals. The Main Band, as
worked at Whitehaven, Workington, and other parts of the district, produced
coal of excellent quality indeed, both for household and steam purposes. For
200 years at least the coal at Whitehaven had been the leading coal in the
Dublin market, owing to its excellent burning property, its freedom from
sulphur, and its ability to bear transit. Some of the coals were excellent
for gas-making. His friend, Mr. J. S. Simpson, was now working some coal at
Harrington—he thought the Six-quarter Seam, which was worked at the deep pit
at Harrington—and the coal produced over 11,000 feet of gas, with
illuminating power of 18 or 19 candles.
Mr. J. S. Simpson said Mr. Fletcher was right as to the quantity, but the
illuminating power was 14 or 15 candles.
Mr. Fletcher said he did not think there was a coal in the Newcastle
district which did more than that. Near Dearham, a superior kind of cannel
had been found, which, for gas-making purposes, was equal, perhaps, to the
Boghead cannel in Scotland. He did not know that the quantity of gas
produced was more than Mr. J. S. Simpson's, but the illuminating power was
between B0 and 40 candles, and the excellence of this cannel coal was shown
by the fact, that it had a ready sale at 25s. per ton at the pit. For a long
time the seams in this district were considered to be unsuitable for
coke-making, in consequence of the high percentage of sulphur; but since the
iron trade took root in West Cumberland and caused a good local demand for
coke, it had been found that some of the thinner seams, not previously
worked, were purer in quality that the others and quite suitable for coking.
Mr. Snelus could tell them that the coke made from the Little Main Coal did
not contain more than 1 per cent, of sulphur, and that local coke of this
class was becoming more and more in request every year. When he was first
connected with the iron trade, twenty years ago, he did not think there were
more than twenty coke ovens in West Cumberland, and now there were built or
building 700, and the probability was, that the number would be greatly
increased. He mentioned this more as a matter of information than of
gratification to their friends in the east, who, for a long time, had had
undisputed command of the coke market at a high price.
Mr. John B. Simpson said, Mr. Kendall, in his paper, had raised some
important questions. The first point he would like to draw attention to was,
not with respect to the nature or identity of the seams, but to the
similarity which existed between the Newcastle coal-field and the Cumberland
coal-field, in what might be called its stratigraphical character. The
thickness of the coal-measures in Cumberland was put down at 2,078
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 127
feet, those of Newcastle were generally estimated at about 2,200 feet.
Mr. Kendall stated the thickness of the coal altogether was about 50 feet of
workable coal, and that did not include the thin seams. In the Newcastle
district there was about 75 feet of coal altogether, but this thickness
included the thin seam coal; he supposed about 50 feet was the probable
thickness of the workable coal. Another point of interest was that in the
first part of the Newcastle coal-measures, viz., in the first 1,100 feet,
there was a barren district similar to that of the Whitehaven sandstone, in
which there are no seams of coal of workable thickness; the first they came
to was the High Main, at about 1,100 feet, and below that for 700 feet,
there were the workable seams of the Newcastle district, and in about the
same zone occur the workable seams in Cumberland. Then below this was 400
feet, making 2,200 feet to the millstone grit, which was about 400 feet
thick. The Newcastle millstone grit did not contain any workable seams of
coal, nor did he think that any millstone grit in West Cumberland contained
any workable seams. He asked Mr. Kendall whether he knew exactly the
thickness of the millstone grit; as it was not stated in the paper. The
other point to which he wished to draw attention, and which Mr. Kendall did
not go into, was the duration of the coalfield. On referring to the Keport
of the Royal Commission in 1871, he found that the total quantity of coal in
the Whitehaven coal-field, taking the seams above 30 inches in thickness,
was 250,000,000 tons, and under the sea, taking 8 miles in length by 2 miles
in breadth, gave another 100,000,000, making about 350,000,000 tons of coal
altogether. If they assumed that the output of coal was, as Mr. Fletcher
told them, 2,000,000 tons a year, that would give 170 years, and if they
deducted the 13 years passed since the report was made, there was now only
157 years. This seemed to be a short period, but he was glad to hear from
Mr. Fletcher and Mr. Kendall that there was every probability of seams being
found under the Permian formation, which probability he hoped would be
realized. As to the carboniferous limestone formation at Acomb, near
Hexham, there was a 4 feet 4 inch seam in the upper part of it; at
Plashetts, also, there was another seam 4 feet thick, which was still lower
in the formation. In the north part of Northumberland there were many seams
in the mountain limestone. The Blenkinsopp Seam was about 3 feet in
thickness, and he had no doubt it was probably the same age as the Acomb
Seam, or thereabouts. He thanked Mr. Kendall for the able paper which he
had prepared.
Mr. Peile said, they were all much indebted to Mr. Kendall for his
excellent paper. He had taken great pains in collecting
128 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
his information, and had prepared it in a manner useful to refer to. Mr.
Kendall stated that the dip of the Workington coal was to the north; the dip
was to the west. A series of upcast faults thinned off the coal-measures to
the south. The dip was about 9 inches to the yard. Mr. Fletcher had spoken
of the Isabella Pit being sunk and the drift having been driven about 600
yards. He (Mr. Peile) thought the Main Band Seam was found to be 4 inches at
the nip in the pit, but after driving a drift about 100 yards, the Main Band
Seam was then found in its usual thickness. Mr. Fletcher spoke of the
Ten-quarter Seam being a good thickness at Clifton Colliery for a small
area, and he (Mr. Peile) thought it was a well-developed seam of 6 feet in
thickness at Crosby Colliery, extending over a large area and adjoining the
fault referred to in that district. Looking at the unworked seams of coal
before them, the seams below the cannel, and Metal Band or Main Band Seam,
were what they had to look to in the future, and the most important one was
the Six-quarter, which was known by different names, the Lickbank, Hamilton,
and the Yard in some places. Where this seam was found to be thin, it was
the upper part of the seam only, and it seemed to be general all throughout
the district, and where it was thicker, it was a lower coal which was absent
at other places. He endorsed what Mr. Fletcher had said as to the quality of
this seam; it was the best in the district.
The President asked whether there was not a seam proved at Workington below
the Hamilton Band ?
Mr. Peile—There is the seam known as the Virgin Seam which is the Four-feet
Seam, and which corresponds with the coal found at the Countess Pit and
elsewhere, and lower down there should be the Udale Seam.
The President—Is the Udale Band the lowest proved seam ?
Mr. Peile—Yes ; so as far as Workington and Harrington Collieries were
concerned.
Mr. Fletcher said, Mr. Peile was correct as to the distance driven in the
Isabella Pit. He thought Mr. Peile was wrong as to the dip and rise at the
Isabella Pit; he (Mr. Fletcher) thought the rise was to the southwest.
The President said, he thought the dip was into the sea.
Mr. T. P. Martin said, he endorsed all that Mr. Fletcher had said respecting
the value of Mr. Kendall's paper, and personally he felt very much indebted
to Mr. Kendall for having gathered together so much useful information and
having put it into such a clear and intelligible form. Taking the Permian
strata as being the most recent formation connected with the
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 129
coal-field, and the existence of coal under which was a question likely to
be of serious importance in the future, he would like to ask one or two
questions respecting it. He wished to know whether any further particulars
could be got respecting the borehole at St. Bees. As to the respective
thickuesses of the St. Bees and the Whitehaven sandstones—the depth between
the two sandstones—whether any gypseous shales had been found between them,
and also the depth from the base of the Whitehaven sandstone to, say, the
Main Band Coal ? These particulars would give some idea of the amount of
unconformity of the two sandstones to themselves, and also to the underlying
coal-measures between the point where the latter disappear under the former,
and where they have been proved by the borehole. Mr. Kendall said that the
Allerby borehole proved 53 fathoms 1 foot 6 inches of Permian and Whitehaven
sandstones. He would like to know how much of this was Permian and how
much of Whitehaven sandstone. Did the borehole prove the full thickness
of the Permian and Whitehaven sandstones, or did it pass into the upcast
side of the fault before proving the full thickness ? An attempt had been
made in the Bullgill Pit to set through the fault and bore down, but, so far
as he was aware, without success. .Mr. Kendall mentions that at
Ellenborough Colliery the fault was drifted into for 21 feet from the
Ten-quarter Seam, at a depth of 120 fathoms, proving grey and brown
sandstone, and which he thinks was probably Whitehaven sandstone; but which
Mr. Steele—Avho was manager of the colliery at that time—informed him (Mr.
Martin) was certainly St. Bees sandstone. At the Aspatria No. 3 Pit, an
attempt had also been made to prove the throw of the fault from the Yard
Band, but, he believed, without any satisfactory result. In his opinion the
displacement of the strata did not exist as one large fault, but as a series
of faults, and to prove the full "throw" by drifting from the up-cast side,
it would be necessary to go a considerable distance beyond the line where
the fault was first met. Particulars had come under his notice of a
borehole w?hich had been put down at Carlisle, proving the St. Bees
sandstone at 45 feet from the surface, and afterwards passing 550 feet into
the sandstone. The stone was said to be hard and close, with very little
water. The Kelsick Moss borehole proved sand and gravel, 92 feet; clay,
106 feet; gypseous shales, 700 feet; and below this the St. Bees stone. At
Bowness-on-Solway a borehole had also been put down, proving drift, 41 feet;
gypseous shales, 367 feet; and below, the St. Bees sandstone. It would
appear from these particulars that there was a thinning of the upper
Permians in the direction of Carlisle, or that at any rate the enormous
thickness of surface drift was reduced
VOL. XXIII.—1884.
R
130 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
and the gypseous shales wanting altogether. Of course, if, as it is
supposed, the Kelsick Moss hole is upon the line of a fault, that may
account for the abnormal thickness of drift and gypseous shales at that
point. The relationships of the Canobie coal-field to this one was also an
interesting question. Mr. Kendall mentioned it as being in the lower
carboniferous rocks, and in this he appeared to be correct. From a quotation
in Hull's " Coal-fields of Great Britain," Professor Geikie—he believed it
was—in his report to the Coal Commission, supposes it "to be in the lower
carboniferous measures, and to rest on the old red sandstone. The general
dip," he says, "is southwards, and it seems not improbable that the coal
strata are but the northern outcrop of a more extensive tract which lies
concealed beneath newer formations towards the head of the Solway Firth." It
seemed reasonable to suppose that the whole of the low country on the Solway
Firth was a large coal basin, bounded by the red stone fault to the south,
and the Scotch hills on the north. He understood that what appeared to be
the outcrop of the lower coal measures had actually been proved on the other
side of the Solway, as if forced up by the Scotch hills. Several holes had
also been put down near Dumfries, one proving 8 inches of coal at 20
fathoms, and another bored 55 fathoms proving "very little red stone." He
should like to ask Mr. Kendall whether he knew anything of a "basalt dyke"
which was said to run " from Dumfries to Kirkbride, to the north of Wigton,
and on to Armathwaite and Alston Moor" ? Turning to the Whitehaven
sandstone, he was inclined to ask the question—What is it ? His own idea had
always been that the term referred to a massive purple grey sandstone, more
or less homogeneous, but varying somewhat in thickness, and of peculiar
texture and colour. Professor Hull also seemed to adopt that meaning, for he
describes it as "a massive reddish sandstone, 100 to 150 feet thick." The
late Mr. Isaac Fletcher, too, he believed, held this view, and in his "
Archasology of the West Cumberland Coal Trade," he speaks of it as a "purple
sandstone, named by the officers of the Geological Survey the ' Whitehaven
sandstone/ a full section of which is visible from the railway, a little to
the north of William Pit." He also speaks of the Senhouse High Band being
above it, not in it, as Mr. Kendall states. In his (Mr. Martin's) opinion,
this massive post of sandstone forms the base of what may properly be called
the Whitehaven sandstone series, and the existence below it of brown
sandstones and shales—differing from it in every respect except the
colour—does not prove that they belong to that section. It was also very
remarkable with what regularity this massive post of sandstone existed
throughout the district, where not
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 131
denuded. At Flimby Wood Pit, 7 fathoms below the Senhouse High Band, 17
fathoms 1 foot of what is called red post was passed through. At
Ellenborough, 6 fathoms 4 feet 3 inches below the Senhouse High Band, 11
fathoms of what is called brown post was proved. At Croft Pit (Whitehaven)
the thickness appeared to be 14^ fathoms,- at Kosegill Pit (Crosby), 15
fathoms; at Aspatria No. 3 Pit, 7 fathoms,- and at Mealsgate and Bolton the
same massive post exists. In the thin beds of brown stone and shales
found below this post of sandstone—and which Mr. Kendall assumed were part
of the same series, there was no such regularity. They varied considerably
in thickness in short distances, but seemed to approach nearer the lower
coal seams, where the measures rose to the surface, or in the neighbourhood
of faults. Then, as to the unconformity of this sandstone to the true
coal-measures, he still maintained that it had not been clearly proved, and
since the meaning of the term "Whitehaven sandstone," as adopted by Mr.
Kendall, appeared so vague, he thought the case still more perplexing and
doubtful. Of course it must be remembered that this phase of its character
was introduced w7hen it was supposed to be the local representative of the
Permian sandstone. Theories were then started to prove this, and he need
scarcely say that it was so proved, at least to the satisfaction of the
originators of those theories. It had since been proved beyond doubt to
be part of the coal-measures. Some of the theories upon which its
unconformity had been based were proved to be unsatisfactory, and he, for
one, was inclined to doubt—in part, at least, it wrould appear—its very
existence. Again, what were they to understand by the term "unconformity?"
In strata there was always more or less variation in the thickness of
rocks and then-relative depths. Many massive and well-defined beds of
sandstone found to extend over hundreds of acres in one part of the
district, were altogether wanting in another. He might mention the post
of white freestone, 10 fathoms to 11 fathoms thick, lying above the Main
Band Seam at Workington, which was not found above that seam in the new St.
Helen's sinking, about half-a-mile to the north-east. No doubt this
sandstone might be said to be unconformable, but it wras not really so as
that term is generally understood. Mr. Kendall had also attempted to
prove its unconformity by showing that it nipped off the upper coal-seams in
the direction of Mealsgate and Bolton; but this theory, though ingenious and
clever, was not supported by facts. Taking Mr. Kendall's definition of
the Whitehaven sandstone as being correct, and allowing all red or brown
sandstones and shales to be reckoned as belonging to that series, he found,
from journals in his possession, that not only was the theory incorrect,
132 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OP THE
but that in several instances there was an actual thinning of the red or
brown measures to the east. In the Aspatria No. 3 air-shaft the last
mention of brown strata is 66 fathoms above the Yard Band; the brown post, 7
fathoms thick, being 73 fathoms 3 feet 6 inches above that seam. At the
Allhallows Colliery—about 3 miles east from Aspatria No. 3 Pit, and 500 or
600 yards north of Bolton No. 2 Pit—and which he believed to be sunk on the
outcrop of the Whitehaven sandstone proper, red and brown sandstone and
shales were found in the first 25 fathoms, but no massive post of brown
stone. This showed the red or brown measures to be 80 fathoms above the
seam supposed to be the Yard Band. Of course, he admitted that at 39
fathoms there were 3 fathoms or 4 fathoms of grey freestone, with fine red
metal partings, almost like red ironstone bands; but the joints were very
open and a large feed of water running, so that very probably the partings
had been dyed. At the Bolton Company's No. 7 borehole, three-quarters of
a mile further east from Allhallows Pit, with the exception of 5 feet of red
clay about 13 fathoms from the surface, there was no red or brown measures,
and the Yard Band was proved at 70 fathoms. At Bolton Low Houses, 3 or 4
miles east from Allhallows Colliery, the Main or Yard Band is still found in
many places at a comparatively shallow depth; but had Mr. Kendall's theory
been correct this seam too must have disappeared. Turning now to the Bolton
No. 2 Pit, on the sinking section of which Mr. Kendall had, in a great
measure, unfortunately, based his theory, they found that brown stones,
etc., were found at 11 fathoms above the Yard Band, but, looking at the
section of the No. 1 Pit, sunk over 300 yards to the east of the former, but
in the same streak of coal, and without a fault of any kind between, he (Mr.
Martin) found that the brown measures were 13| fathoms above the coal.
But supposing that all these facts could be set aside, did it not seem
remarkable that in the place of the seams nipped off, other seams, identical
in almost every particular, should take their places and maintain the same
relationship to the lower seams ? The thickening of the Whitehaven sandstone
to the north is also equally unfounded, as can be proved by taking the
Bolton No. 2 Pit section and the Allhallows section, or the section of the
No. 2 Pit and that of the No. 7 borehole. In both cases a thinning rather
than a thickening is shown. Mr. Kendall mentioned that the Whitehaven
sandstone had been proved at Bolton to be 778 feet thick, and he (Mr.
Martin) would like to know where and how it had been so proved. Was it by
sinking or boring ? Because if the latter, it must be received with
suspicion, as he had found that the red water from the sides of a borehole,
in the ordinary system of
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 133
boring, frequently dyed the borings before they were got put. Turning
next to the seams of coal, the first met with was the Senhouse High Band,
and it was a well-known fact that whenever it had been proved there existed
below it a massive post of Whitehaven sandstone from 10 to 17 fathoms thick.
Mr. Kendall supposed that the Crow Band of Bolton was the same seam; but
in this he (Mr. Martin) thought he was clearly wrong. His own opinion was
that it was below the Whitehaven sandstone, and taking the Allhallows
sinking, and granting that the seam worked there was the Yard Band, and that
the Thirty-inch Seam is the Crow Coal above the Main Band, the Master Band
is found 20 fathoms higher, in the position of the Ten-quarter Seam—probably
it is that seam: 14| fathoms above, is the Crow Band, which may be the Slaty
Band, and 6 fathoms higher still is a seam which may be the White Metal
Seam. Above these again there are other small seams corresponding probably
with the Brassy Band, and the other small upper seams of the west. The
next of importance is the White Metal Seam, which, seeing that in some parts
of the district there are other split-up seams within its range above the
Ten-qnarter, is sometimes difficult to identify. Generally, however,
there is, about a fathom below this seam, a small seam of about 1 foot
thick, commonly known as the Little Coal. The White Metal Seam
corresponded, he thought, with the Cannel Band of Hope Pit, Workington, 20
fathoms above the Moor Banks or Ten-quarter; the Metal Band, 12 fathoms
above that seam, probably being the Slaty Baijd. The Ten-quarter Seam,
though variable in quality, thickness, and number of metals, is almost
universal over the district, and had generally been considered the seam next
in importance to the Main Band. He agreed with Mr. Kendall in the
correlation of the Five-feet Coal of Cleator Moor with the Ten-quarter, and
also of the Bannock Band of that district with the Rattler Band of the
districts further north. Between 1 and 2 fathoms above the Main Seam was
found what was called the Crow Coal, and except where the Main Band roof was
freestone, this coal was pretty regular, though usually of inferior quality
and unworkable. This coal Mr. Kendall supposed to be the Thirty-inch of
the Bolton district, and supposing what was called the Main Band there was
the Yard Band of the west; this probably was so. As regards the Main Band
there was, he thought, so far as the western portion of the district was
concerned, little room for doubt. It varied considerably in section, but
generally the character of the coal was well maintained. There was a very
remarkable change going eastwards, and at Bullgill the seam appeared to be
very much split up, but seemed to be traceable in what are called the Metal
134 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
and Cannel Bands of that colliery. Further east at Aspatria Colliery
there was a very marked thickening of strata between the Yard Band and the
Thirty-inch, the distance between the seams being over 30 fathoms, and the
supposed remains of the Main Band are not so clear. He thought it would
have been interesting and instructive had they had before them sections of
the Yard Band at Bullgill and Aspatria to show the thickening of the seam to
the east. Mr. Kendall said the Mealsgate Seam was certainly not the Main
Band of the west, but it must be remembered that it had many features in
common with that seam. It was almost similar in section to the Main Band
on Greysouthen Moor, and also, he believed, at Oatlands; its coal was of
similar character and quality; it had not been proved in anything like an
unbroken line, and, so far as he was aware, there was no appreciable change
going eastwards either at Bullgill or Aspatria. They must also remember
that the term "Yard Band" was an importation into the Bolton district, and
had been pitchforked over first one large barrier and tract of unproved
ground and then another until it had arrived at Mealsgate. He did not say
it was not the Yard Band—he might have the impression that it was—but he
thought it had not been clearly proved, and he would like very much to see
that done. As regards the Little Main Seam he also thought that the section
given by Mr. Kendall was somewhat misleading, but he agreed generally with
what was stated in the paper respecting this seam. The Six-quarter Seam,
to which Mr. Peile had given such an excellent character, was a seam which
varied considerably both in thickness and quality. There was no regular
thickening of the seam in any direction, as Mr. Kendall supposed, and so far
as the district to the north of Whitehaven was concerned, and with which he
(Mr. Martin) was more intimately acquainted, the general thickening seemed
more in an easterly than a westerly direction. As Mr. Fletcher had
stated the thickness of the seam at Melgramfitz was 5 feet 7 inches and not
2 feet 11 inches as Mr. Kendall stated, and all over the Greysouthen
district the seam had been proved to be of good thickness; but at Camerton
Colliery, to the west, only the top coal is found, being about 2 feet thick.
At Jane Pit, Workington, it was 6 feet 11 inches, having 4 feet 10^ inches
of clean coal; to the east of this pit it was worked free from bands of
dirt, and about 4 feet thick, and a borehole was put down from the Union Pit
workings to the west of Jane Pit, which proved it only 1 foot 6 inches
thick. In the Annie Pit, close to the Jane, but separated from it by a 20
fathom fault, it was also found of good thickness. To the north of that
pit a section was taken as follows:—Top coal, 2 feet 1 inch; metal, 1 foot
10 inches; bottom coal,
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 135
2 feet 1 inch; making a total working of 6 feet. To the south of the pit,
however, the section of the seam was as follows:—Top coal, 2 feet 2 inches;
metal, 1 foot 3 inches; coal, 1| inches; or a total of 3 feet 6| inches. The
depth from the position of the Main Band at Jane Pit to the Hamilton or
Six-quarter is 60 fathoms, though usually it is only about 40 fathoms in
other parts of the district. This thickening of strata between the two
seams, taken in conjunction with a thinning of the strata between the
Hamilton and the seam proved at Hope Pit, which is supposed to be the
Four-feet, had led some to doubt whether the Hamilton Band was really the
true Six-quarter after all. The Four-feet Seam had been proved over a
fault in Hope Pit, Workington, to be 24 fathoms below the Hamilton, 3 feet
thick. The Virgin Seam, or what he (Mr. Martin) believed to be the Udale
Seam, had also been proved at Jane Pit, Workington, about 50 fathoms below
the Hamilton, and nearly 6 feet thick. Mention had been made of the Isabella
Pit nip, and it certainly was interesting, because, unlike most other nips
that had come under his notice, the seam regained its normal thickness by a
succession of steps, as though the seam had been washed out by a running
stream of water which had subsided somewhat suddenly at different periods.
The Isabella Pit was sunk to the position of the Main Band at 128 fathoms,
but the seam itself was entirely nipped of. The pit was sunk to a total
depth of 131| fathoms, and a borehole put down 4 fathoms 2 feet 5 inches
further to what is called the Fiery Cannel, which satisfied Mr. Curwen and
his engineers that the seam was nipped off. A drift was started away
under the roof stone to the south-west till it cut the 13 fathom up-throw
fault. It was then turned to the north-west and cut the Main Band at about
200 yards to the dip, at that point only 1 foot 4 inches thick. Ends were
then driven water level, and after passing through several up-throw faults
the seam was found its full height. The total width of this nip had not
yet been proved, though the Main Band Seam, as had been proved by borings
from the Moorbank's workings of John Pit, was found to be wanting for
several hundred yards to the north. The new winning of the St. Helen's
Company to the north of Workington would, no doubt, prove the width of the
nip in that direction. The general dip of the Workington Colliery was
north 14 west, and the average dip and rise 1 in 6.
Mr. T. J. Bewick said, that being unacquainted with the West Cumberland
coal-field, he did not propose to say anything thereon, but with respect to
coal being worked in the mountain limestone formation. Members of the
Institute would recollect that there had been one or two papers written and
published in the Transactions on the mountain lime-
136 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
stone coal. North of the River Tyne, it was worked at Bleukinsopp of
considerable thickness; at Haltwhistle, and at Fourstones, where Mr. Benson
worked it extensively. It was worked at Acomb, near Hexham, and northwards
near Rothbury, and in the opposite direction, at several places in
Allendale, and at Hawes in Yorkshire. This covered a great extent of
district, and there was no doubt of its being the same seam over the whole
area. As to coal occurring in the millstone grit, there was only one
instance he knew of, and that was at Tanhill, south-east of Kirkby Stephen.
This is near the summit of the mountain range at the head of Swaledale,
where there are two pits, called the William Pit and the King Pit, and the
coal is carried down the dales for the use of the people, and for smelting
ore into lead. This is the only instance known to him of coal being worked
in the millstone grit.
The President asked if in the instance mentioned by Mr. Bewick the coal was
absolutely proved to be in the millstone grit ?
Mr. Bewick—Yes; he believed it to be so; it is above the limestone
formation, the coal-measures are not known to exist there, and he had always
understood it to be in the millstone grit. He did not know the thickness of
the seam, but it was worked pretty extensively for land-sale. At page 351
Mr. Kendall stated that " It is no uncommon thing to find a dislocation of
40 or 50 fathoms dying out altogether within a quarter of a mile." He asked
Mr. Kendall, and other gentlemen present, if this was a well-proved or
well-known fact. It seemed to be so incredible that a fault of 40 or 50
fathoms should die out within a quarter of a mile that he could scarcely
believe it. At least, in his own experience he had not found it so.
Mr. Vivian said he might inform Mr. Martin that a little gypsum was found in
the sandstone at St. Bees, and the Whitehaven sandstone was proved at
Kelsick Moss down to 1,040 feet.
Mr. C. J. Croudace, in reply to Mr. Bewick, said he could say from his
experience that in one colliery in the district a fault of 42 yards ran out
entirely in a distance of half a mile.
Mr. Fletcher said, he could mention a case still more in point. At
Melgramfitz Pit, the coal-field was bounded by an up-throw fault, which, in
the valley of the Derwent, could not be less than 200 to 250 fathoms. A mile
to the south the fault had been set-through, and absolutely proved to be no
more than 40 fathoms, so that from 160 to 200 fathoms was run off in the
course of a mile. There was, of course, only one explanation for it: on one
side the strata dipped to the north and on the other side to the south,
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 137
Mr. John Daglish said, he had met instances of this. There was a fault in
the Harton Pit running out quicker than this. There was a fault in the
Silksworth Pit, about 40 fathoms, which ran out in about half a mile. In
these cases, the strata on one side generally rose and the other dipped, and
they thus got a large throw in a short distance.
Mr. David Burns said, he would ask Mr. Kendall where he placed the limit of
the millstone grit under the coal-measures, and whether there was any
evidence that the coal-measures were lying conformably on the millstone grit
? It seemed around the district of the lakes, in every geological period,
there had been a great deal of commotion and change of circumstances, so
that no bed seemed to be constant in character or thickness to any
considerable distance. Mr. Kendall need not think less of them,
therefore, if they criticised his correlations of these beds very much, nor
need they think less of Mr. Kendall if he found it necessary in the future
to alter them. Looking at the section of the lower portion of the
Cumberland coal-measures, so far as he was acquainted with it, he would say,
from a pretty intimate acquaintance with the millstone grit of the Newcastle
coal-field, that the Yard Seam of this coal-field was about the same
thickness as the Brockwell of Newcastle. As to the presence of coal in
the millstone grit, he might say he had seen coal under each of the three
beds of the millstone grit of the Newcastle coal-field, varying from three
to eighteen inches in different parts; but they were very inconstant.
Mr. Robert Wilson said, that at his colliery, Broughton Moor (Bertha No. 2
Pit), he thought it was not the proper Six-quarter Seam which was opened,
but probably the seam below, which was not a good coal. Where they
expected the Six-quarter they got only one inch of coal and a sill. They
had sunk and bored lower still. As to the large barren tract in the centre
of the district, they worked to the south side of their Robin Hood Pit on
Mr. Curwen's land, in Flimby, till the coal was washed off apparently; it
was not just a nip in strata doing away with it. At one part it seemed in
steps; and when it got on to the cannel, which was harder, it ran a long
way. In one place there were two cannels, one lifted on the top of the
other, and this was conclusive proof that it was the action of water. The
roof in all places where the wash off occurred was white freestone.
Mr. Kendall replied on the discussion. He said he was very much pleased that
there had been such a large amount of destructive criticism, for it showed
at least that considerable interest had been taken by some of the members in
the paper. But he would have liked to see a little more constructive
criticism. He thought he would be able to prove the
VOL. XXXIII.—1884.
S
138 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
erroneous nature of the more important criticisms and maintain the
conclusions at which he had arrived in the paper. Mr. Fletcher was right as
to the section of the Little Main Seam at Aspatria. Instead of being as in
the journal, p. 337 of the paper, it should be as below :—
Ft. Id.
Coal ... ... ... ... ... ...
2
Rattler and splint ... ... ... ... 1 0
Coal ..................1 0
2 2
He did not, however, think that anyone would be misled by this. If so, he
might warn them that there are other places in the paper where only the full
thickness of seams are given, the word coal in the journals standing only
for coal-seam, except where a section was given clearly. Mr. Fletcher was
also right as to the thickness and the section of the Lickbank at
Melgramfitz. The remaining and more important criticisms of Mr. Fletcher he
considered to be altogether wrong. If Mr. Fletcher would look at the paper
again in connection with his remarks as to the Thirty-inch Seam and the Crow
Coal, he would find that he had quite misunderstood the paper.
Mr. Croudace—Asked what depth was shown in Mr. Kendall's section between the
Yard Band of Aspatria and the Thirty-inch ?
Mr. Kendall—About 35 fathoms at Aspatria, No. 3 Pit.
Mr. Croudace—It is really about 160 feet. It has been proved at Brayton, No.
2 Pit.
Mr. Kendall—The seam which is usually called the Thirty-inch in the Aspatria
district is not the equivalent of the Thirty-inch of Bullgill, but of the
Metal Band as there named, and the 35 fathoms just mentioned is the proper
Thirty-inch.
Mr. Fletcher repeated the opinion he had expressed before, that the
Thirty-inch Seam at Mealsgate does not represent the Crow Band at
Ellenborough and other places, but the Black Metal Band of the Clifton and
Greysouthen district.
Mr. Kendall said, that he had not mentioned anything in the paper about the
Thirty-inch of Mealsgate. What he said was, that the Crow Coal at
Ellenborough was the equivalent of the Thirty-inch of Bullgill. The next
point raised by Mr. Fletcher was as to the Lickbank at Greysouthen and
Broughton Moor. It was admitted by Mr. Wilson that they did not claim the
seam at Broughton Moor to be the same as the Lickbank of Greysouthen, and
clearly they were two different
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 139
seams. Whether they took the depth below the Cannel and Metal Band, or
the section of the beds, or the succession of seams, or anything else, it
was quite clear that the one seam was not the correlative of the other, and
that the so-called Lickbank at Broughton Moor corresponded with a seam at
Greysouthen which was some fathoms below the Lickbank there. This agreed
with what Mr. Wilson had said. They would find the same thing at
Aspatria; the Lickbank there was lower than at Gilcrux, and corresponded
with the Greysouthen Lickbank. An explanation which suggested itself to
his mind was this: Mr. Steele (who, he believed, had managed both the
Aspatria and Greysouthen collieries) probably gave the names to the seams,
and in all likelihood he would give the same name to a seam in a
corresponding part of the strata in different parts of the district.
Mr. Watson said, there was a slight nip on the north side of Broughton Moor.
The Lickbank was shown in the shaft a few inches thick, showing it was in
the pit. As stated by Mr. Wilson, the seam below was not the Lickbank, it
was called so in the section.
Mr. R. Wilson —It is called so in the section, but it is not so. Mr.
Kendall—With reference to the China Band, the way he arrived at the
correlation of that seam was by comparing the section of the Gil-garran
coal-field with that of Greenspot ajid other collieries in the same
neighbourhood. He found an exact correspondence in the beds at the
different places, and the collieries were quite near together. At
Gilgarran there are three seams, known as the Two-feet Coal, the
Eighteen-inch, and the Yard. The Two-feet and the Eighteeen-inch are
separated by about five fathoms of metal, and so are the Eighteen-inch and
the Yard Coals. The same seams occur at Studfold, where the lowest is
called the China Band. This seam he believed was the correlative of the
Six-quarter of Whitehaven or the Yard Band of Gilgarran for the reason
mentioned, that the Gilgarran and Studfold collieries were close together;
and it was quite possible to make a correlation, almost bed for bed. The
China Band at Oatlands Pit is doubtless the same seam as the China Band at
Studfold and Greenspot; but he thought that Mr. Fletcher was quite wrong in
saying that they had found the Bannock Band below the China Band at
Oatlands, as it was really a small seam or rather two small seams lying
between the Yard Band and the Four-feet Coal of Gilgarran, as the
accompanying Plate V. will show. As regards Mr. Fletcher's observations on
the nips at Workington and Camerton, he (Mr. Kendall) did not give a
positive opinion on this matter in the paper; he only made a suggestion.
The fact how-
140 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
ever of coal being worked, as mentioned by Mr. Fletcher, between the points
where nips were met with, did not invalidate the suggestion made in the
paper.
Mr. Fletcher—But the nips are not continuous.
Mr. Kendall said, he never suggested that they were, but simply that they
might be parts of one original nip. He would next deal with Mr. Fletcher's
remarks as to the seams in the Whitehaven sandstone. The conclusions drawn
in the paper on this part of the subject are so novel and have such an
important bearing on the question of the extent of the coal-field below the
Permians in certain directions that it is well the conclusions should be
thoroughly established. One of the speakers mentioned that in the new
sinking at Flimby there was a red post sunk through some distance below the
Senhouse High Band. He saw that himself, and was very much interested in it,
and took copious notes of it at the time, and that really threw light upon
the whole thing. They would find in examining sections of the Whitehaven
sandstone at different places, that it was characterised by certain purple
grey sandstones and shales. In boring and sinking journals this purple grey
colour was entered as brown, purple, or red, according to the opinion of the
borer or sinker, and this was to be borne in mind in attempting a
correlation of these beds, from sections obtained by boring and sinking. At
Rosegill Colliery, there were a number of red sandstones and shales, but
intercalated with them there were a few light and dark coloured beds of
shale corresponding with those of the lower coal-measures. At Ellen-borough
and Flimby there were more of these dark-coloured shales between the purple
grey beds, and at Mealsgate exactly the same thing was found.
Mr. Fletcher—In boring, mistakes are often made as to the colour of the
strata. It is well known in the district that the coloured water of the red
measures at the surface going down the hole colours the strata for many
fathoms, and causes them to be entered in the journal as red.
Mr. Kendall—That is quite impossible with a careful borer, as any colouring
matter from the upper part of a hole would readily disappear when the sample
was washed. Otherwise, in boring through soft smitty haematite, nothing but
red beds would be found below, which is not the fact.
Mr. Martin—There is considerable difference between No. 1 Pit and No. 2 Pit.
The journal of No. 1 Pit corresponds with the one given by Mr. Kendall, but
the journal at No. 2 Pit shows red ground over 13 fathoms above the Yard
Band. The Allhallows Pit was a sinking, and the notes were taken by a
careful man.
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 141
Mr. Kendall—He had had lithological sections made, and these showed both the
argillaceous and the arenaceous beds. He had also made another lot of
sections to show the colours of the different strata passed through. In
this way he arrived at the line which he had marked as the base of the
Whitehaven sandstone. There was a reddish post of sandstone below the
Senhouse High Band at Maryport, which undoubtedly belonged to the Whitehaven
sandstone, and there was the same post below the so-called Ten-quarter at
Aspatria; and also, but much more split up, below the Master Band at Bolton,
as shown on Plate VI. ¦ These were the main grounds on which he had based
his conclusions as to the Whitehaven sandstone and its included seams, that
there are certain beds having a certain colour, below the Crow Band and the
Master Band at Bolton, which correspond with the bed, which, in his opinion,
is below the Senhouse High Band, and another bed not worked at Ellenborough
and Flimby. If this view were taken, the difficulty of correlating the
Crow Band and the Master Band of Bolton with seams in the lower part of the
coal-field would be overcome. He would be glad indeed if anyone present
would shqw him how either of these seams, which he had put in the Whitehaven
sandstone, could possibly be correlated with a seam in the lower part of the
field.
Mr. Martin asked to what sinking at Aspatria Mr. Kendall referred. Was it
the air shaft ?
Mr. Kendall—The section before the meeting is of No. 3 shaft.
Mr. Martin said, the air shaft was close to it, and in going carefully
through the journal he found no mention of red, brown, or purple grey strata
nearer than 66 fathoms above the Yard Band, whereas Mr. Kendall stated it to
exist at 36|- fathoms above that seam.
Mr. Kendall said, probably it might be entered as grey, for the purple grey
of the Whitehaven sandstone might at times be so described by those who were
not accustomed to nice distinctions of colour.
Mr. Martin—Between the Bolton Nos. 1 and 2 Pits, which are not far apart,
there is a difference in the thickness of ordinary strata above the Yard
Band of nearly three fathoms, and that in an opposite direction to Mr.
Kendall's theory. He maintained that the beds had been coloured by the
denuding wash from the Permian stone, and also the Whitehaven stone. They
were not like the Whitehaven sandstone, but were different altogether.
Mr. Kendall—It is a most extraordinary thing that the colouring should
extend downwards at Bolton nearer the Yard Band than it does in the other
parts of the district, if the colouring of these beds is due to
142 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
some process of staining which took place after the beds were deposited.
That such subsequent colouring should affect impermeable argillaceous rocks
at great depths seems impossible. If it had done so at Bolton why not in
other parts of the district ?
Mr. Martin—At Bolton Colliery the strata is at a greater angle than at
Ellenborongh, and it outcropped, and enabled water and colouring matter to
percolate that could not have passed in the more horizontal and better
protected beds at Ellenborough. That will explain the matter.
Mr. Fletcher—The beds underlying the Crow Seam and the Master Band in
Allhallows, which he (Mr. Fletcher) maintained are not in the Whitehaven
sandstone, are not red.
Mr. Kendall—They are not met with at Ellenborough until some depth is
reached, and then the red beds come in. At Allhallows the equivalents of the
red beds occur below the Master Band, but in the sinking journal they are
described as grey, probably, for the same reason as the beds in Aspatria
Pit, referred to by Mr. Martin, are not spoken of as red or purple grey. As
shown in Plate VI. herewith, there is but a small thickness of reddish beds
below the Master Band at No. 3 Pit, Aspatria, but in a borehole close to
that pit, as shown in the section, there is the full thickness of reddish
beds; and it cannot be said that they have been stained by colour from the
upper part of the borehole, because there is not any red ground in the upper
part of the hole. This section therefore disposes at once of the suggestion
of Mr. Fletcher and Mr. Martin that these lower red beds are stained during
the operation of boring.
Mr. Fletcher—They are not conformable with the Whitehaven sandstone.
Mr. Kendall—That is the point in dispute, but if Mr. Fletcher will travel
beyond this unsupported assertion, it will be quite easy to show where he is
wrong.
Mr. J. B. Simpson—Is everybody agreed that the Yard Band Seam shown in the
different sections can be traced through ?
Mr. Fletcher—There can be little doubt that the correlation of the' Yard
Seam in the paper is correct, if what is called the Main Band at Mealsgate
be the same seam.
Mr. J. B. Simpson—Are the quality and character the same ?
Mr. Fletcher—Yes, very much the same.
Mr. Kendall, in answer to Mr. J. B. Simpson, said that in a paper V On the
Haematite Deposits of West Cumberland," which he some time ago read before
the Institute, it was stated that the thickness of the millstone
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 148
grit was found to be 450 feet at Parkside. What the thickness was below the
coal-field he did not know, but he hoped to settle that matter in a paper
which he was preparing on the correlation of the different members of the
carboniferous system in Furness and West Cumberland.
Mr. J. B, Simpson—Mr. Kendall says that the red beds are uncom-formable with
the other measures. Take Ellenborough section. He would like to know whether
these beds are lying at the same angle as those below. There is the Senhouse
High Band; is it lying at the same angle as the Allhallow's Seam ?
Mr. Kendall—At Croft Pit the base of the Whitehaven sandstone is about 61
fathoms above the Bannock Band, and in the neighbourhood of Kowrah and at
other parts of the district, this sandstone is down on the millstone grit.
Surely there can be no better evidence of unconform-ability than this ?
Mr. J. B. Simpson—There might have been denudation between the lower beds
and the sandstone.
Mr. Kendall—Agreed that it was denudation combined with tilting which had
caused the unconformability. Difference in the inclination of seams is, in
itself, not any test of unconformity. By reference to p. 836 of the paper it
will be seen that the thickness of ground between the Bannock Band and the
Main Band, increases from 9 fathoms at the St. Bees borehole to nearly 22
fathoms at Wellington Pit. There is thus a great difference in the
inclination of these seams, but surely there is not anyone who would say
they were unconformable, One point raised by Mr. Burns related to the
downward limit of the coal-measures and the upward limit of the millstone
grit. He would not like to say much about this at present. He had not gone
into this question to a sufficient extent to allow him to correlate this
coal-field with the coal-measures on the east coast. He would therefore not
like to fix the base of the lower coal-measures, but it seemed to him that
it did not affect the present question one iota whether they said the base
of the coal-measures was below the Udale Band or above it. The most
important thing, from the miner's point of view, was to have got the
correlation of the beds. He knew some people held that the whole of the
Whitehaven coal-field was not in the coal-measures at all, but was in the
Yordedale rocks. That was however a matter on which he would not express an
opinion, as its determination involved an amount of information which would
take a considerable time to get up. In placing the coal-field above the
millstone grit, as he had done in the introductory part of the paper, he
merely adopted what appeared to be the most natural subdivision of the
carboniferous system
144 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
of West Cumberland. But when he came to deal with the district in relation
to the typical areas, it might, although he did not think it would, be
necessary to modify this subdivision. In reply to Mr. Peile, he said that
the statement in the paper as to the dip of the measures at Workington was
quite correct, as could easily be seen at any of the outcrops. To Mr.
Martin, he would say that the additional information asked for as to the
Permians, would not throw any further light upon the question of the
Sub-Permian coal-field. To go beyond the paper in this matter, would simply
be to occupy time in discussing a subject with insufficient data. The miner
or the borer, or both, have something more to do before there can be any
further profitable consideration of this most important question. Mr. Martin
says that Mr. Steele informed him that the rock cut beyond the great red
fault from the Ten-quarter Seam at Ellenborough, was St. Bees sandstone. Mr.
Steele is wrong about this, for the following reason: On the downside of
this fault, and not far from the place where the fault was intersected in
the mine, a borehole was put down from the surface and passed through a coal
seam 1 foot 5 inches in thickness. It also intersected several beds of blue
metal and of sandstone with coal pipes before reaching the depth of the
drift put through the fault. These surely do not belong to the St. Bees
sandstone, nor to any strata above it. There were numerous red beds recorded
in the journal of the borehole, but clearly they were of Whitehaven
sandstone. Mr. Martin appears to be in considerable doubt as to what the
Whitehaven sandstone is, but he understands the term to refer "to a massive
purple grey sandstone, more or less homogeneous, but varying somewhat in
thickness, and of peculiar texture and colour," and that "this post of
sandstone forms the base of what may properly be called the Whitehaven
sandstone series." Mr. Martin then gives the thickness of what he considers
the post at different places, but the whole of his remarks show that his
ideas on the subject are in a state of the most perplexing confusion, as
will presently be made manifest. Mr. Martin is unfortunate in adducing
Professor Hull as an authority on the Whitehaven sandstone, for a very short
perusal of the coal-fields of Great Britain by that writer, will convince
anyone that he is practically unacquainted with the Cumberland coal-field.
To understand clearly what is meant in the paper by the term Whitehaven
sandstone, it is necessary to know that in the neighbourhood of Whitehaven,
and overlying the lower coal-measures, there are certain patches of a purple
grey sandstone, which has for years been known as the Whitehaven sandstone.
The colour of this rock is quite peculiar, being altogether unlike that of
any other
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 145
rock in the district. Another peculiarity of it is that in places it
contains a large number of red irony nodules. In the cliffs at Bransty,
and between Wellington Pit and Port Hamilton very good sections of this rock
may be seen; and it is elsewhere exposed in the neighbourhood in numerous
quarries. Sometimes the sandstone is nearly white or a very pale grey.
For anything that is to be learned to the contrary from these natural
sections, the formation consists entirely of a mass of sandstone containing
a few thin beds of shale. But in sinking through it, as at Croft Pit and
elsewhere, it is found that a larger proportion of it is shale than would
have been supposed from an inspection of the outcrops alone. This, however,
is only what might be expected, and is in accordance with general
experience; soft shales seldom forming visible natural outcrops, except in
stream beds, and there are very few streams of any size on the area of these
beds near Whitehaven. It is therefore easy to understand how the earlier
geologists who named this formation from a study of it as developed at
Whitehaven, should be of opinion that it consisted mainly of sandstone, and
should on that account call it the Whitehaven sandstone. But when the
formation is studied in other parts of the district, as, for instance, at
Flimby and Maryport, it is found to be different from what it is at
Whitehaven. In the new pit at Watergate, near Flimby, a post of
Whitehaven sandstone about 11 fathoms thick, was entered at about 13 fathoms
from the surface. There could not be any possible doubt about its being
the same kind of rock as that which is exposed in the cliffs at Whitehaven.
Above this purple grey sandstone the rocks sunk through were of the
ordinary coal-measure type, so were they below. At six fathoms from the
surface, and therefore above the bed of purple grey sandstone, a coal seam,
knowm as the Senhouse High Band, was passed through. These are the facts
which led the late Mr. Isaac Fletcher to speak of the Senhouse High Band as
being above the Whitehaven sandstone. From Flimby pass on to Maryport,
where also the Senhouse High Band has been wrought, and where, too, the
purple grey sandstone occurs below it. For a thickness of about 32
fathoms above the Senhouse High Band, the rocks are mainly of the ordinary
coal-measure colour and character, and they include several small seams of
coal. But above these rocks, purple grey sandstones and shales appear again,
which are in all their essential characters exactly the same as the
sandstone below the Senhouse High Band. For that reason they were
included with the Whitehaven sandstone in the paper. At Rosegill and
Crosby, the interbedded light and dark-coloured shales appear to be almost
VOL, XXXI1I.-1S84.
^
146 DISCUSSION—STRUCTURE OF THE
absent, but they are seen again at Aspatria, although they are not quite so
thick as at Maryport, as will appear by reference to Plate VI. They are also
found at Mealsgate, where they have about the same thickness as at Maryport.
About three-quarters of a mile north-east of Mealsgate station, the CiVvV
Band (the equivalent of the Senhouse High Band) was found at a depth of 104
fathoms, and the first 58 fathoms were mainly purple grey sandstone ; then
followed down to the Crow Band, 39 fathoms of shales with thin coals and a
few beds of sandstone. These were mainly of the ordinary coal-measure
colour. At Bolton No. 2 Pit and in No. 5 bore at that place, the purple-grey
sandstone was found to be below the Crow Coal, although it was there split
up by shales, as shown in Plate VI. The Whitehaven sandstone may therefore
be said generally to consist of purple-grey sandstones and shales, with
which are intercalated at places shales and sandstones resembling the lower
coal-measures, and whi 'h, like them, contain seams of coal. It has been
seen that the colour-test plays an important part in the determination of
the base of the Whitehaven sandstone. It has also been seen that the
purple-grey colour which is one of the main characteristics of the formation
is sometimes absent, and that the arenaceous beds are blanched or of a very
pale colour. Bearing that in mind, it is extremely probable that the
freestone beds just above the Ten-quarter Coal at Crosby, are the base of
the Whitehaven sandstone; that they are, in fact, the equivalent of the
purple-grey beds under the Senhouse Band at Maryport, and that they have
been blanched. The two main seams above the Ten-quarter Coal there, would
then correspond to the Crow Band and the Master Band of Bolton, as shown in
Plate VI. That being so, the base of the Whitehaven sandstone, as shown at
Bullgill in Plate XXXIII. (Vol. XXXIL), and at Crosby and Gilcrux, on Plates
XXXIV. and XXXV. should be lowered. The same considerations would similarly
affect the position of the base of the Whitehaven sandstone at Whitehaven
and Cleator Moor. At Croft Pit, for instance, the white sandstones which
occur about 40 fathoms above the Bannock Band may be taken as the blanched
or unstained base of the Whitehaven sandstone. Above this are seams which
would correspond to the Crow Band and Master Band of Bolton. At Cleator
Moor, the base of the formation, on the same principle, would be placed at a
post of white sandstone about 30 fathoms above the Bannock Band, and
therefore below seams corresponding to the Crow Band and Master Band. This
is almost certainly the correct rendering of the facts; but it will seem so
outrageous to anyone who is accustomed to look at a part of the field only,
that it requires all the courage of firm
CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 147
conviction to suggest it. With these additional observations, the Whitehaven
sandstone formation may generally be considered to have the following
section where it is complete.
If the sections on Plate XXXIII. of the paper be correlated on this
principle, they would be as shown on Plate VII. herewith, whereon all the
workable seams of the field are correlated, and in the small upper seams
order is introduced where previously there was somewhat of confusion.
Another matter about which Mr. Martin seems to be undecided, is as to the
meaning of " unconformity." This seems almost incredible, for although there
may be at times the very greatest difficulty in determining an unconformity,
there cannot surely be any doubt in the mind of a geologist as to what is
meant by the term. Mr. Martin's illustration, drawn from the change in
the character of the strata overlying the Main Band at Workington and St.
Helens New Colliery, is altogether beside the question. If there is one
fact better impressed than another on the mind of a field geologist, it is
that beds of sandstone very often alter into beds of shale. Again, Mr.
Martin says that " at Bolton Low Houses, three or four miles east from
Allhallows Colliery, the Main or Yard Band is still found in many places at
a comparatively shallow depth; but had Mr. Kendall's theory been correct,
this seam, too, must have disappeared." This statement can only have been
made because Mr. Martin has failed to grasp the theory. Bolton Low Houses
is much farther to the dip of the field than Bolton No. 2 Pit, and the
effect of that will be readily understood by reference to Plate XXXIV.,
Section 6, of the paper, where it is shown that higher seams come on to the
dip, and therefore, although the seam would be cut off where the Whitehaven
sandstone comes down upon the strike line of Bolton No. 2 Pit, if produced
eastward, it would not be so cut off at Bolton Low Houses, because that
point is to the dip of such strike line. Another remark of Mr. Martin's
must be noticed: he says, "turning now to the
14.8 DISCUSSION—STRUCTUBE OF THE CUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD.
Bolton No. 2 Pit on the sinking section of which Mr. Kendall had, in a great
measure unfortunately based his theory," &c. Where did Mr. Martin get this
information ? It is true that is the only section in the Mealsgate district
which is given in the paper, but it must be borne in mind that the paper is
only a summary of the conclusions which were arrived at in the investigation
of the coal-field. Not one-twentieth part of the information used in
arriving at those conclusions appears in the paper, as it was considered
better to give as little as possible beside the bare results, rather than
bury the conclusions in innumerable details. These, however, are ready at
call to support the conclusions set forth. Mr. Martin may rest assured that
the theory was not based on any single section, but on a very large number
of sections, and only after travelling, hammer in hand, many hundreds of
miles. General conclusions regarding complicated phenomena are not to be
reached by the study of a single fact, or even of a few particular facts.
Mr. Martin in his correlation of the seams in Allhallows Pit, ignores all
the principles of stratigraphy, as will be seen on reference to Plate VI.,
in which Mr. Martin's correlation is indicated by blue lines. Mr. Martin
says that the Main or Yard Band at Mealsgate is the same in section as the
Main Band at Oatlands. If Mr. Martin will look at Plate V. herewith, he will
see that they have not got the Main Band at Oatlands. With regard to the
identity of the Main Band of Bolton, Mr. Martin may soon satisfy himself
that it is the Yard Band, if he will carefully compare the sections obtained
at Aspatria, Blennerhasset, and Mealsgate, which probably he possesses. Mr.
Martin has put a meaning on the statement in the paper with regard to the
westerly thickening of the Six-quarter Seam, which it was not intended to
bear. It is quite clear that the statement was not meant to exclude the
northerly or southerly attenuation of that seam, from the fact that the
Three-feet Coal at Harrington was said to be the same seam.
The President said, the long discussion which had taken place and the
information which had been given showed the great interest taken in Mr.
Kendall's paper, and proved the desirability of members having an
opportunity of discussing papers affecting their own districts.
The meeting concluded, and the members were entertained to luncheon by the
traders of Workington.
PROCEEDINGS.
149
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, APRIL 12th, 1884, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
GEORGE BAKER FORSTER, Esq., Pbesident, in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated :—
Oedinaey Membees—
Mr. John Jameson, Consulting Engineer, Akenside Hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr.
Benjamin James Poeeest, Mining Engineer, Calle de ras Infantas No. 18,
p°- 3°-, Portugalete, via Bilbao, Spain. Mr. J. C. Foeeest, Witley Coal
Company, Limited, Halesowen, near Birmingham. Mr. William Assheton Ceoss,
Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. Wm. Cochrane said that, as the attendance at the meeting was so small,
he proposed that Mr. Melly's paper, " JSTotes on the Warwickshire
Coal-field," be taken as read, and the meeting be adjourned.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson seconded the motion, which was agreed to, and the
meeting was adjourned accordingly.
NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
151
NOTES OX THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
J!y E. F. MELLY.
This Coal-field is the smallest in England, next to the Forest of Dean, and
extends only from Coventry to Tamworth, a distance of 18 miles, the average
width of proved workable coal being about four miles. The accompanying Map,
Plate VIII., shows that the coal-measures are but slightly seen on the
surface, and that the line of outcrop passes along the villages of Longford,
Chilvers Coton, Atherstone, and Polesworth on the east, while the boundary
line of the coal-measures on the west, or rather the point where they dip
under the Permian, runs through the villages of Bedworth, StocMngford, and
Baxterley. A large area of coal may be worked under the Permian, and, as
shown in the sections, the seams appear to become flatter, but after three
miles or thereabouts further progress in this direction is stopped by a
fault running nearly north and south. The northern boundary is simply a
large down-throw fault running north-east by south-west.
To further illustrate this Plan, two sections (Plate IX.) from the
Geological Survey are here given. They show in all five seams of coal, and
in both cases, their boundary is the outcrop on one side and a large fault
on the other.
SEAMS.
There are not very many seams in this county, but they vary very much in
thickness, in depth, and also in the thickness of the strata lying between
them. The following is a list of the coal seams which have been and are now
being worked, with the sections at some of the collieries now working them.
The section is occasionally much thicker.
Ft. Tns. Four-foot Coal ... ... ... 46 not
worked any longer.
Two-yard Coal ......... 6 0
Have Coal ... ... ... ... 2 0 sometimes
worked with Two-
yard, there being- a small parting between them.
Rider Coal........... 4 0
Ell Coal ............ 4 0
Slate ............ 6 6
Seven-feet ... ... .. ... 5 9
Bench Coal ... ... ... ... 6 0 very little
worked.
152 NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
From this section it will be seen that these seams of coal are all of a good
thickness, and in each case the section is fairly clean and free from dust
partings, except the Four-feet and the Bench coals, but almost all of them
are spoilt by an undue proportion of iron pyrites.
They lie at a considerable inclination, which dips chiefly due west, varying
from 1 in 5 to 1 in 6, but they appear to be fairly regular, although from
the southern to the northern point of the coal-field the strata between them
gradually thicken out, and they gradually get further and further apart from
each other. Thus, at Hawkesbury Colliery, the total thickness from the top
of the Two-yard coal to the Seven-feet is 22 yards, while at Griff Colliery,
about four miles north, the total thickness is no less than 60 yards.
To illustrate this a further section is extracted from the Geological
Report, and is shown in Plate IX.
It would seem that coal has been worked in Warwickshire from a very early
date, but the writer has not been able to find any reliable records of its
being worked before 1600.
The evidence on the surface at the present time of the very numerous pits,
most of them not more than six feet in diameter, points out distinctly that
mining was carried out in anything but an economical fashion. Besides coal,
both limestone and ironstone were worked, the latter until 1868, wdien it
was superseded by the use of the cheap Northamptonshire ore. It may be
remarked that on an estate of only 500 acres there are no fewer than 23 pits
which have been sunk to work one or other of the seams, and in some cases
the ironstone, and of which only five now remain open. Until quite recently
it was customary to sink a pit, put down small machinery, and work out a few
hundred yards of coal on each side, most of which was sent away by canal,
and then abandon it. In a few cases coal has been worked out by means of an
open drift from the outcrop, but, at the present time, there is hardly a
colliery in the whole of Warwickshire which has any coal left to work,
except to the dip.
The Inspector's Report for 1882 gives the number of collieries at work as
16, and all of these are still at work.
Table I. shows the output for the last two years, and also the average
tonnage drawn per day at the collieries, allowing 250 working days per
annum. It will be seen that this figure is not very high, the largest
colliery in Warwickshire producing, in fact, only about 450 tons per day
from one pit. It also shows the number of deaths which have occurred in the
same time, and the tons of coal raised per death.
NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 1 53
J..O.JJ.1J1H J-.
Persons Employed.
Average
CJnlliprips ________________________ Tons
Tons Output,
collieries Tf>T1£1 ------------------------j-----------
Raised Total of Coal allowing
Year. War"irk Raised
per Man Deaths by Raised 280 work-
Rw. -Kaisea. Under- ~ . , per
Accident. per ingdays
shire- Surface. ground. Total. Al^um.
D£ath. 6pe/
Annum.
1881 18 1,133,419 999 3,235 4,234 268 4 283,354
252
1882 16 1,066,741 1,007 2,993 4,000 266 26 41,029
266
Taking the year 1881 as an average year of deaths by accident (the whole
deaths in 1882, besides the fatal Baddesley explosion, being only three),
the number of tons raised per death in Warwickshire compares favourably with
the figure of 177,106 for the United Kingdom in 1881.
The average work done per man, as shown by the tons raised per person
employed per annum, is very much less than in the United Kingdom, which for
1881 is no less than 311 tons. This may perhaps be partly due to the very
slack working at most collieries in the district during the summer months.
FAULTS.
This coal-field appears to be singularly free from faults, except the large
ones, which practically form its boundary; but the writer has recently met
with two small down-throws, each of about 4 feet 6 inches, which appear to
run out to nothing in a distance of a few hundred yards, while the coal is
in no way deteriorated in quality right up to the fault on both sides,
except that the section appears to get thinner and somewhat harder.
GAS.
These coal-seams appear all of them to be remarkably free from gas, and all
the collieries in this district are universally worked with candles. This
makes it all the more difficult to account for the serious explosion at
Baddesley Colliery in 1882. At a colliery, well known to the writer, working
three of the above seams of coal, no gas has been reported in any part of
the colliery during the last five months.
WATER.
The great amount of water which has to be dealt with by nearly every
colliery in the district more than balances the advantages accruing from the
immunity from gas.
VOL. XXXIII.—13f4.
U
154 NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-MELD.
The strata above the Two-yard Seam appear to be many of them very porous
with the exception of the clay on the top, and large quantities of water
evidently find their way through the breaks near the outcrop; moreover, in
past years the outcrop of the upper seams has been very thoroughly worked,
and the water finds its way out of the old workings into the present pits
sunk further to the dip. Besides this, the water drains through the surface
soils further to the dip, and these being the Permian measures, they are no
doubt specially porous.
The writer has, during the past year, diminished the quantity of water at
one colliery by about one-third, by having the surface drains properly
cleaned out and all signs of cracks carefully puddled.
A further proof of the open character of the strata is the fact that the
effect of heavy rains is felt in about ten days in the workings, and this is
shown by the increased pumping required.
Another circumstance wdiich contributes to this is the fact that many of the
owners of brickworks in the neighbourhood have, in past years, indulged in a
practice of sinking small wells, 3 or 4 feet in diameter, down to a stratum
which is known as the Four-foot stone, and which is of so porous a nature as
to be capable of adequately draining the whole of the accumulation of the
clay pit. This water, of course, eventually finds its way into the adjacent
collieries.
At one colliery in Warwickshire, no sooner have new workings been opened out
in the Two-yard Seam (which, it will be remembered, is nearest the surface)
than with the first heavy break of the roof an enormous inundation of water
has each time occurred. The quantity varied from two to three hundred
gallons per minute, and continued running sometimes for several weeks, and
only ceased when work had been recommenced and the face had proceeded
several yards; and, curiously enough, when the outburst has once occurred
and ceased, the workings in the district frequently go on for years without
being further affected. It appears as if the Four-foot stone before
mentioned accumulates this large quantity of water, which breaks through at
the first opportunity and then runs itself off.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. The principal distinctive feature about the
Warwickshire coal-seams is the fact that they are one and all very liable to
spontaneous combustion. There are, of course, several explanations of it in
the district, but it is no doubt in great measure due to the heating of the
pyrites (which, as has been before stated, is in large quantities) with the
small coal which has been thrown back into the goaf.
NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 155
It is also said that the clay under the coal is one of its greatest
promoters, and many of the old colliers refuse to hole in it for this
reason, preferring to hole in the harder coal as being safer. The writer is,
however, sceptical as to this clay being the cause, and where the holing is
cheaper in it than in the coal, would always run the risk and hole in the
clay.
The conditions most apt to produce an underground fire appear to be slight
dampness and plenty of air, the warm return air being, of course, worse than
the intake air. These fires rarely occur near the face, but always at some
distance in the goaves, and almost invariably close to the packed side of a
wind road by the side of longwall working. It is, therefore, not considered
safe to have such wind roads more than about 30 yards in length, but to
drive a small coal road with a pillar of 5 yards from the workings, and to
hole through into this every 20 to 80 yards. At one of the collieries in
this coal-field no less than four underground fires, more or less serious,
have occurred in eighteen months.
The first indication of a fire is a peculiarly offensive smell of burning,
having a slight likeness to that of sulphuretted hydrogen, and steps should
then be immediately taken- to keep the fresh air from approaching the spot.
If it is possible to divert the course of the air and at the same time to
approach the fire, dams should be constructed immediately with about 3 feet
thickness of sand, and then a brick wall to keep this in, and the whole
district of the fire cut off in this wTay. Unfortunately, however, a fire
generally occurs in the return air-way from a set of workings, so it would
probably be necessary to sacrifice these workings until a new air-way could
be driven, as the air must for the meantime be diverted down the working
road and kept entirely clear of the site of the fire. Another method, which
should, however, be only a temporary one, has been tried with some success.
While another air-way was being driven to clear the site of the fire by
several yards, two brick stoppings were put in at each side of the fire at a
distance of 6 yards, and three sets of 12-inch air-pipes were built into
them, the whole of the interior between the dams being filled up with sand.
In this way the air was cut off from the fire without stopping the
ventilation of the workings.
As a rule, however, there is no excuse for this, as even in a good current
of air there will be several days warning, after the "firestink" (as it is
called) is first detected, before it developes to such an extent as to make
it absolutely necessary to dam off the place.
The writer was obliged, a few months ago, to open out a whole district which
had been "stanked off" (as the phrase of the district is) for over a
156 NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
year, and on approaching the old air-way the heat became intolerable and the
fire was burning as badly as ever. A new air-way was, however, driven within
a few yards of the old one, and as soon as the heat permitted, the old
air-way was opened and at every stenton a dam of sand was put in. By dint
afterwards of lining the whole goaf at the working face with sand, the fire
wras successfully passed, and has since become extinct. It may be added that
no material is found to suit the purpose of damming off the air so well as
the sand, clay being by no means so good.
COLLIERIES.
The general aspect of a Warwickshire colliery does not show great promise in
comparison with the larger collieries of South Yorkshire, Lancashire, and
the North of England. It is very unusual to find the shafts more than 9 feet
in diameter, and these have in many cases been sunk by untrained men, and
great trouble has in consequence occurred in shaft repairs, to say nothing
of the fact that many of these shafts have been sunk out of plumb and in
some cases are only cased with dry brick. This is, of course, due to the old
system of working only small areas to one pit. The shafts 8rG? clS ct rule,
fitted with a double-decked cage, holding one tub on each deck, and the
guides employed are almost invariably wooden guides, 5 inches by 3 inches,
made of pitch pine and secured to buntons fixed in the shaft sides every 6
feet.
GENERAL PLANT. The general plant of a colliery is also of anything but
modern construction. The boilers are generally the old egg-ended ones and
of very large diameter, and the winding engines are chiefly vertical and of
somewhat ancient construction.
TIMBER.
The consumption of timber in all the seams except the Seven-feet is
remarkably low, and at one colliery with which the writer is acquainted is
as low as fd. per ton for the Slate coal and Two-yard. In the main roads
larch is generally used, but the Warwickshire colliers are by no means
expert in timbering, and the fitting and nicking of a set of timber is
seldom properly done. Where, however, the inclines and roads have been
carefully driven and sufficient coal left overhead and underfoot, they
require very little doing to them.
TUBS.
The tubs generally used are very small and not as a rule more than 18 inches
deep. The consequence is that they only hold from 6 to 8 cwts. of coal.
NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 157
DIVISION OF GOAL.
The coals produced are generally in very large lumps, but are not selected
in the pit, except in special cases. They are all filled by hand, and as
very little slack is made in working the coal, it rarely amounts to more
than from 7 to 8 per cent, of the whole output sent to bank.
Screens are of comparatively recent introduction in this district. It is
usual to handpick the coal from each seam, the best house coals being, as a
rule, carefully packed to prevent breakage; thus, the pit top is generally
laid out on the same system as in Nottinghamshire. Referring to Plate XI.,
which is the surface plan of one of the collieries of the district, it will
be seen that there are three lines of wagons which can be loaded from four
lines of tubs. These tubs pass along, and the hard and soft qualities are
picked out separately for steam and house purposes, while the remainder of
the coal, called tub bottoms, together with what little slack is drawn out
of the pit, is taken away to the screens. These screens being at a higher
level, it is necessary to have a steam hoist or an inclined gangway working
with an endless chain, or some other such device for raising the tubs to the
right height. The tub bottoms are generally divided into cobbles, nuts, and
small, but in some cases are sold altogether as rough slack. This system, of
course, requires a great many hands and a great many tubs on the bank.
The following list, which is a division of the coal at one of the chief
collieries, shows what a large number of different kinds of coal are made
while working three seams:—
Average Price. s. d.
Best Deep Main House Coal............... 8 9
Best Deep Cobbles „ ... ... ... ...
... 80
Screened Cobbles „ ... ... ... ...
... 6 6
BrigmVs „ ............... 6 0
Best Slate „ ............... 7 0
Best Two-yard „ ... ... ... ...
... 70
Ell Coal Spires Steam Coal ... ... ... ... ...
63
Hard Two-yard „ ............... 6 3
Steam Coal ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 56
Nuts ........................ 5 0
Rough Slack ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 3 6
Fine Slack ..................... 1 9
This mode of selecting the coal by hand is found to suit the market best,
and when well organised is not so expensive as it would seem. With the use
of a screen for slack and tub bottoms, the cost is about 3^d. per ton,
including weighman and bank foreman; the latter personage being very
necessary to prevent the different qualities being carelessly mixed.
158 NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
MODE OF WORKING.
The most usual mode of working is that known as "forewinning." Plate X.
gives a sketch of the usual method of laying out the workings at a
Warwickshire colliery, and it will be seen that the pit is sunk to some
distance below the seam, and a long flat or kip in the line of dip is made
across the measures to cut the coal. After the rise coal has been worked,
the main incline is driven to the dip boundary or to a considerable
distance, sometimes 900 yards. The coal is then opened out and brought back
from here in two large stalls, which are sometimes as much as 400 yards
wide, but as a rule do not exceed 250 yards. When this district is finished,
slant roads are started out and the rope taken down each of them, but the
working faces are generally brought back as square as possible, so as to
keep the two sides of the stall of equal length. In this way the old goaf
roads are left behind, and the coal is gradually brought back to the pit
bottom. The great objection to the method, however, is the impossibility of
acquiring more coal in future to the dip, as the old drifts through the goaf
could not be well maintained, and the risk of underground fires in the
goaves would be very great. In the southern part of the coal-field the
seams, as stated above, are very close to each other, and in that case it is
usual to work two or more seams at a time, as shown in Plate X. At one
colliery there are four distinct faces of coal, each 400 yards long, as
shown in Fig. 2, Plate XL, and the Two-yard, Eider, Ell Coal, and Slate Coal
Seams are worked one in front of the other. The mode of procedure in this
case is as foliow7s:—Two main inclines, one intake and the other a return,
are driven out to the boundary, say, a distance of 700 or 800 yards, in the
lowest of the four seams, and a face on each side is then opened out in each
seam. Each of these eight faces may be holed every day, and about 50 or CO
tons of coal may be easily drawn and delivered on the flat A B from each;
the tubs are then pushed forward to the end and attached to the incline
rope, which takes from 12 to 15 tubs at a time, the inclination being about
1 in 5. It is therefore good work for one engine to do about 400 tons per
day up an engine plane of this length. It will be seen that there are
headings between the seams, so that, if necessary, the coal from one seam
may be drawn along the face of another should a fall occur.
Another mode of working is the ordinary long-wall method, as pursued
•in Derbyshire, and consists of driving out a pair of headings, the pillar
•that is left between them not exceeding 12 yards in thickness, which is
quite enough to maintain the main roads. Workings are then opened
out, with goaf roads every 50 or 60 yards and a cross-gate every 100 yards,
NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 159
and the coal is delivered to main rolleyway by ginneys, which do not, as a
rule, take more than two or three tubs at a time. This method, however, is
not found to be so cheap as the former method, on account of the large
amount of repairs required in the goaf roads, the roof being, in most cases,
very poor. It is, however, the most convenient method of working to the rise
where there is any coal left.
VENTILATION. In the forewinning method the ventilation is very simple. It is
taken down the main incline and proceeds along the face of the last seam,
returning along the next one, as shown by the arrows in Plate X., until
finally the two currents join at the air-crossing and proceed up the return.
In this way it will be seen that there is little danger of spontaneous
combustion, as the air-ways are continually changing. As the faces proceed
very slowly it is only occasionally that they change the flat bottom. When
this is done it is moved forward about 20 yards, or even more, at a time,
and in the meantime the faces at the roadside have got rather behind-hand
and are then worked up quickly. It is sufficient to place double sheets at
the entrance to all the faces to force the air round sufficiently. As there
is no gas the current of air is generally small, so as not to provoke fires.
The ventilation is generally produced by means of a furnace, and as a large
portion of small coal is necessarily left underground, this is perhaps the
cheapest method. The furnaces are not, as a rule, of good construction, and
have no side passages.
HEADING.
The cost of driving headings is exceedingly high, and this it is believed,
is chiefly due to the great importance of driving the inclines or hills as
they are called, very carefully at first, to save future maintenance. A good
portion of coal is always, where possible, left both overhead and underfoot,
and shots are never allowed to be fired for fear of disturbing this roof
coal. Main dip inclines generally cost about 8s. per yard, level road, 6
feet by 6 feet and short air-ways 4 feet square, 5s. per yard. Where the
seam is thin, it is regarded as of main importance to leave coal on the
floor to prevent subsequent creeping.
HAULAGE. The hauling engine is generally placed on the surface, and the rope
is taken down the shaft in boxes. This causes the coal to be delivered
immediately at the pit bottom. As the speed is often over 12 miles an
160 NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
hour and the inclination considerable, the duration of the rope is generally
very short. At one colliery, the main engine plane is successfully worked
with two ropes and two roads, the ropes working together and drawing the
coal first up one side and then up the other, which enables a much larger
quantity to be drawn. The ropes at the top have to be put underneath and
over short pieces of rail, which take out for the purpose, each time as they
are coming up or going down.
There are no endless chains underground, and only one instance of a tail
rope, which is worked by compressed air.
GETTING COAL.
The division of labour in a stall is generally carried to a very great
excess. It is customary for the holers or getters to go down the pit at 4
a.m., and hole a quantity of coal ready for the fillers, who come at 7 a.m.
A stall 50 yards long has two contractors, who employ themselves in blowing
down, getting, and breaking up the coal, five getters and four fillers;
w7here the stalls are 80 yards long, these numbers are much higher. As soon
as the coal has been holed a yard under, the holers move forward and at
seven o'clock the getter-down knocks out the sprags, and if necessary puts
in a few shots and gets the coal down. The foremost filler then brings his
tub along, and two fillers fill at once by hand, the slack (with the
exception of that of the Seven-feet Seam) being thrown back in the goaf.
After the day's work is done, the timbermen and repairers come down, make up
the packs, move the timber, and generally set the place in order for the
next day. The consequence of this is that while nothing works better when
all the men attend their work regularly, yet if a single getter is away, the
output of the stall is seriously diminished, as the fillers are, as a rule,
inexperienced in holing, and are consequently thrown idle before the end of
the day. Payment is by the ton, the two contractors taking the risk; the
price for small averages about one-third of the price for large. This price
includes timbering, packing, and all repairs of every kind except ripping
the goaf road.
WAGES.
The wages in this district are distinctly very low, and it has been an
arrangement between the masters and men that getters, fillers, and daymen
working at a colliery shall be paid according to the standard price. This
arrangement is, however, only strictly kept to in the case of the getters.
The contractors alone, and those colliers who undertake head-
NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 161
ings, have the power of making extra wages. The holers have a certain stint
work, generally about 5 to 6 yards long and 1 yard deep, for a day, and can
of course work extra if they wish.
The banksmen are also paid at a very low rate, and the enginemen and fitters
are very much lower than in the North of England. The hours underground are
from seven till four, with forty minutes for dinner in the middle of the
day, but the men have a very bad privilege of going down the pit and to
their work in the masters' time, and returning in their own, after four
o'clock. The getters go down at four o'clock, and generally have the
opportunity of coming up at half-past eleven during dinner-time. The
banksmen work the same hours, but the mechanics work ten hours.
The following list of wages may be interesting:—
Hours. s. d s. d.
Winding enginemen ... ... ... 12 4 9
Hauling „ ......... 12 3 10
Stokers ............... 12 3 0
Banksmen ............ 9 2 9 2 7£
Getters ............... 8 3 6
Fillers ............... 9 36 32
Repairers............... 9 38 36
Day-men............... 9 36 30
Onsetters............... 9 3 10
Carpenters ............ 10 4 2 4 0
Blacksmiths ......... ... 10 4 6 4 0
Strikers............ ... 10 3 4
Tub repairers ... ... ... ... 10 29
Labourers on surface ... ... ... 10 29
This is the standard wage on which at the present time there is an advance
of 5 per cent., given in 1882.
GENERAL.
Warwickshire is fortunate in being placed at the lowest railway rate to
London, viz., 6s. 4d. per ton, and this is Is. less than Staffordshire and
Shropshire, and 2s. less than Yorkshire and Lancashire. The quality of the
coals, however, makes them unsuitable for the London house trade, as they
are very smoky, dull in appearance, and unfortunately possess a white ash.
They, however, burn very freely and well, and most seams produce a very
excellent and hard steam coal, the best portions of which are much liked for
locomotive purposes. It is quite useless as a gas coal, as although it
appears to contain a fair proportion of gas ard bituminous
VOL. XXXITI.-1884.
^
162 NOTES ON THE WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
matter, yet it is entirely devoid of the property of caking. The price,
however, is exceedingly low, and the list of prices attached to the
different qualities of coal above give a fair estimate of the average price
obtained by a Warwickshire colliery during the year.
At most collieries there is a sick and accident club, to which all subscribe
threepence per week. This, however, does not admit of the men's families
being attended, and they are not able to save enough to be able to erect
suitable club buildings, as is so often done in other districts.
PROCEEDINGS.
1G3
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, JUNE 14th, 1884, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
GEORGE BAKER FORSTER, Esq., Peesident, in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The balloting list for the annual election of officers in August was
submitted to the meeting in accordance with Rule 21.
The following gentleman was elected, having been previously nominated.
Associate Member— Mr. Thomas Pbest, Pease's West Collieries, by Darlington.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election :—
Associate Membees—
Mr. Edwaed Robeet Fishes, M.E., Cleveland Terrace, Walters Road,
Swansea.
Mr. T. Shipley, M.E., New Copley Colliery, Cockfield.
Student— Mr. Geoege Edwin James McMuetbie, Towneley Collieries,
Ryton-on-Tyne.
Professor Lebour read the following paper " On the Breccia-gashes of the
Durham Coast and some recent Earth-shakes at Sunderland."
VOL. XXXIII.—1884.
w
BRECOIA-GASHES.
165
ON THE BRECCIA-GASHES OF THE DURHAM COAST AND SOME RECENT EARTH-SHAKES AT
SUNDERLAND.
By G. A. LEBOUR, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geolouy in the Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tynf.
I.
The town of Sunderland is built upon the Permian Magnesian Limestone. The
latter (with its subordinate marl-slate) rests, the very irregular and
sometimes absent yellow sands of the Permian alone intervening, upon a
denuded surface of Coal-Measures. The total thickness of the Magnesian
Limestone at its maximum may be estimated as being not much over 600 feet,
but at Sunderland the uppermost portion of the deposit is absent. The amount
of that rock present there is between 300 and 400 feet. There is very little
southerly dip in the limestone, but there is some, and the best way to
ascertain the nature of those portions which underlie the town is therefore
to study the beds as they crop out in the beautiful cliff sections to the
north, between the "Wear and the Tyne. These rocks are so strange in
structure, and so striking by reason of the variety of their forms, that
they have been described in many valuable papers, by the late Professor
Sedgwick, Mr. R. Howse, Mr. J. W. Kirkby, and others.* It is not intended in
the present paper to repeat what has been so well and so often said before,
but simply to draw special attention to one of the strangest and most
striking of the developments of the Magnesian Limestone as displayed in
Marsden Bay.
There, between the north end of the bay and the little inn in the cliff at
its southern extremity, no fewer than fifteen masses of breccia are most
clearly shown in the lofty cliff-section.
Now, a breccia is a rock composed of angular fragments more or less firmly
cemented together. Just as in a gravel or conglomerate, the rounded pebbles
prove them to have come from a distance and to have
* References to several of these publications will be found in the notes in
the course of this paper.
166 BRECCIA-GASHES.
been exposed to water-wear, so in a breccia the sharp edges and rough
fracture-faces of the enclosed stones show that they lie at or very near the
place where they were broken up, or else that they have been preserved from
attrition by special conditions, as, for instance, by means of ice or lava.
In the present case neither ice nor lava need, or can be, brought in as
having helped to form the breccia. The fragments are, in fact, of the same
material as the solid rock forming the mass of the cliff—Magnesian
Limestone. Moreover, the cementing matter which binds the fragments
together—and binds them so closely that it is sometimes easier to break the
enclosed stones than the cement that holds them—is Magnesian Limestone too.
But yet there is a difference. For whereas the broken bits of rock have all
the varying character of structure and texture of the neighbouring beds from
which they have clearly been detached, the matrix in which they lie is more
or less amorphous. These breccias are exposed on the cliff-face between
walls of ordinarily bedded Magnesian Limestone, and present the following
peculiarities:—Sometimes they fill a mere fissure, a few feet at most in
width; sometimes a broad one many yards across. Sometimes a breccia-filled
fissure is nearly of equal breadth from top to bottom of the cliff;
sometimes its upper termination (which is almost invariably broad) and
sometimes its lower extremity (which is almost invariably narrow) is exposed
in the cliff; sometimes—though more rarely—both top and bottom are shown. In
some cases the broken fragments within the fissures can be traced graduating
through semi-brecciated portions of beds to wholly undisturbed strata in the
walls or fissure-cheeks. When the top of a fissure is exposed in section the
breccia is also seen usually to pass gradually upwards, first into
semi-brecciated matter, and finally to undisturbed or only slightly
synclinal beds bridging over the mass of broken rock. Where the entire
transverse section of a fissure is exposed it is seen to be a deep V-shaped
ravine or gullet, tapering to a point below, and the rocks below it are
wholly undisturbed. Such a case is well shown very near the inn in the
cliff.
The varieties of breccia-gashes* enumerated above are illustrated by
diagrammatic sketches in Plate XII., Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, whilst the nature
of the breccia itself is shown in Plate XIII., which has been drawn from a
photograph of one of the largest gashes near the north end of Marsden Bay,
kindly taken for the writer by Mr. W. Gr. Laws, jun., A.Sc.
* The word gash is a convenient one used occasionally by lead-miners to
express a fissure unaccompanied by dislocation. See N. Wincli's " Geology of
Northumberland and Durham," Trans. Geol. Soc, Vol. IV., p. 30, (1816).
BRECCIA-GASHES.
167
The fragments constituting the breccia are of all shapes and sizes, from
blocks a yard or more in diameter to the smallest grains, but all are
angular.
II.
Since the beginning of last December (1883) it is well known to most members
of the Institute that earth disturbances, which it is not easy to name more
definitely, have repeatedly alarmed the inhabitants of certain localities in
and near Sunderland. These disturbances have, it is true, been repeatedly
called " earthquakes" and " shocks" in the local papers, and it must be
admitted that some shaking of the surface and shocks to the dwellers in the
affected areas did undoubtedly form part of the manifestations. But the
evidences of deep-seated action, and of wide-spread effects due to it,
wThich are characteristic of true earthquakes, have been remarkably absent
in all published and unpublished records of the occurrences. Indeed, the
disturbances have been singularly local— limited almost entirely to the
Tunstall Eoad neighbourhood of Sunderland, and, it would appear, to certain
linear directions within that district. For some months the writer has been
kept informed of the successive "shocks" through the kindness of several
gentlemen, among whom Professor G. S. Brady, F.B.S., Mr. J. B. Atkinson, Mr.
W. S. Harrison, B.A., A.Sc, Mr. C. L. Cummings, and Mr. G-. Shawr must be
specially mentioned. The results of the information thus gathered from
various and independent quarters are briefly as follows :—
That in the district mentioned above, sudden shakes of houses accompanied
with rattling of crockery and windows and in one case the upsetting and
breaking of a globe off a chandelier, cracks in the walls, and heaves of the
floor have been felt over and over again during the past five months. That
loud noises and dull rumbles often, but not always, were heard following the
shakes. Lastly, that though in most cases there has been no difficulty in
getting plenty of corroborative evidence as to the character, time of
occurrence, and duration of the more severe shakes, many persons residing
within quite a short distance from the line of greatest force have felt or
noticed nothing.
Mr. Chas. L. Cummings, who is, unfortunately for himself and his house,
evidently most favourably situated for the observation of the phenomena in
question, and who has from the beginning most carefully noted all their
details, has published the subjoined table wThich gives a better idea of the
nature of the disturbances than is otherwise obtainable :—
168 BRECCIA-GASHES.
Table showing some of the Shocks felt in the Locality of Tunstall Road,
Sunderland.
Month and Day. Time.
Effects.
Date.
1883.
Dec. 7 -Friday ... 2 8 p.m. Sudden and terrific thud, as
if from blasting
operations.
» 7 i> ... 2 22 „ Severe shake, accompanied
with rumbling noise.
„ 18 Tuesday ... 1 15 a.m. Very sharp shock, shaking house;
not so severe
as on the 7th inst.
„ 19 Wednesday.. 8 30 „ Slight shock.
„ 20 Thursday... 8 30 „ Sudden, sharp shock.
» 20 ., ... 11 15 ,, Very sharp shock.
„ 21 Friday ... 4 32 p.m. Slight shock, accompanied by
rumbling noise.
1884.
Jan. 10 Thursday... 7 20 „ Slight shock.
" "^ Saturday ... 8 14 a.m. Very sharp, severe shock; proper
shake of house.
„ 22 luesday ... 4 55 „ Awoke by sudden rattling of jugs
in wash-basin.
» 29 „ ... 9 7 p.m. Slight shock.
Feb. 10 Sunday ... 11 7 „ Severe, startling shocks.
„ 14 lhursday ... 7 17 a.m. Sudden rattling of bedroom ware.
Mar. 2 Sunday ... 420 „ Awoke by alarming shake of
house; thought
the walls were giving way.
" 2 m, " ••• 10 0 „ Slight shock.
„ 6 Thursday ... 5 56 „ Sudden, sharp shock.
» " «i ... 8 10 „ Severe shock.
7 Friday ... 8 30 „ House shook.
„ 11 luesday ... 4 33 „ Awoke by awful shaking of bed
and furnishings.
„ 12 Wednesday.. 2 50 „ Severe shock.
„ 13 Thursday... 6 56 „ Slight shock.
„ 16 Sunday ... 7 25 „ Sharp, severe shock.
„ 18 Tuesday ... 9 24 ,, Sharp, severe shock.
» 18 ,, ••• 4 4 p.m. Severe shock.
„ 19 Wednesday.. 10 55 a.m. Frightful shake; almost as bad as that
of Dec. 7.
„ 20 Thursday... 6 11 „ Slight shock.
„ 26 Wednesday.. 7 9 „ Do
„ 26 „ ... 7 11 „ Do."
„ 27 Thursday ... 7 37 „ D0.
!> 27 it ... 11 7 p.m. Very severe shock, shaking
house.
„ 29 Saturday ... 2 12 „ Slight shock.
April 2 Wednesday.. 4 27 a.m. Awoke by frightful shock, causing
complete
oscillation of whole house.
)> 2 „ ... 3 33 p,m. Severe shock.
„ 3 Thursday ... 2 45 a.m. Slight shock.
„ 4 Friday ... 8 35 „ Do.
.„ 5 Saturday ... 10 45 „ Awfully severe shock; house
shook, windows
rattled.
7 Monday .. 7 19 p.m. Slight shock.
____________________________________________________
Since the last date given in the above table the phenomena have continued
much in the same manner, without either sensibly increasing or decreasing in
intensity. For the purposes of this paper the above facts, confirmed as they
are by numerous independent witnesses, are amply sufficient. It will only be
necessary to add that Mr. W. S. Harrison informs the writer that a lady who
heard the rumbles attending the first notable shock on December 7th states
that " it closely resembled a
BRECCIA-GASHES. 169
similar one which occurred sixteen years ago, and which caused a subsidence
of land on Tunstall Hill."* This, as will presently appear, would, if
properly substantiated, help to prove a very important point.
ill.
The stage which the present paper has now reached is briefly this,
viz.:—Certain peculiarities common in a portion of the Magnesian Limestone
which underlies Sunderland have been described, and certain recent noises
and tremors of the ground affecting parts of that town have also been called
attention to. It now remains to show that there is a possible or probable
connexion between these two subjects.
In the first place it is clear that ever since the Permian calcareous
Breccia-gashes of Durham were first noticed by geologists they have, with
very few exceptions, proved a puzzle to all. Winch, writing in 1814, says,
with reference to them:—" * • * and with this breccia wide chasms or
interruptions in the cliff are filled."! He attempts no explanation of
either chasms or breccia.
Sedgwick, in his classical paper on the Magnesian Limestone, published in
1835, although he describes the breccia itself fully enough, scarcely does
justice to its singular mode of occurrence in Marsden Bay. All he can say as
to its origin is this:—" It appears then, that these breccias are neither at
the bottom nor at the top of the formation of Magnesian Limestone, but that
they are subordinate to it; that the disturbing forces which produced them
were violent, mechanical, and local, and in some instances were several
times brought into action; and that they were not of long duration; for the
fragments of the beds are not water-worn, and appear to have been
re-cemented on the spot where they were formed."! This is highly suggestive
and, so far as it goes, strictly accurate, but no hint is given as to what "
the disturbing forces which produced" the brecciated rock might be.
Sir Charles Lyell, in a letter to Leonard Horner, dated September 1st, 1838,
thus refers to the coast at Marsden which he had just visited for the first
time :—" The coast scenery was very grand, and the brecciated
* There is also some less definite evidence of shocks of much the same
character having taken place in or near Sunderland about eleven years ago.
Information as to any occurrences of this kind prior to 1883 would be very
thankfully received by the
writer.
t " Geology of Northumberland and Durham," Trans. Geol. Soc, Vol. IV., p. 6,
(1816).
X " On the Geological Eelations and Internal Structure of the Magnesian
Limestone," Trans, Geol, Soc„ Series 2, Vol. III., p. 92 (1835).
170 BRECCIA-GASHES.
form of the Magnesian Limestone, which is an aggregate of angular masses of
itself, as if broken up and reconsolidated in situ."*
At a later date, in his " Elements of Geology," Lyell recurred to the
subject in greater detail, but came to no conclusion. He writes:— " • * *
but the subject is very obscure, and studying the phenomenon in the Marston
[i.e., Marsden] rocks, on the coast of Durham, I found it impossible to form
any positive opinion on the subject."f
In 1863, in their useful " Synopsis," Messrs. Howse and Kirkby were the
first to offer an explanation of the breccias in question. After mentioning
the chief dislocations of the district they add:—" But besides the faults
above mentioned, there are of course numerous minor breaks affecting the
limestone, some of which possess considerable geological interest. Sometimes
these latter take the form of rubble or breccia dykes, the space between the
walls of the fissure being filled irregularly with large and small angular
blocks of limestone, cemented together with a calcareous paste. Remarkable
examples of these occur on the coast between the Tyne and the Wear, one of
the best being the " Chimney" just to the south of Marsden grotto. The
remarkable appearances presented by these breccias at Marsden may, we think,
be explained by the filling up of large fissures and chasms with broken
fragments of the superincumbent strata, and may perhaps be safely attributed
to earthquake action on these rocks at an early period."!
The late Professor David Page, who had spent some years of early life at
Sunderland, and therefore knew the coast details well, more than once in
conversation with the writer expressed his acceptance of the earthquake
theory as accounting for the Breccia-gashes.
So much, then, at present, as regards the attempts which have, so far, been
made to clear up their origin. Many more suggestions have been made
respecting that of the Sunderland earth-shocks.
Very naturally, in the first moment of local excitement, the thoughts of
many were turned towards the collieries, many of which it was well known
extend widely in the Coal-Measures beneath the Permian rocks. It was hinted
that the shocks might have been caused by shot-firing or
* " Life, Letters, and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart." Vol. II., p. 42
(1831).
f 6th edition (1865), p. 475. The passage appears as given both in earlier
and in later editions.
X R. Howse and J. W. Kirkby, " A Synopsis of the Geology of Durham and part
of Northumberland," p. 18 (1863). The term dyke is very descriptive, but as,
geologically speaking, it is almost invariably associated with intrusion
from below, it has been thought better not to apply it to fissures which,
whatever their origin, were certainly filled from above.
BRECCIA-GASHES. 171
by falls of stone in neighbouring pits. As the Monkwearmouth Colliery was
the nearest, the manager of that colliery, Mr. Parrington, replied to the
inquiries which were made on the subject in the daily papers, by explaining
that his workings did not underlie the area affected by the shock, and that
there was no blasting going on in them. This answer, coupled with the great
depth of the colliery in question, satisfactorily settled the underground
shot-firing theory; but in his letter Mr. Parrington suggested another to
take its place, and attributed the occurrences to the existence of natural
water-blasts in the body of the Magnesian Limestone. Others, also well
acquainted with that rock, have adopted that view.
Then blasting operations in quarries were proposed as likely causes, but
many good reasons {e.g. the quarries not being worked at the time, many of
the shocks being felt during non-working hours on week-days, also several
times on Sundays, etc.), soon repelled that accusation.
That the shocks were true earthquake shocks was sufficiently disproved by
their extreme localization, and the clear indication which they give of an
action the reverse of deep seated.
Lastly, the withdrawal of water previously filling up, and therefore also to
a certain extent helping to sustain, the walls and ceilings of cavities
within the limestone, and the consequent falling in of such walls, have been
pointed to (though not, to the writer's knowledge, in print) as capable of
producing the effects observed. This possible explanation has not been in
any way disproved, and deserves careful consideration.
That the Magnesian Limestone is riddled with cavities of every size and
shape is locally matter of common knowledge. Nor can it be said that the
origin of many of these cavities is difficult to trace. In some cases the
smaller of them are due to the original " vuggy" or cellular character of
the stone—a character which is intimately related to its eminently
wTater-holding qualities. But the larger cavities are often true caverns
formed by the double action of mechanical and chemical agencies, and that
these agencies are still at work in the manufacture of such caverns there is
abundant evidence to show. How readily the Magnesian Limestone is acted on
by mechanical agents of denudation and waste is shown by the numerous caves
along the shore. All these combine the typical characters of sea-caves as
enumerated by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., viz., they have flat or
scarcely sloping floors, and are usually widest below. They seldom penetrate
far into the cliff, and their entrances are in the same horizontal plane
(that of the beach at high-water line, whether that beach be the present
one, or an ancient one or
VOL. XXXIII.—1884.
X
172 BRECCIA-GASHES.
raised beach).* Such caves are evidently to a much greater degree the work
of the moving shingle and sand than of the acid-water to which they
nevertheless in some slight degree also owe their production. But these
Bea-margin caverns are insignificant when compared with the countless
gullies, gashes, and holes of every description which cut the internal body
of the limestone through and through. The history of the latter is
different. Many of them may be accounted for by noting how frequently masses
both large and small and of the most irregular forms of soft pulverulent
earthy matter occur in the midst of the hardest and most compact portions of
the limestone. An afternoon's walk along the face of the South Shields
quarries, between that town and Marsden Bay, will render this sudden utter
change of texture in the stone patent to any one. How easily such soft and
incoherent material can be removed by the merest percolation of rain-water
needs no proof, and that caverns would result and have resulted from such
removal is also clear. This action is indeed chiefly mechanical, but there
is also going on at the same time in the limestone a continual destruction
of its substance as rock by the purely chemical ordinary action of
rain-water on limestone. How great this action really is may perhaps be best
understood when it is stated that in every thousand gallons of Sunderland
water there is nearly one pound of lime and magnesia; or, in other words,
every thousand gallons of that water pumped up represents a pound weight of
rock abstracted.! In the course of a year the amount of hard compact
Mag-nesian Limestone carried away by the Water Company's works would not
fall much short of forty cubic yards. If to this be added the amount of
water similarly charged with lime and magnesia, which runs off to the sea
from springs, streams, and rivers, the enormous amount of stone annually
lost by the Permian series in East Durham can be better imagined than
represented by figures. A cubic foot of Magnesian Limestone of the less
crystalline varieties when saturated holds from 3*45 lbs. to 17 lbs. of
water; the crystalline forms hold very little.J This bears out the statement
made twenty years ago in these Transactions by Messrs. Daglish and Forster,
and confirmed by all subsequent experience, that the feeders of water met
with in sinking through the Magnesian
* See " Cave Hunting," p. 24 (1874).
f The quantity of water delivered by the Sunderland and South Shields Water
Company, and pumped from an area of fifty square miles of Permian rock, was
4,500,000 gallons per day in 1879. 100,000 lbs. of Sunderland water
contained (according to the Rivers Pollution Commissioners) 5"89 lbs. of
lime and 3"96 lbs of magnesia. See De llance, " Water Supply of England and
Wales," pp. 56-59 (1882).
| De Eance, id., p. 59.
BKECCIA-GASHE6. 178
Limestone " are derived not so much by percolation through the mass of the
rock—for this can obtain to a small extent only—but collected in and coming
off the numerous gullets and fissures which everywhere intersect and divide
the mass of the strata."* These gullets are often very large, such, for
instance, as that met with in sinking the Whitburn Colliery shaft in 1874,
from which 11,612 gallons of water were pumped per minute for a month at a
time,f to say nothing of the many other recorded cases of the kind at Murton
and elsewhere; and the considerations above brought forward go to show that
they are even now constantly increasing in size, and new gullets are as
constantly coming into existence.
Here then are the conditions to which it is desired that attention should be
directed:—A mass of stone, mostly hard and compact, but cellular in places
and earthy and friable in others; often cavernous on a large scale; full of
water, and through its action continually parting with its substance, and
thus enlarging the cavities within it.
By the mere force of gravity the vaults of the cavities last mentioned must
from time to time give way, and when that is the case the cavity will become
filled with the debris of the superincumbent rock. These debris will be
angular; they will lie where they fell, and if circumstances be favourable
to such a deposit (and on a cliff coast-line above the saturation level of
the limestone they are eminently favourable), may easily in time be cemented
together by the very material which the water has abstracted from the rock
in the first instance, and in such cases returns to it, just as in other
limestone districts waters which have hollowed out caves often partly fill
them once more with sfcalactitic matter.
Such falls of gullet-vaults will occur in time even when the cavities are
full of water. If, however, the water which they contain be removed either
by natural or by artificial means the falls will be much accelerated. In
whatever way they have been caused such smashes of solid rock must produce
violent concussions accompanied by noise, but limited in the area over which
their effects would be felt. In short, it appears to the writer that to
accept such natural stone-falls at moderate depths as an explanation of the
Sunderland earth-shocks is to accept a theory consistent with every one of
the facts of the case.
* J. Daglish and G. B. Forster " On the Magnesian Limestone of Durham,"
Trans. North Engl. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XIIL, p. 205 (1863-64).
f J. Daglish " On the Sinking of Two Shafts at Marsden, for the Whitburn
Coal Company," Proc. Inst. C.E., Vol. LXXL, p. 180 (1882). The above amount
of water included, it is but fair to add, a considerable amount of salt
water coming probably directly from the sea.
1?4 BKECCIA-GASHES.
But the theory goes further than this, and explains equally well, the writer
thinks, all the facts connected with the puzzling Breccia-gashes of the
coast. The forms of these gashes, which are gullet-shaped and tapering
downwards, unlike the sea-caves; the breccia with which they are filled; the
matter with which the fragments are cemented; the half-broken beds which so
often bridge over the upper portions of the fissures; and the unbroken beds
immediately above and below them, which would be inconceivable had the
fissures and their in-fillings been due to real earthquakes—all these things
are necessary accompaniments of the rock-collapses which, it has been shown,
must in time past have happened frequently, are happening still, and must
happen more and more frequently in the future.
Mr. 0. L. Cummings said, that all he knew upon the subject was contained in
the paper. These shocks had not been felt so often since the time referred
to. For about a week the shocks occurred almost always at midnight, and at
no other time.
Mr. B. Forsteb asked whether, with the head of water lowered, and the
quantity of stone carried away seaward by the more rapid flow of water,
these Breccia-gashes would not be more likely to increase ?
Professor Meeivale did not see why these gashes should be pointed at the
bottom. He would like to have this more thoroughly explained.
Mr. John Daglish said, in sinking through the limestone at Marsden they had
met with large fissures. One of these, met with in the pit was bored through
under water, and, therefore, they never saw the fissure; but it was more
than 12 feet wide. At one time in going through that part of the pit the
trepan did not touch the rock more than 6 inches on one side, the rest was a
cavity; and when they came to fill in with cement behind the tubbing a great
amount of material was required. He would be glad to put in the figures when
the paper was discussed. This was not a cavern, it was evidently a large
fissure. He presumed Professor Lebour suggested that these Breccia-gashes
originally had been in that form, and that the surrounding rocks had fallen
in.
Mr. Pabbington said, he was sorry that none of the officials of the
Sunderland "Water Company were present, as he would have liked to have known
what was the variation in the level of the water between the
DISCUSSION—BEECCIA-G ASHES. 175
starting of the pumps in the morning and the leaving off at night at
Humbledon Hill; for instance, which was the pumping station nearest to where
the shocks occurred. Professor Lebour had mentioned that he (Mr. Parrington)
had a theory that these shocks were due to water-blasts in the gullets, such
as Mr. Daglish mentioned.* He (Mr. Parrington) thought this was rather a
reasonable theory. He had had a conversation on the subject a short time ago
with Professor Warington Smyth, who made an apt remark—that if air pent up
in small water-pipes could make the noises and shocks they knew it did, how
much more would it do so in large spaces like these fissures. In the
neighbourhood where Mr. Cummings, unfortunately for himself, lived, there
was something like 60 fathoms of limestone; the head of the water was about
20 fathoms below the surface, and there was, therefore, about 40 fathoms of
water. He had information—and he would have liked to have asked the
Sunderland "Water Company's officials if it was correct—that the level of
the water varied 14 fathoms between idght and morning. If this was the case
he thought it reasonable to suppose that, the water rising 14 fathoms in a
chain of gullets which probably existed in that district, and the air
escaping after being pent up to a high pressure at the top of these gullets,
would have the effect which, unfortunately, causes annoyance to the
residents in the neighbourhood.
The President asked Mr. Parrington if he thought that the water-blasts took
place through the alteration in the level each twenty-four hours ?
Mr. Paeeington said, he was informed that the Company begins pumping in the
morning, lowering the water 12 to 14 fathoms during the day, after which the
water rises.
The Peesident—The water-blast is generally supposed to be formed by the
gases gathered in the course of time, but not in one day's work.
Mr. Paeeington—If, however, the water rises so rapidly in these gullets, the
pent up air will rush out of the lower ones as rapidly. A head of very few
feet in the pit causes the air to make a tremendous noise in rushing out.
Mr. B. Foestee said, he could not give any data as to the rise and fall at
the Sunderland "Water Company's pumping station; but, having an
*JExtractfrom Paper " On the Sinking of two Shafts at Marsden." By John
Daglish, Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers, 1883, Vol. LXXI., p. 188:—"A large
gullet was passed through in No. 2 Pit at a depth of 56 yards from the
surface, the width of which was nearly the whole diameter of the Shaft. When
concreting at this point, 120 cubic yards of small stones and concrete were
filled in, and 80 and 40 cubic yards at smaller gullets lower down (Plate 4,
Fig. 8,) without sensibly raising the level of the concrete."
176 DISCUSSION—BRECCIA-GASHES.
idea that the pumping was affecting the general level of the water under the
limestone, he had had a record kept for the past four years, registering
every twenty-four hours the ebb and flow, or the rise and fall of the water;
and he would supply the Institute with a copy of the diagram.
Mr, Parrington said that, with respect to these Breccia-gashes, which were
really of more interest than the eaith-shakes to the members of this
Institute, he mentioned to Professor Lebour one thing which was very
interesting, and that was the disappearance of small streams in the
limestone in summer time. He specified one stream in particular—not a very
small one—between Fulwell and Monkwearmouth, which ran through Monkwearmouth
cemetery, and disappeared at certain times into the limestone, sometimes to
rise again within a mile, while the spring from which the stream rose never
seemed to fail.
Mr. Daglish—The same thing takes place at Castle Eden and the dene north of
Seaham. The water disappears altogether.
The President—It is a very common thing in the mountain limestone.
Mr. Markham—Will Professor Lebour tell us the reason why he thinks these
earth-shakes will occur more frequently in the future than in the past ?
Professor Lebour said, the first question 'asked was whether he did not
think that the water being lowered would make such falls more likely? Most
undoubtedly it would; and this was one of the arguments in his paper. The
water, of course, helped to support the walls where it filled these gullets,
and when the water was withdrawn, so much support was also withdrawn from
the walls, and they were more apt to collapse. If any one could give any
clear and distinct information that such a tremendous rise and fall of
water, as mentioned by Mr. Parrington, took place by the action of the Water
Company pumping, that would show excellent cause for the increased
occurrence of such falls of stone. The last speaker asked why he (Professor
Lebour) thought these falls would happen more frequently in the future.
Simply because these gullets were slowly becoming larger and larger daily.
It was fortunate that they had Mr. Forster and Mr. Daglish present on this
occasion, as they were the authors of, he might say, the best paper on the
limestone of Durham which had appeared in the Transactions on this subject.
Professor Merivale asked why Breccia-gashes were pointed at the bottom. It
was because they were to all intents and purposes water channels. The
tendency of water was to fall to a lower level, and to dig a channel deeper
and deeper. There was among these gullets a kind of underground
river-system, though not
DISCUSSION—BRECCIA-GASHES. 177
always at the same level—a kind of many storied water-system, flowing one
into the other, but all tending to the sea. It would be interesting to get
the details as to the great fall of water mentioned by Mr. Parrington. There
was no reason, without giving up an inch of his own theory, why he should
not adopt Mr. Parrington's. If mining engineers said that the lowering of
the level of the water by the Water Company or others pumping was liable to
make the water-blasts, he (Professor Lebour) was willing to accept that; and
that might account for the great noises heard in connection with the
earth-shakes in Sunderland. But this did not in the slightest degree
militate against the explanation he had brought forward.
Mr. Parrington said, he saw at page 58 in De Eance's "Water Supply of
England and Wales," that no less than 5,000,000 gallons a-day were pumped
from the magnesian limestone without in the least altering the permanent
level of the water in the district. He (Mr. Parrington) quite agreed that
the permanent level of the water at Sunderland was not altered; but he would
ask Mr. Forster if towards the outcrop, the level of this water was not
permanently lowered ?
Mr. E. Forster said, he understood that this paper would come up for
discussion at a future meeting, and he proposed to answer Mr. Parring-ton's
question by putting in the diagram to which he had already alluded. He
wished to ask, however, if the head of water were lowered, would not that
have a tendency to cause, in the underground river or lake, the flow of
water to be more rapid, and so, taking away the foundation of these
Breccia-gashes, cause the falls to be more frequent, and carry off more
limestone with it ?
The President said, the paper would be discussed at a future meeting. He
proposed a vote of thanks to Professor Lebour for the interesting
information he had given the members in the paper. This was a subject in
which Mr. Daglish and himself took considerable interest twenty years ago;
but their experience was now old, and perhaps was superseded by the
information of the present time. It was important that information on this
subject should be gathered, and embodied in the Transactions of the
Institute.
The vote of thanks was agreed to.
Mr. M. Walton Brown read the following paper " On the Observation of
Earth-shakes or Tremors, in order to foretell the issue of sudden Outbursts
of Fire-damp:"—
EARTH-SHAKES. 179
ON THE OBSERVATION OP EARTH-SHAKES OR TREMORS,
IN ORDER TO FORETELL THE ISSUE OF SUDDEN
OUTBURSTS OF FIRE-DAMP.
By M. WALTON BROWN.
Whatever may be the cause of the issue of sudden outbursts of firedamp, the
quantity of gas produced is extremely variable and irregular. Many theories
have been from time to time advanced with the object of defining the laws
which govern these sudden outbursts of gas from coal and adjacent strata.
It would appear that there is some connection between sudden outbursts of
gas and the motions to which the crust of the earth is subject: in other
words, that slight motions of the earth's crust may be followed by more or
less violent outbursts of gas. Thus, if there were a large body of gas pent
up in a subterranean reservoir, and some movement of the earth's crust took
place forming fissures of varying depth and width, affording channels for
the escape of this gas; upon such a fissure being reached in the workings of
the mine, a blower would be the result, the volume and duration of which
would depend upon the volume of the reservoir, pressure of gas, and the
width of the fissure. If this theory is the true solution of the problem, it
follows that the systematic and regular observation of earth movements would
eventually prove a reliable means, to some extent, of foretelling when
outbursts of gas should be anticipated.
This theory, by no means a new one, was first broached in the Durham
Advertiser, of July 25th, 1845, by the late Mr. William Lloyd Wharton, in
describing a curious issue of gas which took place from the bed of the river
Wear. The following is an abstract of his remarks:—"A line of streams of gas
was observed crossing the river Wear, diagonally in the direction of N.N.E.
and S.S.W., under the Framwellgate Bridge, and for a length of about 100
yards. When the air and water were perfectly calm, large bubbles formed by
the ascent of gas, taking fire at a lighted candle, marked
VOL, XXXIII.—1S84,
Y
180 EARTH-SHAKES.
the limits of the streams of gas above the bridge, and two other smaller
groups of bubbles were seen below the bridge, each of these groups being
marked by numerous bubbles. It is believed that there are no coal workings
or excavations of any kind within several hundred yards of the Framwellgate
Bridge, and the escape of gas must be attributed to some extensive natural
accumulation. There is therefore no ordinary means of accounting for this
appearance of the gas, but there is no difficulty in conceiving that the
escape has been made through some open fissure created by some motion of the
earth."
The most violent motions, or earthquakes, are well known to produce
fractures, fissures, and chasms, accompanied by subsidence or elevation,
forming abrupt heights upon the surface, which may also be rent by fissures
or ravines. There are also minor disturbances of the earth's crust, the
existence of which is much less obvious than the phenomena of earthquakes,
but which are the more general, if less important. These minor disturbances,
produced by slow undulatory motions of the earth's crust varying the
inclination which the parts relatively bear to each other, must, from the
very nature of their action, form open or close fissures which may give vent
to sudden blowers of gas, escaping from more or less distant reservoirs, or
by a reverse action may stop the issue at a blower in action, or may cause
the issue to be intermittent.
From experiments on the amount of disturbance of gravity caused by lunar
attraction, made by Messrs. G. and H. Darwin, it appears that the surface of
Great Britain is subject to movements of an undulatory and vibratory nature.
There are many theories to account for these micro-seismic motions. Mr. G.
Darwin considers that they may be due to the height of the tides and to the
pressure of the atmosphere. In fact, if it be assumed that the crust of the
earth is plastic, like a hollow ball, it can readily be admitted that the
variations of the internal pressure, and of the external pressure or weight
placed upon the surface must tend to, and will, produce undulatory and
vibratory motions of the earth's crust.
Professor John Milne, of the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, thinks
that the magnitude of these disturbances is so great that their origin can
hardly be attributed solely to these or such like causes, and that they may
be more especially produced by the internal phenomena of the earth.
Possible, if not decisive, evidences of the existence of these pulsations
have been observed in the soil of Italy, by means of pendulum experiments.
Other observations by means of delicate levels appear to show that the
relative positions of distant points do vary from time to time,
EARTH-SHAKES. 181
Assuming that the existence of these phenomena is proved, it can readily be
imagined that they are also accompanied with minor forms of the violence
found to be associated with earthquakes. These may be described as upheaval,
or subsidence, of the earth's crust, formation of fissures, land slips, etc.
Great Britain is, as has been already mentioned, somewhat subject to the
phenomena of earthquakes, and more especially to these minor pulsations and
tremors, and the East Coast appears to be situated (see Plate XIV.) on a
belt subject to these minor pulsations, and connecting the more violent
motions experienced in Italy and Iceland, and this the record of
observations at Sunderland given in Mr. Lebour's paper might seem to prove ;
and the more so, as in the course of the great earthquake at Lisbon, which
occurred in November, 1755, there were clear evidences of violent motion,
more especially in the water of lakes, etc., in this country; notably, near
Durham, where the water in a pond rose and fell about one foot, four or five
times per minute for six or seven minutes.
If this theory prove acceptable it affords a plausible reason for the
simultaneous occurrence of outbursts of gas along the line of faults, or
series of faults or fissures. Consequently, in faulted districts an almost
insensible motion of the earth's crust may be accompanied with more or less
sudden and violent outbursts of gas, as the least fissure could afford ready
issue for the escape of considerable volumes with more or less rapidity.
The tabulation of the occurrence of more than seven thousand earthquakes
shows that there is some connection between the pressure of the atmosphere
and the occurrence of earth movements. It is said that the observations of
earth-tremors and pulsations in Manilla and Japan afford very marked
coincidences with atmospheric pressures, and in the case of Manilla they
appear in some instances to have formed a perfect indication of approaching
typhoons.
If these micro-seismic storms (as these vibratory undulations may be called)
are followed by changes of atmospheric pressure, it would appear as
exceedingly probable that there is some intimate correlation between them
and outbursts of gas.
The following table contains a record of the earthquakes in Great Britain
and the Northern Isles, as tabulated by the late M. Perry, of Dijon, and in
a parallel column are shown the number of fatal explosions of gas that have
occurred in Great Britain from 1868 to 1882 inclusive. The table is arranged
to show the monthly occurrence of the two phenomena, and whilst the
correlation is by no means perfect, it shows to some
182
EARTH-SHAKES.
extent that the coincidences are well marked and tend to prove that there
may be some connection between the two phenomena. This connection is more
clearly shown on the diagram, Plate XV.
MONTHS.
January February March ... April May June
July ... August ... September October... November December
Totals
In conclusion, it appears desirable that experiments should be initiated in
this country for the observation of these micro-seismic motions, to be
conducted similarly to those which have been so carefully pursued in Italy
and which have been more recently established in Japan. Since January of
this year, the Japanese Government have inaugurated a series of experiments
to be made at the colliery of Takashima, one of the largest in that country.
These underground experiments, which are to be made under the
superintendence of Professor John Milne, of the Imperial College of
Engineering, Tokio, are for the purpose of ascertaining (as detailed in the
Japan Gazette of January, 1884) whether there are any phenomena connected
with the issue of gas, such, for instance, as earth-tremors, which hold a
nearer relation to the evolution of gas than barometrical changes.
As the order of these experiments are such as should be followed in this
country, the following details are of value. The experiments now in progress
are:—
1.—The observation of earth-tremors by means of a tromometer. This
instrument consists of a pendulum protected from currents of air, and a
microscope so arranged that the smallest movements of the pendulum in any
direction can be readily seen and measured.
Earthquakes in Great Britain and the Northern Isles. Fatal
Explosions of Gas in Great Britain, Mean Observations at
Greenwich Observatory.
Number ' Relative JNumtier. Fre(luenoy. Number. Relative
Frequency. Barometer. Thermometer.
21 116 46 •86 29 729 38-7
16 •89 51 •95 29832 39-7
19 1-05 50 •93 29-722 41-5
16 •89 59 1-10 29803 47-5
16 •89 53 •98 29-777 531
10 •55 48 •89 29-828 59-8
9 •50 50 •93 29-809 62-6
19 1-05 53 •99 29-799 61-9
24 1-32 57 1-06 29-787 57-5
17 •94 70 1-30 29-720 51-0
22 1-22 45 •84 29-771 42-7
28 1-54 63 1-17 29-791 408
217 12-00 645 12-00 29-780 49-7
DISCUSSION—EARTH-SHAKES.
183
2.—The observation of delicate levels. 3.—The observation of earth currents.
4.—The observation of the movements which, take place in the roof
and floor of the workings. 5.—The observation of the electrical condition of
the air of the mine,
accompanied with those of the barometer, thermometer, and
the rise and fall of the tide.
There are many other circumstances which regulate the issue of gas, which
might suggest an increase in the number and extent of these observations,
but those set forth appear to be worthy of some consideration.
Professor Lebour said, he need not say that he did not agree in the
slightest degree with Mr. Brown in his suggestion that the Sunderland
earth-shakes or tremors were the results of what was stated in the paper. He
believed that the so-called earthquakes at Sunderland were not earthquakes
at all, but were due to local disturbances. But setting all this aside, he
thought Mr. Brown's observations were of the highest possible interest, and
it would be an excellent thing for this Institute to make inquiries as to
these earth-tremors. The instruments necessary for making the observations
were not complicated. The only difficulty was how to set them in work; and
it could be done in this district by colliery proprietors lending parts of
their pits in which to place the instruments. Observations were being made
in other countries, and especially in Japan where there was a net-work of
them. To register the earth-tremors was quite possible, and he thought it
came within the scope of such an Institute as this to work the question out,
and see, after a series of observations, whether there was any connection
between explosions of gas and such earth-tremors.
The President said, the discussion of the paper would be adjourned. No doubt
the Council would consider whether the observations which had fallen from
Professor Lebour in regard to registering earth-tremors should bear any
practical fruit. He was not aware that they had earth-tremors in such
magnitude as to require a record; but possibly Professor Lebour would know
better than he did. He proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Brown for his paper.
The vote of thanks was agreed to, and the meeting concluded.
PROCEEDINGS.
185
PROCEEDINGS.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, AUGUST 2nd, 1884, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL
HALL, NEWCASTLErUPON-TYNE.
GEORGE BAKER FORSTER, Esq., President, in the Chaib.
Messrs. CO. Leach, T. E. Jobling, and Thomas Bailes, were appointed
scrutineers to examine the voting papers for the election of officers for
the year 1884-85.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last General Meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The annual reports of the Council and Finance Committee were also read.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Associate Members—
Mr. T. Shipley, M.E., New Copley Colliery, Cockfield.
Mr. Edward Robert Fisher, M.E., Cleveland Terrace, Walters Road, Swansea.
Student— Mr. George Edwin James McMurtrie, Towneley Collieries,
Ryton-on-Tyne.
The following paper on " The Endless Chain in Spain," by Mr. George Lee, was
then read:—
YOIi. xxxiii.-iss*,
Z
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
187
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
By GEORGE LEE.
The means employed in Spain for conveying ore from the mines, (which are
generally situated at high altitudes, at or near the summit of the hills),
to the smelting works on the lowlands, to the shipping places on the river
or coast, to the lines of locomotive railway that supply the means of
transport (when the intermediate country does not present any serious
obstacle in the way of their construction), or to the public railway
communicating with the point of destination, are many and of great variety.
The only means that existed in the chief mining district of Bilbao previous
to 1873, at which port during the preceding year G89,700 tons of iron ore
had been shipped, were donkies or mules with panniers, and bullocks with
carts, which, though tedious and costly, were the most available. Recently
the mechanical and more economical appliances of self-acting inclined planes
down which the mineral is lowered in sets of tubs or wagons, in
hopper-bogies, in trucks, or in trucks on platforms (chiefly on heavy
gradients, reaching so far as one in one-and-a-quarter); of engine planes;
and of suspended endless ropeways (air-lines as they are locally called)
have been adopted. There are two systems of endless ropeway in use, the
first introduced, the simplest, and the one chiefly adopted being the single
hauling rope with depending buckets, and the fixed suspended rope, with an
endless hauling rope. The latter system possesses the advantage of not being
affected by the wet or damp weather so prevalent in the north, which causes
the saddles of the pendant buckets that grip on the travelling rope of the
first system to lose their hold, and allow the buckets and saddles to glide
amain, on the rope approaching an inclination of one in four. In addition
there are endless chain railways and locomotive railways of different
gauges, including one metre, forty-five inches, and the unfortunate national
selection of sixty-six inches. The only excuse for the existence of the
latter is that it was adopted for state reasons.
188 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
During recent years, many of the most approved systems of haulage common to
mining, specially designed to meet particular requirements, and the more
universal ordinary methods have been adopted, yet there is a prevalent want
of experience in their general application. The market values of the ores
have decreased, whilst the cost of mining, owing to increased depth and
other difficulties attending the exhaustion of the mineral, is continually
on the increase, reducing the margin between expenditure and revenue
available for profits: there will be, doubtless, efforts made to meet the
demand there exists for economy, with the result, that much of the present
waste will disappear and the savings realized will so enhance the value of
mining property generally that much which is now a burden to capitalists may
become desirable investments.
The endless chain system of haulage, most recently introduced into Spain, is
one with which engineers at home are well acquainted, its merits having been
often tried and duly appreciated. The endless chain has been extensively
adopted under circumstances where the existence of physical conditions
presented difficulties in the way of the installation of other, and perhaps
rival systems, but of less moment to its peculiar general adaptability.
The circumstances which led to the selection, the construction, and the
application of the first endless chain railway that worked in Spain, to the
requirements of the Anita mine, whose produce it is intended to convey, are
chosen to form the subject of this paper.
In a sheltered cove on the north coast of Spain, in the province of
Santander, at a distance of two miles to the east of Castro-Urdiales, lies
Dicido, in whose bay is situated Avellanosa with its quay, from which the
ore brought down from the Anita mine is shipped.
Previous to the starting of the endless chain on March 3rd, 1883, the ore
was brought down by means of an air-line 1,600 yards in length, which was
abandoned owing to the failing condition of the woodwork. This line,
crossing a valley and the estuary of the river in its course, required very
high piers for its support, which could only have been repaired at great
cost. The existence of the difficulty mentioned previously, i.e., the
gliding amain of the saddles and buckets where the inclination of the rope
in crossing the water exceeded the maximum at which the saddles retain their
grip in all weathers, and the desire to provide means of transport more
adequate, more certain, and more suitable for the future working of the
mine, and the conveyance of a much greater output, led to the study and
completion of the present railway.
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 189
The Anita deposit of iron ore is of that class distinguished as a vertical
segregation, differing from the lode by the irregularity of its form, and
further specially defined as a contact mass, being found between compact
crystalline limestone (nummulitic in the higher altitudes) on the east,
forming the hanging wall; blue schistose rock and yellow beddy marl-stone on
the west, forming the footwall. Its strike is towards true north; a line of
mineral being traced from the cave in the rocks on the coast, out of which
the mineral, being softer than the rocks, has probably been washed, through
the present Station D (see Plate XVI., Figs. 1 and 2) to the quarries that
are opened on the run, through the whole length of the Anita-take, through
the Oeferino-take, where the mineral has been well exposed, to the deposits
at Las Munecas: here the mineral on the Sappho-take stands boldly out on one
side of the valley, forming an escarpment, and from thence to the Galdames
mines; in all, a distance of over seven miles. The portion of the run at
present being worked, and with which - it is proposed to deal, is the north
end. For getting the ore from here to the shipping place on the coast, there
were many schemes suggested and entertained by the different parties who
from time to time have been interested in the development of this valuable
property. At one time the project was to put down a narrow gauge locomotive
railway from 0 to P; this would have been fed by self-acting inclines
communicating with the quarries and adits at the different heights that the
gradual exhaustion of the mine would entail; then by an incline of steep
gradient from 0, passing under the royal road and over the estuary, land the
mineral at Dicido; but owing to the stupendous nature of the works of the
latter part of the project, inclusive of a bridge of large span, the whole
was abandoned.
After duly considering the steep slopes and deep ravines of the
mountain-side with the intervening ridges, and the danger of interfering
with the royal road, kept in a high state of efficiency by vigilant
engineers, together with the difficulty of crossing the estuary and
encountering the obstacles presented by the peculiar geological structure of
the cliff between Dicido and Avellanosa, and on the other hand weighing with
great care the facilities which other means of transport offered to the
present and future requirements of the mine, which had to be attacked at
various points and constantly at lower levels, it was thought that no system
offered advantages equal to those of an endless chain.
After consulting the existing plans of the property and ascertaining the
approximate heights by the aneroid, it was decided that 30 per cent., or 300
millimetres per metre, should be the maximum gradient, and
190 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
twenty-five millimetres the maximum size of the chain; the train of tubs was
also fixed at about 35 per cent, of a load of 500 kilogrammes, each tub
placed at a distance of 20 metres centre and centre, so that, if possible,
the chain should ride clear of the sleepers, and the whole should work
automatically: the direction that the lines ought to take, and the locality
of the angles were determined: then pegs were driven at regular distances
over the whole route from the quay to the top quarry at the mine, and
levelling began on the 30th of April, 1882.
The plans of a railway and its various works that accompany the petition to
the Government for the privilege of having them declared of public utility
must be prepared to the metre scale, because Spain having established a
metrical system of weights and measures of the same standards as those of
France, the works have to be constructed accordingly, and all dimensions are
in metres of 39*37079 English inches, and all weights in kilogrammes of
2*20462 English pounds. In expressing the value of the inclination or
gradient, instead of using the terms 1 in 33, 30 per cent., or 300
millimetres per metre, the simple figures -300, as expressing the
millimetres rise or fall per metre will be used.
The results of the levelling are given in the following Table:—
Wheels,
Stations, or Lengths.
Sections. Angles.
Height Inclination.
fl-
£&£ ™K *S(£ Length. Fall. Rise. --------------------
j| Length. Fall, ^ra^
nation. Wa£er nation. Aver.
Maxi_ £j dient_
Mark. age.
mum.
Metres. Metres. Metres.
Metres. Metres.
A 347-48
A1 318-68 A A1 180-85 28-80 ... 0-159 0-226 A
180'85 28-80 0-159
B 260-57 A B 693-58 5811 ... 0-083 0*270 \ fi
^.^ ^
C 206-63 B C 351-18 53-94 ... 0153 0269 )
Dc 119-67 C D0 617-56 86-96 ... 0-141 0-300 C
617*56 86-96 0-141
D 11942 I)01) 12-50 *25 ... 0020
ED 65-28 D ED 375-60 54-14 ... 0*144 0-300 1
E 51-78 EDE 20-00 13*50 ... Drop.
F 2-97 E F 395-25 48-81 ... 0-123 0-220 \ D
1,151-65 107-01 0-093
G 7-53 P G 180-80 ... 4-56 0'025 0-120 j
H 12-41 G H 180-00 ... 4'88 0 027 0-120 J
3,007-32 344-51 9*44 0114
In proceeding to ascertain the tensions that the chains will have to endure
at the projected wheels, and considering that the dimensions of the tub, its
weight, and its load, are important quantities in the cal-
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 191
culations to follow, it is better to describe them now. Two views of the
tubs are shown on Plate XVII., Figs. 1 and 2; the general design is adapted
more for mining purposes than for open quarry work, which is the only means
required to win the ore for some time to come: until the time arrives when
they will be required to go underground and meet all the necessities of
mining, it is unnecessary to provide them with coupling chains. The
inside dimensions of the box are 1 metre long by •64 metre wide and "45
metre deep, or a capacity of -288 cubic metre, capable of containing when
level fall 508 kilogrammes of iron ore. The box is made of poplar deals
*040 metre thick, furnished at the top with an angle iron hoop, giving
additional strength to the hind end of the tub that has not only to support
the chain, but to resist the retaining effect of the chain on the gradient
approaching the leading-on pulleys when the chain has left the fork ; also
to withstand the rubbing of the chain, which by accident may be lifted out
of the fork, when on heavy gradients the tub acquires at once a velocity too
great to allow time for the vertical link to fall the depth of the fork, and
the tub is only slightly retarded by the friction caused by the passage of
the chain's uneven surface over the two ledges (the fork, and the hind end
of the box) and escapes until stopped by the tub next below. To receive
such shocks as those the box ought to be strong and well secured to the
tram, consequently there are six angle-iron vertical straps having hold of
the top hoop, and the intermediate sides or ends of the box are bolted to
the oaken soles of the tram. The fork consists of an *030 metre thick
iron plate presenting an opening of *160 metre, down whose sides, at an
angle of 35° the chain glides into a notch -075 metre by -027 metre prepared
for the reception of the vertical link. To each side of this plate is
riveted a "06 metre angle-iron, which in its turn is riveted to the top
hoop, the pair expanding pass beneath the end transverse piece where they
are bolted to the inside of the sole. The wheels are of cast steel *271
metre diameter, with steel axles, a set (pair of wheels and axle) weighing
24 kilogrammes, the total weight of the tub being 180 kilogrammes. In
lieu of corner posts or plates, each corner is provided with two straps
whose ends are riveted to the vertical ones. The height of the tub above
the rail is *82 metre, and -07 metre being the height of the rail, the top
of the tub, being the resting place of the chain, is '89 metre above the
surface of the sleeper.
According to the Table (page 193) the greatest tension will be at C on the
length C Dc. In finding that tension it is better to reduce the weight of
the tub 180 kilogrammes, the load 500 kilogrammes, and the chain
192 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
12*65 kilogrammes per metre, to the weight of a lineal metre of train: then
180 + 500 + 12<65 _ 46>65 kiiogranmies weight per metre of full train,
and ^~ + 12-65 = 21*65 kilogrammes weight per metre of empty train.
Taking from the table the fall of 86-96 metres, and the length of 617-56
metres, all that is required to complete the calculation is the mean
coefficient of resistance of the full and empty trains; and this, as the
tubs and rails were new, was necessarily an estimate, guided by experience
and actual experiment with other and similar tubs, giving it as low as -018,
it was decided to allow a margin in favour of the starting of the new work,
and '025 was fixed as representing it.
46*65 X 86-96 = 4,056-68
46-65 x 617-56 x '025 = 720*22
3,336-46, tension on full chain, and
21-65 x 86-96 = 1,882-68
21-65 x 617-56 x '025 = 334*25
2,216-93, tension on empty chain.
To these tensions must be added 500 kilogrammes sustaining tension,
indispensable at the loose pulley D0, for the purpose of keeping the chain
in suspension, which, having been gradually relieved of the weight of the
train, would otherwise droop and trail on the sleepers, hence (3,336-46 +
500 =) 3,836 kilogrammes is the greatest working tension on
the line.____
Then according to the common formula, D = s/9 W : I) being the diameter in
eighths of an inch, and W the safe load in tons : a chain of 5-83 eighths of
an inch diameter is sufficient for the working load of 3,836 kilogrammes;
then, taking into account the severe shocks and strains that a chain riding
on gradients so steep as those shown in the table is liable to, from
unavoidable causes, a one-inch chain, or the nearest approach to that size,
25 millimetres was selected for the six heavy lengths, and an 18 millimetre
chain for the two flat lengths F G and G H. The sustaining tension applied
at the ends, or at any other point on a length where the effect of the
weight of the train becomes insufficient to support the chain free of the
sleepers, being an additional strain the effect of which is transmitted over
the entire length, ought to be applied cautiously. With the exception of
the long flat above F, 500 kilogrammes
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 193
is a maximum quite adequate for the object as far as the rest of the heavy
lengths are concerned. For the lighter chain and flat length 300 kilogrammes
is the quantity used in ascertaining the tensions or working loads of the
eight chains at their respective wheels, and which are given in the
following Table:—
Down. _ .,
Up. For the
-------------------------------¦-------------— Control
------------------------------------------------
Wheel. 0f
the
Full Side. ^de* Total- Fan-fly. Full Side.
E^y Total.
Kilogs. Kilogs. Kilogs. Kilogs. Kilogs.
Kilogs. Kilogs.
A 1,632 1,221 2;853 411
A' 2,302 2,302 4,604 , / 500 500
1,000
B 2,606 1,857 4,463 f 1,418 1 500 1,169
1,669
C 3,836 2,716 6,552 1,120 500 500
1,000
Dc ... ... ... ... 500
500 1,000
D 2,587 1,980 4,567 ^ 607 f
E 2,316 2,421 4,737 500 605
1,105
F 300 951 1,251 500 1,151
1,651
G 300 628 928 623 951
1,574
H ... ... ... J I 634 634 1,268
In determining the profile, or line, which the formation for the reception
of the way should be constructed to, the value of many of the forces had to
be estimated, but after deciding what should be aimed at in designing the
works in detail, these estimates were practically all that was requisite,
though in showing the method pursued, the actual value of the forces, &c, as
since ascertained, will be employed:
Kilogrammes,
Weight of load (mineral carried by tub) ............ 500
„ tub ........................ 180
„ 25 millimetre chain per metre ... ... ...
... 12-65
„ 18 „ „ ...............
660
„ full train with 25 millimetre chain per metre ......
46-65
„ empty „ „ „ „
...... 21-65
,. full train with 18 „ „ „ ......
40-6
„ empty „ „ „ „
...... 15*6
Coefficient of resistance......... ........... 0"025
Metre8.
Distance between centres of tubs in train ... .. ...
... 20"
Span, being the space between the tubs ........... 18-90
Half-span ........................ 9"45
Top of tub, or point of suspension above the sleepers ......
0-89
Height of rail........................ 0"07
,, fork ahove rail ... ... ... ...
••• ••• Q''^
A A
VOL. XXXHI-1884.
* •*
194 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
In the construction of the railway whose total length will be between the
wheel A and H, 3,007*32 metres (3,288*80 yards) possessing a total fall of
344*51 metres (1,130*26 feet), giving an average inclination of -114, or 1
in 8*72, one object has been to avoid the introduction of abrupt changes of
gradient, the presence of which in the profile would prove impediments in
the endeavour to so harmonize the concavities and convexities in the line of
rail to the deflexion assumed by the chain under its varying tension in the
many spans comprised in the length of a train, that the chain may ride free
without trailing.
The tension required to sustain the 25 millimetres chain on the span of
18*90 metres, the points of suspension being *89 metre above the horizontal
line over the tops of the sleepers :
•89 = i^.9'452; T =¦ 12'^ X 9'452 =634 kilogrammes tension
required. For the 18 millimetres chain, 331 kilogrammes is the tension
required.
In deciding on the principal points in the profile of a length, it is
best to fix upon the form of the bank-head and bank-foot first, not only
because their establishment affects the connecting profile, but because at
these two points the chief causes of friction exist, the effect of which it
is
the duty of the engineer to avoid altogether, or reduce to a minimum in
dealing with natural obstacles, so far as a due regard to economy will
permit. In order that the chain should rest as lightly as possible on the
leading-off pulley a in the bank-foot (see Plate XVII., Fig. 3), a ought
to be the lowest point of the curve assumed by the chain under a tension
of 500 kilogrammes; then, taking the distance of the last departing
tub from the pulley, when the following tub should take the chain, to
be 20 metres:
500
-r^—z------57 = 1*97 kilogrammes,
12*65 X 20 ° '
the coefficient of tension at a, being the lowest part of the chain; then
TsfVa =5-07 metres,
the deflexion of the chain, or the height of the point of suspension c above
the pulley a; then
2 x 5*07
20 = *507> which is the tangent at c.
Log. *507 =1*705008 •
10_____
9*705008 = log. tan. of 26° 54',
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 195
the angle made by the chain with the horizon at its point of suspension,
or, in other words, an inclination of *507.
The mechanical curve that a chain of uniform substance and texture
assumes when it is hung upon two points (whether those points be in a
horizontal plane or not) is a catenary one; but designing is made easier
and the construction unaffected if the curve is considered a parabola.
5*07 The present curve will then be, -^p- = -012675, say a parabola
a be of •0127#2, x being the ordinate.
The maximum inclination that can be accepted being *300, it is necessary to
find at what part of the parabola its tangent will have such an angle or
inclination :
-————- = 11*81 metres, •0127x2 '
the distance from a to b, the point of departure of the tangent b d of '300;
d being *83 metre below c.
With the point of suspension at d, the angle in the chain caused by the
pulley a, is 2° 17'; this is the least (the quantities remaining the same)
that it is possible to have.
If the bank-foot were at a terminus the rails could be laid to work to these
lines; but, in order that the description may afford a more general
application, it is supposed to be at an angle or station. The chain passes
over the pulley a at a height of 1*22 metres above the rail, or *40 metre
above the top of the tub (this height is determined by the height of the
pulley *13 metre diameter on the full side of the length in front; it is
likewise the minimum height at which the larger pulley of '276 metre
diameter can be placed to clear the forks), consequently the chain on
passing the pulley a must be allowed to droop so as to meet the line efg
that the top of the tub takes, acquiring sufficient momentum on the
inclination *020 to carry it along the level fg which is *47 metre beneath
a:
•47 -------
7^7 = 37*16, ^37*16 = 6*08 metres,
the distance from a to g, where the vertex of the parabola must be placed.
The necessary momentum to carry the full tub over the flat sheets to the
point of attachment on the length in advance is acquired by its becoming
detached from the chain on the gradient *025.
"Whether it be a bank-head or a bank-foot that is being designed, it is of
the greatest importance to minimize the friction at the leading-
196 ME ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
off and leading-on pulleys. (See Plate XVII., Fig. 4.) In forming a
bank-head (with the load) it is best to continue the level of the flatsheets
to a point that the last departing full tub reaches when the following tub
arrives at the point of attachment, and the distance of the former from the
leading-off pulley is arrived at as follows:—
Tension at brake-station D (see Table on page 193) 2,587 kilogrammes.
9 *"ift7
9*45
ttttt?—7T7T = 21*64 kilogrammes the coefficient of tension; then 01„. ^0
12*65x9*45 &
2164X4
= *22, the deflexion of the chain resting on the tubs at the working span
of 18-90 metres.
•22 The curve assumed by the chain is a parabola of 07752 = '0024 ; a
parabola of "0024a;2.
On a flat bank-head a pulley of -13 metre diameter may be used
advantageously at the following height:—
Metres.
Height of fork............ ...... 0-93
Clearance ..................0-0275
Diameter of pulley ... ... ... ... ...
0*130
Centre of chain above pulley ... ... ... ...
0*0125
1*1000 Height of centre of chain on top of tub ... ... 0*86
0*24
•24 4- *22 ________
Then, -—^7—= 191-666'; N/191-666'= 13*84 metres, the distance
of the lowest part of the suspended chain from the pulley, or 13*84 — 9*45 =
4*39 metres from the pulley to where the chain will be at rest in the fork;
but as the chain takes hold of the fork when the link is *05 metre from
home, the point of attachment is practically at 3*33 metres in front of the
pulley. The level forming the bank-head, including the 1 metre that the
pulley is distant from the chain wheel, is then 23*23 metres; it is
tangential to the summit of a curve connecting the profile of the length to
the bank-head; a curve of less radius forms the kip for the empty side, 2
metres short of the leading-on pulley, under the guard bars of which a
gradient of *025 is sufficient to accelerate the momentum already imparted
to the tub by the chain and deliver it at the point of attachment in the
bank-foot.
It is not at all times that such a desirable bank-head can be constructed as
that erected at D, where the difficulties of a gorge and a steep mountain-
side rendered it expedient to modify it materially, and as a substitute to
establish a curve that would only admit the full chain to ride without
dragging:
Metres. Height of point of suspension ... ... ...
... '89
Deflexion of chain *22 + *02 metre for clearance ... *24
Available rise ... ... ...... ... *65
9-452
Then, -^- = 137*38 metres which being divided by 2 gives 68*69 metres
as the radius of the curve. In order to take advantage of the extra
play which the use of round numbers would give, the radius was taken
at 70 metres, which gives
18*92 7Qx2 = 2*55 metres
the distance that the point of suspension on the tub a is below the point on
the tub b.
Such a bank-head must be provided with pulleys of large diameter to meet the
friction caused by the increased angle of deflection of the chain, which has
to adapt itself to the train on a curve of such great fall; therefore, 1*29
metres between the centre of the chain and the rail is allowed, which is
sufficient for pulleys of *276 metre diameter; then the difference in height
between the chain in the fork of the tub b, and the chain on the pulley p,
the outside dimensions of the links being •138 x *081 metre, will be
1*29 - -82 = *47 metre, *47 - (0*081 -r- 2) = *4295.
\/'4295 + *22
-----~ .------ = 16*45 metres, the horizontal distance between the
vertex of the curve described by the chain and the pulleys, assuming the
train to be on a level; but the difference in the heights of the tubs a and
b is equal to an inclination of *119 ; therefore the distance will be 16*45
— 4*93 = 11*52 metres. Then 11*52 — 9*45 = 2*07 + 1 (the distance from the
wheel to the pulleys) = 3*07 metres from the centre of the wheel to the
point of attachment, which is also the summit of the curve, whose length to
unite the level at this point to an inclination of *30 is:
Log. of *30 1*477121 10*
9*477121 = log. tan. of 16° 42'
198 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
Half the angle of intersection of this angle and a horizontal line is :
180°-lg°4*'=81°89--^9y
(5,400 — 4,899) x '000582 x 70 = 20-41 metres, the length of the curve.
The tension of the chain on the empty train (see Table on page 193) is 1,980
kilogrammes, and
——£——— = 16*56 gives the coefficient of tension,
9'45 and -.ttttv—k- = "28 the deflexion.
16'ob x 2
Now the rise of the curve *28 + "65 = '93 metre, and as this
exceeds the height of the point of suspension by '04 metre it will
be necessary to place rollers between the rails to receive the chain and
prevent it trailing on the ground. The distance that these rollers
ought to be placed apart to support the chain '132 metre clear of the
sleepers, treating the deflexion on so short a span as the curvature will
establish as an unimportant quantity, will be v/*132 x 140 = 4'30
metres. To provide a kip, a suitable point on the curve is chosen at m, 7
7 metres from the summit, where the tangent possesses -. g = = '100
inclination, this is continued for 2'07 metres to the height of 9'86 metres
and 8 metres from the wheel, then a curve of 40 metres whose summit will be
•100 x 40 = 4 metres further, and
v/402 — 42 = 39-80 — 40 = '20 metre will give the height of the summit above
m; the curve is then continued to n, 3 metres from the wheel from where its
tangent having an inclination of '025, is continued to the flat-sheets.
To show the arrangement of curves, parabolas, and planes, all tan-gentially
united, which constitute the profile of a railway passing through a piece of
country so remarkable for the abruptness of its lines of configuration as
that intervening between the Anita mine and Avellanosa, the length taken as
an example is that of 0 Dc (see Plate XVI., Fig. 3) because it presents the
chief difficulties that had to be surmounted. From A to C there were not
many difficulties encountered in forming the line at a convenient distance
from and parallel to the run of the mineral, so as to meet the future
demands that mining the ore at lower depths would entail. From A to B it was
mostly made by the shovel, which the peasants had to be taught to use, in
the form of a ledge in the
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 199
mine-refuse lying on the mountain-side at its natural slope of 45°. The
embankment below B was formed of refuse conveyed from the heap by tub and
tram.
It was decided that the best way of contending with the hill and ravine
below C was to pierce the former with a tunnel (see Plate XVII., Fig. 5)j
and with the stones won in driving it, together with the stones produced by
the cutting on the opposite ridge, to form a dry wall embankment after the
manner shown in Plate XVII., Fig. 6). These walls were adopted in preference
to wood-work, which was avoided as much as possible on account of its short
life in a climate which produces rapid decay in the poor pine that it is
usual to import, and the impossibility of procuring carpenters who have had
any experience in erecting such work. In the construction of the walls, the
knowledge that the local masons and the peasantry of the neighbourhood
possess and their skill in dry-walling were utilized.
Where the blue schistose rock, which crumbles after long exposure to the
weather, has been used, the walls (provided with weeping-holes) were
plastered with lime for their protection. On the high side of these
embankments where the ditch could not be cut in clay, or where the formation
is above the natural surface, adequate means were taken for preventing the
surface-water from penetrating among the stones of the bank by covering them
with earth and providing a collecting ditch to convey away the water.
The water-ways in the embankments are vertical openings between transverse
buttresses which gi\~e additional strength to the whole.
Having estimated the resources for stone, examined the ground, and decided
that the height of the embankment ought not to exceed 1 metre at peg 154
(See section O Dc, Plate XVI., Fig. 3), then, in order to find the curve the
chain would assume suspended across this hollow, it was necessary to find
first the tension of the chain on the full train, which, as the curve was
concave, was the greatest tension required.
The peg (Plate XVI., Fig. 3), is 180'57 — 119-67 = 60-90 metres above, and
1,537*67 — 1,164*15 = 373*52 metres from the terminus at the loose wheel Dc;
then
Kilogrammes.
46*65 X 60-90 = 2,840*98
46'65 x 373*52 x '025= 435*62
2,415-36 + 500 = 2,915 kilogrammes the tension on the full chain. "With
this tension, and a span of
12'65 18-90 metres,the deflexion will be Q Qin------j x 9*452 = '1937; then
with
200 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
'1937
this rise the curve will be , % = a parabola of *00217;r2. From
peg
154 going towards C, guided by a section over the line of pegs of equal
horizontal and vertical scales, it was found convenient to introduce a plane
having an inclination of "17 as a tangent to the parabola of '002, although,
perhaps, it would have been better to have allowed a little more play for
accidental strains which, by reducing the deflexion, might have lifted the
chain out of the forks and caused the tubs to run together, but the
disadvantages attending any increase in the height of the embankment did not
admit
of this; then
•17 = 2 x *002a-, and x = 42*5 metres
the distance that the parabola will occupy in the profile, and the height
•002 x 42-52 = 3-612 metres.
As it was convenient to have the formation at a point fixed at a
distance of 1,580-22 metres, with the rails at a height of 184*19 metres,
the vertex of the parabola was 184*19 — 3"62 = 180-57 metres at the
distance of 1,537*67 metres; the inclination of *170 was continued for 15*45
metres, x being 1,595*67 and y 186*81 metres. At this point a curve is
introduced to join the inclination of *1187 being the inclination of the
tunnel best adapted to suit peculiarities in the beds of the rock, offering
good roofs for the mouths of the tunnel.
•17 =9° 53'
•1187 = 6 49
176 56 -=- 2 = 88°28' half the angle, of intersection. Selecting a curve of
200 metres radius : 88° 28' = 5,308'; then (5,400 — 5,308) '000582 x 200 =
10-70 metres the length of the curve: the point of intersection of these two
lines x = 1,595*02 metres, and the curve will extend from x = 1,595*67
metres to x = 1,606-37 metres a point 4 metres inside of the northern mouth
of the tunnel. To ascertain the height of these points:
15-45 x*17=2-62 + 184*19 = 2/=186-81 metres; #=1,595-67 metres. To arrive at
the value of y, x = 1,606'37 metres, find the offset from the tangent '17 to
an arc of a curve of 200 metres radius whose chord is 10-70 metres,
10*70 x *17 — 2?j^2 = 1'53 + 186'81 = 188'34 ;
y = 188*34 metres, x = 1,606*37 metres.
The tunnel 104 metres in length, 2*30 metres wide, and 1*90 metres high
(see Plate XVII., Fig. 5) was driven from both ends, through the blue
schistose rock of the district, and did not need any lining of masonry.
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 201
Returning to x = 1,537-67 metres, and proceeding towards I)c, as the ridge
in front did not present any great difficulty a parabola much flatter than
that on the south side was employed, and one of y = *0015 x2 having a
tangent of *125 was chosen; then
•0015x2 = 41'66metreS^^ and 41*662 X *0015 — 2*60 metres
= y
with this the point x — 1,537*67 — 41-66 = 1,496*01 metres and y =» 180-57 +
2-60 = 183-17 metres. Wishing to utilize a certain quantity of suitable
building stone that showed itself on the line of the route over the ridge,
the rock was cut the full width of the formation. The tension of the empty
chain at this point was
Kilogrammes.
183-85 - 119-67 = 64-18 X 12-65 = 811-87
1,490-57-1,164-15 = 326-42 x 12*65 X *025 = 103'23
708-64+ 500=1,208
22*65 kilogrammes. Then = 0-A0 —n 9*452=*467 metres the deflexion of the
chain,
•89 — 4*67 = *423 metre
9*45 the available maximum rise, --rw=- = 191*22 -*- 2 — 95*61 metres, the
*467
radius of the curve, an arc of which whose chord is 18*90, has a rise of
*423 metre, consequently the curve of 135 metres adapting itself to the
surface was introduced advantageously.
The summit of a circle of 135 metres, whose tangent is at an inclination of
"125 with the horizon, will place itself in
•125 x 135 = 16*875, V1352 — 16*8752 = 133*93 metres.
133*93 x *125 = 16*74 metres.
Then x = 1,490*57 — 16*74 = 1,473*83 metres, and y —135 — 133*93 =
1*07 + 183-85; from this point the curve is continued until y = 1,444*43
metres:
1,473-83 — 1,444*43 = 29*40 metres,
29*402 T35~x~2 = 3'20 metres'
y = 184-92 — 3-20 = 181*72 metres. .Between the point x = 1,444*4 3 metres
and x = 1,294*63 metres the profile follows the surface closely, the object
being to excavate just sufficient on the high side of the centre line to
form the embankment for the half of the formation on the low side, because
the steep mountain side did not
VOL. XXXIII.-1884.
B B
202 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
carry more. Both here and on the length D E below, great precaution had to
be taken to prevent the earth and stones when once set in motion escaping
and bounding down the hill, on to and over the road beneath to the beach.
Approaching Dc is a length of 64-03 metres having an inclination of *30
metre, which is the longest length of the maximum gradient; on this the
average depth of cutting is 1*290 metres, mostly rock which was utilized in
ballasting the adjacent lengths. At the foot of this gradient is a parabola
of '005 ; it is much flatter than the chain required, in order to save the
cost of an embankment which would have been required if the cutting had been
dispensed with. The point at which the loose pulley Dc is fixed upon is
determined with a view to meet the design of the brake station D (see Plate
XVIIL, Fig. 1).
The principal reason for deciding that the wheel D should be eight metres
beyond A, the point of intersection of the centre lines of the two lengths C
Dc and D E, is because of the immediate and abrupt fall that exists from A
towards E, on which it would have been both difficult and costly to have
erected the bank-head already described (see Plate XVII., Fig. 4). In
placing D thus, the ends of the wooden beams that support the machinery have
been let into and secured in the limestone rock in which the station is cut,
thereby saving the cost of the walls of masonry that otherwise would have
been needed for the purpose of receiving them. The rock detached, and the
large stones from the cutting above Dc, were sufficient to form the dry wall
embankment close at hand.
Station E (see Plate XVIII., Fig. 2) is situated on the side of the royal
road. After some deliberation it was decided that a subway would be the
means best adapted to overcome the various obstacles and meet the official
requirements in dealing with the highway. This subway, 32 metres long, is
lined throughout with pick-dressed limestone blocks; the side walls have a
batter of 1 in 20, supporting an arch of 120° curvature, with a span of 2"30
metres; to reach the lower level, a break in the system was introduced, in
the shape of an ordinary drop staple of 13*50 metres, situated at a distance
of 5 metres from the line D E. The inside dimensions of the rectangular
shaft were 2*75 metres by 1*50 metres, formed of three walls of masonry, two
of which connect the outer and stouter wall to the cliff; so that the full
tubs should leave the chain under the supporting pullies at ED, gravitate on
the flatsheets A to the banksman, who, in pushing the full tub into the cage
simultaneously, would force out the empty tub on to the flatsheets B, where
it would be received by a boy who would direct it towards ED; at the bottom
of the staple the onsetter on the side B acting similarly to the banksman
above, would land the full tub on the
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 203
side A, where a man giving it the direction causes it to gravitate towards
the flatsheets behind E. Although the rate at which the tubs land on the
flatsheets A is one every 20 seconds, the dropping is easily accomplished
and rendered easier for the workmen by hinging the rails on which the tub
rests to the A end of the cage whilst the cage is at the top, the rails (on
the top of which are fixed pieces of flat bar 1 centimetre thick, and just
long enough for the wheels to span whilst at rest on the rails, also
answering the purpose of snecks) retain a horizontal position assumed by
virtue of well-fitting shoes that hold a good length of slide, but on
arriving at the bottom the loose ends of the rails are received by a pair of
chocks, when the weight of the tub brings the hinges into play, the rails
acquire an inclination, cause the full tub to mount and land itself on to
the flatsheets on the side A. The balance wheel (see Plate XVII., Figs. 10
and 11) has a rectangular groove 150 millimetres deep by 45 millimetres
wide. Inserted in this groove and projecting through openings in the flanges
are 12 blocks of wood of 160 millimetres by 165 millimetres by 120
millimetres, secured in position by a split pin passing through them on the
outside of each flange of the rim. Out of these wooden blocks are sawn
pieces in the form of isosceles triangles of 50° the angle at the vertex.
These dents occupy the centre of the groove receiving the rope, which, by
virtue of the weight of the load, is held firmly by the wheel and is
controlled by the brake.
The chains on passing over the pulleys at ED descend 10 metres and pass
beneath bearing down pulleys that lead the chain horizontally, on and off
the wheel E, on the end of the shaft and 3*25 metres above the wheel of the
chain E F.
From the flatsheets at A there is a line of rails leading to a gangway on
which there is a kick-up placed over a deposit or bunker cut in the rock;
the bottom of the shoot is cut at an angle of 50° so that the ore tipped at
the kick-up, banks and covers the platform below, in which and also in the
front are two openings 45 centimetres wide. As the bunker fills these are
closed with lengths of battens, and in filling the bullock carts in front or
below the deals are removed one by one as required, allowing the mineral to
tumble into the carts. Two openings are provided to obtain sufficient
capacity in the bunker so that two carts can load at a time. This provision
is made to meet the desirability of having always at Castro-Urdiales a stock
of mineral upon or near to the quay at that port, which although it has to
be taken there by bullock carts, has at times been found an advantage to
load under the shelter of the promontory of Castro,
204 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
especially when a cargo has to be completed with despatch, and when the long
prevalence of severe weather has rendered shipment impossible at Avellanosa.
The length E F, besides the cutting at the mouth of the subway and the three
bridges, two over and one under the railway, does not possess any important
feature as the line of profile throughout runs very near to the surface of
the land.
On leaving F, the lowest point in the railway, the rails are only 2'97
metres above high water mark, and cross the estuary on a wooden bridge 80
metres in length, made of braced girders resting on piles; the railway then
passes along on the top of the rocks, the side towards the sea being
protected by a wall extending from the base of the pier to G-.
Between G- and H the railway crosses an angle in the sea wall on
longitudinal beams running parallel to each other at such distances apart as
to allow of the reception of the rails, thus dispensing with a platform
which would offer too great a resistance to the waves that might be
projected up the face of the wall in some of the heavy seas occasionally
experienced. The longitudinal beams are supported by beams resting on,
secured in, and held by bolts built into the wall, their opposite ends being
supported and weighted to counteract that of the load. After crossing this,
the railway runs along on the front of the cliff to the terminus H, 12*41
metres above high water mark.
The formation (see Plate XVIII., Figs. 3 and 4) is 3 metres wide, both on
embankments and in cuttings. Very little ditch is needed, provision being
made for collecting the surface water on the high sides of the slopes and
directing it to the water ways prepared for its passage underneath the
railway. The distance between the centres of the two lines of way of -45
metre (17*71 inches) gauge, is 1-20 metres. Where the inclination and height
of the two ways are equal, through-sleepers of native oak 2*20 metres long
by 15 centimetres wide and 9 centimetres thick are used. The flat-bottomed
rails specially made for the railway, and with which the lengths BC, CD, and
DE are laid, are of Bessemer steel, weighing 12*40 kilogrammes per metre
(25lbs. per yard) notched for joint spikes and holed for fish-plates. To
avoid the unnecessary weakening of the inside plate, punched as is customary
to receive square-necked bolts, the bolts have pear-shaped necks. The spikes
are 75 millimetres long by 10 millimetres square, placed one per deeper per
rail, inside and outside alternately. Rather more than half of the railway
is laid with flat-bottomed steel rails, weighing 20 kilo-
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 205
grammes per metre, that had been got for the locomotive line from O to P,
and had to be used, and to save conveying their extra weight they were laid
at the two ends of the line near to where they were lying.
The ballast used consists for the most part of stone obtained from the
cuttings, broken by hand to the size of road metal. In some places it was
not only cheaper but an advantage to use the refuse in the vicinity, which,
owing to its nature after a little treading, becomes impervious to water and
keeps the line immovably fixed after it has been once well topped.
As a precaution against the tendency there is in a way laid on steep
inclinations to gradually move in the direction favoured by the incline,
through the working of the ballast, a stout sleeper has been inserted at
every third joint on the low side of the joint sleeper, to which the rails
are fixed by spikes driven through holes specially drilled in the flanges of
each rail; behind this, and on the inside of the outer rails are 45
centimetres iron bolts set in cement in holes drilled in the rock; where the
ballast is refuse this is quite useless, as the notches in the rails hold to
the spikes in the immovable sleepers; where there is neither rock nor this
refuse, strong stakes driven into the ground behind a sleeper are sometimes
used.
Excepting two or three places where it would have entailed more expense than
was commensurate with the saving in wear and tear to be gained to have
constructed the profile so that the chain should always ride clear of the
ground without touching, there are a few rollers used to support the chain
above the sleepers, and they are placed on the bank-heads at A and D, and at
the F end of the subway, with odd ones in some of the bank-foots, useful
when a chain loses the sustaining tension through wear, or during the
excessive heat of mid-day when expansion produces the same effect. The
rollers are formed of two tub wheels running loose upon an axle held by two
cleats, whose ends are spiked to two adjoining sleepers, the space between
them that receives the vertical link is adjusted by placing a washer between
the nozzles of the bosses. (See Plate XVIII., Figs. 3 and 4.)
Behind the works at Dicido there is a bed of limestone possessing the proper
combination of silica and alumina to yield a hydraulic lime in an eminent
degree ; this lime, manufactured on the place, has been used in the erection
of the sea walls and piers, and has also been of good service in the
erection of the walls for binding the wooden framework supporting the
machinery at the different angles and stations where other means have not
been employed.
206 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
Plate XVIII., Fig. 5, describes the manner in which the wheels and pulleys
at the angles and stations are fixed, and a plan (Plate XIX., Fig. 1) is
given, showing the brake-station 0. The transverse beams are shown in the
former as being cut on the line of the two lengths 0 B and 0 Dc, that
intersect at the centre of the shaft of the chain-wheel A, shown on the
latter. The masonry is rubble and small stones set in hydraulic lime, or
what may be practically termed concrete. The principal walls that secure the
ends of the two beams that together form a seat for the footstep, and the
three beams placed '10 metre apart, with intervening chocks through which
the main carriage holding bolts pass, bracing the whole into one rigid
support for the machinery, form a solid resistance against the tension
towards Dc of 5,552 kilogrammes; these walls are 1 metre thick on the side
that the tension is greatest, and the wing-walls for holding the pulley and
guard-beams are '60 metre and *85 metre thick respectively.
The chain-wheel A rests upon a collar, and is keyed to the shaft with two
keys placed at 120° apart. Resting upon this wheel is the loose-wheel B (see
Plate XVII., Fig. 9), and above all clearing the transverse beams 5
centimetres is the brake and spur-wheel C; as the balance or pendulum
regulates the works of a clock, the fan-fly, analogous in its properties and
use, regulates the speed of the train on an endless chain (see Plate XIX.,
Fig. 1). The fan-fly revolves on the outside of the station wall, and
between that and an outer wall erected to carry the carriage that holds the
end of its shaft, which is in this instance 5'20 metres in length with three
bearings, the fan is driven by bevel gear of 12 to 96. The speed of the
train being one metre per second, the fan-fly makes 128 revolutions per
minute. Four pairs of clams form arms to the blades and receive the deals
"03 thick of which they are composed, and readily admit of adjustment in the
regulation of the governing power of the fan-fly.
To control the train there is also an ordinary lever brake with two
adjusting screws on the brake-strap, which encircles a series of articulated
segments of a circle formed in poplar wood; by this means the cleading or
segments can be renewed without removing the brake-strap, or kept
continually efficient by adding fresh cleats or segments in front of the
wheel as required and taking out the worn ones from behind. The lever is
balanced by a weight hanging from a pulley on the wall, heavy enough to
slack off the brake. In applying the brake, to remove all possibility of any
more sudden application than is necessary to stop the train in 20 seconds,
and as a precaution against breakage of machinery or the
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 207
lifting of the chain out of the forks in the hollows, a slow-powered winch
with hempen rope is used, which enables the brakesman to control the train
at will.
Transport has formed a very important item in the costs of construction ;
the materials, after having been deposited at two or three points only
accessible to bullock-carts carrying a load of half-a-ton and making (in dry
weather) two journeys per day, were carried or dragged by the workmen to
where they were needed. To avoid this, and the delay caused by bad or
unfavourable weather, as well as to save cost, the masonry walls were
dispensed with at A', and instead, a wooden framework was erected (see Plate
XIX., Figs, 7 and 8) consisting of two laced girders resting upon four light
transverse beams. From the ends of these the guard, pulley, and
carriage-beams, supported by the girders, were stayed ; the latter beams are
also laced, thus securing a lightness of structure combined with a rigidness
favourable to their more general adoption under similar circumstances.
The 25 millimetre chain-wheels (see Plate XIX., Figs. 5 and 6) are formed of
discs of 1*07 metre diameter, the top side being a flat plane at right
angles with its axis, provided with a depending groove 145 millimetres deep
and 80 millimetres thick; this groove contains 25 square sockets, whose
centres only are radial to the centre of the disc, which receive the claws
that are held out to the chain formed by a second or inner rim connected by
partitions, dividing the sockets, to the outer rim, the whole designed to
give free access to the tap bolts and to the brass washer liners used in
setting the claws. The neck of each bolt is furnished with a spring washer
(two dished washers placed with the concave sides together) as a protection
against the unthreading of the bolts in drawing home the claws, which are
planed on all sides that they may fit the sockets perfectly without
vibration. The claws are designed to admit the horizontal links (which, when
home, rest on the bottom of the notch prepared for their reception) and
entering between, take hold of the after part of the vertical links. The
most important point to watch in supervising the working of the wheels is to
prevent the links from moving when once they have taken their form until
they have to rise to leave the wheel; after the claw has once taken hold of
the link it ought to remain at rest whilst in its form, as any movement
means heavy wear and tear. To prevent this occurring the horizontal links
are frequently tapped in the claws with a hammer; if they should sound as
not in tension, then, as understood, the claws need putting out a little,
which is done by slacking the top bolts of each alternate claw and inserting
a millimetre (the thickness of the
208 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
thinnest) liner behind the claw. Should the setting out of the claws be
overdone, the fore part of the vertical links will be immediately marked;
then the claws must be set back by removing the liners. With such care as
this, the wear and tear is reduced to a minimum that will compare favourably
with that of any other description of wheel.
The 18 millimetre chain-wheels are (see Plate XIX., Figs. 2, 3, and 4)
five-armed pulleys with a flat trod, in which is a groove cut to admit the
horizontal links; in this fifteen claws are fixed, that take hold of each
alternate vertical link; the claws terminate in bolts which, passing through
the rim of the 'wheel, are held in their seats by check-nuts; they are
further supported by notches in the flange that admit the sides of the claw.
Next in order of importance are the leading-off and leading-on pulleys, the
design of which cannot have too much attention, especially if the chain
should be as heavy as the one being described, for it is in passing over
these, where bank-heads are short, that the chain under great tension is
bent to a greater angle than elsewhere. To reduce this angle, a pulley of
greater diameter is used; but as this mode of diminishing the friction
materially affects the design of the whole structure, increasing the space
occupied and requiring a more massive design than otherwise would have been
necessary, a pulley (see Plate XIX., Figs. 9 and 10) was suggested as
meeting requirements. It consists of two rollers with a sheave between them,
all working freely and independently on a shaft furnished with loose brass
collars, which, keeping the pulleys together and working free in the hanger,
allow the same play of 19 millimetres that the chain has in passing through
the opening A between the guides B. The diameter of the rollers and sheave
are 276 and 209 millimetres respectively. The object of the sheave is to
support the vertical link, whilst the space between the sides of the
horizontal link is passing over the rollers, thus preventing the dropping of
the chain 8£ millimetres each time that a fiat link passed over the pulley,
or in other words, saving the chain 530 blows per minute, and much reducing
the noise which is also of some importance.
The slots in the hanger afford the easy adjustment of the pulley to that
height which will assure the horizontal links of the chain leaving the
notches in the claws without friction. When the requisite height is
ascertained, the hanger is prevented from working down by placing a piece of
packing under the flange, or letting the flange into the top of the beam as
the case may require.
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 209
The leading-on pulleys are best arranged when they hang independently of the
guard bars, because there is always a difficulty in adjusting the guards
when they carry the bearings for the pulley, so as to give it that freedom
of play that leading-on pulleys, especially those in the bank-foots,
require. The design (see Plate XVII., Figs. 7 and 8) shows a pulley composed
of two reversible loose rollers and a sheave, working freely on a brass boss
between two flanges, one of them being a removable screw flange which
permits of the three pieces being taken apart and cleaned from the dirt
that, carried by the chain, finds its way between the sheave and the
rollers, and would, if not thus attended to, clog them; this pulley works
also loose on a shaft held in the two eye-pieces riveted on to a plate
provided with slots for the hangers.
The style of greaser preferred is a plain simple disc, or rather, pair of
wooden discs, each well secured between a pair of flanged bosses on the same
shaft or axle, the ends of which revolve in suitable bearings placed on the
ends of the box containing the supply of grease, within which the discs
revolve; it is either made of wood or cast in metal. On the periphery of the
discs a strip of india rubber of 3 centimetres square is held by screws well
let in, the whole so set that the axle of the tub in passing over compresses
the rubber to the extent of 1\ millimetres, and whilst receiving a
sufficient amount of lubrication for a journey of 5,000 metres, causes the
discs to revolve and bring up a supply for the axle following.
Under the impression that the foregoing description of the railway would be
considered incomplete without some reference being made to the cost of
working it, or rather that a reliable estimate of the working cost would
enhance the value of the paper considerably, an endeavour is made to furnish
in detail such particulars as will explain in what manner the cost of
leading per ton has been arrived at.
The value of the plant is taken, and as in the case of the chain and rails,
a sum of money is reserved annually, which, at three per cent., will be
sufficient to replace the first cost at the termination of eight years for
the chain and fifteen for the rails; their value as old material being
reserved to meet the cost of laying the new road, placing the chains, or for
any contingency which at present it is impossible to foresee, but which
after the lapse of so many years may occur.
The pulleys, rollers, cages, ropes, turntables, &c, are all included under
the head of machinery, which is of substantial design, and an annual charge
of seven per cent is made for depreciation and wear and tear, which is also
supposed to cover any breakage the result of accident.
VOL. XXXIII.—1884.
V ^
210
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
It is essential to the preservation of the wood-work of the bridges and
framework at the stations, as also to the whole of the woodwork of the line
that will admit of it, that it should be protected by a covering of paint or
tar; the cost of this is included in the estimate for repairs to the
woodwork, which also includes the renewal of the sleepers.
The cost of repairing the tubs can, necessarily, only be an estimate, but
the figures given (-550 pence) are based upon a personal knowledge of the
carefully ascertained cost of other tubs, and the contract price of such
work is deemed sufficient to keep them in a high state of efficiency; this
cost is necessary more to meet the wear and tear of the mine than that to
which they are subjected on the railway. An important item in favour of the
endless chain where there are heavy inclinations, is, that the destruction
to rolling stock and plant through accident is less than that of other
systems.
Under the head of stores the only charges are for oil, waste, lights, and a
few little things, as all machinery, plant, and wood, to replace or to
repair, together with all tools and stores used by the mechanics, are
included in the wear and tear of machinery.
The cost of manning the line is heavier than it would otherwise have been,
from the necessity for having the drop and the backshunts at D; the number
of angles (not being stations) that need attention are two, F and G-; the
men placed at these angles are for the purpose of keeping a look-out over
the unfenced lengths that pass through public grounds and thoroughfares, and
for signalling.
In arriving at the cost per ton per mile, a fair average daily quantity is
only taken. For instance, the speed at which the train travels is one metre
per second, landing 180 tubs, or 90 tons of ore per hour. Limiting its
working to 10^ hours per day, the quantity the chain would deliver in that
time is 945 tons; but to meet the losses from bad weather, heat, accidents,
and feast-days, 750 tons per day, or 225,000 per annum, is considered to be
a quantity within the practical capabilities of the plant working under the
present established regulations.
THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN. 211
COST OF WORKING.
£ £
Value of chain ... 1,250 on i life of 8 years.
Kedemptior ... .. 140-57
» rails ... 1,525 » Jo >, «
81-99
» machinery 1,650 depi eciation, wear and tear ..
115-50
Repairing wood-work, renewing sleepers, pai n ti ng md
tarring wood-work
and machinery
42-50 £380-56
Pence
per Ton.
£380-56 + 225*000 tons ...
•406
Cost of repairing and keeping up the number of tubs in
good working
order •550
Greasing .... •070
Stores Per Day s. d. 8. d. ••
•050
Foreman 1 @ 5 0 = 5 0
Platelayers i „ 2 4 = 9 4
Fitter .'. 1 „ 4 0 = 4 0
Labourers 2 „ 2 4 = 4 8
— 23 0 - -368
Hangers on. Brakesmen. Tender.
s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.
s. d.
^age. 2 4 13 3 0 13
A ... 2 ... — ... — — = 4
8
A' ... 2 ... — ... — — = 4
8
B ... 1 ... 1 ... 1 .. — =
6 7
C ... 1 ... 1 ... 1 .. — =
6 7
Dc ... 1 — . — = 1 3
D ... 2 ... I ... 1 — = 8
11
EB ... — ... 1 — — = 1 3
E ... 1 ... 1 — — = 3 7
F ... — ... — — 1 = 1 3
g ... — ... — — 1 = 1 3
H ... 1 ... — ... — — = 2
4
— 42 4 = -077
Top 2 ... 1 ... 1 ... —
Bottom 2 ... 1 ... — ... —
Total cost per ton
3288'S Then 2-358 -*- = 1*261 pence per ton per mile.
8 11 5 11
14 10 = -237
2-358
212 THE ENDLESS CHAIN IN SPAIN.
The President said the writer of the paper was not present. It contained a
description of the endless chain system in Spain where the system appeared
to have been carried out successfully. One could not see that there was any
great novelty in it; it appeared to be the same on a larger scale as that in
operation in this country, but it was interesting to observe how the system
was carried out in various districts, and more especially how the cost was
affected by the circumstances of different localities. He moved that the
discussion of the paper be adjourned.
Mr. T. J. Bewick seconded the motion, which was unanimously agreed to.
The following paper, by Mr. B. J. Forrest, on " The Bilbao Iron Ore Mining
District," was taken as read, and will be open for discussion after the
paper is issued to the members :—
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 213
THE BILBAO IRON OEE DISTRICT.
Br B. J. FORREST.
GEOLOGICAL AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
The centre or focus of these mines is situated on the Cantabrian or north
coast of Spain, eight miles north-west of Bilbao, and two and a half miles
from the village of Somorrostro. Their general form is that of an ellipse,
two and a half to three miles long by one mile wide, and ranging from 600 to
1,000 feet above sea-level. The general bearing of the lodes is K 30° to 32°
W.; there are also flyers from the main lodes towards Onton and Castro in a
north-west direction, and to Alonsotegui and OUargan in a south-east
direction; Galdames and Sopuerta to the west may be taken as separate
deposits. The mining district (see Plate XX.) is divided into six groups,
viz.:—
1.—Triano and Somorrostro. 2.—Galdames.
3.—Sopuerta and Montellano. 4.—El Regato. 5.—Abando. 6.—Ollargan. The
foregoing groups cover about 16,000 acres of land, and are estimated to
contain 160,000,000 tons of iron ore; but the author is of opinion that
55,000,000 tons would be a fair quantity, after allowing for faults, loss,
and debris.
The stratification generally, in the Triano district, consists of greyish
blue limestones, reposing on and mixed in some places with micaceous rocks
or greywacke, and in others with schistose grit.
In the valleys or erosions are found bluish marly limestones (decomposed in
some places) and calcareous clays, and alluvial deposits generally in river
estuaries. The limestone and grit usually form bed and walls to the ore and
in some cases cut it out. (See Plate XXI., and Plate XXII., Figs. 5 and 6.)
The ores met with in Triano Mountain are the following, viz.: — Vena and
campanil: red heematite (anhydrous ferric oxide). Rubio: brown hgematite
(hydrated ferric oxide). Carbonato de hierro: spathic ore or siderite
(ferrous carbonate).
214
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
The ore varies from 100 to 250 feet in thickness, and in some of the best
mines is covered by five or six yards of limestone.
In the lower part of the formation or deposit of vena and campanil, cavities
are found coated with specular iron ore in crystals and stalactites, the
latter being usually found in caves which are generally eroded or separated
by clay when found in the rubio formations.
These ores are generally supposed to have been deposited by hot springs well
charged with carbonate of iron which has filled up all basins, cracks, or
fissures adjacent to them. Taking this hypothesis to be correct, the vena
and campanil were deposited first at a high temperature, and the rubio later
at a lower temperature. The mass generally increases from the sides to the
centre,
Two large erosions are seen in the valleys of Granada and Pacheta, but the
lodes continue in the same direction, forming on the south end the large
Orconera and Matamoros deposits, and on the north end the Las Carreras and
San Lorenzo lodes.
The ores may be classified as follows, viz. :—
Vena, dura and dulce.—This is the richest of all the ores and the only kind
worked by the old miners for the Catalan forges; but as it is soft it
crumbles up to powder directly, and glags (shoots) in wet weather.
Campanil.—This is a species of red haematite, and resembles some of the
Asturian iron ores in texture, etc. Where the decomposition has not been
complete, it is distinguished by a greater proportion of carbonate of iron,
which gives it more durability.
The quality of the ore is good, but it cannot be considered as
man-ganiferous. Sulphur and phosphorus are found in small quantities. It is
not usual to calcine campanil ores. The colour of campanil is red, inclined
to violet. It contains in the dry state from 50 to 60 per cent, of metallic
iron. It is found towards the centre of large masses and often in contact
with limestone and grit. It improves in quality as depth increases. Bands of
haematite and siderite are sometimes seen mixed together; in the San Miguel
and Begona mines this has been observed in the form of broad bands, called
by quarrymen pedrisco. As campanil is generally purer and harder than the
rest, it is the most esteemed.
The specific gravities of these ores are as follows: campanil from 2'6 to 3,
and rubio from 2-3 to 2"6. One cubic metre of campanil weighs nearly two
tons (30 cwt. per cubic yard), and one cubic metra of rubio about 36 cwt (28
cwt. per cubic yard).
THE FOLLOWING IS A STATEMENT OE THE ANALYSES OF THE
VARIOUS ORES.
Classes of Obe.
Elements. [ '
~~----------------------------------------¦—¦—•----------.------------------
--------------
Veua- Campanil.
r1iM„ „., ., Campanil arenado.
_ ,.
___________
F Kubio.
Sidente. (Campanil and Vena ,„ , R"bio
arenado.
"------------------------ -------—-----------------.______
__________________________________
mixed.) (Kubio and Vena mixed.)
Water (combined) ... 5.00 5.00 5-65
~T~~~ ~~~ ~
~~ -
Carbonic acid...... 0-40 0"40 ^-00
6'00 8'84 4°
71° 7'55 \ ,o .*
Insoluble residue ... i-20 10 1
,» .**« ™ ^ ^ ^
™ >
Alumina ... '.^ * " ?*
3'2° 13'76 7"22 ™> l™
2-50 3-50 3D5
T. •¦ i^u ••
!90 ... 2-26 2-18
„ -........ r°° 0>5° 4-50 4-60
0-32 0-30 2io L40 l'oO
n-7! t '"
Magnesia .. 0-20 H-in i or
UU ° ' * traces
n^ - ¦• UZ° 01° 1-25
•¦¦ traces traces 0-15
0-40
Oxide of manganese... L30 n-Tn 1K1B
inn , —
uw
t? -j
96 190 traces °-03 0-80
1-00 1-10 i.nn
Ferrous oxide
x uu x iU 100 0 68
P • ., '" •• ••
traces .» ... 0-03 46-10
":.;::::: - 71 vl t: 8iw wo ^ ™ «« ^ — »*
Phosphorus ... 0°175 °°
, •¦ 0'00S <"» *» 0-045 0-017
0-035 trace, ..... __^___°^__^^__0^_^0-03^ ...
0015 0-025 0-015 traces
"e""UCir0n...... 63'50 »2» 52-0 58-80 52-29
54-84 ~^0 ^~ ~^~'~^T ~^Z~
MS"ganeSe ......^!5__!!!_ ™ '» •— 0-02
-60 71 80 n
49
Total Met., ..J ¦««. ^ ' ^ ^ l^"^- ~ ~
~ ~ "^-
Insoluble residues—
" ===== - =
Ss«: : is J'20 £ 32° is-'6 M2 5!* «• » 2,5
2-90
________________ ltK) I -
I 226 2'18 I l-0» ... 0-30
0-95 105
216 BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
Rubio generally forms the upper portion of these formations, and usually
stands out in boulders and peaks (see Plate XXIII.), looking very imposing;
but it is often full of large cavities and caverns, filled with earth and
clay. The ore has generally a honeycombed appearance and structure.
It requires much more classification and cleaning than campanil or vena, on
account of impurities found mixed with it in the form of silicious earth.
Carbonato de hierro (spathose carbonate of iron).—This is found in blocks
and bands, and near outcrops and erosions. It merges into pedrisco and
limestone. A very strong band of this ore and pedrisco (to which reference
has already been made) was driven through in the San Miguel mine. A large
quantity of this ore is met with in Concha, No. 7 mine. It gives about 43
per cent, of metallic iron. No phosphorus is found in siderite or spathic
ores. The sulphur and other volatile substances, together with the carbonic
acid and water, are given off when spathic ores are calcined. The
Franco-Belga Company made trials and intend to
LIST OF SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT MINES. C—Campanil.
V.—Vena. R.—Rubio.
NAME. CLASS OF ORE.
Begofia ......... C.
Cesar ............ C. and V.
Ser ............... C. and V., (nearly
worked out).
Catalina......... C. and V., (partly
worked).
Orconera ...... V. and R.
Nicanora ...... C. and V.
Olvido ......... C. andV.
Indiana ......... C. and V.
Esperanza ...... C. and V.
San Antonio ... C. and V.
San Ignacio ... C. and V.
Cristina......... V. and C.
San Benito...... V. and C.
San Martin ... V. and C.
Barga............ V.
Buena Ventura V.
San Severino ... V. and C.
Buena Estrella V. and C.
Altura............ V. and C.
Concha ......... R. and V.
Confianza ...... R., V., and C.
NAME. CLASS OF ORE.
Lorenza......... V., R., and C.
Petronila ...... V. and R.
Diana............ C. and V., (nearbj
worked out).
Despreciado ... V. and C.
Perseguida..... V. and C.
Justa ............ V.
Marquesa ...... V. and C.
Pacifica ......... V. and R., (nearly
worked out).
Rubia............ R.
Socorro ......... V. and O, (nearb
worked out).
Sol ............... V.
Vigilante ...... V.
Trinidad......... V. and R.
San Fermin ... V. and R.
Aurora ......... V. and C.
Alondiga ...... V., C, and R.
San Jose......... V. and R.
Elena............ R. and V.
Adela ............ R. and V.
Julia ............ R. and V.
BILBAO IRON ORB DISTRICT. 217
The most important mineral zones in Triano Mountain are the following :—
1.—Triano mines proper, taking a radius of 600 metres from
the south west corner of Cesar mine. 2.—The Orconera and Matamoros district.
3.—The Concha and Cadegal district. 4.—A rectangle from Catalina mine to the
Lorenzo and Isabela
mines, Las Carreras district. 5.—The author is of opinion that a fair
quantity of rich campanil exists under the limestone in the Elvira and
adjacent mines (G-aldames range), and would be worth investigation. 6.—El
Regato district. 7.—Montellano and Sopuerta.
SYSTEMS AND COST OF QUARRYING.
The mines are invariably worked open-cast or in quarries. The plan of
working in the best appointed mines is to remove a zone of debris and then
one of ore; but this plan is not generally adopted, as in most cases each
mine has a different owner, an imaginary line between two boundary stones
being the only boundary between them. Quarries become choked up by their own
debris (see Plate XXL), with the exception of those mines that have a deep
valley or sufficient space to tip their refuse; when the latter is not the
case the working becomes very costly, and mine-owners are always at law with
each other.
Some of the larger quarries are worked in two or three lifts of from twelve
to fourteen yards high. The base of ore is attacked by driving a tunnel or
gallery underneath the floor of the mine, and wagons can thus be loaded
direct from the faces. A good example of this system can be seen in the
Cesar mine.
Large blasts are not common, although occasionally large shots are fired.
The vena has been worked for many years by tortuous galleries, and in a few
places by winze holes and old-fashioned jack-rolls. The vena (or vein, as
its name indicates) was got by short miners' picks. It was then put in
baskets or panniers and carried out by boys or donkeys. Some of these
galleries run for a great distance underground without any regard to
ventilation. The ore was commonly treated in forges worked by water-wheels
or turbines. The campanil and rubio are harder than vena, and will stand
transport or manipulation better. Rubio is harder than campanil, but
requires more cleaning and classifying to get rid of the impurities
(silicious earths) mixed with it.
VOL. XXXIII.-1884.
D D
218 BILBAO IRON ORB DISTRICT.
The work is generally let to small contractors (who are not a very
intelligent class of men as a rule); they find labour, powder, fuse, and
tools, the company or mine-owner supplying plant, wagons, etc.
The Biscayan quarryman compares favourably with the general run of this
class of men in Spain, being strong and active, and excels in the use of the
jumper; but his notions as to the placing of the shot-holes are vague, and
scorching is a common occurrence.
The tools generally used are the jumper or large drill, also crowbars for
disengaging rock blown down; but preferably they use the jumper for all
purposes. A good quarryman will drill about one foot in twenty minutes
(including stemming and drying) in campanil, and three-quarters of a foot in
rubio or limestone in the same time. The best
class or ore-breaker is a narrow-neaaeci, weage-snapea steei hammer, very
useful in the hands of a skilled labourer. The drills, or jumpers, weigh on
an average 25 to 30 lbs., and some of the larger ones, requiring six or
eight men to handle, weigh from 150 to 200 lbs. each, and are nearly 30
feet long. The crowbars weigh about 50 lbs. each. Multiple wedges are
used in some quarries, and for other classes of labour, rakes, hoes, and
baskets are used. A good quarryman can get about five tons of ore per
day of ten hours in a well-appointed quarry. The average rate of wages paid
are :—
Drillers...... ... from 2s. 6d. to 3s. Od. per day.
Loaders......... „ 2s. Od. to 2s. 6d. „
Ordinary labourers ... „ Is. 6d, to 2s. Od. „ Women and
lads ... „ Is. Od. to Is. 6d. „
The hours of work are usually from sunrise to sunset, with half an hour for
breakfast, two hours for dinner in summer and one in winter, and a quarter
to half an hour for afternoon snap in summer. Drillers are sometimes paid at
so much per foot drilled (from Id. to 3d. per foot), and loaders, when
working long hours or in relief gangs, at so much per hour.
Compressed air or hydraulic machine-drills or cutters are unknown, but could
be used to advantage in driving tunnels or galleries or straight work.
Novelties of this description are looked upon with jealousy and disfavour by
the quarrymen and miners.
The explosives generally used are powder and dynamite, the latter well mixed
with the former. Dynamite is generally used in rubio mines to enlarge the
base of shot-holes for filling with powder. The usual plan is :—After a hole
is drilled, a small cartridge of dynamite is
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 211)
inserted and fired ; this forms a cavity or pocket in the bottom of the
shot-hole, and also cleans it out ready for charging with powder. Dynamite
is also commonly used to break loose rock. A hole a few inches deep is
drilled on the top-side of the rock, and a cartridge is inserted and fired.
It requires about one pound and a half of powder to displace one ton of ore.
The prices of explosives vary, but are :—
Dynamite...... about £2 10s. Od. per case of 25 kilogs. (55 pou
Powder ... ... „ 3^ reals per kilog. (4d. per pound).
Fuse ...... „ 20 reals per roll. (4s. 2d.)
Capsules ...... „ 16 reals per 100. (3^d.)
Compressed powder „ 7£ reals per kilog. (8|d. per pound.)
The average cost of getting, etc., varies from Is. to 2s. 5d. per ton: the
last figure being sometimes reached in rubio mines. The first-named figure
would apply to campanil mines, and might be divided as follows, viz.:—
Labour, about ... ... ... ... 7f d. per ton.
Powder, fuse, tools, and plant ... 4|d. „
Total ......... Is. „
The1 contractors' profit ranges from 10 to 20 per cent., and he generally
makes something extra out of the men he employs by their keep. This has
its good and bad effects in controlling the men.
The workman's cottage system is not in vogue here.
Large gangs of men are employed by some of the most important companies in
loading trains. This is commonly done by baskets, but in some cases it is
loaded direct. The author is of opinion that some thousands of foot-tons of
power are lost weekly by allowing all the larger streams of water to run to
waste, as there is a great head of water in many instances, and hydraulic
machinery and accumulators might be profitably employed for many purposes.
TRANSPORT AND HAULAGE OF ORE.
There are various systems in vogue, viz.:— Mules and donkeys with panniers.
Bullock carts. Wire tramways (aerial). Inclined planes. Endless chain.
Endless rope. And in some cases for a short distance, shoots.
220 BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
PANNIERS.
The mule and donkey system pays best in poor and awkwardly-situated
quarries. The ore is carried in panniers holding about one cwt. each.
CARTING.
A large number of men are employed in this work. The system has its
advantages and disadvantages, according to the situation of the mine or
quarry and its approaches. The plan is to yoke two powerful bullocks to a
cart 8 feet long, 34; feet wide, 1 foot deep, and carrying from
one-and-a-half to two tons of ore. The wheels are about 3 feet 6 inches
diameter, and the tyres 3 inches broad, which cut up the roads fearfully in
wet weather. The axles are sometimes made of wood about 9 inches diameter.
Up to within a few months an average of nearly 2,800 tons of ore has been
tipped by carts alone into the Deputation Company's deposits at Ortuella.
The rates charged give an average of about four reals per ton per kilometre
(Is. 4d. per ton, per mile). This is a favourite method of transport with
mine-owners who do not care to lay out much capital on other systems of
haulage.
WIRE TRAMWAYS (AERIAL).
There are two systems in vogue, viz., Hodgson's and Bleichart's (Leipsic).
The first-named and most generally used consists of an endless wire rope,
carried over small pulleys secured to trestles and round large terminal
pulleys from and through which movement is imparted to the rope, upon which
is suspended by a hanger and box-head, a bucket holding about two and a half
cwt. of ore. (See Plate XXIV.)
The Bleichart system consists of two endless ropes carried over trestles,
similar to Hodgson's, but with the following differences, viz.:— The upper
rope is fixed, and is practically a rail for box-heads to run upon. The
lower rope is much thinner and acts as a traction rope; by means of patent
clips the bucket-hangers are made fast to the latter, which impart the
movement to the buckets carrying about three cwt. of ore. (See Plate XXV.)
Hodgson's system is more generally adopted for moderately easy gradients,
and where first costs must be light. The gradient in this system must not be
more than 1 in 4, or the box-heads will slip in wet weather.
BILBAO IRON OBE DISTRICT. 221
Bleichart's system is preferable for steep gradients, as the clip prevents
the box-heads slipping, so that it could be made self-acting. There are
about twenty miles of Hodgson's system working, and about two miles of
Bleichart's. The cost of transport would be about 5d. and 6d. per ton per
kilometre (8d. and lOd. per ton per mile), respectively on a fair average
gradient. The wear and tear is extra, and varies considerably on different
tramways and between the two systems. The wear and tear of the rail-rope in
Bleichart's system is heavy. The motor in Bleichart's tramways in one case,
is gravity; in another of Hodgson's a portable engine of 25 horse-power.
Both are governed by powerful brakes. The life of the wire ropes varies
greatly according to contour of line and manufacture, and ranges from
100,000 to 200,000 tons carried, and in some cases to double this quantity.
The average number of days worked per annum is 286.
An approximate cost of the erection of each system would be as follows,
viz.:—Hodgson's, for single and double lines, from £1,200 to £2,500 per
kilometre (£2,000 to £4,000 per mile), according to contour of ground.
Bleichart's, single line, from £2,000 to £4,000 per kilometre (£3,200 to
£6,400 per mile).
The ropes are steel wire, with seven wires per strand, and six strands in
each rope, with cores of tarred hemp. Trestles from 3 to 170 feet high. The
span between trestles varies from 10 to 120 yards, the average being about
40 yards.
The systems may be thus compared :—
Hodgson's :—1.—Cheaper erection.
2.—Less wear and tear of ropes.
3.—More than one line can be fixed on each trestle.
4.—Gradients must not exceed 1 in 4.
Bleichart's:—1.—More costly erection.
2.—Heavy wear and tear of ropes. 3.—Only one line can be fixed per trestle.
4.—Works well at any gradient, and self-acting when exceeding 1 in 4.
222 BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
Hodgson's. chart. 0tt0-
« d a ® u 2 S
.33 .2 d
Name and Data for Each S-S| sf£ g'jf^ S g S *
S « i-gfig -ai-Sg
Line of Wxbe Tramway. g§§ 1|^ *f| |5ig fog
Jog g^ .g g
When inaugurated (year) ... 1878 1872 1874 1879 1881
1881 1878 1882
Number of lines working ... 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1
Length of tramway, in yards 1,311 3,188 2,974 2,773 1,880
3,169 2,019 566 Difference of level of extremities, in feet
...... 348 1,401 1,443 1,103 722 341
774 154
Diameter of ropes, in inches '906 -985, "985 ' -985
'985 -906 1-45&788* -906
Distance between trestles, in
yards ......... 44 48 48 55 33
49 27 49
Distance between buckets, in
yards ......... 33 33 33 29
33 49 45 33
Velocity of buckets per hour,
in yards......... 5,232 6,976 6,976 6,867 4,372 6,558
5,886 6,558
Weight carried by buckets,
in lbs.......... 353 441 441 397 441
330 550 441
Horse-power of driving engine ......... 20 20
20 16 18 25 Gravity.
Mineral that can be carried
daily, in tons ...... 700 600 600 600 300
150 360 600
Average carried per annum... 147,000 125,000 each 140,000 72,000
(stopped) 112,000 new.
Men employed ...... 74 70 70 72
26 12 32 16
Cost of transport per ton per
mile, in pence ...... 125 11-45 11-25 120 12-5
13'75 10-5 10-75
Cost of tramway (complete), '--------v —^
in pounds......about £6,000 £30,000 £18,000 £11,000 £12,000
£11,200 £2,400
* Rail rope 1'45 inches, and traction rope '788 inches diameter. A real
= 2| pence.
INCLINED PLANES.
There are eight inclined planes working, and an engine plane on to the
Bilbao Iron Ore Company's Eailway at Pacheta.
Orconera Incline.—The most important is the Orconera Iron Ore Company's
incline to their Orconera and Matamoros mines. It is 1,199 yards long;
average gradient about 17 per cent.; two roads, 3 feet 3| inches gauge;
rails 56 lbs. per yard; overhead drums, 15 feet diameter; load, 5 wagons of
34 tons in all. An ingenious contrivance is to be seen at the top of the
incline in a disengaging arm, acting on a lever placed in front of the
wagons; this disengages the rope-shackle and allows the train to run away
into the mines.
The discharging arrangements at the bottom of the incline are well planned,
gravity doing nearly all the work. The full and empty trains run to and from
their appointed places alone. The discharging from incline
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 223
wagons into main line wagons is done by counter-balanced tipping cradles,
controlled by foot-brakes. About 1,500 tons are transported over this
incline daily (10 hours). There are two or three curves of from 600 to
1,600 feet radius, round which the rope is conducted by side roller pulleys.
Further data referring to this and other inclines will be found in the
summarised statement given on page 225.
The Concha or Franco-Belga Company's Incline.—The main incline is 509 yards
long; double roads, 3 feet 3| inches gauge; overhead coned drums, 16 feet
diameter; total fall 184 yards or about 31 per cent.; steel rails, 48 lbs.
per yard, carrying about 800 tons daily. A large four-bladed fan brake is
connected to the drum shaft by spur wheel and pinion, which arrangement
considerably reduces the momentum of the load, and can be graduated by
lengthening or shortening the sails; the total width of the sails is 6 feet,
and diameter over the arms 16 feet. This incline is connected by two
lines with an upper incline 207 yards long; gradient, 1 in 2 nearly, and
will carry 200 to 250 tons daily. This was formerly worked with one of
Fowler's clip-pulleys, which was found to be unsuitable for the claps of
rope used and work to be done.
Justa Incline.—This is adjacent to San Fermin Incline, and connected with a
deposit at 6'5 miles on the Galdames Eailway. It is 253 yards long;
double roads, 2 feet 7^ inches gauge; rails, 30 lbs. per yard. The rope runs
through two pulleys 9*8 feet diameter, but in this case the roads do not run
underneath the machinery. The wagons carry about 4 tons each, and are
strongly made. The rope is If inches diameter; the last one taken off
carried about 200,000 tons. Carrying capabilities of incline, 300 tons
daily.
The San Fermin Incline from Trinidad mine to Q'h miles on the
Galdames Eailway is a well laid down incline, but very steep, being nearly
1 in 1; double roads, 4 feet 9i inches gauge; rails, 561bs. per yard, laid
on longitudinal balks about 1 foot wide and 6 inches thick, kept in place by
diagonal braces and tie rods, thus =======
gussets and packing pieces are bolted to the bottom side of — -
and through the joints of the longitudinals, and then let into steps cut in
rock or set in concrete. The railway trucks are run on to a
triangular-shaped carriage, thus:—
224 BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
The rails have joints 2 feet from either end; a ratchet in the form of a
sector is riveted to the bottom of the rail; when the end is raised, a small
weighted catch keeps it in its place, and the wagon is prevented from
running off the carriage. This incline is capable of carrying 1,000 tons per
day.
Ruhia Engine Plane.—This is situate on the Galdames Railway, and is 180
yards long with double roads. Inclination, 1 in 2^, nearly; diameter of
rope, 1 inch; tons carried daily, from 200 to 250; gauge about 1 foot 6
inches; rails about 18 lbs. per yard; load, one or two small side-tip
wagons, carrying about 1\ tons; these are drawn up by one of Stevens's
double-cylinder winding engines; the tubs pass under the engine and on to
the deposit.
La Salve Incline.—This incline is worked in conjunction with the Alonsos
narrow gauge railway. It consists of two roads, 4*92 feet gauge; rails, 35
lbs. per yard; flat rope, 3 x *47 inches, with 120 wires. The load consists
of two large trap-door hoppers, which are filled by branch-line wagons at
top, and are discharged through a shoot into small tip-wagons at the foot of
the incline. Load, 5 tons; diameter of overhead drum, 6 feet 3 inches; the
brake-straps act on a projecting collar on the drum which is 11 feet 6
inches diameter. The faces of the brake-straps are kept moist by a spray of
water forced from a ram, worked by an eccentric from the drum-shaft. This
also assists the brake and forces water into an adjacent tank. Carrying
capabilities, 500 tons daily. In continuation of this is a small incline
worked by a differential or compensating drum, which serves full and empty
roads to and from the deposit, one of which is longer than the other and at
a different gradient, thus:—
Julia and Adela Inclined Plane.—This plane works in conjunction with a wire
tramway from Julia and Adela mines, and terminates in the Ortuella Station
of the Deputation Railway Company. Length, 436 yards; two roads, gauge 2
feet 8 inches. Belgian-made wire rope, 1*57 inches thick (too thick and
heavy for the work). The arrangement of machinery is taken from the
Bodovalle Incline. This incline is
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 225
defective in not having a greater distance from brow-top to pulleys, thus
limiting the number of wagons per train. Diameter of pulleys, 9-84 feet;
gradient of incline to deposits, 1 in 4|.
Bodovalle Inclined Plane.—This incline is situate between the San Miguel and
Begona mines and the Bodovalle Station on the Galdames Railway. It belonged
formerly to the Bilbao Iron Ore Company, for whom the author got up plans
arranged so that the wagons ran over the top of the pulleys and not under
them. Diameter of pulleys, 6 feet 3 inches; gauge of roads, 2 feet 8 inches;
rope, 1 inch diameter; gradient, 1 in 5|.
Names of Inclined Planes.
Obsebvations.
Orrnnpra Concha, Concha, T , San i»„vt. La
T,.Ha
Urconera. No % No_ 2 Justa. Fermin Kutaa. galve_
Julia.
When opened (year) ... 1880 1881 1881 1879 1881 1881
1881 1882
Total length, in yards... 1,199 508 207 253 180
181 261 437
Average gradient ... 17% 31% 49% 51% 80% 39% 33%
32%
Diameter of wire rope in
inches ...... T45 1-49 1-65 1*57 D77
1-0 3x47 1-57
Men employed...... 37 28 11 13 9
8 7 10
Daily transport in tons 1,500 800 250 300 400
235 500 400
Maximum do. do. ... 2,620 1,500 1,000 500 1,000
... 600
Approximate cost of
transport per ton ... 4d. 3d. 3d. 3d. 3d.
3d. 8|d. 3^d.
Total cost of incline ... £46,000 £15,200 £8,500 £3,000 £5,000 £2,500
£6,500 £3,650
ENDLESS CHAIN.
This system is being worked by the Franco-Belga Company in their Concha
mines with good results. It extends from the top of the upper incline to the
San Martin mine, and the general arrangements are similar to those commonly
seen in or about English collieries and iron mines, viz., an endless chain
hanging over the top of the wagons and driven by a small portable engine
geared at about 3 to 1. The links of the chain are caught by a fork made
fast to the wagon frame. Double roads; gauge, 2 feet 8 inches; gradients and
curves, easy; speed, about two miles per hour; carrying capabilities, about
500 tons daily. Estimated cost per ton per mile, 4d.
ENDLESS ROPE.
This system of haulage is being worked by Messrs. Elorduy and Co. from their
Casualidad mine to the 6*6 mile Galdames Railway. Distance about 2,616
yards. It consists of a single road with shunts or pass-byes;
VOL. XXXIII.-1884.
^ E
226 BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
motive power, a small portable engine; rope, § inch diameter. The tension of
the rope is regulated by a balance carriage and counter-balance weights.
Average gradients, 1 in 8. Carrying power, 400 tons daily. The author is of
opinion that this system would give better results if there were a double
road and the wagons being made to clip on at regular intervals, and not in
single loaded and empty trains, which causes irregular strains on the rope
and driving terminus. The endless rope or chain systems might have been
profitably worked in many instances in the Triano mines.
RAILWAYS.
Ferro Carril de la Dipntacion or the Deputation Railway is a Spanish
enterprise and a very profitable undertaking, having paid as much as 60 per
cent, in dividends. It was opened in 1859, and is a single line between El
Desierto and Ortuella; 4*84 miles to the beginning of the deposits, and 5,22
miles long, including deposits; gauge, 5'5| inches; maximum gradient, 1 in
60; average, 1 in 100. Curves not less than 163 yards radius. No heavy work.
One iron-girder bridge over the river Galindo, and three small stone
bridges. The total rise from end to end of the railway equals 61 yards.
This company possess 11 locomotives, and nearly 400 seven-ton end-tip wagons
(Ashbury Company's). They have been carrying about 3,000 tons daily, but
have carried double when pressed. They employ about 300 men in loading gang.
Rate charged, about 20 pence per ton f.o.b. Ortuella to El Desierto; this
includes loading, transport, and discharging into vessel's hold. The present
deposits at Ortuella are capable of holding about 500,000 tons of ore. This
company have three low-loading tips and two high or new tips working 16^
feet above high-water mark, and have contracted for the erection of two more
tips and two basins for loading coke and pig iron, also about 160,000 cubic
metres of embankment in conjunction with these tips, their object being to
load 10,000 tons of ore daily. Nearly 1\ million tons were shipped in 1881
and 1882 (11 months.)
Armroxiniate cost of railwav, etc.:—
£ Railway workshops, fixed materials, plant, walls, and deposits ...
130,000
Loading stages and drops ... ... ... .........
8,000
Rolling stock and locomotives ... ... ... ...
...... 55,000
£193,000 Estimates of new tips, basins, embankment, and ore deposits at
Ortuella ..................... 100,000
Total ...... £293,000
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 227
l|d. per ton is paid by this company to the Marquis of Mudela for right of
passage to the new tips.
Ferro Carril de Galdames a Sestao {Bilbao Iron Ore Company, Limited?). —This
line was opened in 1876, and is a double line of about 4 feet gauge. Total
length, 14 miles, including deposits; up road, iron rails 56 lbs. per yard;
down road, steel rails 56 lbs. per yard; gradients vary from 1 in 45 to 1 in
100. The railway commences with a tunnel 680 yards long. There are four
miles of heavy gradients, and for a large portion of the way there are some
heavy cuttings, embankments, and sharp curves (87 yards radius); also three
tunnels 154, 200, and 121 yards long respectively, a large bridge at
Qalindo, three viaducts 80, 53, and 40 feet high, and several culverts and
drains; the last 9 miles of the railway are nearly level. This company
transported about 650,000 tons last year.
As the dip outcrop of ore or base of Triano mine is visible in Catalina mine
(south-west side), in Bodovalle station, this railway is favourably situated
for attacking the focus of this and adjacent mines. The above-mentioned
outcrop is about 11 yards above the level of the rails in the station. This
company are erecting a new tip to improve their loading arrangements. They
possess seven large and four small locomotives, the former with four-wheeled
bogies to guide them when running round sharp curves, which act very well;
the rolling stock consists of 506 six-ton bottom-door opening wagons, two
tanks, and several ballast wagons. The total rise of the line is 144 yards.
This is about half-way between Sestao and Galdames stations. The approximate
cost of railway stations, branch lines, piers, work-shops, plant, materials,
rolling stock, locomotives, and sundries, is about £700,000.
El Regato Railway {Luchana Mining Company, Limited).—This railway is
standing at present, and extends from Luchana to El Regato; single line with
sidings at intervals; gauge, 3 feet 4| inches; total length 6*3 miles; of
this, about half has been laid. Average gradient, 1 in 55. At the terminus
of the railway there is an incline 980 yards long, inclination 1 in 3*3.
Rolling stock, 200 six-ton end-tip wagons, and two locomotives. Mines
require opening out. Total cost of railway constructed, etc., £60,000.
The Orconera Railway {Orconera Iron Ore Company, Limited).—Inaugurated 1877,
from Luchana to Gallarta. Double line, total length 1\ miles; gauge, 3 feet
4| inches; total rise, 218 yards; average gradient, 1 in 44. This company
possess ten large locomotives and four small
228 BILBAO IRON ORB DISTRICT.
ones; the rolling stock consists of 418 seven-ton bottom-door opening
wagons, 82 4^-ton inclined plane wagons, and 22 ballast wagons. The company
have carried 6,000 tons per day when pressed. Over 1,000,000 tons were
loaded by the company in 1883, and they possess the best loading
arrangements in Bilbao river, as steamers can be loaded at any state of the
tide by means of admirably arranged telescopic trunks or hopper-drops, which
can be lowered or raised as required to suit steamers. The company also
possess a very fine inclined plane from their Orconera mines to which
reference has already been made. The mines leased cover an area of nearly
600 acres. In their Cesar and Matamoros mines may be seen very good methods
of quarrying, viz., by driving a tunnel under the centre of the floor of the
mine, and loading direct from the faces through spouts into railway wagons.
The total cost of construction of the railway, inclined plane, tips, quay
walls, mine plant, shops, rolling stock, etc., was about £450,000.
The Concha Railway (Franco-Belga Company).—Opened 1880. Single line; steel
rails, 40 lbs. per yard; runs nearly parallel to the Deputation Railway, but
16| feet lower. It is a model of a cheap and well-constructed line, and
capable of carrying a very large quantity of ore if required. Its length is
a little over 4| miles from Luchana to the deposits (Eio Granada station);
gauge, 3 feet 4f inches; difference of level at ends, about 90 feet; easy
gradients. Average quantity of ore carried daily, 800 to 1,000 tons. The
company possess four locomotives and about 120 6-ton wagons, opening at the
bottom; also two loading stages and several inclines, and an endless chain
system of haulage (already referred to). 150,000 tons of ore were loaded
between 1882 and 1883 (one year).
Approximate cost of railway, lands, plant, etc., about £85,000 Shoots,
piers, and quay walls ............ 35,000
Total............£120,000
La Salve, or Alonsos Branch Railway.—Opened 1881. Single line; narrow gauge,
2 feet 6 inches; length, 1*86 miles, from top of Ortuella inclined plane to
Esperanza and San Severino mines; gradients, 1 in 50 and 1 in 60 ; steel
rails, 32 lbs. per yard; rolling stock, 60 to 70 three-ton wagons, opening
at the side; and three small Belgian locomotives. Carrying capabilities,
1,000 to 1,200 tons per day; average carried, 600 tons daily. Total cost,
£15,000.
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 229
Name of Bailway.
Details.
_____________________________________________________
Deputation Galdames- E1 Regato. Orconera. Concha.
Total length of line, in miles ... 5-22 14-0 *
6'3 7'5 4-5
Gauge of line in feet ... ... 5'5£ 4*0
3-4| 34| 3"4f
Number of roads ......... 1 2 2&1
2 1
Minimum radius of curves, in yards 163 87 120
109 131
Maximum gradient......... If % 2-22% 180 o/0 2'50 % If %
Class of rails ... ... ... Iron Iron & steel
Steel Steel Steel
Weight in lbs., per yard ...... 54 56 35
45 40
Number of locomotives ...... 11 11 2
14 4
Number of wagons in tons...... 400 506 200
522 120
Capacity of wagons ...... 7 6
6 7 6
Average speed of trains ...... From 8 to 14 miles per
hour.
Number of wagons per train ... 20 to 30 j 30 I 25
25 I 25
Number of trains per day ... ... Vary from 10 to 20
per day.
Tons loaded daily, average... { ^gg 2,000 Standing ^,000
toljg>
System of discharging wagons ... End tip Bottom End
Bottom Bottom
Difference of level between extreme 1 100 432 and „^Q
aKa on
ends of railway, in feet ... | lbd 358 Z7Z
bob 89
Height of tips above sea level, in 1 20 and 00 QO
«o 00
feet ......... } 36 62 6Z
28 33
From the foregoing data it will be seen that the modes or systems of
transport and working of mines in Triano Mountain are extensive and varied.
Upwards of 3,500,000 tons of iron ore are shipped or loaded into steamers
annually at a cost of about 6s. per ton f.o.b. The capital invested,
exclusive of plant in quarries, may be roughly calculated as follows, viz.:—
Value of railways, etc....... ...... £1,500,000
„ discharging stages and stations, plant, etc. 265,000
„ deposits, shoots, stations, plant, &c. ... 250,000
„ wire tramways ... ...... ... 125,000
,, inclined planes ... ... ... ...
100,000
„ bullocks and carts ............ 25,000
,, cart roads, canals, barges, etc., etc. ...
18,000
Total, about......... £2,283,000
APPROXIMATE COST OF GETTING, TRANSPORTING, ETC., PER TON.
Average cost in a fair average mine :—
Getting and boring, about Is. 6d. to 2s. per ton campanil or rubio mine.
Royalty, about ... ... Is. „
„ „
Transport from mine to railway 6d. to Is. „ „
„
Transport by railway Is. 6d. to 2s. „ „
„ Contingencies, redemption of
capital and interest, etc., about 6d. „ „ ,,
230 BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
or say from 5s. 6d. to 6s. per ton f.o.b. In some mines where ore can be got
cheaper the figure would be about 5s. per ton f.o.b.
The approximate proportions of ore carried by different methods are as
follows, viz.:—By incline and wire tramways, about two-thirds; by
bullock-carts, mules, shoots, and other means, about one-third. The whole of
the above ore is carried by railways with the exception of about 15 per
cent, which is loaded into barges direct.
An intelligent authority has given the following as the proportion of ores
found in Triano Mountain, viz.:—
Rubio (brown ore) about ... ... ... ... 50
per cent.
Vena (soft red ore) about ... ... ... ... 25
„
Campanil (red haematite) about ... ... ... 25
„
and it has been lately estimated that there remains about 30,000,000 tons of
good workable ore in Triano Mountain; hence if the present output of about
3,000,000 tons yearly is maintained, another ten years would suffice to work
out the mines in Triano district. The author is of opinion that this
calculation is not far wrong; at any rate the campanil and vena are fast
being worked out. Another 20,000,000 tons of ore (principally rubio and
vena) may be reckoned upon in the other adjacent mining districts, but the
quality is not supposed to be so good as in Triano mines. It is reckoned
that there are nearly 20,000 inhabitants distributed over the mines,
principally miners.
The percentage of ore shipped to the middle of last vear was about
England ... ... .,, ... ...
... 60 per cent.
France, Germany, and Belgium ... ... ... 30
,,
Spain ,.. ... ... ... ... ......
10 „
ORE SHIPPED FROM BILBAO MINES DURING THE LAST FOUR YEARS.
WHEN SHIPPED.
NATIONALITY.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------
1879. 1880. 1881. 1882.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
Tons.
England ¦...... 730,000 1,687,000 1,713,000
2,450,000
France.......'.. 203,000 245,000 345,000
450,000
Belgium ...... 45,000 83,500
88,000 178,000
Holland and Germany... 122,000 295,000 336,000
598,000
America......... 17,000 35.500 18,000
16,000
Totals ...... 1,117,000 2,346,000 2,500,000
3,692,000*
* The total tonnage has somewhat fallen off during 1883 from that of 1882,
being 3,428,000.
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 231
BILBAO PORT AND RIVER IMPROVEMENT.
The entrance to the river and port of Bilbao is over a dangerous sand bar,
which has been the cause of many wrecks. The remains of several vessels are
now to be seen on the left-hand bank at the entrance, hence this has been,
and still is (though considerably improved) the great drawback to this place
in rough weather. Further, as the river has three sharp bends and is narrow
in some places it has necessitated the following work, viz.:—
1.—Deepening the bar.
2.—Dredging to straighten and deepen the river.
8.—Dredging out a dock for loaded vessels.
The above works include a large amount of masonry and iron-work for training
the pier over the bar.
First, with regard to the deepening of the bar. An iron pier and wall
(shown in red in Plate XX.) have been run out about 800 yards, the projected
length being 860 yards; radius of curve, 3,000 metres, or 3,280 yards; the
figures on the blue lines show the depth of water in metres. Its
construction is as follows, viz.:—Two wrought iron longitudinal girders,
crossed by wrought iron joists, form the upper portion. These are
supported by strong forged iron piles fitted into the socket of a helical
screw, and secured by a cotter (riveted head); a concrete wall running
between screw piles supports and sustains the pier against heavy seas; the
top of the wall is level with equinoctial high-water mark, and 8£ yards
above equinoctial low-water mark. The sea-end of the wall and pier is to
be 3£ yards higher, to resist breakers on the bar in heavy gales, upon which
will be built a lighthouse and pier and harbour-master's house. The
basement or foundation of the pier and wall consists of dry rubble, and it
was proposed to tip large concrete blocks fifteen to thirty tons weight on
either side of the pier for the wall to act as a protection in heavy gales;
but the harbour engineers have changed their minds and simply tip large
blocks of freestone from quarries in Axpe. These vary in weight from
two-and-a-half to five tons each, and are brought down from the quarries on
barges to the south end of the pier, and lifted out by a couple of Appleby's
portable steam cranes on to lorries; these are run on to the pier and tipped
where required. The smaller rock or stone is also brought down by barges,
lifted by a small overhead travelling winch, on gantry arrangement,
deposited by a stone-breaker, and broken into 3-inch cubes. The
concrete-mixer is stationed directly over the bay that requires filling. It
is worked by a small portable engine, and the whole being on wheels can be
removed as the work
232 BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
proceeds. After mixing is concluded the contents are dropped through a spout
where required; this has to be done at low water, and in several battened-up
sections, and as the battens forming the divisions have to be taken out as
soon as the placing commences, little time for settlement is left. The
mixture varies as follows, viz.:—From one of lime to four of stone, two of
sand to one of lime, and two of stone to one of sand; the lime is
quick-setting and a little over half the tensile strength of good Portland
cement. The iron-work of the pier was erected by an agent representing a
Barcelona firm from the plans of an English engineer, and all went well till
October, 1882, when a tremendous gale swept along the Cantabrian coast and
carried away 20 metres of the sea-end, including shear-legs, winch, and
portable engine for screwing in piles, only leaving 630 yards intact. The
iron-work was considerably in advance of the concrete and rubble-work. The
sea on this occasion rose more than 3 feet higher than usual and made a
clean breach over the river walls. On the 7th December following a strong
N.E. gale drove the s.s. Rhyl through the middle of the pier for about half
her own length, but she backed out astern without damaging herself, leaving
a clear gap 10 metres wide. On the 11th of the same month the s.s. Saintonge
was thrown broadside on against the pier and on to the top of the rubble,
and carried away thirteen bays, equal to 85 yards; she was got off the
following day slightly damaged, thus leaving a total length of iron-work
carried away of 104 yards, which caused a great amount of trouble and
expense to repair, the old piles having to be cut out and straightened, new
ones being screwed in where necessary. Some of the accidents that have
occurred when crossing the bar may be traced to the steamers trading here
having very flat bottoms and being bad to steer.
The number of steamers that have gone out during 1882 and 1883, is 4,700;
average registered tonnage, 700 tons; the total export tonnage between 1882
and 1883 was 3,700,000 tons; nine-tenths of this was iron ore.
The 600 metres of rubble basement work, tipped to date, is nearly 70,000
tons, and about 32,700 cubic yards of concrete placed in the wall.
The above-named work has induced a scour that has deepened the bar about six
feet, but it has also narrowed the entrance considerably.
About 800 yards of walling have been put in on the right-hand side of the
river, and 600 yards on the left-hand side, leaving about 2,616 yards of
river walling still to build. There is also a dock to dredge, covering an
area of about 26 acres, for loaded vessels, the depth of which is to be 20
feet at low water ordinary spring tides.
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT. 283
There are nearly 2,600,000 cubic yards of spoil still to dredge between
Bilbao and Portugalete, and about 327,000 cubic yards of river walling with
some masonry to build.
The following are some of the contract prices for masonry, etc.:—
Reals Per per
per Cubic Cubic Metre. Cubic Yard
Metre. £ s. d. £ s. d.
Dry rubble ......... 35 ... 7 0 ...
53
Ordinary rubble ......... 60 ... 12 O ...
9 0
Ordinary concrete ...... 40 ... 8 0.
60
Hydraulic rubble ...... 75 ... 15 0
... 11 0
Hydraulic concrete ...... 80 ... 16 0 ...
12 0
Stone-work in quoins and walls ... 200 ... 200...
110 0
Ordinary brick-work with common
mortar............ 150 ... 1 10 0 ... 12
6
Brick-work in arches ... ... 180 ... 1160...
170
Plain ashlar-work, sandstone ... 320 ... 340...
280
Cut and dressed hard stone-work... 360 ... 312 0...
2 14 0
Stone pitching from ... 30 to 55 ...6s. to 11 0
...4s. 6d. to 8 3
Excavation from ... 10 to 12 ...2s. to 2 6
...Is. 6d. to 1 10£
Embankment ...... 5 to 7 ...Is. to 1 6 ...
9d. to 1 l£
The pier or jetty has cost to date about £78 per yard, but it must be borne
in mind that there is about 328 yards of concrete wall yet to build to make
up to the 874 yards of iron-work erected. The total amount of work done to
date is as follows:—
Iron-work, timber-work, and estimate of lighthouse ......
25,000
Rubble basement ... ... ... ... ...
... 29 000
Concrete wall to high-water level............... 16,000
£70,000
Buoys chained to screw piles are being placed about 218 yards apart between
Portugalete and Luchana.
The total estimated cost of plant and material for dredging purposes
belonging to the Contractors and Harbour Board is about £65,000 to £70,000.
The greatest part of this has come from England, and includes 3 ladder
dredgers, 1 of Bruce and Batho's hydraulic diggers, 10 Priestman grabs, 2
steam hopper barges, 1 tug-boat, 14 bottom and side-opening barges for the
dredging-soil, and a number of hulks and barges for various other purposes,
so that about 3,300 cubic yards of soil could be dredged daily and disposed
of, if the condition and arrangement of sea and river were always
favourable. As half of this quantity of soil has to be carried out to sea
the average falls considerably below that figure. The
234
BILBAO IRON ORE DISTRICT.
price of dredging varies from 5 to 6 reals per cubic metre (lOd. to Is. per
cubic yard). Taking the preceding data and the following statement into
account, an idea may be formed of the work done and to be done in Bilbao
river, and the means at hand to accomplish it.
Before annexing the statements referred to, the author would take the
liberty of making the following brief remarks on the works generally.
The pier or jetty should have been carried out on the opposite side of the
river entrance, as sea currents set into and return from Algorta and Las
Arenas and form immense sand-banks, which are continually drifting into the
river channel, that being the side they are all carried from; and in the
prevailing north-west gales steamers could run in from under the lee-side of
Mount Serantes straight for the channel entrance.
At present there is more water on the bar than hitherto, caused by the river
scour. The draft of water on the bar at high-water, in 1881, was 15 feet,
and in 1883,20 feet. The scour loses its power as it leaves Portugalete,
hence the channel becomes narrower, and if a vessel takes a shear in a heavy
sea and comes in over the bar broadside on, which has frequently been the
case, she runs a great risk of striking the pier or running into sandbanks.
The size and draught of vessels have increased considerably during the last
two years, which increases the risks.
It may be that the Chamber of Commerce or Harbour Board have not concurred
with the ideas of the Port Engineer in deciding the site or direction of the
pier (as was the case with Gijon harbour), and have departed from the
regulations laid down by the Government engineers with regard to harbour
works on the north coast of Spain, purely from commercial, private or
personal motives.
SUNDRY STATEMENTS RELATING TO RIVER WORK.
AMOUNT OF CONTRACTS LET.
£
New cut, Elorrieta (concluded) ............ 52,000
Upper-half of river masonry and dredging (half-finished) ...
102,500
Lower-half of river masonry, walls, &c. „
... 105,000
Lower-half of river dredging ... ... „
... 70,000
Dock at Axpe, dredging ... ... ... ... ...
... 35,000
Fixing buoys and bollards (nearly finished) ... ... ...
8,500
Electric light and house arrangements (concluded) ... ...
4,200
Semaphore signals, lighthouse, electric light arrangement on
Galea point ..................... 1,600
£378,800
DISCUSSION—THOMPSON'S PATENT CENTRIFUGAL PULVERIZER. 235
The total amount paid on said contracts to date (June, 1883), may be divided
as follows:—
£
Office and general expenses ... ... ... ...
1,700
Studies, expenses of ... ... ... ... ...
600
Expropriation of land ... ... ... ...
24,000
Dredging and masonry, new river cut (Elorrieta) 48,000
Dredging river, lower-half, to date ... ... 47,000
Masonry, „ „ „ ......
48,000
Dredging river, middle portion, to date ... ... 12,000
„ upper „ „ ...... 28,000
Harbour Board's dredging plant ... ... ... 26,000
Buoys and moorings ... ... ... ...
2,200
Electric light arrangement ... . . ...
1,800
Blowing up sunken wrecks ... ... ...
25,000
Maintenance of river walls ... ... ...
2,000
Administration ... ... ... ... ...
1,200
Inspection by Government ... ... ...
130
Interest on loan ... ... ... ... ...
6,000
Total ...... £273,630
The total revenue from January, 1878, to June, 1883, was nearly £290,000;
expenses, as per preceding statement, £275,000; balance in hand, 30th June,
1883, £15,000.
AVERAGE PRICES OP IRON ORE.
Decrease
Port. 1882.
1883. per Ton.
s. d. s. d. s. d.
Newport ... 8 6 ... 5 9 ...
2 9
Cardiff ... 8 0 ... 5 6 ...
2 6
Tyne ...... 9 6 ... 7 0 ... 2
6
Glasgow...... 9 6 ... 7 0 ... 2 6
Rotterdam ... 11 0 ... 7 6 ...
3 6
Amsterdam ... 11 3 ...• 7 6 ...
3 9
Mr. Thomas E. Candler's paper " On Thompson's Patent Centrifugal Pulverizer"
was then announced to be open for discussion.
Mr. Thompson, the inventor of the machine, said that Mr. Candler was in
China, and he (Mr. Thompson) had thought it best to attend the meeting to
answer any questions members might desire to ask.
The President asked Mr. Thompson if he wished to add anything to the paper ?
286 DISCUSSION—THOMPSON'S PATENT CENTRIFUGAL PULVERIZER.
Mr. Thompson replied, that practical men asked how he was going to keep the
grit out of the bearings of the machine. Mr. Candler in the paper referred
to some improvements, but at that time the patent was only provisional and
the improvements were kept secret. The new arrangement consisted of
utilising the inward flow of the feed-water by directing it through a
water-bearing on the mill shaft, so that it flowed around the shaft and
entered the mill in a circular jet, which entirely prevented the escape of
pulp or grit except through the proper channel. It was necessary to have
water running into the hopper when grinding mineral, quartz, etc., and when
these improvements were practically applied to machines in use at Bristol
and G-reenwich a saving of one-third the power was effected. The machine had
also been used for grinding coal, and the ball used lasted exceedingly well
and kept its spherical shape. The balls were made of hammered steel all
through, and were the hardest that could be obtained. For coal-grinding,
particularly where the coal was required to be ground fine, there could not
be a better system than the pounding action which was very rapid. The
machine will grind coal either wet or dry.
The President said, when he spoke of wet coal, he did not mean coal with
water, but coal that had been washed. When coal was mixed with stone or
foreign matter, it was necessary to wash it to get rid of the foreign
matter. It has been found that some machines, worked for the purpose, would
not grind damp coal, but possibly this would.
Mr. Thompson—It certainly can grind damp coal.
The President—That is a great point. In many places machines cannot be
applied on account of the necessity of washing the coal.
Mr. Thompson said, the crushing action was equal, and continued the same.
The discs were set with so little pressure on the ball as to allow it to
slip to the bottom of the ring when they were slowly turned. But when they
were running at their proper velocity this slight contact was sufficient to
carry the ball over and keep it rolling. He had the testimony of Mr. Green,
mining engineer, who had had considerable experience in gold quartz
grinding, that with this machine he saved two-thirds of the power. Many
persons thought the ball was likely to bed in the discs. That never could
take place; the ball was always changing its position, and when the discs
were taken out they would be found to have a perfectly true surface.
Mr. Thompson exhibited gold quartz which had been ground at the rate of 16
cwt. per hour, with 6| indicated horse-power, and a ball of 85 inches
diameter; also a sample of wheaten flour which had been ground by the
machine.
discussion—Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer. 237
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Thompson for his kindness in
attending and explaining the machine. The machine had a very wide range of
power—from gold quartz to wheaten flour; and there was no doubt that between
the two extremes, the mineral which they were most interested in—coal—ought
to come in. He hoped the machine might be of use to those who required
something of the sort.
Mr. John Daglish seconded the vote of thanks, which was agreed to.
The Secretary then announced the result of the Election of Officers for the
ensuing year.
Mr. Steavenson proposad a vote of thanks to the retiring President for the
very excellent manner in which he had presided over them daring his term of
office. It had been a great pleasure to them to meet Mr. G. B. Forster, who
had seldom missed a meeting, and had sat through the longest meetings with
the greatest patience, always giving them the benefit of his experience in a
pleasant manner.
Mr. R. Eobinson seconded the motion, which was unanimously agreed to.
The President said, that in bidding them good-bye, as their President, he
had to thank them very much for the great kindness and assistance which
every one, Vice-Presidents, Council, and Members, had always rendered to
him. He was afraid that Mr. Steavenson had told too flattering a tale, but
he (Mr. G. B. Forster) could say that he had done the best in his power, and
hoped he had not neglected the Institute. Although the last three years had
been rather what they called a stationary period, owing to the depression of
trade and various other causes, yet on the whole the Institute had not lost
ground; and this, as the reports of the Council and Finance Committee
showed, was a point of some importance; because if they could hold their own
in bad times they might look forward to being carried onward higher and
higher when the wave of prosperity returned. He concluded by calling for a
cheer for the new President, which was heartily responded to, and the
meeting concluded.
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS FOR 1883.
By the SECRETARY,
These readings have been obtained from the observations of Kew and Glasgow,
and will give a very fair idea of the variations of temperature and
atmospheric pressure in the intervening country, in Avhich most of the
mining operations in this country are carried on.
The Kew barometer is 34 feet, and the Glasgow barometer 180 feet above the
sea level. The latter readings have been reduced to 32 feet above the sea
level, by the addition of *150 of an inch to each reading, and both readings
are reduced to 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
The fatal accidents have been obtained from the Inspectors' reports, and are
printed across the lines, showing the various readings. The name of the
colliery at which the explosion took place is given first, then the number
of deaths, followed by the district in which it happened.
At the request of the Council the exact readings at both Kew and Glasgow
have been published in figures.
INDEX TO YOL. XXXIII.
"Abs." signifies Abstracts of Foreign Papers at end of the volume; "Aw."
Appendix.
Abstracts of Foreign Papers,end of volume.
Accidents : Gunpowder at Shire Moor, 4. —Fire-damp in Prussia, abs.
40.—Firedamp in France, abs. 67.—Schedule of accidents occurring to steam
apparatus in 1882, abs. 98—At the pit "Des Hosiers," note of an, abs. 101.
Accounts, x.
Advertisement, ix.
Africa; sea in the interior of, abs. 43.— Diamond deposits of, abs. 48.
African (East) coal, abs. 109.
Air-Engines, Regenerators for, abs. 88.
Air-Heaters for Blast Furnaces, abs, 89.
Almeria limestone ore deposits, abs. 37.
America : Soapstones,china clays, and fireclays of the Southern United
States, abs. 22.—Kanawha coal, abs. 23.— Tennessee haematites, abs. 23.—Zinc
in Virginia, abs. 23.—Gold of North Carolina, abs. 24.—Future of North
American oil, abs. 24.—Virginian iron ores, abs. 25, 61.—Anthracite coal
regions of Pennsylvania, abs. 42.—Gold and silver, abs. 61. —Bassick mine,,
Colorado, abs. 62.— Gilpin County Mines. Colorado, abs. 63. —San Juan mining
region, abs. 63.— Pennsylvanian anthracite field, abs. 65. Alabama coal and
iron, abs. 65.
Analyses : Explosives, abs. 8.—Coals and lignites, abs. 51.—Combustible
materials, abs. 52.—Various, abs. 108.
Annstead; great fault at. (See Great fault.)
Anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania, abs. 42. 65.
Anthracite and lime industries of Mau-
rienne, abs. 85. Arizona; mining in, abs. 66. Arlberg tunnel bored through,
abs. 75. Artesian wells; diamond rock-borer for,
abs. 90. Associate members, xxxi. Assurance, life, abs. 82. Austria :
Mining industry in the year
1881, abs. 73.
Balloting list, lvii.
Barometer readings, 239.
Belgium : Phosphatic deposits, abs. 18.— Geological survey of, abs.
196.—Steam carriages in, abs. 97.
Bessemer process; modifications of the, abs. 76.
Bilbao Iron Ore District, by B. J. Forrest, 213.—Geological and] general
description, 213.—Table ^of analyses of the various ores, 215.—List of
Mines, 216.
— Systems and cost of quarrying, 217. —Transport and haulage of ore, 219.
—Bilbao port and river improvement, 231.—Average prices of iron ore, 235.
Plates.—20. Geological map of the Bilbao iron ore district.—21. Section
through San Bernabe, San Miguel, and Begona mines.—22. Cross section of
river improvements; Triano mines, sections.—23. Concha mines, sections.
— 24. Hodgson's system of wire tramways. — 25. Self-acting tramways,
Bleichart's patent.
Biscay; iron ores of, abs. 36. Blast furnaces ; charcoal, abs. 95. Blast
furnaces ; air-heaters for, abs. 89. Blasting; sparks from prickers and
stem-
mers, 3.—With distributed charges,
abs. 56. Blasting in coal mines; substitute for,
abs. 91. Bleiberg lead mines, abs, 76. Boats; endless rope for unloading,
abs. 81. Bohemia-Kaaden-Komstan Tertiary beds,
abs. 17. Boiler firing, abs. 7. Boiler-plating; deterioration of,
from
ferrous sulphate, abs. 78. Boilers; explosions, 1881, abs. 3, 70, 71.—
Evaporative performance of stationary,
abs. 77. Borer for Artesian wells, abs. 90. Boring deep wells by water
pressure, abs. 5. Boring machines; diamond, abs. 7.—
Jarolimek's, abs. 94. Boring tool; fractured by dynamite, abs. 82.
—Jarolimek's, abs. 74. Borneo; gold in, abs. 60. Brazil; mineral resources
of, abs. 21.—
Diamonds of, abs. 29. Breccia-gashes of the Durham coast and
some recent earth-shakes at Sunderland,
by Professor G. A. Lebour, 165.—Table
showing some of the shocks felt in the
locality of Tunstal Koad,Sunderland,168.
—Discussed, 174.
Plates.—12. Sketches of Breccia-gashes.—13. Breccia-gash near
north
end of Marsden Bay. Bricks; magnetic, abs. 54. Beown, M. Walton: On
Earth-shakes.
(See Earth-shaJces.) Bulgarian coals, abs. 20. Bye-laws, xlv.
Californian Cinnabar deposits, abs. 37. Candler, Thomas E.; On Thompson's
Pulverizer. (See Description of.) Cape of Good Hope diamond mines, abs.
41. Carbonite, abs. 64.
Channel tunnel; historical resume of, abs.
47, Charcoal blast-furnaces, abs. 95. Charter; copy of, xxxix. China
(Indo-); coals and metalliferous
deposits of, abs. 21.—Coal, abs. 27. Coal : coal bearing beds of the
Northern
Hartz, abs. 17.—Origin of, abs. 19.—
Trinidad, abs. 20.—Bulgarian, abs. 20.
—Indo-China, abs. 21.—Kanawha, abs.
23.—Under London, abs. 27.—China,
abs. 27.—Italy, abs. 27.—On the Kistna,
abs. 30.—Cretaceous, in the Khasia
Hills (India), abs. 31.—Istria and Dal-
matia, abs. 34.—Belmez coal mines, abs.
36.—Analyses of, abs. 51.—Alabama,
abs. 65.—African (East), abs. 109. Coal basin of Lancashire, abs. 100 and
107. Coal-fields : Soekaboemi, abs. 13.—
Geology of the Newcastle, abs. 14.—
Aubin, abs. 20.—Umaria (India), abs.
31.—Seo de Urgel (Spain), abs. 35.—
Cumberland, 121.—Warwickshire, 151.
—Westphalian, abs. 106. Coal-getter. (See Hastvell mechanical
coal-getter.) Coal plants and coal, abs. 81. Coal-working: Warwickshire,
151. Coating for telegraph wires, abs. 45. Coke, natural (carbonite). abs.
64. Coke oven; Semet, abs. 66. Colorado; Bassick mine, abs. 62.—Gilpin
county mines, abs. 63.—San Juan
mining region, abs. 63. Combustible materials; analyses of, abs. 52.
Combustion of explosive mixtures of gases;
experimental and theoretical researches
on, abs. 102. Comparison of the transmission of power
by electricity and other modes in use,
abs. 103. Comstock lode, abs. 107. Condensation, cooling of the water of, by
artificial ventilation, abs. 1. Contents of volume, v. Cooling of the water
of condensation by
artificial ventilation, abs. 1,
Copper; St. Genevieve deposit, abs. 26.— Deposits of, Italy, abs. 32.—Leon,
abs. 36. — Texas, abs. 51.
Council report, v.
Cumberland coal-field; Mr. Kendall's paper discussed, 121.
Danger of sparks produced from prickers and stemmers used for blasting
purposes in coal mines, and sparks otherwise produced ; paper by Henry
Lawrence, 3,— Discussed, 61.
Description of Thompson's patent centrifugal pulverizer, including an
account of its comparative advantages for crushing and pulverizing mineral
ores, coal, and other substances; by Thomas E. Candler, 107.—Advantages over
other machines, 109,112.—Table of comparative results, 113.—Table of
dimensions and duty. 114.—General remarks, 115-120.
Plates.—4. Drawing of the machine. Discussed, 235.
" Des Rosiers;" note of an accident at the pit, abs. 101.
Development of Railways, abs. 83.
Diamond boring machines, abs. 7.
Diamond deposits of South Africa, abs. 48.
Diamond mines of Kimberley, abs. 41.
Diamond rock-borer for artesian wells, abs. 90.
Diamonds; Brazilian, abs. 29.
Dufour compensating lever for railway signals, abs. 70.
Dynamite; boring tool fractured by, abs. 82.
Earth-shakes at Sunderland. (See Breccia-gashes?)
Earth-shakes or tremors; On the observations of, in order to foretell the
issue of sudden outbursts of fire-damp, by M. Walton Brown, 179.—Record of
earthquakes in Great Britain and the Northern Isles, 181.—Discussed, 183.
Plates.—14. Seismographic map of
Western Europe, showing the distribution of earthquakes.—15. Diagram
illustrating the record of earthquakes and number of fatal explosions of gas
in Great Britain from 1868 to 1882, East African coal, abs. 109. Economy of
fuel in iron manufacture,
abs. 55. Election of members, 1,35,67,149,163,185. Electric light; cost of,
abs. 78. Electric light at the Gradenberg works,
abs. 96. Electric machinery in mines, abs. 71. Electric and gas light in a
Munich theatre,
abs. 90. Electricity; pumping by, abs. 82.—Comparison of the transmission of
power by, and other modes in use, abs. 103.— Transmission of power by, at
Peronniere colliery, abs. 83. Endless chain in Spain; On the, by George Lee,
187.—Circumstances which led to the construction and application, 188.—
Description, 191.—Table of cost of working, 211.
Plates.—16. General view of the north end of the mine Anita and the
route of the endless chain railway.— 17. Tubs, showing the attachment of
forks; sections of tunnel dry wall embankment, &c.—18. Brake stations;
transverse section of railway and method of fixing rollers, &c.—19. Plan of
brake station showing arrangement of fan-fly; sections of chain, wheels,
pulleys, &c. Endless chain bank at Mariemont, abs. 84. Endless rope for
unloading boats, abs. 81. Exhibition (mining) at Madrid, abs. 46.
Experiments : Explosives used in mining, abs. 11.—Coal-getting, 43.—Strength
of wrought iron in compression, 63.— Safety lamps, abs.
39.—Guibal fans, abs. 56.—New ventilating fan, abs. 67. —Jarolimek
hand-boring machine, abs. 74.—Evaporative performance of stationary
boilers, abs. 77.—Electric and 1 gas light in a Munich theatre, abs.
90.
Experimental and theoretical researches on the combustion of explosive
mixtures of gases, abs. 102.
Explosions : Great Fenton colliery, 6.— Boilers, 1881, abs. 3.—In Durham,
1882, abs. 38.—In France, analyses of reports on, abs. 68.—Saw-mill boiler,
abs. 70.—Vertical boiler, abs. 71.—In Prussian mines, abs. 74.—Earth-shakes
in relation to. (See Earth-shakes.)
Explosives : Analysis of, abs. 8.—Experiments with, abs. 11.
Fault at Annstead. (See Great fault.) Finance committee's report, vii.
Finland; mineral statistics of, abs. 34. Fire-damp .in Prussia, abs.
40.—Accidents
in France, abs. 67.—Observations on
earth-shakes in relation thereto. (See
JEarth-shakes.) Foreign papers, abstracts of, end of
volume. Forms, lii. Forrest, B. J.; Bilbao iron ore district,
213. Fossils; drawings and lithos. of, abs. 85. Fracture of a boring tool by
dynamite,
abs. 82. France: Boiling stock, railway statistics,
&c, abs. 4, 5.—Aubin coal-field, abs. 20.
—Lignite basin of Fuveau, abs. 49.—-
Fire-damp accidents, abs. 67.—Analysis
of reports on coal-gas explosions, abs.
68.—Statistics of tbe production of
minerals in, abs. 99.
Gas-generator; improved, abs. 87.
Gas water, abs. 55.
Gases; experimental and theoretical researches on the combustion of
explosive mixtures of, abs. 102.—Essays on the combustion of explosive
mixtures of, abs. 69.
General statement of accounts, xiv.
Geology ; Newcastle coal-field, abs. 14.— Gold coast, abs. 19.—Great fault
at Annstead, 69.
Geology of the Hartz, abs. 109.
Geological survey of Belgium, abs. 106.
Gold ; French Guyana, abs. 16.—Arizona, abs. 22.—San Domingo, abs. 23.—North
Carolina, abs. 24.—Dakota, abs. 25.— Borneo, abs. 60.—United States, abs.
61.—In cretaceous rocks, abs. 62.
Gold coast; geology of the, abs. 19.
Gold-fields of Mysore, abs. 32.
Gold reef working in West Borneo, abs. 18.
Great fault at Annstead, in North Northumberland; On a, by Professor G. A.
Lebour, 69.—Introduction, 69.—Section from Ebba's Snook to Annstead Burn,
70.—North Sunderland limestone, 74.— The Beadnell limestone, the Annstead
fault, 77.
Plate.—2. Geology of the Northumberland coast, near North Sunderland.
Woodcuts.—Sections: North Sunderland quarry, 75.—Beadnell limestone in Eel
well quarry, Lowick, 76.
Guibal fans; experiments with, abs. 56.
Hall, W. F.; On the Haswell mechanical coal-getter. (See Haswell.)
Haematite deposits of Furness; Mr. Kendall's paper discussed, 121.
Hardening stone, abs. 45.
Hartz ; Geology of the, abs. 109.
Haswell mechanical coal-getter, an invention for -working coal without the
aid . of gunpowder or other explosives, by W. F. Hall.—Bemarks on the use of
gunpowder, &c, 37.—Description of the machine, 38.—Mode of operation.—
Account of experiments, 39.—Tabular summary of experiments, 43.—Details of
experiments, 44.—-Discussed, 55. Plate.—1. Drawings of the machine.
Woodcuts.—Illustrating experiments, 44-55.
Haulage, abs. 43, 75.
Herschel, Professor; On lightning at West Thornley colliery, 88.
Honorary members, xvi.
Hot-water locomotives, abs. 45.
Hydraulic machines in the Saxon silver mines, abs. 79.
India: Coal on the Kistna, abs. 30.—Iron ores, abs. 30.—Umaria coal-field,
abs. 31. —Mineral resources of Manipur and Naga Hills, abs. 31.—Cretaceous
coals in the Ukasia Hills, abs. 31.—Gold-fields of Mysore, abs. 32.
Iron: Virginian ores, abs. 25, 61.—Italy, abs. 26.—China, abs. 27-—Strength
of wrought iron in compression, 63.— Economy of fuel in the manufacture of,
abs. 55.—Alabama, abs. 65.—Production in Russia, abs. 80.
Iron ore : Pyrenees, abs. 30.—India, abs. 30.—Biscay, abs. 36.—Mexico, abs.
49. —(Manganesiferous) of Rancie.abs. 110.
Iron ore district. (See Bilbao iron ore district.)
Iron-smelting processes; two new, abs. 72.
Ironstone series of Lorraine, abs. 79.
Ironworks of Trubia, abs. 48.
Italy; iron mines of, abs. 26.—Coals, abs. 27.—Sulphur in the Caucasus, abs.
32.— Copper deposits, abs. 32.
Jarolimek's hand boring machine, abs. 94.
Kaolin in Sweden, abs. 53.
Kendall, J. D.; Papers on the Cumberland coal-field and on the Haematite
deposits of Furness discussed, 121.
Plates—5, 6, 7. Sections of strata at various collieries.
Kiekaldy, David; Experiments with wrought iron, 64.
Korting's -water-jet elevator, abs. 97.
Lancashire, the coal-basin of, abs. 100 and
107. Lawrence, Henry; On the danger of
sparks produced from prickers and
stemmers, 3.—Discussed, 6. Lead mines, Bleiberg, abs. 76. Lead works of
Puertollaus. abs. 46. Leadville, Colorado, ore deposits of, abs. 104. )
Lebour, Prof. ; Communication respecting underground temperature, at St.
Gothard tunnel, 19.—On a great fault at Annstead. (See Great fault.) — On
breccia-gashes of the Durham coast. (See Breccia-gashes.)
Lee, Geo.; The endless chain in Spain, 187.
Li^ge school of mines, abs. 86.
Life assurance, abs. 82.
Life members, xvi.
Lightning in the pit. (See Remarks on).
Lignite, basin of Fuveau, abs. 49.— Analyses of, abs. 51.
Lime; industry of, Maurienne, abs. 85.
Lime, mining coal by, 13.—Abs. 91.
Limestone ore deposits of Almeria, abs. 37.
Locomotives, hot water, abs. 45.
Iiondon, coal under, abs. 27.
Madrid, mining exhibition at, abs. 46,
Magnetic bricks, abs. 54.
Magnetic ores, prospecting for, abs. 25.
Manganese deposits, abs. 60.
Manganesiferous iron ores; Of Raneie, abs. 107.—In the Pyrenees, abs. 30.
Marsden, breccia-gashes at, 165.
Massingham, W.; On lightning at West Thornley colliery, 90.
Mechanical coal-getter. (See Haswell mechanical coal-getter.)
Melly, E. F.; On the Warwickshire coalfield. (See Notes on, &c.)
Members : Honorary, xvi.—Life, xvi.— Original, xviii.—Ordinary,
xxx.—Associate, xxxi. — Students, xxxiv. — Subscribing firms, &c, xxxvii.
Metallic veins in the coal measures of Upper Silesia, abs. 96.
Mexico, mines of, abs. 24.—Silver ores of the Andes, abs. 27.—Iron ore of,
abs. 49.
Meyer stone-boring machine, abs. 6.
Mineral oils of Central Europe, abs. 29.
Mineral resources of Sicily, abs. 14.— Brazil, abs. 21.—Manipur and Naga
Hills, abs. 24.
Mineral veins, origin of, abs. 54.
Miners' stretcher, abs. 83.
252
INDEX.
Minerals; Statistics of the production of,
in France, abs. 99.—New Zealand, abs.
50.—Russia and Finland, abs. 34.—
General, abs. 84. Mines : Vialas, abs. 22.—Southern New
Mexico, abs. 24. Mining: In the Oriental Del Uruguay
Republic, abs. 8.—Region of Mazarron,
abs. 35.—Exhibition at Madrid, abs.
46.—In Spain and Portugal, abs. 47.—
Improvements in methods of, abs. 58.—
In Arizona, abs. 66. Mining coal by compressed lime, paper by
Frank Murray Still, 13.—Discussed, 16.
Naphtha and its products, abs. 33.
Newcastle coal-field, geology of the, abs. 14.
New Zealand, minerals of, abs. 50.
Nomination of members : Forms for, lii.
Notes on the Warwickshire coal-field, by Mr. E. F. Melly, 151.—Seams, 151.—
Faults, gas, water. 153.—Spontaneous combustion, 154. — Collieries, general
plant, timber, tubs, 156.—Division of coal, 157.—Mode of working, 158.—
Ventilation, heading, haulage, 159,— Getting coal, wages, 160. — General
remarks, 161.
Plates.—8. Map of the Warwickshire coal-field.—9. Sections through
Kingsbury, Baxterley, Merevale, Arley Wood, Ansley and Nuneaton Commons and
comparative section of seams at different pits.—10. Plan of working dip coal
in Warwickshire.—11. Surface plan of a Warwickshire colliery, section
through four seams.
Observations on underground water, abs.
86. Officers, xvii. Oil; North American, abs. 24; mineral
oils of Central Europe, 29. Ordinary members, xxx. Ore deposits of
Leadville, Colorado, abs.
104. Origin of the veins (sulphides) abs. 10.
Origin of mineral veins, abs. 54. Original members, xviii.
Patrons, xv.
Peakce, F. H.; ventilation tables. (See Ventilation tables.)
Peat; Russian, abs. 33.
Pennsylvania; anthracite coal regions of, abs. 42.
Permanent way ; reform of, abs. 43.
Petroleum; indications of, abs. 35.—Different kinds of, abs. 96.
Physical and moral condition of the men employed in large establishments,
abs. 3.
Platinum in a lode, abs. 51.
Portugal; mining in, abs. 47.
Prevention of smoke; boiler firing, abs. 7.
Prickers and stemmers ; sparks from, 3.
Production of minerals in France; statistics of, abs. 99.
Prospecting for magnetic ores with the needle, abs. 25.
Prussia; accidents from fire-damp in, abs. 40.—Explosions in mines, abs. 74.
Pulverizer; Thompson's. (See Descrip-. tion of.)
Pumping by electricity, abs. 82.
Pyrenees; manganesiferous iron ore in, abs. 30.
Railway signals; Dufour compensating lever for, abs. 70.
Railways; development of, abs. 83.
Rancie; manganesiferous iron ores of, abs. 110.
Reform of the permanent way, abs. 43.
Refrigerating machinery, abs. 88,
Regenerators for air-engines, abs. 88.
Remarks on lightning in the pit at West Thornley Colliery, by Henry White,
81. —Discussed, 83.
Plates.—3. Plans showing surface and underground arrangements.
Repoets : By the sub-committee on superheated waters, abs. 104.—Council, v.—
Finance committee, vii.—Committee on prizes awarded for papers, viii.
INDEX.
253
Researches, experimental and theoretical, on the combustion of explosive
mixtures of gases, abs. 102.
Revolving screens, abs. 93.
Richaedson, Wigham; notes on the strength of wrought iron in compression,
63.
Rope transport, abs. 93.
Royal Charter, xxxix.
Rules, xlv.
Russia; mineral statistics of, abs. 34.— Iron production in, abs. 80.
Russian peat, abs. 33.
Safety-gear; Leblanc and Loiseau, abs. 3.
Safety Lamps; notes on M. Marsaut's experiments, abs. 39.—New, abs. 58.
Sawyee, Mb.; explosion caused by a spark, abs. 6.
School of mines, Lidge, abs. 80.
Screens; revolving, abs. 93.
Sea in the interior of Africa, abs. 73.
Sections: Ebba's Snook to Annstead Burn, 70.—Coast near Sunderland, plate
2.—North Sunderland quarry, 75.— Beadnell limestone, 77.—Strata at various
collieries in the Cumberland coalfield, plates 5, 6, 7.—Warwickshire
coalfield, 151, and plates 9 and 11.
Semet coke-oven, abs. 66.
Shire Moor; gunpowder accident at, 4.
Sicily; mineral resources of, abs. 14.
Siltee; Arizona, abs. 22. Andes, abs. 27. United States, abs. 61.
Silver amalgamation, abs. 59.
Silver Mines (Saxon); hydraulic machines in, abs. 79.
Sinking; the Ida shaft at Holmdorf, abs. 5.—Through water-bearing strata,
abs. 94.
Smoke prevention; boiler firing, abs. 7.
Soapstones, &c.; Southern United States, abs. 22.
Soekaboemi coal-field, abs. 13.
Some results of the observations on underground temperature during the
construction of the St. Gothard tunnel, paper by Dr. F. Stapff, 19.
Spain ; endless chain in. (See Endless chain.)—Imports and exports, 1882,
abs. 4.—Metalliferous products of Murcia, abs. 16.—Seo de Urgel coal-field,
abs. 35.—Copper and copper ores of Leon, abs. 35.—Iron ores of Biscay, abs.
36. —Eelmez coal mines, abs. 36.—Mining exhibition at Madrid, abs. 46.—Lead
works of Puertollaus, abs. 46.—Mining in, abs. 47.—Endless chain, in, 187.
Sparks produced from prickers and stemmers, 3.
Stapff, Dr. F.; observations on underground temperature, St. Gothard tunnel,
19.
Statistics : Spanish imports and exports, 1882, abs. 4.—Rolling stock on
French railways, abs. 4, 5.—Gold in French Guyana, abs.16.—Metalliferous
products of Murcia, abs. 16.—Minerals of Russia and Finland, abs.
34.—Accidents from fire- damp in Prussia, abs. 40.—Austrian mining industry
in 1881, abs. 73.—Production of minerals in France, abs. 99.
Steam apparatus; schedule of accidents occurring to, in 1882, abs. 98.
Steam carriages in Belgium and the Rhenish provinces, various systems of,
abs. 97.
Stemmers; sparks produced from, 3.
St. Gothard tunnel; underground temperature, 19.
Still, F. M.; on mining coal by compressed lime, 13.
Stone; hardening, abs. 45.
Stone-boring machine; Meyer, abs. 6.
Strata; temperature of, abs. 11.
Strength of wrought iron in compression; further notes by Wigham Richardson.
63.
Stretcher for miners, abs. 83.
Strontianite mines of Dreusteinfurt, abs. 15.
Students, xxxiv,
254
INDEX.
Subscribing collieries, xxxvii.
Subscriptions, xii.
Sulphides; origin of the veins, abs. 10.
Sulphur in the Caucasus, abs. 32.
Sunderland; earth-shakes at. {See Breccia-gashes)
Superheated water; Report of the Sub-Committee on, abs. 104.
Sweden; kaolin in, abs. 53.
Switches; new mode of working and locking, abs. 40.
Telegraph wires; coating for, abs. 45.
Temperature of strata, abs. 11.
Texas; copper in, abs. 51.
Thompson's patent pulverizer. (See Description of.)
Transcaucasian manganese deposits, abs. 60.
Transmission of power by electricity and other modes in use; comparison of,
abs. 103.—At Peronniere colliery, abs. 83.
Transport of power, abs. 47.
Treasurer's accounts, x.
Trinidad; coals and bitumen of, abs. 20.
Trubia; iron works of, abs. 48.
Tunnel, Arlberg; bored through, abs. 75.
Tunnels and underground temperature, abs. 108.
Underground temperature; St. Gothard tunnel, 19.
Various analyses, abs. 108. Vein filling, abs. 53.
Ventilation; cooling of the water of condensation by artificial ventilation,
abs. 1.—Experiments with Griiibal fans, abs. 56.—Warwickshire coal-field,
159. —Experiments with a new fan, abs. 67.
Ventilation tables; by P. H. Pearce, 93. —Relative ventilating power of
airways, 93, 97.—Relative ventilating power of long and short air-ways, 94,
99.—Quantities of air discharged per minute by square air-ways one mile
long, 95,100.—Velocity and pressure of air due to columns up to 384 feet in
height, 95, 104.—Ventilating pressure obtainable by furnace shafts,
95,105.—Square roots of water-gauge pressures. 96, 106.
Walkeb, S. P.; on lightning at West
Thornley colliery, 83. Warwickshire coal-field. (See Notes on.) Water;
observations on underground, abs.
86. Water gas, abs. 55. West Thornley colliery; lightning at.
(See Remarks on.) Westphalian coal-field, abs. 106. White, Henry ; on
lightning in the pit
at West Thornley. (See Remarks on.) Winding with a sheave instead of a
drum,
abs. 9. Workington; meeting at, 121.
Zinc; in Virginia, abs. 23.—Production of, abs. 59.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE : ANDREW REIP, PRTNTING COURT BUTTyDINGS, AKENSIPE
HIT,*,.
OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
ABSTRACTS OF FOREIGN PAPERS.
THE COOLING OF THE WATER OP CONDENSATION BY ARTIFICIAL
VENTILATION.
TJeber AbkiiJilung des Condensationsivassers durch Jcunstlichen Luftwechsel.
By Professor Wellner. OesterreicMscJie Zeitschriftfiir Berg- und
Hiittenwesen, Vol. XXXI., Bart 12, pp. 157-160.
Professor Wellner treats especially of a new method of cooling the warm
water from the air-pump by evaporation helped by artificial ventilation,
brought about by ventilators, so that the greater part of it can be used
over and over again for condensing.
If D be the weight of the steam which finds its way to the condenser from
the steam engine per hour, W the weight of injection or water of
condensation used per hour, t and t0 = the temperature of the steam and the
injection water before entering the condenser, f — the temperature of the
resulting mixture after condensation, then the heat which must come from the
steam 1) to condense it to water of f temperature, when the specific heat of
water for the temperatures under consideration is taken to be = 1. is—
D (606-5 + 0-305 t — t') ;
and the heat acquired by the injection water is—
W {i' - t0).
,. . W 606-5 + &30o t — t' From which —
=---------j,-----,----------.....(1);
W 606-5 + 0-305 t + — — to
and f =--------------—------------------- .... (2).
W
rT + 1
The water delivered by the air-pump W + D having the high temperature f,
must be so far cooled by air, that a quantity of water W of the lower
temperature t0 arises to be used again as injection water. The quantity
of heat which must be absorbed is—¦ (W + D) (tf — t0) is from (1). D (606-5
+ 0-305 t —10) . . . . (3).
This considerable quantity of heat in the water is not to be detracted by
mixture or circulation with colder air, but by changing the condition of the
water, that is changing the drop-forming water into spray, whereby
relatively a very large amount of latent heat is absorbed,, bringing about a
rapid cooling. The cooling apparatus
a
devised by the author consists of a slightly inclined quadratic iron pipe of
a large area. In the same a number of cloths are stretched vertically side
by side, down which the water from the air-pump is made to trickle, while
air is blown horizontally through the cloths.
The calculation arriving at quantity of air necessary for the operation is
based on the condition that the area of water subjugated to the air is so
large that the air, after passing in the cooling apparatus is thoroughly
saturated with vapour.
Let t e and T e = the relative and absolute temperature of the air entering
the apparatus.
t' + t t a = —-—¦ and T a, the same of the air coming from the apparatus.
2
V e and V a, the volume in cm. of the air on entering and leaving.
S e and S a, the maximum pressure of the water vapour in mm. of mercury for
t e and t a.
<Y — 1'293, the weight of 1 cm. of dry air at 0° C. and normal barometrical
pressure.
g = 0-623, the constant density of the steam at a low pressure with regard
to the atmospheric air.
Then the weight of water vapour entering the apparatus is (taking the most
unfavourable condition, the almost thorough saturation of the incoming air)—
"° ,e" '760 Te
and the same in leaving—
_.., T <;, S a 2/3
As the pressure of the air remains the same throughout—¦
V a V« Ve
LJ': = l-e, aud D' = D = 0-289 ~- (S a — S e) Tale
1e
from which
V p - 340 s^f - 3-46 D' f-+£ = 3-46 D f*±*< . . (4). Sa — S e
S « — S e a a — be
The average value of
te = 18° and ta = f * 6° - 34°,
Jit
which, according to Regnault, is equal to
1536 mm. = S e and 39"56 mm. = S a, so that V e -
416 D......(4)
that is for every kilogramme ot steam used by the engine the quantity or air
required in the most unfavourable condition—when the air to be used is
nearly saturated with moisture—4T6 cm. of air are required to be blown
through the cooling apparatus in order to evaporate therein one kilogramme
of spray.
As velocity and not pressure of the air is of importance, Professor Wellner
estimates that for 1 e of power used 50 cm. of air are requisite, which
gives in the most unfavourable situation, one-sixth of the working power as
necessary for the ventilators used in the cooling apparatus. To show that
there is a saving, although the power required is great, calculations shown
in the paper give the percentage of saving in power by the apparatus to be
equal to 35, and after deducting the power required for the ventilator in
the most unfavourable case put down at 22^ per cent., gives a net gain of
12J pel' cent.
C. Z. B.
THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL CONDITION OP THE MEN EMPLOYED IN LARGE
ESTABLISHMENTS.
Etude sur la Situation Physique et Morale des Ouvriers des Grands Chantiers.
Par M. H. de Lageenb. Annates des Fonts et Chaussees, Ser 6, Vol. V., 1883,
pp. 315-345.
The author considers that employers of labour, on interested as well as on
moral grounds, should make themselves thoroughly acquainted with their
workmen, and should exercise a certain amount of fatherly care over them. In
order to do this a master must know what his men as a body think and feel,
how they occupy their spare time, what interests they have beyond their
work, etc. He has made such observations upon his own men, the results of
which are given in this paper.
Chapter I. treats of the recruiting grounds for the different classes of
workmen, the system of engagement, hours of work, hours of idleness, food,
lodging, clothing, medical attendance, wages, and savings.
In Chapter II. the earnings and expenditure of individual men, one taken
from each class, are given and discussed.
J. H. M.
THE LEBLANC AND LOISEAU SAFETY GEAR.
Note sur les appareils de securite Leblanc et Loiseau. Par M. Bbossabd de
Coe-BieNY, ingenieur en chef des mines. Annates des Mines, Memoires, Ser. 8,
Tome II., 1882, pp. 353-360, one folding plate.
This invention of MM. Leblanc and Loiseau is intended to show the position
of a train upon the line, and is automatic, being put into action by the
train itself. A rocking lever is placed outside, and at right angles to the
rails. The end of this lever next the line is furnished with a pedal so
placed as to almost touch the rail, and to rise about an inch above it. The
other end is attached to a pair of bellows, which it keeps closed by its
weight. The bellows are furnished with a small hole for the exit of the air,
the size of which can be regulated. The felloe of the first wheel of the
train strikes the pedal, depresses the lever, and opens the bellows. Air
rushes into the bellows, but can only escape again very slowly. The lever
therefore can only rise slowly, and the apparatus is not subjected to the
wear and tear which would be produced by a blow from each wheel of the
train.
By means of electricity the passage of a train over the pedal is made to
ring a bell, or make any other signal that may be required. The apparatus
has been in use at Tours during 1881-82, and at other places in France, and
has been found to work satisfactorily.
,T. H. M.
BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
Bulletin des accidents arrives dans Vemploi des appareils a vapeur pendant
Vannee 1881. Annates des Mines, Memoires, Ser. 8, Tome II, 1882, pp.
468-476.
This paper consists of a list of accidents, twenty-nine in number. The
following particulars are given of each:—Date, nature, and situation of the
establishment; nature, shape, and size of the boiler; circumstances of the
accident; consequences; and presumed cause of the accident.
J. H. M.
4
SPANISH IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, 1882.
Importaciones y Exportaciones de JEspaua durante el Auo 1882. Revista
Minera y Metalurgica, Ser. C, Vol. I, 1883, pp. 161, 162.
Imports.
Quantity. Value. Duty.
1881. 1882. 1881. 1882. 1881.
1882
Tons. Tons. £ £ £
£
Coal and coke ......982,458 1,108,081 913,397 950,558
98,231 110,808
Tar, asphalt, etc....... 20,515 22,929 147.711 165,095
3,364 3,760
Raw petroleum ...... 47,270 34,946 340,342 251,613
7,752 5,731
Refined do. ...... 1,895 445 30,097
5,636 4,168 967
Glass............ 4,177 4,718 145.984 161,699 34,572
36,717
Steel............ 1.163 1,430 5,101 6,247
1,567 1,889
Iron and ironwork......112,970 113,3191,016.3861,084,109 328,809
336,588
Tin plate ......... 3,471 3,338 88,189 87,244
28,906 27,679
Copper wire (alambre) ... 5,929 7,022 108,838
130,026 18,149 20.640
Copper ......... 643 830 53,285
69,033 10,892 13,606
Common salt ...... 3,109 2,724 2,487
2,179 885 846
Machinery......... 22,377 25,8111,134,7701,317,309 58,430
65,238
EXPORTS.
Quantity. Value.
1881. 1882. 1881.
1882.
,T Tons.
Tons. £ £
Minerals—
Zinc ore......... 30,604 25,832 63,193
51,664
Copper ore ...... 452,475 571.442
1,294,993 1,600,037
Iron ore......... 3,137,063 4,021,761 1,584,765
2,413.056
Common salt ...... 335.283 223,830
268,226 178,784
Others ......... 70,327 70,094 221,486
246,673
Metals—
Quicksilver ...... 1,779 1,167
391,381 232,456
Copper (en torales) ... 17,710 22,708
688,312 882,591
Iron and ironwork ... 37,903 40,116
141,173 142,888
Lead in pigs ...... 105,809 116,132
2,109,934 2,146,004
J. H. M.
ROLLING STOCK ON FRENCH RAILWAYS.
Materiel roulant des chemins deferfrancais. Annales des Fonts et
Chaussees. Memoires, Ser. 6, Tome VI, 1883, p. 85.
The Minister of Public Works has just published the following statistics of
the quantity of rolling stock on the whole of the French railways :—
Locomotives—2,826 passenger ; 4,067 goods; total, 6,893. Carriages—3,208
first-class; 5,315 second class; 6,909 third class; total,
15,432. Trueks—182,089 of all kinds.
J. H. M.
u
FRENCH RAILWAY STATISTICS, 1882 AND 1881.
Bulletin, de V'exploitation, du controlefinancier et de la statistique des
chemins defer. Division du controle des comptes des compagnies et de la
statistique. Resultats comparatifs de I'exploitation des chemins de
ferfrancais oVinteret local (An-nees 1882 et 1881). Annales des Fonts et
Chaussees. Memoires, Ser. 6, Tome VI., 1883, p. 76.
The Minister of Public Works has published a table giving the receipts,
expenditure, etc., of the French local railways. The totals for the whole of
the lines are, for the following of the items :—
1882—kilometres open, 2,346; receipts per kilometre, 7,744 francs;
expenditure per kilometre, 6,497 francs; profit per kilometre, 1,247 francs,
which is equal to £80 per mile. 1881—kilometres open, 2,122; receipts per
kilometei-, 7,827 francs; expenditure per kilometre, 6,190 francs; profit
per kilometre, 1,637 francs, which is equal to £105 per mile.
J. H. M.
BORING DEEP WELLS BY WATER PRESSURE.
The Scientific American, New Series, Vol. XLIX., 1883, p. 144.
Jarvis B. Edson, of North Adams, Mass., has introduced an improvement upon
the ordinary method of sinking wells by water pressure, by means of which
they can be carried down to depths of 200 or 300 feet, and possibly much
further. The improvement consists in placing in the line of pipe, at every
two or three lengths, a three-way cock, the side outlet of which is attached
to a hose, down which hose water is forced. In this way a continuous stream
of water can be kept up. By the old method the stream of water was stopped
whilst a fresh length of pipe was being screwed on, allowing sand, gravel,
etc., to settle down and jam the pipe. J. H. M.
SINKING OF THE IDA SHAFT AT HOHNDORF.
Hie Abtiefung des Ida-Schachtes in Hohndorf. Zeitschrift des Vereines
deutscher Ingenieure, Vol. XXVII, 1883, pp. 289, 290.
This is a notice of an article which appeared in the sixth volume of the
Freiburg Academical Society's magazine, " Glt'ickauf," and gives a short
account of the sinking of the Ida Shaft, and a detailed summary of the cost.
The shaft, which was a round one of 14 feet 9 inches in diameter, was lined
at the top with masonry, and, to take the guides and other shaft fittings,
U-shaped iron rings were spaced at intervals of from 15 feet to 21 feet
throughout the depth.
The sinking began in December, 1877, and was continued with hand-winch and
hand-pumps to a depth of 33 fathoms, the engines and other plant at bank
being in the meantime placed in position. These latter were ready to begin
work in May, 1879, and the sinking lasted till the end of April, 1881,
progress being made at the rate of 137 fathoms per month during the first,
and 19 fathoms per month during the second year, the best result obtained in
any one month being 23^ fathoms.
The pumps were of sufficient power to deal with 55 gallons of water per
minute. The cost of the undertaking was as follows :—
Wages. £
For sinking and mason work in the first 33 fathoms 950
Do. for the rest of distance = 393 fathoms... 5,700
Fitting of pumping machinery... ... ...... 95
Construction of shaft reservoirs for successive tiers
of pumps ... ... ... ... ... ...
90
Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... ...
1,165
--------£8,000
Materials.
Masonry, woodwork, and ironwork in shaft ... ... 6,500
Pumping machinery and ropes ... ... ... 2,000
Coals ..................... 640
Stores ..................... 350
Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ...
... 160
-------9,650
Total cost (exclusive of plant, etc., at bank) ... £17,650
A. R. L.
THE MEYER STONE-BORING MACHINE.
Die Meger'sche QesteinsboTirmaschine. H. Lolling. Zeitsckrift
des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, Vol. XXVIL, 1883, pp. 342-346,
Illustrated.
This is a description of a stone-boring machine made at the Miilheim Engine
Works, of Mulheim, on the Ruhr, and much used in the Westphalian coal-field
and in other parts of Germany.
The ordinary driving power is steam, but for underground work compressed air
is used instead.
Machines are made to work from one to four drills, which can be adjusted to
bore in different positions and at different angles simultaneously.
The machine in its simplest form consists of a horizontal spindle working on
trunnions between upright columns fixed upon a bed-plate running upon rails.
JLx-tending towards the rock face the spindle has a long arm with a small
piston working on a pivot at its outer end, so as to be adjustable to
different angles. The drill is fixed upon the piston rod, which thus
delivers its blow direct, and by means of gearing is made to revolve
one-eighth of its circumference after each blow, and to advance gradually
into the hole. The speed of the piston is from 500 to 600 strokes per
minute, each stroke giving a blow to the drill.
A special form of the machine is made without carriage or spindle for work
in confined spaces, to be moved and fixed in position by hand. It consists
simply of cylinder and piston, and its weight is about 60 lbs., the diameter
of the cylinder being 3^ inches.
A. R. L.
SOME RECENT SYSTEMS OF BOILER FIRING FOR THE PREVENTION*
OF SMOKE.
Neuere DampfJcesselfeuerungen zur Losung der Rauchfrage. C. Bach.
Zeitschrij des Vereines dentscJier Ingenieure, Vol. XXVII., 1883, pp.
177-188, one Plate.
This is a reprint of a paper read before the Wiirtemberg Bezirksverein, and
con tains an examination of the results obtained in the town of Basle, with
sixty differen boilers fitted with various firing appliances for the
prevention of smoke. These ar fitted as follows:—
31 with Tenbrink firing ... ... ... ... ...
1
9 „ Double grates by Gebr. Tschann ... ... ... 2
5 „ Schultz firing ...... ... ... ...
3
2 „ Krudewig firing ... ... ... ... ...
4
2 „ MacDougalPs mechanical stokers ... ... 5
2 „ Inclined grates ... ... ... ...
... 6
2 „ Scherrer grates ... ... ... ...
... 7
2 „ Tier grates... ... ... ... ...
... 8
1 „ Pasquay grates ... ... ... ...
... 9
1 „ Hartmann firing ... ... ... ...
... 10
3 „ Shaft firing (for bark and sawdust) ... ... 11
Of these Nos. 1, 4, and 7 are favourably mentioned, Nos. 2 and 3 have with
careful firing given fair results, and the rest have for the most part been
unsatisfactory.
The best results have been given by the Tenbrink system, of which a full
description is given. Below one end of the main boiler and in connection
with it is placed another in a transverse direction, which is pierced
diagonally by one or more large slightly conical tubes, through each of
which a grate is fixed at an angle of about 50 degrees, the fire bars being
arranged in the form of steps. The fire door is at the upper end. the coal
sliding gradually down the incline into the furnace below. Under the
fire-door is an air-door, which is so arranged that the amount of air
entering the furnace can be regulated at will. Besides the inclined grate,
this system has the peculiarity that the hot air is made to pass up the
incline, meeting the fresh coals and burning the gas which they contain, so
that they reach the lower part of the furnace in the form of coke.
From experiments made with Tenbrink furnaces it appears that from 80 to 85
per cent, of the heat obtainable from the coals is actually transmitted to
the water in the boilers, and that they effectually consume their own smoke.
The first cost of furnaces on this principle is said to be considerable, but
the saving they effect in fuel is sufficient to counterbalance the extra
cost in a comparatively short space of time.
A. R. L.
DIAMOND BORING MACHINES.
Der Diamantbohrer fur verticale und horizontale Bokrungen. By Herr
Tecklenburg. Berg- und Hiittenmannische Zeitung, 1883, p. 183.
This is a description of a boring machine made by the American Diamond Rock
Boring Company, for boring vertical and horizontal holes underground to a
depth of 250 metres (273-4 yards) by steam or compressed air aided by water
pressure. Another machine is described by the same author and made by the
same firm as above, which is more handy and smaller for boring holes up to
70 metres (76£- yards) in depth.
C. Z. B.
MINING IN THE ORIENTAL DEL URUGUAY REPUBLIC.
Bergmcinnisches aus der Repiiblica Oriental del Uruguay. By German Ave
Lallemant. Berg- und PLuttenmannische Zeitung, 1883, ^>p. 203-204.
Gold mining, the chief mining industry at present of this state, is
described, besides lead, copper, silver, and zinc mining, together with the
geological features of the country, and description of some of the existing
mines, with their respective outputs.
C. Z. B.
THE ANALYSIS OP EXPLOSIVES.
Ueber die Analyse der Sprengstoffe. By Db. W. Hampe. Zeitschrift fur das
Berg-, mitten- und Salinen-ivesen im Preussischen Staate. Vol. XXXI. B., pp.
107-133.
Ordinary dynamite contains 25 per cent, of infusorial earth for absorption,
which is an inexplosive and incombustible material, and reduces the
explosive power 67 per cent, of the pure trinitro-glycerine, as about eight
parts of the latter are used in heating the infusorial earth when exploding.
Explosive gelatine consists of 8 per cent, of guncotton and 92 per cent, of
trinitro-glycerine. Its explosive power is not much less than that of the
explosive oil. When the latter is represented by 1,380 the former is 1,350
(according to trials with Trauzl's explosive measurer). Explosive gelatine
is much to be preferred to dynamite on account of its great safety in
transport, storing, and handling; a blow of 35 kg.m. (25"3 foot lbs.) will
not explode it, and when slowly heated explodes at 201° C. (399'2° P.), and
when quickly heated, at 240° C. (464° F.), while diatomaceous dynamite
explodes with a blow of 1 kg.m. (7-23 foot lbs.), and on heating to 180° C.
(356° F.) The composition of gelatine dynamite is as follows :—
Gelatine Dynamite (1).
[ 97'5 per cent, nitro-glycerine. 65 per cent, gelatinised nitro-glycenne
... j ^ ^ collodium wool.
t 75 "0 per cent, saltpetre.
35 per cent, mining powder ......< 24-0 „ cellulose.
( 10 „ soda.
Gelatine Dynamite (2).
....,., , . (97'5 per cent, nitro-glycerine.
45 per cent, gelatinised nitro-glycenne ... j 2.~ ^
collodium wool.
i 75-0 per cent, saltpetre. 55 per cent, mining powder ...
... < 24"0 „ cellulose.
( PO „ soda.
The author divides the chemical part of his paper into two divisions. The
first deals with the existing methods of determining the nitrogen in
nitrogen compounds, besides the experiments conducted at the Clausthal
Laboratory, and describes a new quantitative analytical method of
determining nitrogen. The second deals with the ways and means of
quantitatively analysing and dividing the different nitrogen compounds. The
methods of Dumas, Walter Hempel, Beckerhinn, Filip Hess, Champion, and
Pellet, and nitrometric methods containing a description of various
nitrometers, together with results of analyses of saltpetre, gunpowder,
gelatine, dynamite, guncotton, and trinitro-glycerine, are detailed at some
length in the first part. C. Z. B.
ON WINDING WITH A SHEAVE INSTEAD OF A DRUM.
Untersuchungen ilber die Forderung mit Treibscheibe. By Here Baumann.
Zeitschrift fur das Berg-, Hiltten- und Salinen-wesen im Preussischen
Staate. Vol. XXXL B., pp. 173-186.
Winding by a sheave was first introduced by Herr Kope at the Hannover
Colliery (Westphalia), and consists in attaching a pulley to the winding
engine, instead of drums around which an endless rope passes. The sheave is
placed directly over the shaft, and the cages either serve as connecting
links between the winding rope and the counterbalance rope, or there is only
one rope used, which passes through the cages, the cages being held by
patent caps.
Let P represent half the weight of the rope and the weight of the empty cage
(inclusive of empty tubs or trams), and Q equal half the weight of the rope
and the weight of the cage with coal and tubs, then sheave winding can only
be possible when
Q - P = /t (Q + P).
In order to determine the coefficient of friction fi, the author made a
number of trials upon sheaves whose treads were lined with oak wood,
leather, or cast iron, of which the following table is an analysis :—¦
Wire Rope. Tread or Sheave.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------No. of ,L =
Trials. r Diameter, Material. Diameter.
Material.
Mm. Ins. M. Ft.
16 0-63 Steel (old) ... 2"2 7'2 Oakwood
......... 14 0"303
... 4-4 14-4 „ ......... 79 0-258
18 0-71 „ ... „ „ „
......... 66 0-215
20 0-79 Iron (new) ... „ „ „
......... 21 0-280
Iron (old) ... ,. „ „ ......... 80
0-246
32 1-26 „ ... „ „ „
......... 32 0-197
A ......292 0-242
16 0 63 Steel (old) ... 3-2 10-5 Leather lying flat
...... 37 0-277
18 0-71 „ ... „ „ „'
...... 46 0-244
20 0-79 Iron (new) ... „ „ „
...... 52 0-253
Iron (old) ... „ ., „
...... 20 0-230
32 1-26 „ ... „ „ „
...... 52 0-234
B ......207 0-248
16 0-63 Steel (old) ... 3 2 10-5 Leather lying edgeways
... 19 0'281 18 0-71 ,. ... „
„ ... 14 0-267
20 0-79 Iron (new) ... „ „
... 15 0-269
Iron (old) ... „ „ „
... 24 0228
32 1-26 „ ... „
„ ... 17 0248
C ...... 89 0256
15 0-59 Iron (old) ... 16 5-25 Cast iron
......... 99 0-227
21 0-83 ., ... ,, „ - ,.
......... 50 0-209
26 1-02 Steel (old) ... „ „ „......... 129
0-182
D ......278 0-203
Average of all trials ............| 866 0232
10
The friction of the rope on cast iron is the least, upon wood greater, and a
little greater on leather, especially when laid edgeways. The co-efficient ^
decreases with an increasing diameter of the rope (prohably the thinner
ropes make a deeper impression on the tread) and by an increasing load (the
influence of the rigidity of the rope is less by small loads).
When the trials followed quickly upon one another the resistance to friction
decreased, while after greasing and pauses it increased.
In actual practice the circumstances can not be so unfavourable as purposely
made in the trials, and the following figures can be taken as a basis:—
Wire rope upon cast iron ... ... ... ^ ~ 0-20
„ oakwood ... ... ... ju, =
024
„ leather ... ... ... /u, =
025
The author deduces formula) for the finding, (1st) the greatest useful load
possible to wind under the existing circumstances,- (2nd) how heavy for
certain loads a rope must be, so that all danger from slipping when winding
is avoided; and a number of tables are given, showing the least depth at
which windings are possible with different lined sheaves and under varying
weight of ropes and ratio of net to gross loads.
The tables and calculations show that when the ratio of the dead load to the
useful load is 1*5 (the average ratio), a sufficient resistance to friction
can be obtained for winding at all depths when the rope only covers one-half
the circumference of a lined sheave, and five-fourths of a cast iron sheave.
The increased surface of friction can be obtained by the use of rollers.
A brake is recommended to be used when men are raised, which should act in
the sheave through the medium of the rope. Flat ropes would be preferable to
round ropes with respect to greater breaking surface, and also as a
counterbalance, for they have not the tendency to twist and throw themselves
into loops that round ropes possess.
By adopting an endless rope which passes through the cages a winding can be
carried on at different levels, by shifting the cages on the ropes, and the
rope can be better economised by shifting it as it wears.
A sticking of the cage in the shaft, or an over winding, will not be so
injurious to the rope with a sheave as with a drum, for in the former case
the rope will slip on the sheave.
C. Z. B.
THE ORIGIN OF THE VEINS (SULPHIDES).
Zur Entstehing von Erzgdngen. By Dr. Fleitmann". OesterreicMsche
Zeitschrift fiir Berg- und Hiitten-tvesen, 1883, Part 9, p. 123;
The author describes how a brick-built dung-heap had been kept water-tight
by lining it with pure red clay 1 metre thick all round. This was to hinder
the rain from washing through, and to prevent as much as possible
spontaneous combustion, by preventing the water used in cooling it from
flowing away. After two years the clay failed and the manure was removed. On
taking the clay out it was found that the whole had turned white, also that
the clay had become set with innumerable fissures varying from 1 to 5
millimetres in width, which were entirely filled with quite compact iron
pyrites. The sesquioxide of iron in the clay, by means of the hydrosulpbate
of ammonia in the dung, had been turned into iron pyrites, and this had, in
consequence of molecular attraction, set itself in strings of veins in the
clay.
C. Z. B.
TEMPERATURE OF STRATA.
Das Wachsen der Temperatur mit Zunehmender Tiefe. Wochenschrift des
Vereines Deutschcr Ingem'eure, 1883, p. 62.
The deepest shaft in the World, the Adalbert Shaft, near Przibram, has given
results with regard to temperature of the rock and air respectively as
follows:—
Depths. Temperature of Book.
Temperature of Air.
Metres. Feet. Degs. C. Degs. F.
Degs. C. Degs. F.
190-6 = 625-34. ... 10-8 = 51*5 ...
1P6 = 53-4
286 3 = 939-32 ... 12 9 = 55 ...
13-8 = 57
395 7 = 1298-25 ... 147 = 58 ... 15'2
= 59'3
505-5 = 1658-49 ... 168 - 62-3 ... 166
= 6P9
581-4 = 1907-51 ... 18 0 = 64'4 ... 18-6
= 65-5
699-8 = 2295-97 ... 191 = 66"3 ... 19-4
= 66D
775-2 = 2543-35 ... 20-2 = 683 ... 19"9
= 67"9
889-2 =2917-37 ... 22'9 = 86'0 ... 233
= 73'9
1000 0 = 3280-91 ... 24-5 = 761 ... 25 "0
- 77'0
C. Z. B.
EXPERIMENTS MADE WITH EXPLOSIVES USED IN MINING.
Untersuchung von Sprenginaterialien fur BergbauzwecJce. By De. Klose.
Zeitschrift fiir das Berg-, Miltten- und Salinen-wesen im Preussischen
Staate. Vol. XXXI. B, pp. 91-105.
The fiscal collieries in Saarbrticken used, in the year 1881-82, 887,457
kilogrammes (873-44 tons) of gunpowder, and 15,701 kilogrammes (1545 tons)
of dynamite, having a total value of £27,259. Assuming that the rest of the
coal districts use a proportional amount of explosives, then the collieries
of Prussia will have consumed, in 1881, £225,000 worth of explosives.
Pistol Trial.—One of the conditions is that the powder must be made with
pure nitrate of potash, must contain at least 70 per cent, of saltpetre, and
not more than 1 per cent, of chlorate of potash. It must be perfectly dry,
and must not soil the hands. The power must be equal to 18° or 20°. This has
reference to an instrument called a pistol, which has attached to it a
crucible for holding a small fixed quantity of powder, the lid of which is
attached to a lever which moves a toothed wheel. On firing the powder, the
wheel is turned according to the strength of the powder measured in degrees
of rotation of the wheel. On account of the great difference of weight of
equal quantities of powder, owing to different sizes of the grain, this mode
of trial has been dispensed with in favour of other trials.
Bod Trial.—This is a similar apparatus, but instead of a wheel the cover of
the crucible has a rod attached, sliding upon guides, upon which the height
can be measured to which the cover with rod is thrown when the powder is
exploded. This instrument was improved by replacing the crucible and lid by
a cylinder and piston, for in the former case only part of the powder bad
effect on the lid, the rest burnt away when the cover was raised. In a table
given by the author, compressed powder being taken at 15'3 (the square root
of the height the powder throws the piston with rod), coarse grained powder
was 13'5, mixed grained powder 13'5, and fine grained 13'1.
Lead Cylinder Trials.—In this case the enlargement of a space in the lead
cylinder, by the explosion in it of powder, is the measure of the strength
of the powder. A section of the cylinder after explosion shows the force of
the explosive. Com-
12
pressed powder (not really compressed, for its specific gravity was rather
less than that of ordinary powder) gave good results in the lead cylinder
trials. The lead trials proved that blasting with a space is not so
efficacious as when the powder fills tightly the space allowed it. This is
rather important, as the effect of an air cushion has played for some time
past an important part in the practice of blasting.
The Specific and Cubic Weights of Powder.—For the determining of these
quantities an apparatus, devised by Major Bode, described in the text, was
used. Five trials of one gunpowder gave a specific gravity of 1*6090,
1/6090, L6090, L6103, 1-6106; four trials of another gave 1-6870, 1-68602,
1-68628, 1-6870. The granulating and polishing of powder has an effect upon
its specific gravity, for the surface is made denser. Coarse grained powder
had a specific gravity of L5990, mixed grained 1'6093, and fine grained
1'6312, the powder being of the same composition in each case. The cubical
weight depends upon the specific weight and the size of the grain, aud is of
interest to the miner, for he generally measures, and not weighs, his
requisite quantity. The following table gives values for different
powders :—
Taking No. 1 powder at 100 Cubic weight. 50 g (771-6 the relation
of the others
a ifl 100 c. cm grams) en- t0"
areJ________
No. Powder Used. Wrishfc (61 cub. ins.)
larged the ' Enlir-e-
weigns. wpjo-h powder space „ ... _ .,
.£.niarge-
i c.-a ¦ 1™ r cm Specific Cubic ment of
g=15 4grains. J^°c^n_ Weight. Weight. Powder
Space.
1 St. Ingbert ......1-6198 109 145
100 100 100
2 V.R.W.P.F.K.B., No. 1 1-4899 97"3 224
93 89 153
3 V.K.W.P.F., No. 17 ... 16871 1073 163
104 98 112
4 Konigswiesen......1-5181 1002 187 94
92 129
5 Bous, coarse grained ... 1-5990 104-4 138
98 96 95
6 „ mixed „ ... 1-6093 111-6
147 99 102 101
7 „ fine „ ... 1-6312 106-2
175 101 97 120
8 Compressed powder ... L5225 144*8 250
94 133 172
Dynamite.—The power of the explosive can be easily determined by Von
Trauzl's plan. The following table represents the explosive power of
dynamite:—
Capacity of Lead Cylinder.
Dynamite Tried. Composition.
After Explosion.
Before--------------------------------------------------------
Explosion. TriaU Triai 2. Trial 3. Mean.
C.Cm. C.I. C.Cm. O.Om. C.Cm. C.Cm. C.I.
Dynamite No. 1, (75Nitro-glycerine I 50 = 3.05 Q8Q Q2Q
Q6Q 953 = 58
old ... ... 1 2o JDiatoinac us earth (
Dynamite No. 2, l 60 Explosive gelatine!,
Q g w ^
new ... ... ) 40 Mining powder )
' '
Dynamite No. 2... g Explosive gelatine i ^
7 f 5
J | 25 Mining powder j
Dynamite No. S, 25 Nitro-glycerine l50 700 m
?20 mu
detonator ... j 75 Mining powder j
Dynamite No. 3, 15 Nitro-glycerine lg0 59Q 55Q
59Q &7735
cartridge ... I 8o Mining powder i
Explosive gelatine ............50 ... 1,500 1,550 1,500
1,517 92^
Nitro-glycerine...............50 ... 1,790 1,750 1,790 1,777
108|
Comparisons of power of dynamite and gunpowder cannot be relied upon when
made with lead cylinder trials, for by them the pressure is sixteen times
stronger than
13
the latter, a result which does not agree with experience. The shape of the
lead cylinder after explosion with dynamite differs from the shape after
explosion with powder; the former enlarges the space at the botfom, the
latter in the middle. Figures of the spaces are in the text. Trials made
with stemmings of water and sand show them to be of equal value.
Burnt Lime.— Comparisons were made with powder and lime with the lead
cylinders. The lime was procured from two districts, powdered and
immediately pressed by a pressure of 35 \ tons.
On account of the cartridges swelling directly they were taken from the
press they were immediately put into the lead cylinder without having time
for weighing.
The Blasting Chamber
Before the After the -Enlargement
operation. operation. Enlargement.
C.Cm. C.Cm. C.Cm.
Champagne chalk ... 130-8 ... 138-0 ...
72
Saar chalk ...... 1332 ... 145-5 ...
123
In mild soft coal this form of blasting may be possible, but certainly not
with the Saarbruckeii coal. Increased diameter of boreholes, difficulty of
manufacture of cartridges and transport of the same, and the difficulty of
pumping effectually the water into lime are obstacles which are not
conducive to its general or even partial introduction.
^- "• "•
THE SOEKABOEMI COAL-FIELD.
Onderzoehingen im het Jcolenterrein bij Soekaboemi, etc. By J. A. Hooze.
Jaarboek van het Mijnioesen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, 11* Jaargang, 1882,
Part J., pp. 1-79, with folding Map and one Plate. The coal-field reported
upon in this memoir is about 110 square kilometres in area, and lies in the
northern portion of the Tjiniahi district of the Soekaboemi province, in the
Government of Preang, due south of Mount Panderango. It is now provided
with a railway, and is likely to become commercially important. The coal
occurs in rocks of Eocene age, which are, in that part of Java, bent into a
few great synclinal and anticlinal folds, thus bringing the seams several
times to the surface. These rocks are chiefly quartzose sandstones.
Much more detailed information is given in this paper respecting the nature
of the coal-seams than in the earlier one by Huguenin (see Trans. N. Engl.
Min. Inst, Vol. XXXII.. Abstr., p. 2), a table of comparative analyses,
showing the probable relative value of the coals, being of special
importance. The ¦p,oi™.,;,>™ ™;„a0 +v,q airai.an-a nnmnnsifinn nf f.riA
K<ipkfthoemi coals:—
Carbon ............... 7L20
Hydrogen ... ... ... ... ¦•• 5'62
Oxygen and nitrogen ......... 12-91
Sulphur ............... 0-63
Water ............... 2"00
Ash ............... 7-64
100-00
This result coincides very closely with a similarly drawn up analysis of the
Orange-Nassau coals of Borneo.
«• A< I*
14
MINERAL RESOURCES OF N.E. SICILY.
Brevi cenni sulla geologia delta parte N.B. delta Sicilia. By E. COBTBSE.
Bollettino del R. Comitato geologico d'llalia, Vol. XIII., 1882, pp.
105-137, 161-189, 308-357, with folding Plate of Sections (Plate VIII)
The geological divisions recognised in this region by th 3 author are (in
ascending order):—
1.—Archcean or Pre-Cambrian gneisses, micaschists, and granites.
2.—Silurian (?) lustrous and micaceous schists with subordinate crystalline
or
dolomitic limestones. Some granites are also referred to this age.
3.—Permian (?) quartzites, schists, grits, conglomerates, and brown
limestones. 4.—Trias in three fully-developed groups, chiefly calcareous,
with conglomerates
and grits at the base of the Middle or Muschelkalk division. 5.—Infralias
limestones.
6.—Lias, Lower, Middle, and Upper, chiefly calcareous. 7.— Oolites, Lower
{Dogger) limestones, and Upper (Tithonian), also calcareous.
The Middle Oolites are absent. 8.—Cretaceous, Middle (Cenomanian)
calcareous-marls alone present. 9.—Eocene, Lower with nummulitic limestones,
conglomerates of old rocks, clays, and sands; Middle clays and marls; Upper
or A'barese limestone. 10.—Miocene, Lower (Tongrian?) clays and sands;
Middle (JElvezian?) calcareous sandstones and coralline limestones; Upper
(Sarmation and Tortonian) conglomerates, sands, clays Molasse, estuarine
and locustrine beds, Tripoli. 11.—Pliocene, Lower (Zanclean ?) clays,
siliceous and other limestones, f oraminif erous marls, sulphur beds, and
calcareous sands; Upper (Astian) sands, coralline limestones, etc. 12.—
Quaternary alluvia. 13.—Recent alluvia.
The useful rocks and minerals in the above series, and occurring in the
Province of Messina, are distributed as follows:—
Marbles and Building stones, whether calcareous or siliceous, occur in all
the
divisions, and ornamental granites in 1 and 2. Clays fit for pottery and
other purposes in Nos. 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, and 13. Grindstones in 2, 3, 4, 9,
10, and 13.
Sulphur at the base of 11 or more exactly between 10 and 11. Lignite in 10.
Bituminous shales in 9.
Galena, antimony ores, copper ores, siderite, graphite, and garnets, in 2.
Lastly, mineral waters of various kinds are known in 1,2, 3, 12, and 13.
G. A. L.
GEOLOGY OE THE NEWCASTLE COAL-FIELD.
Note sur lageologie du bassin houiller de Newcastle. By A. Soubeibax.
Annates des Mines, 8th Series, Vol, I., 1882, pp. 409-448, Plates VI. and
(in part) VII.
A compact and acknowledged compilation of the chief facts relating to the
geological structure of the Great Northern Coal-field, from the works of
Hull, Lebour, Ramsay, Simpson, and others, and from personal observation.
Professor Hull's map of the coalfield is reproduced in Plate VI., and Mr. J.
B. Simpson's sections are given on a reduced scale in Plate VII. The
details as to the Coal-seams of the Coal-Measurcs and Rernician
15
series are those published by Professor Lebour in 1878. With regard to the
amount of workable coal beneath the sea the author believes the estimate
made by Mr. Greenwell to be too great, and makes the following
observations:—" When the coal had been won, and the roof had fallen over so
great an area, fractures would be produced through which the sea would
penetrate with inconceivable violence." He then cites the Workington
accident as a case in point. He would, therefore, restrict the possible area
of possible coal-getting beneath the sea to 4 or 5 kilometres from the
shore, and gives the following as the workable area of the entire
coal-field, in square kilometres:—-
Area of the exposed Coal-Measures ... ... ...
... 1,150
Area of Coal-Measures concealed by Permian rocks ... ...
560
Workable area of Coal-Measures beneath the sea ... ...
270
G. A. L.
STRONTIANITE MINES OF DRENSTEINFURT.
Beschreibung des Strontianit-Vorkommens in der Gegend von Drensteinfurt,
sowie des daselbst betriebenen Bergbaues. By Patji Mexzel. Jahrbuch der
Koniy-lich Preussischen geologischen Landesanstalt und BergaJcademie zu
Berlin fur 1881. Part 2, pp. 125-143, tivo Figures in text.
This paper is in three parts. The first gives a sketch of the geology of the
country round Drensteinfurt, the second describes the strontianite veins,
and the last refers to the mode of working the deposits and their commercial
value.
The district is composed of Cretaceous rocks, and the veins of strontianite
occur in the so-called Mukronatenkreide, or, in other words, in the Chalk
zone characterized by Belemnites mucronatus. These beds lie flat, and the
veins, which do not appear to be also faults, hade from 10° to 20°, and run,
some in a N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction, others E.E.N, and W.W.S. The chief
groups of veins are those (1) of Drensteinfurt, (2) those between Rinkerodde
and Ascheberg, (3) of Albersloe, and (1) of Ahlen. Some of the veins are
known along a length of 4,500 metres, and their average breadth is about 30
centimetres, with a maximum of 25 metres. Strontianite is the chief material
of the veins, but calcite, marl, and iron pyrites are found associated with
it, the calcspar forming the ordinary selvages.
Two analyses of the strontianite, by H. Redicher, give the following
results:—¦
(1.) (2.)
SrCOs ............ 94-70 ... 93-09
CaC03 ............ 5-22 ... 6"82
Fe,, 03 ............ Trace ... Trace
H20 ............ 0-08 ... 0-08
Total ...... 100-00 ... 99-99
The age of the veins is shown to be Tertiary, or, at least, Pre-Quaternary.
They have been worked since 1839, but on a comparatively large scale only
since 1874. There are now a number of small shafts whence levels are driven
to the veins in the ordinary way. The Bernhardt shaft, which is figured as
an example, is 24 metres deep.
The strontianite is sold almost exclusively for use in sugar refinery at a
maximum price of from 8 to 10 marks (= shillings) per centner.
G. A?L.
16
GOLD IN FRENCH GUYANA.
Note sur le gisement et I'exploitation de I'or a la Guyane francaise. By
— Floey. Annates des Mines, 8th Series, Vol. I, pp. 1882, 463-486.
Gold was first discovered in Guyana by a Brazilian Indian, named Paoli, in
1853, ¦ on the banks of the Appruagua River. Since then it has been found
in drift and alluvial deposits in a number of other river-valleys. The
production in kilogrammes in the different river-basins is thus given:—
1877. 1878. 1879. 1880.
Maroni ......... 103,968 111,077 62,311
10,307
Oyapock ......... 16,565 21,945 17,801
14,840
Approuague (Appruagua) 313,362 261,729 225,553
149,281
Roura (Rura) ...... 161,848 143,449 190,010
145,498
Kourou (Kuru) ...... 0,476 0,763 5,273
4,630
Sinnamary ...... 750,869 742,289 714,058
786,226
Mana ......... 258,899 435,483 965,468
758,807
The auriferous beds consist in all cases of gravels, bits of quartz often "
resinous," and fragments of divers rocks and minerals cemented in a reddish
clayey matrix. They generally lie upon a thin blue clay, which itself rests
upon a universally distributed conglomerate locally known as roche a ravets.
Although the quartz is often quite angular, it has, apparently, not yet been
in any case traced to the parent reefs which doubtless occur in the
mountains. The seasons greatly influence the gold diggings. These are at
their best at the close of the rainy season, at their worst at the close of
the dry season and during the rains.
G. A. L.
METALLIFEROUS PRODUCTS OF MURCIA (SPAIN).
Note sur la situation de Vindustrie rniniere dans la province de Murcie.
Extracts from a French Consular Report, Annates des Mines, 8th Series, Vol.
I., 1882, pp. 583- 590.
For mining purposes the Province of Murcia is divided into two districts,
that of Carthagena and that of Mazarron. In the former, ores of lead, zinc,
and iron, are worked. Lead ore occurs in veins, flats, lenticular masses,
and as irregular deposits, and in 1878 was worked to the extent of 150,000
tons. In the following years rather less has been got—from 120,000 to
130,000 tons per annum. Deposits of blende and calamine were largely worked
ten or twelve years ago, but have gradually been abandoned. Manganesiferous
iron ores are widely distributed, and occur in abundant masses near the
surface. It is therfore easily and cheaply won, and the production is large,
averaging from 500,000 to 600,000 tons per annum from 1879 to 1881. This ore
contains as a mean 15 to 18 per cent, of manganese, and 30 to 36 per cent,
of iron. Non-manganesif erous iron ore is also found, but in much smaller
quantities, the average yield being about 150,000 tons per annum.
Argentiferous galena is the chief mineral product of the Mazarron district,
where it occurs chiefly in very regular veins. This lead-field is stated to
be in its infancy, and promises to become, in the near future, richer than
that of Carthagena. In 1881 the nroduction was more than 30,000 tons,
G. A, L.
17
THE COAL-BEARING BEDS OF THE NORTHERN HARZ.
Die Steinlcohlen-fiihrenden Schichlen bei JBallenstcdt am nordlichen
Ilarzrande. By Ch. E. Weiss. Jahrbuch der Koniglich Preussischengeologischen
Landesanstalt und Bergakademie zu Berlin far 1881, Bart 1, pp. 595-603. Tivo
figures in text.
The oldest rocks, forming a marginal zone round the Harz, are the Lower
Permian (Rothliegende), and certain coal-bearing beds which occur on the
south as well as on the northern flank of the massif. The latter, which are
best developed about Ilefeld, were formerly regarded as of Coal-Measure age,
but more recently they have been referred to the lowest portion of the
Rothliegende by the officers of the Prussian Geological Survey. The question
of the relation between these beds and those at Meisdorf and Opperode, near
Ballenstedt, on the north side of the mountains, and also with those at
Grillenberg on the south side, then arises. These points are fully discussed
in the present paper, the author relying chiefly on evidence derived from
the fossil plants occurring in the strata in question. The conclusion
arrived at is that in the Ballenstedt district these beds belong to the
Rothliegende and not to the Upper Coal-Measures.
The workable seams mentioned are only one of true ccal 5 to 8 decimetres
thick, and one of slaty coal 8 to 10 decimetres thick. These deposits are
associated with shales and sandstones of the ordinary Coal-Measure type,
with some impure cherty limestone.
Figures of two now species of plants are given, viz.:—Callipteris catadroma,
and Sphenopteris Losseni. All the species found in the neighbourhood of
Ballenstedt are thus tabulated:—
Sigillaria Brardi ... known in the Upper Coal-Measures and in the
Rothliegende.
Sigiilarian leaves ... „ „
,, „ (?)
Sigillariostrobus ... „ „
,, „ (?)
Asterophyllites equisetiformis „ ,, ,,
„ .,
Macrostachia sp. ... „ .,
„----------• ----------
Pecopteris arborescens... „ ,,
„ „ ,,
P. abbreviata ...... „ „ ,,
,, „
P. oreopteridia ... ... „ „
„ „ „
Sphenopteris germanica-------------------------- ----------
„ ,,
Sph. erosa ... ... ---------- ----------
¦---------- „ ,,
Sph. Losseni ... ... ---------- ----------
¦---------- ----------¦ ----------
Callipteris catadroma ...--------------------------• ----------
„ ,,
From this list it appears that out of twelve forms five are known to be
common to the Coal-Measures and Rothliegende, two may be common to both, one
had hitherto been found in the Coal-Measures only, there are two
Rothliegende species only, and one has. so far, only been found i.i the
Ballenstedt beds.
G. A. L.
KAADEN-KOMOTAU TERTIARY BEDS (BOHEMIA).
Pie tertidren Ablagerungen in der ZTmgebung von Kaaden-Komolau und Saaz. H.
Becker. Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen geologischen Beichsanstalt, Vol.
XXXII., 1882, #p. 499-536. Two Plates.
Describes the occurrence of the seven members into which the author divides
the deposits, and gives measurements of the thickness of the beds composing
Nos. 3 and 5 (from the surface), which contain numerous coal-seams up to
8"35 metres thick.
G. E. L.
IS
GOLD REEF WORKING IN WEST BORNEO.
(I) Onderzoelc van goudaders bij Sjoei-Tsiet. By C. J. Van Schellk Jaarboek
van het Mijnwesen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, 12(i!e Jaargang, 1883, Part 1,
Technical division, pp. 5-22, with three Plates. This paper forms No. 4 of
the series of Reports of the Government Geological and Mining Survey of the
West Coast of Borneo. Full descriptions of a number of quartz veins, some
auriferous and some not, which are known and worked in the neighbourhood of
Sjoei-Tsiet, not far from the Chinese settlement of Selingse. The reefs are
in granite, and run in a general east and west direction across the valley
of the Ban! River. It seems probable that the placer workings in the drift
deposits filling portion of this valley (as at the Sim-pi-toe mine already
described in Institute Transactions, Vol. XXXII., Abstr., p. 2), are due to
the presence of these and similar reefs in the granite hills around. 'I he
quartz of the veins is in parts impregnated with iron pyrites and gold, with
occasional lumps and lenticular masses of purer quartz and ore. At the end
of 1881 about 225 coolies and other men were employed working some of the
reefs. The stamped vein-stuff yields from 6 to 35 milligrammes of gold per
kilogramme.
(2) Onderzoek naar het voorkomen van goad op den berg Hang-oei-san. By
the same Author. Ibid., pp. 23-36, toith folding Plate.
A similar paper to the last, No. 5 of the same series. In this case the gold
is found in, a quartz vein cutting through the stratified rocks (sandstone,
conglomerate, and clay beds) of the Hang-oei-san Mountain, about three and a
half kilometres east of Montrado. The deposits are worked by Chinamen.
G. A. L.
BELGIAN PHOSPHATIC DEPOSITS.
La Crate phosphatide de Ciply et son traitement. By E. Solvay. Societe des
Ingenieurs sortie de I'ecole provinciate d'industrie et des mines da
Hainaut, Ser. 2, Vol. XIII., pp. 119-126.
The grey phosphatic chalk of Ciply has been known for many years, but it is
only recently that various attempts have been made to utilise the enormous
amount of phosphoric acid which it contains. Now the deposit is worked
actively, the object of the processes employed being to free the natural
material from a portion of its carbonate of lime, and thus obtain a product
capable of being converted into superphosphates. The Ciply chalk varies in
composition, the percentage of phosphate ranging from 4 to 60 and even more.
Moreover, samples containing similar percentages of phosphate are not
identical. Generally it may be said that the proportion of silica is larger
the poorer in phosphate is the chalk. The stone is a mixture of fine light
white chalk powder and brown heavier and larger grains, which are easily
separated from the rest by washing. These have a much more uniform
composition than the mixture, yielding from 30 to 40 per cent, of phosphate.
The author describes a new process of extraction which consists essentially
in calcining the washed material, and then quenching it in boiling water
under pressure.
G. A. L.
19
GEOLOGY OP THE GOLD COAST.
Beitrdge zur Geologie der Goldkilste in Afrika. By C. W. Gttmbel.
Sitzungs-berichte der mathematisvh-physikalischen Classe derJc.b. Akademie
der Wissen-schaften zu Munchen, Vol. XII, 1882, pp. 170-196.
A short general account of the previous knowledge of the gold-bearing reefs
and alluvia of the Gold Coast, according to Soetbeer, Bonnat, Dahse, Lenz,
Skertchly, and others, is succeeded by more detailed notes on the following
districts:—1.—The Tacquah hills in the Wassaw country, where gold occurs
associated with Itabirite, very like the well-known Jacotinga rock of
Brazil, and not in true veins. 2.—The Ankobrah country. 3.—Axim. at the
mouth of the Ankobrah river. 4.—Accra, in the east. 5.—Devil's Hill.
In all these regions the rocks are crystalline, and more or less auriferous
where they are quartzose. The gold dust obtained is, according to Wiebel,
very pure, that in grains (k&rnergold) often contains as much as 50 per
cent, of other metals as impurities—chiefly silver, copper, zinc, tin, and
lead ores. G. A. L.
THE ORIGIN OP COAL.
Memoire sur la formation de la houille. By C. Gkaxd 'Eury. Annates des
Alines, 8th Series, Vol. I, 1882, pp. 99-292, Plates I.-IV.
An elaborate discussion of the whole subject in twelve sections grouped
under two heads as follows:—
Part I.—Botanical and stratigraphical. Section 1.—Disintegration and
decomposition of fossil plants. 2.—Mode of occurrence of plant remains in
rocks. 3.— Structure of coal and arrangement of its constituent plants.
4.—Stems and roots in situ. Carboniferous forests. 5.—Stipites and lignites.
6.—Peats and other accumulations of vegetable matter. 7.—Critical review
of theories as to the formation of coal.
Part II.—Physical and chemical. Section 1.—Fossil states of plant remains in
rocks. 2.—Physical properties of coal. 3.- Comparative characters of
stipites, lignites, and peats 4.— Circumstances which have attended
conversion into coal.
The general conclusions arrived at may be thus summarised:—Coal is
undoubtedly of vegetable origin, but, with the exception of Stigmaria, none
of the plants of which it is formed are in place. Coal is, in fact, as much
a sedimentary rock as shale, and the vegetation to which it is due is
drifted material. At the present flay coal is being formed in the peat
turbaries, lacustrine conditions prevailed in the lignite period, whereas in
Coal Measure times coal was formed uniformly by transportation in slowly
sinking basins. The transformation of drifted vegetable matter into coal
began by amylaceous products, and the cellular tissues and bark were the
first to be attacked. Slowly formed of gradually accumulating humus, hark,
and leaves, coal-seams are not less than half their original thickness. At
first a kind of homogeneous paste, remaining soft longer than the encasing
rocks, the conversion into hard and lustrous coal was completed by slow
dessication carried on at moderate temperatures. Coal is, in fact, the
result of the dehydration and deoxidizing by the wet way of buried vegetable
substances.
The author admits that his views are in most respects a retrograde
repetition of those held by many geologists fifty years ago.
G. A. L.
20
COALS AND BITUMEN OF TRINIDAD.
Etude sur les gisements de charbon et de bitume de la Trinidad. By —
Cpmenge. Annates des Mines, 8th Series, Vol. II, 1882, pp. 137-184. One
Plate.
The coals described are:—1.—Those of Manzanilla which the author regards as
not profitably workable. They are of Tertiary age, and lignitic in
character. 2.—The Williamsville coal, 4 feet thick and nearly vertical. This
is also of Tertiary age and its powdery nature and dip render it of little
or no commercial value. 3.—The Piparo coal, which the author was specially
sent to report on, occurs in the Paria formation regarded as Neocomian by
Wall and Sawkins, the Government geologists, and as being more probably
Tertiary by M. Cumenge. There are three seams here, 0"20 metre, 025 metre,
and 0'50 metre thick respectively, which consist of true coal of excellent
quality. The mean analysis given shows:—fixed carbon, 52'6; volatile matter,
45'0; ash, 36; with a calorific power of 77'8. These seams may be profitably
worked in the future.
The deposits of bitumen described are:—1.—The well-known Asphaltum of the La
Brea Lake. 2.—The so-called Glance-Pitch recently discovei-ed in the
Guaracaro quarter of the Montserrat district, forming a bed 1*20 metres
thick encased in marly clays. The exact age of these beds is not known,
but they are not older than Pliocene.
G. A. L.
BULGARIAN COALS.
Untersuchungen verschiedener Kohlen aus Bulgarien. By C. Von Johx.
Verhandlungen der Jc. Jc. geologischen Beichsanstalt, Vol. XVII., 1883, pp.
99, 100.
Gives the coefficient of heat-power (Berthier's method) and percentages of
water and ash of the following coals from Bulgaria:—Triassic coal from
Belogradcik; Liassic coal from Trewna: Neocomian coal from Kunino, near
Wratza ,• Tertiary (Miocene probably) brown coals from the Sofia basin; from
Dospey, near Samakov; Gorno Ujno, near Kustendji; and Pernik, near Badomir.
G. A. L.
THE AUBIN COAL-FIELD IN AVEYRON.
Mines de houille et fabrication de la fonte dans le bassin d'Aubin.
By—Colrat. Bulletin de la Societe de VIndustrie minerale, Ser. 2, Vol. XL,
pp. 1,043-1,080. One folio Plate.
The coal-field occupies a triangular area, 8 kilometres broad at the base
and 10 kilometres long. It is worked by five companies. The Coal-Measures
rest on ancient crystalline rocks, and their prevailing beds are sandstones
which attain in places a thickness of more than 40 metres. The greatest
total thickness of the coal-seams is 70 to 80 metres (in the Decazeville and
Combes district) in the centre of the field. The seams are much subject to
thickening and thinning. One (that of Bourran) is as much as 70 metres thick
near its central point, but soon falls to 40 metres to the east and to 2 or
3 metres to the west. The succession of the seams is also very irregular.
Clay ironstone is abundant in the coal-field, accompanying the coal and
often taking its place. Two principal zones of this ore are known. The whole
of the beds of the basin are referred to the Upper Coal-Measures of Central
France. The coal appears to be, in character1, midway between household and
gas coal, but it varies in quality in different parts of the region. A
geological map by A. Lvtisioxs, and some sections showing the lie of the
beds, illustrate the paper. G. A. L.
21
COALS AND METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF 1NDO-CHINA.
Memoire sur Vexploration des gites de combustibles et de quelques-uns des
gites metal-liferes de VIndo-Chine. By Edmond Fuchs and E. Saladin. Annates
des Mines, 8th Series, Vol. II, 1882, pp. 185-352, Plates VI-XII.
The ground covered by this paper includes a large portion of the Siamese
Empire, Cambodia, French Cochin-China, Annam, and Tong-king. The mineral
resources of the two last-named regions are most fully treated of. In
ascending order the sedimentary rocks of these countries are:—1.—Ancient
schists, with staurolite, etc. 2.—Devonian schists and grits.
3.—Carboniferous Limestone. 4.—So-called Coal-Measures, lying unconformably
upon the limestone, and overlain by (5) a series of variegated grits and
clays. 6. - Alluvium. Besides these, there are granitic, porphyritic, and
volcanic rocks of various kinds. The " Coal-Measures" mentioned above are
allied to the Gondwana series of India, and are therefore not of true
Carboniferous age, but Triassic to Liassic. The plants characteristic of
these beds are described by M. Zeiller, and figured in some of the plates in
the present paper.
The principal coal-fields in these rocks are, so far as yet known, those of
Tong-king, Yun-nan, the Tinh-Hoa province, Nong-Son (Annam), and Laos, more
especially the Bassac basin on the Me-Kong.
Chapter II. (pp. 230-277) consists of details respecting the position,
thickness, and probable commercial value of the seams found in these
coal-fields, many of which are stated to be of good quality, and some of
which attain a thickness of three metres. Chapter III. is a description of
the iron deposits of Ph'nom-Deck, to the N.E. of the Cambodian Lake of
Tonle-Sap. These deposits consists of a vertical mass of magnetite, red
haematite, limonite, and spathose iron ore encased in porphyritic and
granulitic rocks. The visible volume of this mass of ore is calculated to be
two and a half million cubic metres.
G. A. L.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRAZIL (PROVINCE OF MINAS-GERAES). L'Industrie minerale
dans la province de Minas-Geraes. By A. de Bovet. Annates des Mines, 8th
Series, Vol. Ill, 1883, pp. 85-122. The minerals worked in this province are
gold, platinum, iron, lead, and manganese ores. Diamonds and many coloured
gems, such as topaz, beryl, garnet, amethyst, etc., and graphite. The
present paper, which is the first part of a comprehensive memoir, deals
chiefly with the iron ores, which are both rich and abundant—so abundant
indeed that some of the towns (Ouro-Preto for example) are largely built of
them. These iron ores are principally itabirite, and the well-known
auriferous jacutinga, micaceous iron ore, specular iron ore, a hard and
tough hajmatite, and lastly a ferruginous conglomerate known locally as
canga, which covers immense areas situate at the foot of the haematite
deposits, and which is evidently due to their waste and decomposition.
Magnetite is occasionally found associated with all these ores. The latter
are remarkably pure, the only gangue accompanying them being quartz, and
then rarely more than 3 to G per cent. Manganese occurs in all—sometimes as
much as 9 per cent. All the deposits occur in huge masses, and crop out at
the surface. Those at the foot of the Serra de Caraca alone contain,
according to M. Gohceix, 8,000,000,000 tons, and the others are on the same
scale. No true coal is, unfortunately, known in the region, but in the
centre of the iron-field, at Fonseca and Gandarella, respectively cast and
west of the Serra de Caraca, there are two basins of lignites of late
Tertiary or sub-recent age. The seams of the western basin are workable, and
might be used in smelting the ores. The forests, however, are still very
large, and must be regarded as the real source of fuel in any estimate of
the iron-making capacities of this extensive region.
G.A.L.
MINES OF VIALAS.
Notice sur les mines et usines de Violas. By H. Garnier. Bulletin de
la Socicte de VIndustrie minerale. Ser. 2, Vol. II.. 1882, pp. 995-1,034.
After describing the situation of the mine among the granites of Mount
Lozere, the author proceeds to classify the veins (worked for argentiferous
galena) according to their age. He notices the phenomenon of their
reopening, and the influx of an ore lonf subsequent to their formation, also
mentioning the deposition of ore in openings that had remained some time
empty. Determining their relative ages from the crossings and the inclusion
of one vein-stuff in another, be takes them in order according to their
classification, and describes their occurrence, contents, and amount of
galena. A vein, elsewhere poor, is described as containing nodules of galena
near its intersection with a richer vein. The amount of silver varies from
280 to 700 grammes in 100 kilogrammes of lead, and figures are given to
prove that the proportion of silver to lead increases with the increase of
that of galena to vein-stuff. The paper next describes the mechanical
separation of the different products, giving a tabular statement of the
various operations, after which comes a description of the metallurgical
treatment, with analyses of the products at the different stages of the
work.
G. E. L.
SOAPSTONES, CHINA CLAYS, AND EIRE CLAYS OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
The Southern Soapstones, Kaolin, and Fire Clays, and their uses. By
Professor P. H. Mell, Je. Transactions American Institute of Mining
Engineers, Vol. X.. 1882, pp. 318-322.
Soapstone occurs throughout the metamorphic rocks of Alabama, Georgia, South
Carolina, and North Carolina. Seven analyses of this stone are given, and it
is stated to be extremely refractory and useful for furnace lining. In using
soapstone for such purposes the blocks must be placed with the cross-section
of the grain exposed to the fire, otherwise it will crumble and flake.
Kaolin is found in similar rocks in many portions of Alabama and Georgia.
Two analyses are given, which show good porcelain-making proportions.
Fire clay suitable for brick making is found in vast quantities, and
associated with buhrstone, near Claiborne, on the Alabama River.
G. A. L.
GOLD AND SILVER IN ARIZONA.
The Geology and Veins of Tombstone, Arizona. By William P. Blake.
Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X, 1882, pp.
334-315. Seven Figures in text.
The geology of this region consists of granite upon which rests a series
several thousand feet thick of perfectly conformable quartzites, limestones,
and shales dipping from 20 dog. to 45 deg. to the east. This series is
probably of Carboniferous age. Intrusive porphyritic dykes cut through the
beds approximately in a north and south direction. This is also the
direction of the principal faults and veins. The ores of the district occur
in veins and " fiats" (so-called bedded ores) apparently associated with the
intrusions of igneous rocks. " The output of gold and silver up to the 1st
January, 1882, aggregates 7,359,200 dollars, and over 3,000,000 dollars have
been disbursed in dividends." A table of the production of the various
mines is given. G. A. L.
$8
GOLD IN SAN DOMINGO.
The Gold Fields of the southern portion of the Island of San Domingo. By
Richaed P. Rothwell. Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers,
Vol. X., 1882, pp. 345-354.
The central mountain chain of San Domingo consists of syenitic rocks. These
are flanked and covered, first by a folded and broken metamorphic series of
slates, conglomerates, and limestones of Cretaceous age, and secondly by
Miocene and Pliocene beds. Quartz veins, sometimes auriferous, are frequent
in the Metamorphic Cretaceous series. These veins, however, invariably
coincide with the bedding-planes, and are not therefore true fissure veins.
They are most numerous near the central core of eruptive rock; there they
are gold-bearing, and there only. The river sands are barren in the syenite
region, but become auriferous on reaching the slates. Although all the
gravels below the slate zone encircling the syenite mountains contain more
or less gold, yet the quantity available is, according to the author, far
too small to make their working commercially profitable. The veins are
likewise unlikely to prove remunerative.
G. A. L.
KANAWHA COAL (WEST VIRGINIA).
Notes on the Hard-Splint Coal of the Kanaivha Valley. By Stuart M. Buck.
Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X., 1882, pp.
81-85.
The Kanawha splint coal is hard, dull in lustre, coarsely fibrous in
structure, very pure, and resists atmospheric influence. It kindles readily,
burns with a bright flame, but does not cake. The Coalburg Seam is the chief
one of this kind. It is 3 feet 8 inches to 4 feet 6 inches thick, including
a worthless band of 6 to 8 inches, known locally as " niggerhead." The coal
seems to occupy a large extent of country, and thickens towards Paint Creek.
It has been worked for more than seventeen years on the line of the
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, chiefly at Coalburg. G. A. L.
TENNESSEE HAEMATITES.
Some Drift Hcemaiite Deposits in East Tennessee. By Edward Nichols.
Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X., 1882,
^.480-482.
Describes deposits of gravel ore which occur at the base of a series of low
foothills or knobs, composed of Clinton shales carrying seams of
fossiliferous haematites. Analyses of the drift ore and of that of the seams
which are given show the former to be much the richer in iron and poorer in
phosphorus. The author thinks it is difficult to connect the two ores. The
percentages of metallic iron in the gravel ores are 59-05 and G2'72, of
phosphorus 0"075 and 0'054. Unfortunately these deposits are quite limited
in extent.
G. A. L.
ZINC IN VIRGINIA.
Note on the Falling Cliff'Zinc Mine. By F. P. Dewey. Transactions
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X., 1882, pp. Ill, 112.
The ore in this mine occurs filling a vein with a very irregular hade,
situated in No. 2 Limestone of the Trenton formation. It is a
silico-carbonate, with from 59-88 to 61*99 per cent, of zinc oxide,
according to three full analyses given. The amount of ore cannot yet be
ascertained exactly, but is proved to be very large. G. A. L.
24
GOLD OF NORTH CAROLINA.
Some peculiarities in the occurrence of Gold in North Carolina. By Professor
W. C. Kerr. Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X.,
pp. 475, 476. One Figure in text.
Note of occurrence of gold:—1.—In decomposed gneiss at the Rhodes Mine,
Gaston County. 2.—In a felspathic schist at a mine in Moore County. 3.—In
seams of quartz in a blue hydro-micaceous schist, and in a greyish blue,
fine-grained, schistose limestone at King's Mountain Mine, in Gaston County.
4.—In a singular concretionary, conglomerate schist, containing
Palaotrochis, in Montgomery County. 5.—In thin-bedded quartz slates, often
pyrophyllitic and felspathic, in Montgomery, Davidson, and Randolph
Counties. 6.—In the grey much-jointed quartzites and felsites of the
Huronian Hills on the eastern side of the great slate belt. 7.—In a trap
dyke, near Charlotte.
G- A. L.
THE FUTURE OF NORTH AMERICAN OIL.
The amount of Oil remaining in Pennsylvania and Neiu YorTc. By Henry E.
Wrigley. Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X., 1882,
pp. 354-360, with Sketch map.
The area of the oil-region in Pennsylvania and New York is stated to be
about 4,250 square miles, as proved by borings. The boundaries of this area
are very clearly defined. The southern limit is fixed by the depth to which
the dip carries the oil-gathering sponge-rock being such that the
temperature of the earth there precludes the existence of hydro-carbons in
any other but the gaseous state; the eastern limit is the line where all the
fissures of the anticlinal and synclinal folds have come to the surface; the
western limit is where the folds of the beds have all died out and there are
no fissures to allow the gas to rise ; and the northern limit is chiefiy due
to the same cause. " On the east there is no cover, on the west and north it
is all cover and no crevices within reach of a proper depth of temperature,
and on the south the reservoirs are all below the line of temperature" (p.
357). The details of the oil production of the area are fully discussed, and
lead the author to the conclusion that there is a total of 96,000,000
barrels of oil only left in the country, the present yearly output being
25,000,000.
G. A. L.
MINES OF SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO.
The Mineral Regions of Southern New Mexico. By Dr. B. Silliman.
Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X., 1882, pp.
424-444.
Short descriptions are given of the following mining districts :—1.—Socorro
Mines. N.E. and S.W. veins of heavy-spar with chloride of silver and
vanadium minerals. 2.— The Magdalenas, a bold range of metamorphic rocks
thirty miles west of Socorro; the Juniata lode, carbonate of lead, 40 feet
thick. 3.— The Oscuras Permian Copper Beds. Deposits of copper-glance,
azurite (chessylite), and malachite, also a little silver and gold. 4.—The
Lake Valley or Sierra Mines. Silver ores (native, chloride, chloro-bromide,
and argentiferous galena and lead carbonates), lead (galena, carbonate, and
vanadinite), iron (specular or red haematite and brown iron ore), manganese
(pyrolusite), all veins in Carboniferous Rocks. 5.— The Black Range. Gold,
silver, copper, zinc, and lead lodes.
G. A. L.
25
GOLD IN DAKOTA.
The occurrence of Gold in the Potsdam formation, Black Rills, Dakota. By
Walter B. Devereux. Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers,
Vol. X., 1882, pp. 465-475. One Figure in text.
Gold occurs here in a brecciated conglomerate or " cement" at the base of
the Potsdam beds, which rests unconformably upon older uptilted schists. The
latter are traversed by an auriferous lode known as the Homestake Vein,
which is apparently older than the Potsdam beds, and the outcrop of which,
though now covered by a sheet of porphyritic trap, is considerably above the
level of the "cement" or gold-bearing basement bed of the Potsdam series.
This is regarded as a beach deposit, and the gold it contains is supposed to
have originated from the Homestake Vein. Placer workings occur in drift due
to the waste of the " cement" deposit. G.
A. L.
VIRGINIAN IRON ORES.
(1) The Rich Sill Iron Ores. By F. P. Dewey. Transactions American
Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X., 1882, pp. 77-80.
This paper describes the celebrated " car-wheel" iron ore of this region.
The Rich Hill ore occurs imperfectly bedded as a sedimentary deposit in
Limestone No. 2, which is supposed to be of Trenton age. In amount it is
estimated at 2,000,000 tons at least. It is easily accessible, and free from
all difficulty from water or otherwise in mining. The percentage of metallic
iron, as shown by full analyses given, varies from 51'85 to 57-35, that of
phosphorus from 0-050 to 0-200.
(2) Note on Black Band Iron Ore in West Virginia. By S. P. Siiarples.
Ibid, pp. 80, 81.
Describes a bed of black-band ore, 4 to 5 feet thick, known to occur over a
tract of about 1,500 acres at the head waters of Davis Creek, about nine
miles from Charleston, West Virginia. Percentage of metallic iron 3P46 to
36'43, of phosphorus 025 to 0'87.
G. A. L.
PROSPECTING FOR MAGNETIC ORES WITH THE NEEDLE.
Be I'emploi de Vaiguille aimantee pour la recherche des minerais
magnetiques. By L. Perard. Revue Universelle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol.
XII., 1882, pp. 371-399, with folding Plate.
Describes fully the methods followed in North America and in Sweden in
searching for magnetic iron ore deposits by means of the magnetic needle,
according to Dr. Smock in the former case, and Professor Thalen in the
latter. The American iron hunters use a needle rotating in a vertical plane
only. In Sweden the instrument employed is a declination needle so weighted
as to show no dip under the influence of ordinary terrestrial magnetism
only, but which dips on being brought near a magnetic mass beneath the
surface. A dip needle has now, moreover, been so contrived by Professor Cook
as to have a certain amount of horizontal play as well. The geometrical
problems involved in the methods described are discussed at length by the
author, who also adds some mathematical corollaries of his own. In all cases
the ore deposits are regarded as huge magnets, furnished as to each separate
mass with N. and S. poles, and having a position (in Sweden at least)
generally coinciding with the local magnetic dip.
26
THE ST. GENEVIEVE COPPER DEPOSIT (MO.)
A Review of the Ste. Genevieve Copper Deposit. By Frank Nicholson'.
Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. X., 1882,^?.
445-456. Six -Figures in text.
Copper ore was first noticed in St. Genevieve County in 1863. 1.—The
geological formation and modes of occurrence. The deposit occurs in the
second of the Magnesian Limestone series of the Lower Silurian system. The
ore is in two nearly horizontal sheets, between strata of chert, in the
limestone; it consists of chalcopyrite (massive, 3 inches to several feet
thick), chalcocite (never in large quantities), malachite (massive and
incrusting), azurite (as an incrustation only), cuprite (in considerable
quantities as seams in sulphide), tenorite (not common), chrysocolla (rare).
2.— Geological history of the deposit. This is divided into five periods—of
deposition, dolomization, dissolution, regeneration, and oxidation
respectively. 3.—Method of working. Details of the Cornwall mines are given.
The cost per ton of the ore delivered at the smelting works, supposing it to
carry on the average 18 per cent, of copper, is:—
Dollars. Mining and dressing, at 1 "50 dol. per cent. ... ...
... 27'00
Supervision, weighing, etc, ... ... ... ...
... 0"33^
Hauling ........................ 2-50
$29-83$
" The market value of such ore, when copper is quoted at 20 cents., is 3
dols. per unit, or 54 dols. per ton. Net profit to owners, 24'16| dols.
per ton." G. A. L.
IRON MINES OF ITALY.
U Industrie miner ale en Italie depuis 1860 jusau'en 1880. By Jean Beco and
Leon Thonaed. Bevue Universelle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XIII., pp.
27-56, tvith two Haps.
The chief ores of iron worked in Italy are the magnetite and specular iron
ore of the Isle of Elba, and the spathosc iron ore (chalybite) of Lombardy.
In the present report deposits of secondary importance are described as
well, viz., the magnetite of Coigne, in the Valley of Aosta, in Piedmont,
which is associated with serpentine, and that of Traversella, in the
Cbiusella Valley, which occurs as a vein or contact mass lying between
diorite and micaschist: little-known deposits (also of magnetite) are known
at Strazzema and Forno-Velasco, and others (of haematite) at Monte Valerio,
Piombino, etc., in the Apuan Alps. Tinstone associated with iron ore has
recently been discovered at Monte Fumacchio. Highly manganesiferous ore is
worked at the Monte Argentaro Mines, near Porto-Ercole, chiefly for the
English market. These contain as much as 30 per cent, of manganese. At the
foot of the Tolfa Mountains, 12 or 13 kilometres from Civita-Vecchia, is a
large deposit of hydrated peroxide of iron formerly worked. Limonite occurs
also in fissure-veins and beds in the limestone mountains of the Central
Appenines, at Terra di Lavaro, in the Neapolitan district, and lying between
Mesozoic limestones and ancient slates, near Pazzano, in the Calabria.
Numerous haematite and magnetite deposits are known, and some worked, in the
Silurian rocks of Sardinia, as at Acquaresi, Perdastierra, Funtanaperda, S.
Leone, etc.
Tables showing the number of mines, number of tons worked, total value in
lires for each district, and quantity exported for the whole kingdom, are
appended. Full ' analyses of the varieties of Elban ore are also given.
The maps show the iron mines of Elba and the adjoining Tuscan coast.
G. A. L.
27
COAL UNDER LONDON.
Examen des etudes sur Vexistence possible de la houille aux environs de
Londres. By Ad. Firket. Revue Universelle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol.
XII., 1882, pp. 457-474.
Gives an analysis of the views published on this subject by Professors J. W.
Judd, Prestwich, and Hull, Messrs. T. Audrimont, Godwin-Austen, and others.
Compares these with the facts as now known respecting the lie of the
Carboniferous rocks in Northern France and Belgium. Concludes that it is
probable, from the evidence at present available, that the northern slope
(that facing south) of the Coal-Measure trough which apparently extends
under the southern portion and further to the south of the Metropolis,
begins at about 1,200 metres south of the angle made by Tottenham Court Road
and Oxford Street. The author, therefore, advises that a boring be made
about 2 kilometres south of that point, but thinks it possible that a great
oblique fault similar to that of the Pas-de-Calais (the Grande-faille) may
be present, and may cause here also an apparent reversal of the order of the
rocks, i.e., that Devonian or Carboniferous limestone may overlie the
Coal-Measures. G. A. L.
IRON AND COAL OF CHINA.
Les Mines de Fer et de Charbon en Chine. By Count de Noidans-Calf.
Revue Universelle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XII., pp. 478-482.
An official report to the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs from the
Belgian Resident Minister in China. A brief account of the mineral resources
of the Northern Provinces of Tchihli and Shantung. Analyses by Dr. Percy are
appended (1) of brown iron ore containing 5333 per cent, of metallic iron,
no sulphur, and only 015 of phosphoric acid; (2) of coal of excellent
quality. Both iron and coal come from Pung-tchung in the district of
Taming-Fou, and occur in large quantities. Copper and lead mines are also
referred to. G.
A. L.
SILVER ORES OF THE ANDES.
Analyses de minerais argentiferes de la Cordilliere des Andes. {Mine del
Doctor, pres de Mexico) [_sic']. Revue Universelle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2,
Vol. XII., p. 483.
Analyses:—(1) Of vein ore showing crystals of pyrite, calcite, quartz, and
stibnite, yielding 1,250 grammes of silver to the ton; (2) of three samples
of yellowish-grey alluvial sands, yielding 2,600, 550, and 2,800 grammes of
silver per ton respectively.
G. A. L.
COALS OF ITALY.
L'Industrie miner ale en Italie depuis I860 jusqu'en 1880. Part II. By
Jean Beco
and Leon Thonard. Revue Universelle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XII.,
1882, pp. 114-142.
This part of the memoir comprises a summary of the official statistics as to
the
existence and commercial value of the various fossil fuels of Italy. Of
these only a
few seams of anthracite belong to the Palaeozoic series. They are known
at fifteen
points, of which the principal are:—La Thuile, in the Valley of Aosta, where
six
seams one metre thick are known to occur over a small area, and are worked
for local
use; Monficis and Calizzano, in the Maritime Alps, where the seams are
poor;
Cludicino and Creta d'Oro, near the Carinthian frontier, where the
anthracite is too
friable and otherwise useless for general purposes; Monte Jano, in Tuscany,
with'one
28
worthless seam of true Carboniferous age; Seni, in Sardinia, where there is
a small basin containing a seam 2| metres thick, but so situated as regards
communications, etc., as to render its working extremely costly.
The lignites, on the other hand, are abundant, and distributed over
seventy-two distinct districts. The basins recognized in 1880 as being
economically important may be thus enumerated: —
1.—Monte Pulli, in the Agno Valley (Province of Vicenza).—Age, Eocene. Nine
seams of lignite with a total thickness of 9 metres, and three beds of
bituminous shale. Annual production, 12,000 tons. Estimated workable
amount remaining in 1880, 400,000 tons. Quality very good; used at the
Venice Arsenal and by the Lake Garda steamers. 2.—The Gonesse Basin, in
Sardinia.—Age, Eocene. Three or four seams, with a total thickness of 2
to 3 metres. Annual production, 14,000 tons. Estimated workable amount
left in 1880, 5.500,000. Quality very good; used at the adjoining lead
mines of Monteponi, San Giovanni, and others. 3.—Cadibona, in the Province
of Genoa.—Age, Miocene, lacustrine. One principal seam 2'50 metres thick.
Production in 1878, 4,800 tons. Nearly exhausted. Quality
excellent; used for navigation. 4.—Garbenne, near Nuceto, in the Province of
Cuneo.—Age, Miocene, lacustrine. One seam 0'60 to TOO metre thick.
Annual production, 2,000 tons. Quality, a rather friable lamellar lignite.
5.—Sarzana, near La Spezzia (Province of Genoa).—Age, Upper Miocene. One
sejim 2 to 2*50 metres thick. Annual production, 15,000 tons. Amount
left in 1880, 600,000 tons. Quality good; used in the lead smelting mills
at Pertngola. 6.—Monte Massi and Tatti, in the Province of Grosseto.—Age,
Miocene, marine. Four seams, 600, l-20, 080, and 1"90 metres (in
descending order). Annual production, 11,000 tons. Amount left in
1880,15,000,000 tons. Quality good when washed; used on the railways.
7.—Monterufoli, in the Province of Pisa.—Age, Lower Miocene, lacustrine.
Two seams, each 1 metre thick. Scarcely worked. Amount available,
400,000 tons. Quality poor and friable; useless for locomotives unless
mixed with other coal. 8.—Murlo, Province of Sienna.—Age, Lower Tertiary
(Eocene ?). Three seams 1 to 6 metres thick. Annual production, 4,000
tons. Amount left in 1880, 700,000 tons. Quality second rate, but used
on the railway. 9.—Castelnuova, in the Val d'Arno (Province of Arezzo).—Age,
Upper Tertiary. Thick beds, sometimes 25 metres or more. Annual
production, 40,000 tons. Amount left in 1880, 20,000,000 tons.
Quality, a brown woody lignite, requires drying, but can be used for
locomotives. 10.—Spoleto, Province of Perugia.—Age, Upper Tertiary. One
seam only, 8 metres thick. Scarcely worked yet. Amount available,
1,000,000 tons. Quality, a woody lignite. 11.— Val Gandino, Province of
Bergamo.—Age, Upper Tertiary. Several seams, of which one only, 8 metres
thick, is worked. Annual production, 8,000 tons. Amount left in 1880,
5,000,000 tons. Quality like that of the Val d'Arno (No. 9); used in
various local factories. 12.— Garfagnana, Province of Massa-Carrara.—Age,
Upper Tertiary. Seams not yet worked in 1880. Amount available,
2,000,000 tons. Quality woody, but often block lignite. To these lignite
basins four to five million tons of good workable peat must be added.
G. A. L.
29
MINERAL OILS OF CENTRAL EUROPE.
Notice sur les gisements petroliferes de VEurope Centrale et etude speciale
des gise-ments du Nord de VAllemagne. By L. Piedbcexjf. Revue Universelle
des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XIIJ., pp. 57-76, 611-654, with Four Maps.
The principal oil-regions of Central Europe are:—The great plain of North
Germany, extending over Hanover and part of Brunswick; the western portion
of the plain of the Upper Rhine, from Worms to Bale, at the foot of the
Eastern Vosges; and in the Carpathians—on their northern slopes towards
Galicia, and on their southern towards Hungary. In these three districts
traces of oil are found in all the permeable rocks of recent, Tertiary, and
Cretaceous age, of which the surface is formed. Besides these larger
oil-bearing tracts several other occurrences are known. In the Tyrol the St.
Quirin oil-well, on the banks of the Tegernsee, has been worked for
centuries for medicinal purposes. Other springs of the same kind have been
discovered in Northern Italy, in the neighbourhood of Bologna, and many in
Roumania. The well-known asphalt deposits in Western Switzerland are perhaps
an indication of the presence of petroleum.
The concluding part of the paper gives a detailed description of the oil
deposits of Limmer, near Hanover and Sehnde, to the south of Lehrte; Wietze
and Steinforde; Oelheim, Oedesse, Edesse, and Fissenberg; Oberg and
Oelsburg; of Alsace and the Upper Rhine Valley. A more general account,
condensed from Strippelman's work on the subject, is given of the Galician
deposits. The general conclusion arrived at by the author in every case is
that the oil comes originally from the beds of Middle and Upper Trias, the
Muschelkalk and Keuper, whatever be the geological age of the overlying
rocks in which it is now found. Pages 637 to 654 are devoted to proving this
point on geological and especially on chemical grounds. The latter lead to
the belief that the petroleum is due to the decomposition of the animal
organic matter which must have been present in vast quantities in the thick
shell beds of the Middle Trias—the Muschelkalk.
(J. A. L.
BRAZILIAN DIAMONDS.
Sur les Giles diamantifhres du centre de la province de Minas-Geraes,
Brazil. By Peofessoe Goeceix. Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France,
Ser. 3, Vol. X., pp. 134, 135.
At Cocaes (60 kilometres north of Ouro-Preto), Conceicao, and Diamantina,
diamonds are found in alluvial deposits associated with rolled fragments of
Titanium oxides, ilmenite, tourmaline, quartz, hydrated chloro-phosphates,
iron glance, fibrolite, altered pyrites, disthene, manganese oxides,
magnetite, etc. All minerals found associated together in quartz veins
belonging to the earlier group of quartzites of the region (Pre-Devonian).
Diamonds are themselves found in these quartzites.
At San Joan du Chapada, 30 kilometres west of Diamantina, diamonds are
worked in beds of clay which alternate with green-mica quartzites. In this
locality the diamonds are undoubtedly in situ, and show no trace of wear.
G. A. L.
30
MANGANESIFEROUS IRON ORE IN THE PYRENEES.
Rapport sur les mines defer oxyde manganesifere d'Escoumps, Commune de Nyer
(Pyrenees-Orientates). By Theodoee Virlet d'Aoust. Paris, 1882, Mo, 12 pp.
One Plate.
A report on the Escoumps manganesiferous haematite mine. This is one of a
helt of iron mines skirting the base of the Canigou range. They are not, as
Dufrenoy stated, associated with granite. On the contrary, the ore-bearing
veins occur in one of the calcareous zones of the Silurian. Granite
occurs only some distance south of Nyer.
G. A. L.
COAL ON THE KISTNA (INDIA).
Note on the supposed occurrence of coal on the Kistna. By H. B.
Medlicott, M.A. Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XV., pp.
207-216.
Since 1850, the reputed discovery of coal near Jaggayapet, in the Kistna
district of Madras, has been repeatedly brought to the notice of the
Government. The full details of the history of this supposed find by General
Applegarth, and of the subsequent enquiries into the matter, are given in
this official report to the Governor of Madras. It is clearly shown that no
coal has been proved to occur in the locality, and that the rocks there are
such—of transition or Lower Vindhyan age, and therefore much older than any
of the coal-bearing formations of India—as to preclude any hope of any being
found. A note at the end of the paper (p. 216) states that the Government of
Madras has finally decided not to re-open the question.
G. A. L.
INDIAN IRON ORES.
On the Iron Ores and Subsidiary Materials for the Manufacture of Iron in the
North-eastern Part of the Jabalpur District. By F. R. Mallet, F.G.S. Records
of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XVI, pp. 94-115, with a Map.
The workable iron ores of this region are thus classified by the author:—
{/ Schistose haematite. I Micaceous iron ore. 1. Hamatite ... ... <
Jasper haematite. J Semi-ochreous haematite. ' TIT
-J! 1 1-1
\ Manganesilerous haematite. 2. Limonite.
( Pisolitic limonite. ( 1. Limonite ... ... <. Ordinary laterite,
some-
Laterite Ores ... < ( times
rich in iron.
( 2. BZ&matite.
The necessary fluxes for smelting the ores are present in the Lower Vindhyan
limestone, the Lameta limestone, and an aluminous variety of laterite.
Dolomite is also abundant, and would be useful for lining converters, should
the occurrence of manganesiferous ore suitable for the production of
spiegeleisen lead to Bessemer steel-making and the adoption of the basic
process. Fire clay is also known in the region.
The report concludes by ui'ging the advantages of Murwara as a site for
future ironworks.
Analyses of the ores and fluxes are given.
G. A. L.
31
THE UMARIA COAL-FIELD (INDIA). Further Notes on the Vmaria Coal-field
(South Rewah Gondwana Basin). By Theo. W. H. Hxjghes, A.R.S.M., F.G.S.
Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XVI, pp. 118-121.
Reports progress as to boring and shaft-sinking to prove the seams of this
coalfield. Two seams, 10 feet and 6 feet thick, were passed through in a
boring (No. 9), and another of good quality is being worked by means of an
incline. This seam is 4 feet 8 inches thick. The shaft had only reached a
depth of 40 feet, and had not yet struck coal. Sections of No. 9 bore and
of the seam worked are given. G. A. L.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF MANIPUR AND NAGA HILLS.
leport on the Geology of parts of Manipur and the Naga Sills. By R. D.
Oldham, A.R.S.M., Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XIX., pp.
217-242. One Plate and three Maps.
This region was all but unknown, as regards its geology, before the
exploration of •hich this is the report. Although it is some 1,800 square
miles in area, it is poor in nnerals of economic importance. The
following, however, are recorded:—
Iron.—Occurs as a workable pisolitic limonite (bog iron ore), intermixed
with
clay in the swampy alluvial bogs of the district. South of Thobal,
titani-
ferous iron ore is stated to be present in the stream deposits. A
description
of the iron furnace in use by the natives in Manipur is given.
Copper.—" Is worked in the south-east corner of Manipur territory, the ore
being
obtained from the hills bordering the Kubo Valley." Gold.—" Is worked in the
sands of the Ningthi River." Salt.—Is tolerably abundant and is worked by
means of brine wells. Edible Earth and a very scanty supply of Limestone for
lime burning complete the list of economic mineral deposits.
G. A. L.
CRETACEOUS COALS IN THE KHASIA HILLS.
Note on the Cretaceous Coal-Measures at Borsora, in the Khasia Hills, near
Laour, in Sylhet. By Tom D. La Touche, B.A. Records of the Geological Survey
of India, Vol, XVI, pp. 164-166.
A section of 150 feet of sandstone, including three seams of coal (four,
three, and three feet thick respectively), is described as occurring beneath
the Nummulitic limestone, at the foot of the Khasia Hills. The coal is of
excellent quality, and is very favourably situated for winning. Two
analyses are given as follows :—
Seam No. 1. Seam No. 2.
Moisture ............ 5"84 ... 302
Other volatile matter ...... 35-16 ... 39'58
Fixed carbon ......... 50*40 ... 50-80
Ash ............ 8-60 ... 660
100-00 100-00
The age of the coal-bearing beds is Cretaceous and the same as that of the
Garo Hills and the small basin of Maobelarkar, but distinct from that of the
Cherra-Poonjee coal.
G, A, L,
32
GOLD-FIELDS OP MYSORE.
Notes on a Traverse across some Gold-fields of Mysore. By It. Bruce Foote,
F.G-.S. Eecords of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XV, pp. 191-220,
toith Section and Map.
The geology of the region traversed consists essentially of a few north and
south folds of schistose rocks overlying and squeezed in between the general
granitic mass which forms the prevailing rock of the country. The
gold-fields coincide with the schistose bands, and are (in order from east
to west):—1.—The Kolar gold-field band, which is the best known, most fully
described in this paper, and that containing most reef-working gold mines.
2.—The Dambal—Chiknayakan-halli band, comprising the Dambal gold-field,
where gold occurs both in reefs and in the superficial deposits. 3.—The
Dharwar-Shimoga band, in which the schists are chloritic, interbedded with
quartzites and associated with very thick and coarse conglomerates (the "
great conglomerates" of Kal Drug, Philiur Gudda, and Kalva-Ranganbetta). The
Honnali gold-field is situated among this chloritic schist and quartzite
series, and comprises a large number of important quartz-reefs, whence the
gold in the thick red soil of the low ground is derived.
Intrusive trap-rocks occur in the Kolar schists, and will prove formidable
obstacles to reef-mining in some parts of that field.
G. A. L.
SULPHUR IN THE CAUCASUS.
Giacimenti solfiferi del Caucaso e loro confronto con quelli di Sicilia. By
L. Bal-dacci. Bolletino del R. Comitato geologico d'ltalia, Ser. 2, Vol.
IV., pp. 15-20.
The sulphur deposits described are worked on the Khioutt Mountain, about 70
kilometres from the port of Petrowsk, on the Caspian Sea, and 47 from
Temir-Khan-Tschura, in Daghestan, and not far from the confluence of the
Rivers Koison d'Andii and Avare. They lie about two-thirds of the way up the
mountain, at a height of 1,700 metres. The strata are very regular and their
succession is very distinct on the steep slope of the mountain. The sulphur
bed is, on an average, 1*60 metres thick, and occurs among limestones and
marls of Lower Cretaceous (perhaps Gault) age. Gypsum is also associated
with the deposit.
Baku, the great centre of petroleum production, is the market to which the
sulphur is brought, 6,000 barrels being used there per annum for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid used in refining the mineral oils. The extent
of the deposit at Khioutt limits the local production of sulphur to about
this amount which, the writer points out, is barely one-fiftieth of the
sulphur output of Sicily. G.
A. L.
COPPER DEPOSITS OF ITALY.
Sui giacimenti cupriferi in Italia. By Dr. Ed. Reyer. Bolletino del B.
Comitato geologico d'ltalia, Ser. 2, Vol. IV., 1883, pp. 34-38. See also
Berg- und Buttenmdnnische Zeifungfor 1882, Aa. 49.
The copper ores of Italy are found associated with the basic eruptive rocks
of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary age. They occur in four
positions:—1.—Disseminated in the eruptive mass. 2.—In veins in the trap.
3.—As contact veins between different eruptive masses. 4.—As contact veins
between trap and sedimentary rocks. Deposits of the second, third, and
fourth kinds are often much dislocated, and those veins which are brecciated
are particularly rich,
G. A. L,
33
RUSSIAN" PEAT.
La Tourbe, son exploitation et son emploi industriel. By Georges de
Ctjyper. Revue JJniverselle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XIII., pp.
518-551.
Peat deposits occur in Russia in forty-five Governments, and occupy a
workable area of about 100,000 square versts. The Governments of Moscow,
Novgorod, Riazan, Nijni-Novgorod, Orel, and some few others in the south,
are those in which it is most prevalent. The methods of working the
turbaries adopted at Koulebaki, in the Ardatof district, are described, and
details given as to composition, cost, economic value for railway purposes
and others. The following comparative table, amongst others, is given:—
Price in Roubles Heating power of Price
of
Fuel. and Kopeks per 1
Kilogramme 100,000
100 Kilogrammes. in Heat Units. Heat
Units.
B. K.
Kopeks.
Anthracite ... ... T20 ... 6,300
... 19
„ ...... 1-02 ... 5,500
... 18j
Coke ...... -84 ... 4,700
... 17^
Wood ...... -54 ... 2,800
... 19T%
Peat ...... -66 ... 3,800
... 17A
he paper forms part of a Report on the 1882 National Exhibition of Moscow.
G. A. L.
NAPHTHA AND ITS PRODUCTS.
Le Napthe et ses Produits. By Georg-es de Ctjyper. Revue Universelle des
Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XIII, pp. 552-563.
This paper also forms part of a Report on the 1882 National Exhibition of
Moscow. The principal deposits of naphtha in Russia are in the Taman
Peninsula, in Daghestan, in the Peninsula of Apcheron, in the Kouban, in the
island of Tchelekenne, in the country round Chamakhi, Chanchi, and Tiflis,
all along the line of railway beyond the Caspian. There are fewer naphtha
springs in the interior of Russia, but some are known in the Governments of
Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan, and others. In 1877 the production of naphtha
reached 15,000,000 pouds, at half a kopek per poud. In 1877 the figures are
37,000,000 pouds, at two kopeks.
The products of naphtha are:—
Deg. C.
Cymogene, a kind of ether .........with boiling point at
0
Bhigolene, a less volatile substance ... ... „
„ 18
Light oils (including Benzine, Astraline, etc.) „ „
15 to 120
Kerozene (refined petroleum) ... ... ... „
„ 120 to 300
Lubricating oils.
Paraffine, used chiefly for candle-making.
Vaseline.
Coke, possessing great heating power, and burning as well as the best coals.
G. A. L.
MINERAL STATISTICS OF RUSSIA AND FINLAND.
Statistique de VIndustrie minerale en Russie et en Finlande, 1881-82.
Anon. Revue Universale des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XIII, 1883, pp.
664-667-
Reproduces the following results of the official reports respecting the
mineral production of Russia during the year 1881-82 (from May, 1881, to
May, 1882). The weights are given in pouds (1 poud = 16'38 kilogrammes) :—
Showing, when compared with 1871-72.
Gold ... ... ... 2,214 ... ...
... a decrease.
Platinum ...... 182......... an increase.
Silver ......... 576......... „
Lead ......... 60,218......... a decrease.
Copper......... 211,465......... „
Zinc ......... 277,641......... an increase.
Tin ......... 601.........
Iron ......... 58,073,554......... „
Coal—
Donetz, 91,298,166
Poland, 85,774,707
Moscow, 23,426,204 Urals, 10,031,292
Other basins, 2,728,108
------------- 213,258,477 ... an increase of more than 300 per cent.
Naphtha ...... 40,474,731...... an increase of 4,000
„
Petroleum ...... 12,840,657...... „
2,400
Chromite ...... 150,349......... a decrease.
Manganese ore...... 686,106......... an increase.
Sulphur ... ... 6,479.........
Salt ......... 50,734,355.........
Glauber's salts ... ... 106,335 ... . . ...
„
COALS OF ISTRIA AND DALMATIA.
Note sur certains combustibles tertiaires de VIstrie et de la Dalmatic.
By — LoniN. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. Ill, 1883, pp. 209-233.
The lignites worked in Dalmatia belong to the Upper Nummulitic zone, and are
therefore of Eocene age. The chief localities are Monte-Prima, near Dernis,
where a seam 8 or 9 metres thick, on an average, is worked in a small way;
Dubrovizza and Velikaglova, where six seams are known, of which two only
(2'20 and P40 metres thick respectively) have yet been worked. In all three
localities the lignite produces only 3 to 6 per cent, of ash, but contains
as much as 17 per cent, of sulphur.
The Istrian localities are:—Albona, where the lignite occurs at the base of
the Eocene, immediately overlying the Hippuritic Limestone of the
Cretaceous, and where three seams of very variable thickness, reaching in
each case from 3 to 4 metres, are worked; Brittof and Skofle, with two or
three seams of similar character. The analyses of these lignites which are
given show 30 per cent, of volatile matter, 65 2 of fixed carbon, 9"8 of
sulphur, and 2-1 of ash. Its coke is of remarkable hardness.
About 50,000 or 60,000 tons of these lignites are worked yearly, their
market being Fiume, Pola, Trieste, Venice, Ancona, and other Adriatic ports.
G. A. L.
85
SEO DE URGEL COAL-FIELD (N. SPAIN).
Carbon de la Seo de Urgel. Revista Minera y Metalurgica, Ser. ft, Vol.
1,1883,
p. 255.
Brief account of the Navin^s coal deposits, at the foot of the southern or
Spanish slope of the Pyrenees. 50,000,000 tons of workable coal are said to
be available in the neighbourhood of the Seo de Urgel mines. The coal is a
dry anthracite, free from sulphur, burning with a short flame, and having a
calorific power of 7,000. A fuller account of this coal-field, entitled "
Cuenca carbonifera de Seo de Urgel," has been published by Don Luis Maeiano
Vidal, 8vo, with plates; Barcelona, 1883.
G. A, L.
THE MINING REGION OF MAZARRON.
La Comarca minera de Mazarron. By E. R. C. Revista Minera y
Metalurgica, Ser. ft, Vol. I, 1883, pp. 132-135.
A brief general account of the metalliferous resources of this part of
Spain. Occupying a belt of country some ten kilometres in breadth, and
extending from the coast at Carthagena to the interior of the province of
Almeria, is a network of veins rich in iron, lead, silver, and aluminous
minerals. These veins run in four principal directions, were formerly
largely and profitably worked, and the author deplores the want of
enterprise which, he considers, alone prevents their being still more
extensively opened out at the present day. The amount of ore still available
is probably, he states, very large, and only needs thorough exploration. The
veins are intimately connected with eruptive masses of porphyrite, diorite,
serpentine, trachyte, and basalt, intruded amongst the Palaeozoic rocks
which form the stratified framework of the region.
G. A. L.
INDICATIONS OF PETROLEUM.
Yacimiento del petroleo. By— Gaussoin. Revista Minera y Metalurgica,
Ser. ft,
Vol. 1,1883, p. 239.
The following are given as the indications most relied on for detecting the
presence of petroleum in Canada and Pennsylvania :—
1.—Proximity of volcanic mountains and presence of some important streams.
2.—Flora of salt soils.
3.—Existence of the Upper Coal-measures.
4.—Presence of sulphurous and salt veins.
5.—Emanations of carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and other gases of
more
complex composition. 6.—Iridescent waters at all temperatures, and during
summer the surface of
ponds covered with greasy matter. 7.—Lastly, the presence of bituminous
substances in a viscous state. The above are said to be, in the countries
named, the constant signs of petroleum.
G. A. L.
86
COBALT AND COPPER ORES OP LEON.
Criaderos de Cobalto y Cobre en las inmediaciones de Villamanin, Provincia
de Leon. By R.[amon] A. [dan] de Y.[aeza]. Revista Miner a y Metalurgica,
Ser. C, Vol. I., 1883, pp. 358-359.
The ancient kingdom of Leon is rich in limestone rocks of Devonian age. Much
of this limestone is altered into dolomite, and this metamorphism has taken
place in directions parallel to the strike, as if it were due (as the author
helieves) to magnesian thermal springs making their way upwards along the
planes of bedding. This action was, it is shown, accompanied in certain
localities by the deposition of metalliferous ores. Thus the dolomitic zone,
situate to the north of the Villamanin Station on the North-Western Railway,
and which can be traced for many miles running E. 20° S. and W. 20° N., and
coinciding with the strike of the beds, is marked by the constant outcrop of
rock showing more or less blue and green carbonates of copper and black
oxide of cobalt in the form of dendrites. The richness of the impregnations
varies greatly, from a mere trace to 30 per cent, of almost pure grey copper
ore. The La Profunda Mine is working these deposits.
G. A. L.
IRON ORES OF BISCAY.
Criaderos dehierro de Vizcaya. By IGNACIO Goenaga. Revista Miner a y
Metalurgica, Ser. C Vol. L, 1883, pp. 296-299, 311-314, 328-329, 339-311,
355-358.
The iron-mining region of Biscay is divided by the author into eight
districts which are described in the following order:—(1) Sommorostro; (2)
Galdames; (3) So-puerta; (4) Regato; (5) Abando; (6) Ollargan; (7)
Galdacano; and (8) Guernica-Luno. Geologically, all the iron ores occur in
the Cenomanian division of the Cretaceous series. They are generally
believed to have been deposited by hydrothermal agency, the siderites having
been formed first, then the red haematite from the last and lastly the
remarkable alluvial ores of the country derived from the others. The whole
region, says the author, may be regarded as a single vast deposit of iron
ore. subdivided into different parts, and cropping up at innumerable points
at the above-mentioned horizon.
The different varieties of ore worked in each district, and the methods of
working them are described, and statistics of production are given.
G. A. L.
BELMEZ COAL MINES (SPAIN).
Minas de Cabeza de Vaca, en Belmez. By Feancisco Cbooke Loeing. Revista
Minera y Metalurgica, Ser. C, Vol. I., 1883, pp. 478-481, 495-496, 507-522.
The Cabeza de Vaca Collieries have been open since 1790. They are worked to
a depth of 150 metres, being 50 metres deeper than any of the other mines in
the coalfield. Four seams are sunk through, about 50 metres apart from one
another, and dipping about 72 deg. to the south-west. Of these seams the
first and fourth only are worked. The workings in No. 4 extend for a
distance of two kilometres, varying in thickness, but five metres on an
average. The other seam is more irregular, thickening and thinning so as to
form a succession of lenticular masses, with an average of 5'5 metres.
There are three pits.
The methods of working are very fully described.
G. A. L.
37
CALlFORNIAN CINNABAR DEPOSITS.
Los criaderos de cinabrio de California, Nevada y Virginia. By Ramon Adan
de Yaeza. Revista Minera y Metallurgica, Ser. C, Vol. I., 1883, pp.
87-89. Sulphide of mercury occurs in California as impregnations chiefly in
the rocks forming the Coast Range—a zone of highly metamorphic beds of
Palaeozoic, Cretaceous, and Lower Tertiary age, broken through by eruptive
masses of serpentine, trachyte, basalt, and other igneous rocks. In the
neighbourhood of the more recent volcanic matter geysers, solfataras, and
other gaseous and hydrothermal emanations are frequent. The Cinnabar
impregnates any of the rocks of the country indifferently, sometimes forming
horizontal masses simulating beds, sometimes lenticular in shape, sometimes
occurring in'stockwerk form. The deposits at Nuevo Almaden, South of San
Francisco, occur about the junction between eruptive serpentine and
Cretaceous beds. At Redington Mine, about 70 miles north of San
Francisco, the cinnabar is found along a similar junction, but is remarkable
for its association with large masses of opal, hyalite, and other peculiar
forms of silica. In this mine, also, much carbonic acid gas is given off.
The Sulphur Bank deposits, near Clear Lake, further to the north-west
from San Francisco, are closely connected with recent volcanic ejections,
thermal springs, solfataras, and gas emanations. In the vicinity of the
mines the vegetation is incrusted with sulphur and cinnabar. Here again
opal and chalcedony accompany the mercury, as well as sulphur and bituminous
minerals. At Sulphur Springs, north-east of Borax Lake, cinnabar is found
under very similar conditions, but associated with silver and gold.
The geyserian phenomena exhibited in Steamboat Valley, on the eastern slope
of the Cordillera of Virginia, eight miles north-west of the town of that
name, are described, and the view which connects the cinnabar impregnations
with hydrothermal action is entertained by the author as the most probable
of the theories advanced to account for their origin.
G. A. L.
THE ALMERIA LIMESTONE ORE DEPOSITS.
Criaderos metaliferos en la caliza de Almeria. By Juan Pie y Aldtte.
Revista Minera y Metallurgica, Ser. C, Vol. I., 1883, pp. 341-345. The ore
deposits of this district are well represented by the lead ores of Sierra de
Gador. They are very peculiar in many respects, being neither veins
proper nor truly bedded ores. They occur in the limestone only (which is
of Triassic age), being limited below by the underlying slates in which they
are not found. They have a very low dip, often crop out at the surface,
and when they do not are directly connected with it by a system of small
fissures or cracks. They are very irregular, thinning and thickening
within short distances, and occasionally swelling into pockets (bolsadas) of
enormous dimensions. They are not accompanied by ordinary veinstuff,
spar, etc., but by a sandy earthy breccia or conglomerate. When the ore
is galena it is very free from silver. There is a distinct parallelism
between the deposits and the shape of the country.
The author attempts to explain the peculiarities above enumerated and sundry
others of minor importance, by the supposition that the ores were deposited
by mineral springs in cavities (caverns) previously worn out of the
limestone by the percolation of surface water in the ordinary way, the
deposition or precipitation being due to the sudden release from pressure
and heat undergone by the thermal water on ascending from lower regions.
This theory, he states, is consistent with all the facts observed in these
singular accumulations of ore.
G. A. L.
¦p
38
ON THE DURHAM COLLIERY EXPLOSIONS IN THE FIRST MONTHS
OP 1882. Note sur les explosions de grisou survenues dans le oassin de
Durham pendant les premiers mois de 1882. Par M. C. Walckenaer, Ingenieur
des Mines. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. III., 1883, pp. 247-289.
Fire-damp, says the author, continues to he fatal in England. In two months
(16th February to 19th April) the Durham coal-field witnessed three
explosions, resulting in 119 deaths, and these are investigated as follows:—
1.—Trimdon Grange Explosion, 16th February, 1883.
The accident occurred in the Harvey Seam, and a plan is appended (Plate
III.) showing the mode of working to be "long-wall." The large number of
doors (viz. 52, with 6 regulators and 4 crossings) is pointed out, as well
as the stoppings, etc., and the communication with East Hetton described.
Ventilation was effected by furnace, and gave a total volume in the Harvey
Seam of 44,750 cubic feet per minute. The seam was moderately fiery and very
dusty, the roads being watered where absolutely necessary; Davy lamps were
alone used. Although the barometer and thermometer did not appear to have
had much influence at the time of the explosion, it was observed that the
roof had become very bad prior to the explosion. Death, in all but 15 or 16
cases, appears to have been the result of after-damp, the total number of
victims being 69. After examining carefully the different theories
propounded at the inquest and in the subsequent official reports, the author
submits his own conclusions, and confesses himself unable to agree with the
evidence at the inquest suggesting concurrences in a fall, a sudden
outburst, and an open light, and he inclines rather to blame the system of
ventilation, by which the destruction of crossings, doors, and stoppings
increases the propagation of the fire, and tends to aggravate the succeeding
effects of after-damp.
These conclusions are practically repeated in the second part of his
article, viz.:—
2.—Tfdhoe (18th April, 1882).
With the addition of his objection to mixed, open, and safety lights in a
fiery mine, even where the former are only used in the main intakes, and to
professional evidence when tendered on behalf of owners. In this case (see
Plate IV.) the ventilation was mechanical, and is described as ample. The
Brockwell seam was the seat of the explosion, which occurred in the night
shift, 22 being killed by burning and 15 by after-damp. The mine is
described as not very fiery, but very dry and dusty. 3.—West Stanley (19th
April, 1882).
Here the explosion occurred in the Busty Seam (Plate V.) The ventilation was
effected by a 30-foot diameter Guibal, the split in the Busty Seam being
nearly 24,000 cubic feet per minute. The presence of gas had frequently been
ascertained, but the author describes as careless the mode of detecting it.
The explosion occurred at 1 a.m., and the ventilation is then stated as good
and the lamps apparently in order. 13 perished, all more or less burnt. The
conclusions arrived at in this case by the author are, that probably two of
the men at work being alarmed by seeing or hearing gas in their places
rushed with their lamps through an explosive atmosphere, and thus passed the
flame. He again mentions the caution with which professional evidence should
be received, as it often has a tendency to screen, by attributing to sudden
outbursts or some other convenient plea, the faults of the mode of laying
out or working the pit.
M. Walckenaer gives his general summary and review of the causes of
explosions in English mines at great length, and amongst many other points
criticised by him, we find the disparity in area between the intakes (engine
planes and rolleyways) and the restricted and tortuous returns, the length
of the splits, and the incomplete separation of districts and panels.
D. P, M,
39
ON SAFETY-LAMPS; NOTES ON M. MARSAUT'S EXPERIMENTS.
Sur les lampes de Surete a propos des recentes experiences de M. Maesaut.
Par MM. Mallard et Le Chatelier. Annales des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. III., 1883,
pp. 35-68.
M. Marsaut, engineer of the Besseges collieries, has recently published his
account of his own experiments on safety-lamps, in which he has stated that
a Meuseler lamp reversed will, even in still gas (i.e. inflammable mixture),
communicate flame to the surrounding atmosphere.
Having been requested by the Government to investigate his experiments, the
writers submit the following notes:—
Propagation op Flame through Gauze. It is well known that the resistance of
metallic cloth or gauze to the passage of flame is in inverse ratio to the
velocity of the current of sax fanning the flame; also that the more the
number of openings is diminished the higher the velocity of such air will be
through the meshes still accessible. This velocity may be designated by V,
and depends upon the area of the meshes of the gauze and the mixture of air
and gas. It has been found by experiments that pit gas requires a higher
velocity than ordinary illuminating gas, in the proportion of 1-4 to 1. If
the velocity of the air current exceeds V, when the inflamed mixture reaches
the wire gauze inflammation is at once communicated to the surrounding
atmosphere.
These principles applied to safety-lamps demonstrate that when such a lamp
containing pure air is suddenly carried into an explosive mixture (the
latter in a state of repose) the explosive mixture takes the place of the
pure air either by diffusion or by the movement of the lamp itself. This
mixture is ignited by the flame of the lamp, and will not communicate with
the outside unless the proportion of gas and air is of the most explosive
nature. Should this be the case, the sudden expansion of the flame will
force its way through the gauze independently of external velocity. If the
lamp is gradually raised into an explosive medium the top of the lamp may
fill while the oil flame still burns with fresh air until contact ensues,
and the force of the explosion may also cause the flame to pass through the
meshes of the gauze. These points were not much considered until M. Marsaut
directed the attention of miners to them.
The apparatus designed by M. Marsaut for the purpose of proving these
principles is illustrated (Plate I., Figs. 9, 10. and 11) and a full
description given. It has the advantage of testing lamps under conditions
nearly similar to those which might be expected in working use, but it, at
the same time, does not permit of a constant condition in each several
experiment.
That designed by the authors is intended to obviate the defect last alluded
to, and has answered well, being easily performed and understood. The
results obtained on different lamps are given and summarised. The Meuseler
being, when properly constructed, practically safe. The Botg lamp is
considered as inapplicable to workings in fiery mines, and is especially
unsafe with the addition of a chimney. The Davy, according to the authors,
should be peremptorily dismissed, although the type as modified by Dubrulle
does not explode so rapidly. The Marsaut lamp is considered safe with double
or triple wire gauzes, but is too easily extinguished.
In conclusion it is suggested that the Davy lamp might be so shielded as to
prevent external currents from affecting any internal ignition of explosive
atmosphere, and this has already been done in our own district.
D. P. M.
40
NEW MODE OP WORKING AND LOCKING SWITCHES BY A SINGLE
LEVER.
Note sur un nouvel appareil pour Manoeuvre et Calage des Aiguilles de
Ckangement de Voie, par un Seul levier systeme Dujour. Annates des Mines,
Ser. 8, Vol. III., 1883; pp. 80-84.
When railway switches are placed at some distance from the levers it becomes
impossible to ascertain by sight whether they are working properly, and even
the latest improvements, such as those of Saxby and Farmer, still
necessitate a double arrange-¦ ment of levers, etc.
The apparatus designed by M. Dujour permits of acting by one single movement
on the switch, the bolt, and the locking bar, and hence results economy in
first cost and in the time of the signalman. The details of the apparatus
are minutely described and figured (Plate II., Pigs. 1-8). The railway from
Paris to Lyons and the Mediterranean has adopted the system with great
success. The prime cost is given at 200 fcs. (£8) as compared with 340 fcs.
(£13 12s.) in Vignier's system, and 370 fcs. (£14 16s.) in the Saxby.
D- P. M.
ON ACCIDENTS PROM PIRE-DAMP IN PRUSSIA PROM 1861-1881.
Les Accidents de Grisou arrives en Prusse de 1861 a 1881. Par M. Hassiacheb,
Conseiller royal des Mines a Berlin au nom de la Commission de grisou.
Extrait par M. G. Chesneau, Ingenieur des Mines; Annates des Mines, Ser. 8,
Vol. III., 1883, pp. 445-462.
Following the example of the French Committee on Prevention of Accidents
from Fire-damp, a Prussian Committee was formed to tabulate systematically
such accidents in Prussia. M. Hasslacher has, in his notice, given valuable
and detailed accounts of the influences and other matters connected with
fire-damp explosions, which may be summarised briefly as follows, the paper
itself being, however, deserving of close study.
From 1852 (when statistics were first employed) to 1881—say 30 years—the
output increased from 4,899,771 tons to 43,889,410 tons. The number of
workmen also increased from 36,029 in 1852 to 162,952 in 1881, and the fatal
accidents in that period amounted to 8,483, or an annual average of 2*759
per 1,000 of workmen employed. The percentage of these accidents show
(contrary to the received opinion) that fire-damp is not the most active
agent in such disasters. Taking each hundred of such fatal accidents, the
percentage may be thus summarised:—
Per Cent. Falls of stone or coal ... ... ... ...
... 38"4
Shafts and inclined planes ... ... ... ...
23"1
Fire-damp explosions ... ... ... ... ...
ll'O
Choke-damp or other cause of suffocation ... ... 3"2
Sundry causes ... ... ... ... ... ...
24-3
100-
The proportionate percentage of fatal accidents from fire-damp appears
higher in other countries. England gives 23-l per cent., France 22-34 per
cent., Belgium 14-3 per cent., and so on; the tabulated numbers of tons and
workmen to the accidents appearing strongly in favour of Prussia.
41
M. Hasslachee then sub-divides his reports under the heads of fatal and
non-fatal accidents, compared with production and detailing the number of
victims in each case. The following account of serious accidents in Prussia
from 1861 to 1881 will be perused with interest:—
Killed. Injured Date of Accident.
Situation.
. 81 10 Jan. 15, 1868 Westphalia.
35 3 Dec. 12, 1870 Do.
34 7 Oct. 20, 1864 Sarrebruck.
23 3 June 8, 1880 Westphalia.
17 16 Jan. 29, 1880 Wealden formation of North Germany.
17 5 June 24, 1881 Westphalia.
The number of fire-damp accidents is stated to have increased with the
greater depth attained to. The conditions also appear to depend upon the
nature of the superincumbent strata, the mode of working, and especially the
number of seams simultaneously worked from the same shafts.
Outbursts of gas are comparatively rare, and continuous feeders from
troubles or faults are much more serious. Coal dust is not quoted as a
constant accompaniment of explosions, but severe accidents in damp workings
are infrequent.
Out of 1,240 cases of killed and injured, the proportion per week day is
thus summarised:—
Sunday ............... 34,
Monday............... 256
Tuesday............... 213
Wednesday ... ... ... ... 177
Thursday ... ... ... ... 209
Friday ............... 187
Saturday .. ... ... ... ... 173
1,249
The largest number occurring in March and December, and the smallest in
April and May.
Tables are given of the causes of ignition of the fire-damp, showing that
58-3 per cent, is due to the use of naked lights, 10-3 per cent, to sudden
movement of safety-lamps, and 12-9 per cent, to shot firing.
j) p jy£
THE DIAMOND MINES OP KIMBERLEY AND DE BEER'S, CAPE OF
GOOD HOPE.
Report presented to Parliament by T. P. Watson, C.E., and dated 26th June,
1883; pp. 5-19. Twelve folding Plates.
The diamond-bearing ground at Kimberley has the form of a column standing
erect, and extending to an unknown depth. It is about 9 acres in area
(horizontal section), and somewhat irregular in shape, but approaches that
of an ellipse with axes 500 feet and 700 feet respectively. The top of the
column was composed of red sand, under this was a bed of yellow rock, and
below these a bed of blue ground of unknown thickness, but which has been
proved to a depth of 546 feet from the surface.
42
The rock surrounding the column is of the following character :—Yellow
columnar basalt, varying in thickness from 30 feet on the south side of the
mine to 60 feet on the north; black argillaceous shale, containing iron
pyrites, and decomposing on exposure to the air, about 250 feet; hard
igneous rock of unknown thickness.
Up to the present time the diamondiferous rock has been quarried by a number
of small proprietors, each owning a claim about 30 feet square, but taxed
jointly for the purpose of removing the baring. The mine has been lowered to
a depth of 420 feet in its deepest part, and the present system of open
working is no longer applicable, the sides falling in upon the workings.
Mr. Watson's principal recommendations are, that the proprietors should
amalgamate; that the extent and nature of the hard rock encasing the
diamondiferous ground should be proved. This being done, the proprietors
will be in a position to decide whether to slope back the yellow basalt and
argillaceous shale, at a cost of about £1,754,625, or about 7s. 6d. per
cubic yard, the hard rock being found sufficiently solid to stand vertically
(£1,548,358, or about lis. 3d. per cubic yard of solid reef, has already
been spent by the Mining Board in lowering the workings to their present
position); or, the hard rock not being sufficiently strong, to stop the open
working altogether and begin to mine.
De Beer's mine is not yet very far advanced, but the falling in of the reef
upon the workings will have to be contended with before very long.
J. H. M.
ANTHRACITE COAL REGIONS OP PENNSYLVANIA.
Reports of the American Inspectors of Mines, 1881 and 1882.
1881. 1882.
rpnT1„ Work- Kegs of Tfms Work- Kegs of
±onb. men Powder. xo" ' men. Powder.
al .,.„ fPottsville ... 1,829,656 6,497 33,493
1,709,280 6,632 35,591
»W4 \ Shenandoah ... 4,504,624 10,911 97,391 4,661,024
12,361 100,768
district, (Shamokin . 4,432,601 11.865 84,578
4,588,799 12,973 93,514
Luyerne (Middle district ... 7,021,508 16,808 152,511 7,059,358
17,883 149,276
and carbon } Eastern district... 7,711,660 18,840 94,274 7,922,318
20,197 84,464
counties, (Southern district.. 5,037,948 11,386 88,917 5,360,497
12,298 91,880
30,537,997 76,307 551,164 31,301,276 82,344 555,493
tons per pound of gunpowder used. One keg is 25 lbs. There is one inspector
for each of the above six districts.
Vol. I., 1881, pp. 70-77, gives an account of the extinction of the Kepley's
run colliery fire, illustrated by ten plates and one folding plan; pp.
146-150, Scharar's new double fan, illustrated by one folding plate; pp.
227-233, the rules adopted by the coal operators and mine superintendents of
the eastern district of the Wyoming and Laekawanna coal-fields, at the Mine
Inspector's office, Scranton, Pennsylvania, December 24th, 1881.
Vol. II., pp. 108-120, remarks on underground fires (which are not uncommon
in Pennsylvania), including Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney's method of extinguishing
them in detail, and illustrated by one plate.
J. H. M.
* The seams lying at high angles, there is a great deal of stone work.-
Sub-Editor.
43
HAULAGE.
Rapport sur Vouvrage presents par Alfeed Evbaed, intitule: "Les Moyens de
Transport, appliques dans les mines, les usines et les travaux publics." Par
MM.. Lisbet, Peichot, etc. Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle du Nord de la
France, 1883, pp. 36-41.
This book by M. Evrard is in two volumes of about 600 pages each, and is
illustrated by an atlas containing 122 plates. It goes very fully into the
various systems of haulage both above and below ground, and M. Evrard has
been awarded a gold medal for the work, a copy of which is in the library of
the North of England Institute.
J. H. M.
THE SEA IN THE INTERIOR OF AFRICA.
Note sur la mer interieure. Par M. A. Hattet. Memoires et Compte Rendu des
travaux de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils, Ser. 4, 1883, pp. 110-119, one
folding Plate.
In Africa, a little to the south of Biskra, there are three depressions,
viz.:—The Chott Mel R'ir, 25 metres below the level of the sea; the Chott
Rharsa, 20 metres* below the level of the sea; and the Chott el Djeriel,
also below sea level. It is proposed to make a canal, 200 kilometres in
length, from Gabes to these Chotts, to excavate 600,000,000 of cubic metres
of earth, and to spread over an area of 8,000 square kilometres (3,080
square miles) 200 milliards of cubic metres of water from the Mediterranean.
The cost will be a milliard of francs (£40,000,000). It is estimated that
the excess of evaporation above the drainage of the basin will be six
milliards of cubic metres a year, and to supply this loss the canal must be
30 metres broad at the bottom, 72 at the top, and 14 deep, with a fall of 35
millimetres per kilometre. In passing through hard rock the section will be
less, the fall more.
Two French commissions have examined into this project; one, official, has
reported against it; the other, a private commission under the patronage of
M. de Lesseps, is favourably disposed towards it.
M. Hauet is strongly opposed to the scheme. He thinks that, even could it be
made a commercial success, the new nation to be created on its borders would
be composed for the most part of Italians and Spaniards, that is to say, a
nation which would soon separate itself from the mother-country, and Prance
would have another rival upon the
REFORM OF THE PERMANENT WAY.
RSforme de la voie permanente des chemins de fer. Par M. Chaeles
Bebgeeon.
Memoires et Compte Rendu des travaux de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils,
Ser. 4, 1883,^7. 261-285; ten Figs, in text. The author describes the
present system of forming the permanent way of a railway and points out the
impossibility of ballasting so that the bearing of each sleeper may be the
same. This he believes to be the cause of trains getting off the line when
running at high velocities, and to be the cause of the shocks to which the
rolling stock is subjected. He thinks it impossible to remedy these defects
with the present system of permanent way, and proposes that wooden sleepers
and ballast should be done away with altogether and the following
arrangement adopted.
The roadway having been formed in the usual manner—excepting that it need
only now be 4 metres wide for a single way instead of 6—he cuts a pair of
longitudinal trenches, 0'50 metre wide x 0'50 metre deep and T50 metre apart
from centre to centre. These he fills with sand rammed in hard. The
sleepers are combined chairs
44
and sleepers made of iron, similar to the caisson chairs of Mr. Livesey, of
Glasgow, I—i shaped, 0-60 metre x 0*30 metre and 0-20 metre deep, set
longitudinally and driven down into the sand. To enable them to penetrate
the edges are sharpened. Chairs are attached to these, and the rail rests
upon them (wood, or some other elastic substance being interposed) having a
bearing for the whole of their length, so that much lighter rails can be
used than in the ordinary system. The sleepers are spaced 1 metre apart from
centre to centre, so that there is only 0-40 metres interval between each.
The author believes that by this method a very firm, but elastic permanent
way will be obtained needing very few repairs, and upon which velocities of
sixty miles an hour and upwards may be maintained without danger.
Franca per 9 Metres. 1—Comparative cost of M. Bergeron's system:—¦
Cutting the trenches ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 9-00
Filling trenches with sand at 3 francs per m3 and labour ... ...
22'50
Iron sleepers, each weighing 45 kilogrammes, at 100 francs per tonne
81-00
Tie rods, each 10 kilogrammes, at 160 francs... ... ...
... 28'80
Keys to fasten tie rods to the sleepers, at 0'20 francs each ... ...
14-40
Steel rails, 25 kilogrammes per metre, at 160 francs per tonne ...
72-00
Laying the way, at 2 francs per metre ... ... ...
... 1800
Keys, at-30 francs each ... ... ... ...
... ... 5-40
251-10
Equal to 27'90 francs per metre, or £1 0s. 6d. per yard.
2. — Comparative cost of present system in England:—
Ballast, 2 m3 per metre, at 3 francs per m3 ... ... ...
... 54-00
Twelve larch sleepers, at 5 francs each ... ... ...
... 60'00
Twenty-four chairs, 20 kilogrammes each, at 100 francs per tonne 48-00
72 spikes, at-30 francs each ... ... ,.. ...
... ... 21-60
18 metres of double-headed steel rails, 40 kilogrammes per metre,
at 160 francs per tonne ... ... ... ...
... ... 115-20
18 keys .......................... 5"40
Laying way, at 1 franc per metre ...... ... ......
900
31320
Equal to 3480 francs per metre, or £1 5s. 4d. per yard.
3.— Comparative cost of present system in France:—
Ballast, 18 m3 of broken stones, at 3'5... ... ... ...
... 63 00
12 oak sleepers, at 6 francs each ... ... ...
... ... 72'00
Rails, Vignole's price and weight, as above ... ... ...
... 115-20
48 spikes, at "30 francs each .................. 14'40
Laying the way ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 9'00
27360 Equal to 30'30 francs per metre, or £1 2s. per yard.
There is therefore a considerable saving in the cost of establishment. But
in addition to this the author claims for his system:—1st. A saving due to a
reduction in the width of the roadway from 6 metres to 4 metres. 2nd. Saving
due to the suppression of wooden sleepers, which require constant renewing.
3rd. Saving in labour of re-ballasting.
J. H. M.
HARDENING STONE.
Note sur un procede de durcissement des pierres calcaires tendres au mot/en
des fluosilicates a base d'oxydes insolubles. Par MM. Fattee ET L. Kessleb.
Memoires et Compte JRendu des Travaux de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils,
Ser. 4, 1883, pp. 120-122.
The authors point out the defects of the old system of hardening tender
stones by impregnating them with alkaline silicates, such as those of potash
and soda. They propose instead soluble silicates of metals of which the
oxides or the carbonates are insoluble, the fluosilicate of magnesia,
aluminium, zinc, or lead. The advantages claimed are:—
1.—To make the most tender limestones very hard.
2.—To make them impermeable.
3.—To polish them, closing all the superficial cavities.
Their method lias already been tried at several places, amongst others on
the new Hotel des Postes.
J. H. M.
COATING FOR TELEGRAPH WIRES.
Nouveau mode d'isolement des fils metalliques employes dans la Telegraphic
et la Telephonie, par M. C. Wideman, Comptes Rendus, Vol. XCVIL, 1883, pp.
852-853.
M. Wideman finds that a telegraph wire (copper, brass, or iron) coated with
peroxide of lead or iron is as completely isolated as a wire covered in the
ordinary way with resin or gutta-percha, and the cost is much less.
The method of preparation is as follows:—10 gr. of litharge are dissolved in
one litre of water, to which 200 gr. of caustic potash are added, and the
mixture boiled for half-an-hour. It is then allowed to stand, decanted, and
the bath is ready. The wire to be coated is attached to the positive
terminal, and a platinum anode to the negative terminal, and both are put
into the bath. Metallic lead is precipitated upon the negative pole, and
peroxide of lead upon the wire, passing successively through all the colours
of the spectrum; but the coating is not perfect until the last tint, a
brownish black, is reached.
J. H. M.
HOT WATER LOCOMOTIVES.
Mapport sur les locomotives a eau cliaude du systeme Francq et Lamm, par MM.
Hiesch, Floueens et Dtj Boixsquet. Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle du
Nord, 1883, pp. 43-46.
These engines have been designed to take the place of horses upon tramways,
and are now at work at Lille, Marly-le-Roi, and other towns. Each consists
of a receiver, pressed to sixteen atmospheres, into which from 1,800 to
2,000 kilog. of water, at a temperature of 203° C, have been forced. This
water contains sufficient heat to convert a portion of itself into steam, at
pressures of three, four, or five atmospheres. Given, therefore, a receiver
large enough, and containing water hot enough, sufficient heat will be
provided to generate steam for the cylinders which are attached to the
receiver, and to drive the locomotive the distance required. By means of an
expansion valve the admission of the steam into the cylinders is so
regulated that its pressure in the cylinders may be the same throughout the
whole of the run. The exhaust steam is passed through a cold air condenser.
Fixed boilers, placed at convenient stations, re-charge the locomotives with
steam. J. H.
M.
46
OPENING OP THE MINING EXHIBITION (EXPOSICION DE MINERIA)
AT MADRID.
La Apertura de la Exposition. For Roman Orioe. Reiiista Minera y
Metalurgica, Ser. C, Vol. 1,1883, pp. 295, 296.
This Exhibition, which was opened on the 30th of May, 1883, by the Kings of
Spain and Portugal, marks a memorable epoch in the history of the recent
development of Spanish industry. The scheme was originally started by the
press, but owing to the deficiency of private enterprise in Spain, it could
not have been carried out if it had not been warmly taken up by the Spanish
Government, which issued a decree, August 4th, 1882, declaring the
Exhibition deserving of official support. The necessary arrangements were
entrusted to Don Luis de la Escosura, the head of the National Corporation
of Mines, and the organizing committee which worked under him received ready
and valuable assistance from the engineers of that body as well as from
those of the provinces.
The area of the Exhibition was covered by installations from various firms
and private individuals, and an international character was given to it by
the pavilions of Sweden, England, Germany, Belgium, and Portugal. In spite
of some omissions, an approximate idea could be formed, from the many
specimens and objects exhibited, of the mineral and metallurgical industries
of Spain, of her potteries, glass works, and mineral waters. The Minister of
Iudustry, Don German Gamazo, dwelt in his opening speech on the importance
now attained by these industries in Spain, rich as that country is in the
elementary materials of manufacture—iron, lead, copper, coal —as well as on
the progress made in metallurgy and ceramics. He spoke also of the
advantages derived by agriculture from the improvement in these arts, in the
shape of the tools and machines provided by them.
J. H. M.
THE LEAD WORKS OF PUERTOLLANO.
La Fabrica de Fuertollano en la Exposition de Mineria. Revista
Minera y Metalurgica, Ser. C, Vol. 1, 1883, pp. 329, 330.
In the department of the Mining Exhibition occupied by the Arrayanes Mine,
Don Jose Genaro Villanova gives an explanation of the plans he exhibits of
the lead works he has established at Puertollano, projected, constructed,
and directed by Don Manuel Sanchez y Massia, of the National Corporation of
Mines. Besides the general plan, there are others of the various buildings,
furnaces, and other details, giving a very accurate idea of the whole.
Specimens are also shown of the materials for the constructions— the
combustibles, minerals, and products in different stages of the process, as
well as the implements used in the work of each furnace, and some waggons of
iron of very simple construction, two of which were devised by Sefior
Sanchez y Massia, and made in the small forge of these works under his
directions. The whole is accompanied by a brief and clearly-expressed memoir
describing the works.
Attention should be directed to the methodical arrangement of the works; to
the graduated fire-bars, by means of which the small coals are burnt, and to
the use of gasogenes in the calcinating furnace. The model of wind furnaces,
on the scale of one-tenth, constructed also in the Puertollano forge, is
worthy of note.
Senor Sanchez y Massia had only proposed to make some modifications on the
Piltz furnace; but he has effected more than this. His furnace is anterior
to that of Karst, which it resembles, but with some points of superiority,
such as the almost hermetic closing of the mouth, and the reservoirs of
water for cooling the lower part of the furnace.
J. H. M.
47
HISTORICAL RESUME" OP THE CHANNEL TUNNEL AND OF THE TRANSPORT OF POWER.
Resume historique des etudes Qeologiques et des Travaux d'excavation
entrepris en
France et en Angleterre en vue de Vexecution d'un chemin defer sous la
manche.
Renseignements et details qfficiels sur les premieres etudes pour la
perforation
mecanique et I'aeration des longs tunnels par I'air comprinie. Fxamen des
procedes les plus economiques pour le transport des grandes forces
motrices. Far M. Daniel Coleadon. Memoires et Compte Rendu des Travaux
de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils, 1883, pp. 74-109. One Figure. The
author gives an account of the Channel Tunnel works from the formation of
the first company, that of Sir John Hawkshaw, in 1865, down to the present
time when the drift on the English side is standing at a distance of about
2,000 yards from the coast and on the French side is still being driven
forward and has already reached about the same distance.
He also gives a short history of the transport of power by compressed air,
beginning with some experiments made by himself in 1849, with a view to the
piercing of Mont Cenis.
J. H. M.
HISTORY OF MINING IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Consideraciones spire la Mineria de la Feninsula. For Fernando Bernaedez.
Revista Minera y Metalurgica, Ser. C, 1883, pp. 263-266 and 279-281. Senor
Fernando Bernaldez has contributed to the " Revista Minera" two interesting
articles of some length on this subject, from which space will allow us to
give only a few chronological data. The Asturias, Galicia, Leon,
Estremadura, Huelya, and Murcia contain many remains of the mines of
antiquity. The Phoenicians first appear to have explored the
metalliferous riches of the Peninsula, but, as well as the Car-thagenians
who followed them, confined their operations to the vicinity of the
seaboard. The Romans carried their discoveries far into the interior.
Large quantities of gold were obtained in the Asturias, Galicia, Leon, and
parts of Lusitania; the principal regions of it were the alluvial plains of
the Vierzo and the districts of Valde-horras and Quiroga. Auriferous
quartz was also found in the districts of Salas, Pola de Allande, and De
Belmonte, in the Asturias; and in the extensive zone situated to the south
of the Tagus, in Estremadura, where many pits and other remains are found.
Silver was obtained from the argentiferous lead of the provinces of Badajos,
Cordova, Cuidad Real, Almeria, and Cartagena, and from a mixture of grey
copper with lead. The sulphurs, oxides, and carbonates of copper produced
abundance of that metal from the rich veins of Estremadura and Huelva, where
the vast exhausted mines and ancient works attest the activity of those
early workers. Very large quantities of lead must also have been supplied
from the deep and extensive, but now exhausted, mines of Murcia. Galicia
and Zamora supplied excellent tin, and we learn from Theophrastus and Pliny
that sulphurate of mercury was found in the Sisaponeme district—Almaden.
Lastly, we must mention the steel and iron, for which Zaragoza, Calatayud,
and, above all, Galicia was renowned.
With the irruption of the northern nations these industrial works were
abandoned, nor were they much resumed during the long wars of the Moorish
dominion. In 1168, however, we find King Alfonzo VIII. making a grant of the
moiety of Chillon and Almaden to the friars of Calatrava and the Count Don
Nuno for mining purposes, and many other grants of the same nature are found
among the Spanish records. During
43
the thirteen years from 1512 to 1525, when these mines were in the hands of
the State, they produced as much as 500 quintals of quicksilver. In 1555,
when Charles V. was on the throne, the silver mines of Guadalcanal were
discovered, and between that year and 1576 they produced 400,00U wiarcos of
silver (a marco is equal to 3,552 grains English). The neglected mines of
Rio Tinto, now worked by an English company, were revived in the beginning
of the eighteenth century.
During the political disturbances of the present century legislation on the
subject of the mining industries was neglected, but laws for their better
regulation have been passed in recent years.
J. H. M.
THE NEW IRON WORKS OP TRUBIA.
La Nueva Fdbrica de Trubia. Revista Minera y Metalurgica,
Vol. 1, 1883,
p. 163.
This article describes the newly-founded ironworks in the plain of Trubia,
at the commencement of the North-Western Railway, belonging to the Mining
and Smelting Company of Santander and Quiros, the object of which is the
conversion into forged and laminated iron of the ore obtained in Quiros,
where the company possesses large tracts containing coal and iron ore, with
everything necessary for working the mines, and where they are now erecting
a tall furnace according to the most recent improvements. The first iron
produced, in February, 1882, was used for the rails of the company's trams
connecting the different centres of iron and coal with the smelting house.
In May they began to work the iron for commercial purposes, which obtained a
high reputation from the first moment of its appearance in the market, and
which was to be represented in the Exhibition in a special pavilion. From
February, 1882, to January 1st, 1883, the products obtained from the works
were :—¦
Tons.
Iron for the company's tramways ... ... ...
... 900
Rails for company's mines ... ... ... ...
... 250
Rails sold........................ 3,250
Total.................. 4,400
Puddled iron bars..................... 6,200
319 work-people are employed, including women and children. J
H M
SOUTH AFRICAN DIAMOND DEPOSITS.
Om Biamantfalien i Syd-Afrika. By A. Sjogren. Qeologiska Foreningens
i Stockholm Forhandlingar, Vol. VI., pp. 10-27, with one Plate.
Comprises a general description of the mode of occurrence of diamonds in
South Africa and a discussion of their origin. At Kimberley the diamonds
occur in a mass of " tuff," or loose-textured volcanic matter, filling
vertical-sided natural pits (probably ancient necks of igneous rock) of
irregular shape. The walls of the diamond " pits" are formed (in ascending
order) of a volcanic diabase, blue shale or schists, and an olivine basalt.
At De Beer's mine the rocks are arranged much in the same manner, except
that no diabase has, so far, been met with below the schists, and that
narrow irregular dykes or veins of basalt occur within the " neck" itself,
intruded through the diamond tuff-rock. Eight theories accounting for the
presence of the diamonds are mentioned.
G. A. L.
49
IRON ORE OF MEXICO.
Martite of the Cerro de Mercado, or Iron Mountain, of Durango, Mexico, and
certain Iron Ores of Sinaloa. By B. Siliiman. American Journal of Science,
Ser. 3, Vol. XXIV., pp. 375-379. One Woodcut in text.
The Cerro de Mercado, a mountain 600 feet high (above the plain from which
it rises), a mile long and a third of a mile broad, is not, as has been
often said, a solid mass of iron ore " The surface of the hill, indeed,
everywhere exposes masses of ore, which appear to be derived from one or
more immense beds, or veins, of specular iron standing nearly vertical, the
fragments of which form a talus on the slopes of the mountain, and conceal
completely the enclosing walls of rock." The latter is a purple porphyry. An
analysis of an average sample of the ore shows 2"07l of magnetic oxide of
iron, 77'57l of ferric oxide, and 3'041 of phosphoric acid. This enormous
mass of valuable iron ore is now, by the near approach of the railway system
of Mexico, likely to become of commercial importance. The author quotes a
Report on this " iron mountain" by Mr. Birkinbine, of Philadelphia, issued
in 1882. A view of the Durango Hill is given.
Analyses of iron ore from Tepuche, on the Rio de Humaya, ten miles west of
Culiacan; Besouino, twenty miles east of the latter place; and Cosolu, are
given, showing a yield of 65'08, 66-75, and 67"25 per cent, of metallic iron
respectively.
G. A. L.
THE LIGNITE BASIN OF FUVEAU (SOUTH OF FRANCE). Etude sur le bassin de Fuveau
et sur un grand travail a y executer. By — Viiiot. Annates des Mines,
Ser. 8, Vol. IV, 1884, pp. 5-66. Five folding Plates. The seams of
lignite which have for many years been wrorked in the valley of the Arc,
near Marseilles, and which constitute the Fuveau Basin, were formerly
supposed to be of Miocene age. They are now known to belong to the
Dordonian and Garumnian series, or, in other words, to the uppermost
Cretaceous and lowest Eocene deposits of the region. This basin is of
considerable commercial importance, the output of lignite having increased
regularly year by year from 38,600 tons in 1840 to 457,000 tons in 1882.
The latter figures show that this field contributes at the present time more
than 2 per cent, of the entire coal production of France. The seams still
unworked are of great extent, good quality, and sufficient thickness, and
their working is not likely to be seriously affected by high dips or
faults. Notwithstanding all these natural advantages, to which close
proximity to a great port such as Marseilles must be added, the future of
the field depends now upon the possibility of getting rid of the water which
unfortunately occurs in the workings in formidable and yearly increasing
quantities.
The object of this paper is to explain fully a scheme which is about to be
adopted in order to form an outlet to the sea for the w^ater flooding the
pits. This scheme, which depends too much upon local details to be usefully
abstracted, is founded upon accurate observations and mapping of the lie of
the beds, their permeable character, and more particularly the dislocations
by which they are affected. Among the latter certain funnel-shaped areas of
disturbance, locally known as moulieres, are of special interest.
G. A. L.
50
MINERALS OP NEW ZEALAND.
(1) Notes on the Mineralogy of New Zealand. By S. Hebbeet Cox.
Transactions
of the New Zealand Institute, Vol. XV., 1883, pp. 361-409.
This is the continuation of a memoir which first appeared in the preceding
volume of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute. The principal
useful minerals enumerated are:—Graphite, from three localities. Coal, viz.,
the lignites of recent Tertiary age; the brown coals of the
Cretaceo-Tertiary formation, which are the most widely distributed in the
colony; the pitch coals overlying the bituminous coal series of the west
coast of South Island; glance coals of the Malvern Hills coal-field; the
semi-bituminous coals of the Bay of Island, where the output of one colliery
(Kawakawa) was 50,277 tons in 1882, or one-seventh of the total quantity
raised in New Zealand during that year; the bituminous coals, confined to
the west coast of South Island; bituminous peat of Chatham Islands;
bituminous shale or torbanite from Awatere, near Mongonui, Auckland; and
other carbonaceous minerals, elaterite, and petroleum from several
localities. Sulphur, deposited by geyserian springs on White Island and on
other islands in the Bay of Plenty. Marble, fine deposits on the west coast
of Otago and elsewhere. Limestone, very widely distributed and of various
kinds. Gypsum, associated with the sulphur deposits, but apparently not in
large workable quantities. A very full series of analyses of the varieties
of coal from many localities and also of 49 mineral springs accompanies the
description.
(2) Handbook of New Zealand. By Db. James Hectoe, F.R.S. 3rd Edition,
1883,
Wellington, 147 pp- with Maps and Plates.
Much the same information is to be found in this guide as in Mr. Cox's "
Notes," plus an account of the metalliferous ores of New Zealand. These are
described under the following heads :—
Gold and Silver.—Quartz-mining, chiefly in the Coromandel and Thames
districts, 30 miles apart. Some of the quartz reefs have yielded as much as
600 ounces of gold to the ton very uniformly for considerable distances, but
these are, of course, exceptional. Alluvial mining, chiefly in the South
Island, in the districts of Otago, Westland, and Nelson, in which mining
operations are carried on over an area of about 20,000 square miles. The
total quantity of gold entered for exportation from New Zealand up to the
end of 1881 was 9,822,755 ounces (= £38,461,423), of silver 377,471 ounces
(= £99,469). Iron Ores.—These occur plentifully, but none are worked except
the black iron
sands which occur plentifully on the coasts. Chrome Ore occurs in thick
veins, and has been largely exported from Nelson. Copper Ore occurs at many
points, but does not appear to be largely worked. Lead, Zinc, Antimony, and
Manganese Ores are also present in considerable quantities in many
localities, but are likewise not much worked at present. An excellent
geological map of the Islands accompanies this handbook.
(3) Report on Control and Inspection of Mines. New Zealand, 1883, folio,
28 pp.
Wellington, 1883.
Much information respecting the seams of coal and lignite worked in the
colony, besides statistics connected with the management of the mines (both
coal and quartz), will also be found in this Annual Report of the Inspectors
to the Minister of Mines.
G. A. L.
51
PLATINUM IN A LODE.
On the Occurrence of Platinum in Quartz Lodes at the Thames Gold-fields, New
Zealand. By J. A. Pond. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, Vol. XV.,
1883, pp. 419, 420.
Notes the occurrence of platinum in rounded grains and in perfect octahedral
crystals in a quartz vein impregnated with gold-bearing iron pyrites, met
with in deepening the shaft of the Queen of Beauty Gold-mining Company from
the 540 feet to the 600 feet level. The interest of this note lies in the
fact of the extreme rarity of platinum in place, i.e., in its native rock or
vein. G. A. L.
ANALYSES OP COALS AND LIGNITES.
Bulletin des Travaux de Chimie executes en 1881 par les Ingenieurs des Mines
dans les laboratoires departementaux. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. IV,
1884, pp.133-196.
The following are selected from these Reports :—
Fixed Volatile
Carbon. Matter. Ash
1.—Anthracite of Rha3tic (?) age from Ujbanya,
near Orsova, in the Banat ... ... 74-74 ...
13-86 10T0
2.—Coal from the St. Victor Seam, at La Madeleine Colliery, Department of
Var ... 41-70 ... 47-50 ... 10-80
3.—Lignite of Banc-Rouge (South of France)... 3625 ... 44*75
... 19-09
4.—Anthracite of Prades (South of Prance) ... 66-7l ... IT54
... 2P75
5.—Gas coal of St. Etienne ......... 60-71 ... 32-75
6-54
6.—Coals of St. Laurs, Department of Deux-
Sevres, mean of nine analyses ... ... 71*77 ... 2026
... 7-85
7.—Lignite from near Dellys, in Algeria (Algiers District)
............ 48-16 ... 14-42 ... 36-14
8.—Lignite from Fedj-Mzala, Algeria (Constan-
tine) ............... 41-40 ... 56-60 ... 5-00
G. A. L.
COPPER IN TEXAS.
Copper-bearing Region in Northern Texas and the Indian Territory. By J. H.
Ftjemaw. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences for 1881-1882
(1882), p. 16.
An account of the occurrence of copper ores in a narrow belt not more than
50 yards in breadth, but several miles in length, along the southern
boundary of Haskell County, in Knox and Hardeman Counties, and beyond Texas
in the Indian Territory. This copper zone consists of Triassic shale
underlying a well-marked gypseous sandstone. The ore is sometimes native
copper in nuggets, sometimes fossil wood impregnated with copper; some green
carbonate of copper (malachite) also occurs as a secondary product. In the
discussion upon this paper Professor Newberry described similar copper
deposits in New Mexico and Utah.
Gr, A. L.
52
ANALYSES OF COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS.
Sur la composition des substances minerales combustibles. By —
BoussiNaATJLT.
Annales de CMmie et de Physique, Ser. 5, Vol. XXIX., 1883, pp. 363-392. The
general results of the aualyses given are thus tabulated:—
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen.
Liquid bitumen of Bechelbronn...... 87'50 ... 11-10 ...
0-30 ... 1-10
Bitumen of Bocaneme ......... 8852 ... 11-36 ... 0-00
... 012
Bitumen of Schwabwiler......... 85'38 ... 12-33 ... 217
... 012
Bitumen of Ambalema, Magdalena ... 88-31 ... 9"64 ...
1-68 ... 0"37
Liquid bitumen, Hatten (Alsace) ... 8710 ... 12-60
... 000 ... 0-00
Bitumen of Orinoco ......... 77*93 ... 7"94 ...
13-87 ... 0-26
Black naphtha of Balakhany ...... 8512 ... 6"66 ...
776 ... 0-16
Bitumen of Bastennes ......... 8574 ... 9"58 ...
2-88 ... 1-80
Bitumen of Pont-du-Chateau ...... 77"52 ... 9-58 ...
10-53 ... 2-37
Bitumen of the Abruzzi, Naples..... 81-83 ... 8'28 ...
8"83 ... 1-06
Bitumen of the Chinese fire-wells (filtered) 8682 ... 1316 ...
0-00 ... 0'02
Do. do. (squeezed out) 82'85 ... 13-09
... 4-06 ... O'OO
Bitumen of Judaea ......... 77"84 ... 8-92 ...
11-53 ... 171
Asphalt of Coxitambo, Peru ...... 8775 ... 9"68 ...
2-58 ... 0-00
Asphalt of Oran, Algeria......... 7317 ... 1018 ... 1519
... 0-56
Asphalt of Egypt............ 85"29 ... 8-24 ... 6"22
... 0'25
Mineral wax of Bakin, Russia ...... 84-33 ... 1371 ...
1'96 ... 0-00
Fossil resin of Bucaramanga ...... 8270 ... 108-0 ...
6-50 ... O'OO
Fossil resin of Santa-Rosa, Antioquia ... 77-80 ... 9-60
... 12-57 ... 0-03
Fossil resin of El Retiro, Antioquia ... 7P89 ... 651
... 21-57 ... 0-03
Copaline of Highgate ......... 85-68 ... 1117 ...
2'85 ... 0-06
Copaline of India............ 8573 ... 11-50 ... 277 ...
0-00
Guayaquilite resin, Ecuador ...... 77-66 ... 8-20 ...
14'80 ... 000
•Retina*phalt of Bovey-Tracy ...... 74-12 ... 8-18 ...
17-51 ... 0-19
Elaterite of Australia ......... 7215 ... 10-30 ...
1684 ... 071
Elaterite of Wallachia ......... 6970 ... 10-19 ... 1910
... 071
Jonite of California ......... 6755 ... 713 ...
25'05 ... 027
Torbanite of Scotland ......... 82-30 ... 10-50 .
5-00 ... 220
Dysodil of Roth ............ 69-01 ... 10-04 ... 19-25
... 170
Dysodil of Sicily............ 5773 ... 9-35 ... 31-91
... 1-01
Lignite of Antioquia ......... 66"81 ... 4-84 ...
27"27 ... 0-98
Lignite of Chile ............ 79-24 ... 5"50 ... 13"69
.... T57
Bituminous lignite of Elboyen ...... 77"04 ... 7-81 ...
12-65 ... P86
Jet of Spain ............ 81-98 ... 5-81 ...
11-53 ... 068
Fibrous coal of Antioquia......... 87'05 ... 5-00 ...
6-56 ... T39
Coal of Canoas, Bogota ......... 80-96 ... 513 ... 12-50
... Ill
Coal of Montrambert ......... 82"33 ... 3-52 ...
12"52 ... 1-65
Cannel coal of Montrambert ...... 86-67 ... 4'56 ...
7"98 ... 079
Fossil charcoal of Blanzy......... 87'81 ... 3'88 ...
7'67 ... 0-64
Fossil charcoal of Montrambert...... 86-67 ... 4"56 ...
7'98 ... 079
Anthracite of La Mure (Isere)...... 95"26 ... 2'51 ...
1-56 ... 0"67
Spheroidal anthracite ......... 9P51 ... 3-87 ...
3-36 ... 1-26
Anthracite of Borneo ......... 93"66 ... 2'94 ...
2"88 ... 0"52
Anthracite of Chile ........ 92'25 ... 2-27 ...
4-94 ... 056
Anthracite of Pembrokeshire ...... 9534 ... 212 ...
1-35 ... 0"89
Anthracite of Muso ......... 94-83 ... 127 ...
316 ... 074
Adamantine anthracite ......... 97'60 ... 070 ... 170
... O'OO
Graphite of Korsoh ......... 97"87 ... 0-37 ...
170 ... 0-06
G. A. L.
58
KAOLIN IN SWEDEN. (1) Kaolinfyndigheten vid Hultebo i Ski.nnskattebergs
sochen och Orebro Ian. By B. Santesscot. Geologiska Foreningens i
Stockholm Forhandlingar, Vol. VI., pp. 325-330, with one Plate.
An account of a deposit of china clay discovered in Vestmanland, at Hultebo,
to the north-west of Skinnskatteberg. The deposit occurs beneath a
considerable thickness of drift sand and gravel, and is due to the
decomposition of the upper portion of a broad zone of eurite (felsite),
which runs in a north-east and south-west direction between two large areas
of gneiss-granite on the one hand and micaschist on the other. The kaolin is
white, yellowish-green, grey, and red, the white containing the most silica
and the red the least. Full analyses of the various kinds are given and
compared with those of the well-known china-clays of Aue, Halle, Limoges,
and Meissen, with which they have much in common.
(2) Om forekomsten of kaolin och kaolinblandad leva i norra Shane. By Axel
LindstroM. Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar, Vol. VI., pp.
416-425, with one Plate.
Describes the occurrence of china-clay at twenty-four localities in Northern
Scania. Analyses of the clay from Bosjokloster and Mjolkakinga are given and
compared with the above-mentioned kaolin from Hultebo. The Scania clays are
in both cases more siliceous than the latter. These newly-discovered Swedish
deposits are of workable extent and promise to become valuable in time.
G. A. L.
RECENT VEIN-FILLING.
On Mineral Vein Formation now in progress at Steamboat Springs, compared
with the same at Sulphur Bank. By Peofessob Joseph Le Conte. American
Journal of Science, Ser. 3, Vol. XXV., 1883, pp. 424-428, two Figures in
text.
The Steamboat Springs are in Washoe County, Nevada, on the railway to Carson
and Virginia City. They occur at intervals along lines of fissures in the
geyserian deposit of the springs themselves. The latter are partly filled
and are now filling with quartz veinstone of ribboned structure, and
containing metallic sulphides. After comparing the phenomena exhibited by
these modern veins and the well-known ones at Sulphur Bank, the author thus
sums up the facts to be inferred from them:—"1.—In true geysers the waters
being pure alkaline carbonates deposit only silica. 2.—At Steamboat
Springs there are some alkaline sulphides, but not enough to prevent a crust
of deposited silica. 3.—At the California Geysers—so-called—solfataric
action is conspicuous, and therefore no crust is formed, but only earthy
residue of acid decomposition of surface rocks. Here we have also
metallic sulphides deposited, but these are of little value. 4 —At the
cinnabar mines, near Steamboat Springs, wre have solfataric waters
depositing cinnabar and other metallic sulphides in considerable quantity,
but whether in profitable quantity cannot be known certainly unless deeper
explorations be undertaken. Finally, at Sulphur Bank, the deposit of the
metallic sulphides is abundant, and the formation of metalliferous veins is
illush-ated in the most perfect manner on account of the deep explorations
undertaken at this place." ..." It would seem that igneous action supplies a
necessary condition (heat) for the formation, rather than that igneous rocks
supply the materials of metalliferous veins." (p. 428.) This paper is a
continuation of one in Vol. XXIV. of the Journal, page 23, on the Sulphur
Bank mineral deposits.
G. A. L.
h
54
ORIGIN OF MINERAL VEINS.
On the Genesis of Metalliferous Veins. By Professor Joseph Le Conte.
American Journal of Science, Ser. 3, Vol. XXVI., 1883, pp. 1-19.
The author regards the view that metalliferous veins have been deposited
from solutions as thoroughly established, even in the case of cinnabar. In
this paper he discusses the conditions under which deposit takes place, and
what in addition to water have been the solvents. Cooling and relief of
pressure have been the chief cause of deposit, but to this must be added (a)
the agency of organic matter circulating in the same solution with metallic
sulphates in reducing them and depositing them as metallic sulphides; (6)
the neutralization by the acids of organic decomposition of alkaline,
carbonate, and sulphide waters holding silica and metallic sulphides in
solution, and the consequent deposition of the latter; (c) the meeting in
the same fissure of waters charged with different materials resulting in
re-action and deposition. The above, the author believes, " is an outline of
a true theory of the genesis of metalliferous veins." (p. 5.)
Dr. F. Sandberger's views of vein-formation are then stated and criticised,
and the author's principles are next applied to the explanation of the
ordinary phenomena of mineral veins taken in the following order
:—1.—Association with metamorphism. 2.—Absence of surface effects of
solfataric action. 3.—Variation in vein contents. 4.—Variation of richness
with depth. 5.—Origin of the alkaline and metallic sulphides. 6.—Heat not
always necessary. 7.—Occurrence of gold (originally in solution as a
sulphide, and deposited with other metallic sulphides, but being extremely
unstable as a sulphide gave up its sulphur to the alkali at the moment of
its deposition). 8.—Different kinds of veins, viz.:—fissure veins, incipient
fissures, irregular veins, substitution veins, contact veins, and irregular
ore deposits G. A. L.
MAGNETIC BRICKS.
Experiments by Pbofessoe De. Kobald. Vereins-Mittheilungen, Beilage zur
oester-reichischen Zeitschrift filr Berg- und Hilttenwesen, 1883, p. 48.
At a distance of about two yards from a very sensitive magnetometer was
placed a transparent measuring scale, set perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian, and various objects being placed at distances of about one yard
from the magnetic bar of the instrument, its movement, as read from the
scale, was as follows:—
Inches. 1.—A common wall brick ... ... ... ...
... 2
2.—Wall bricks made at Lesben and
(a) Air dried, almost ... ... ... ... ...
—
(5) Half burnt ............... 8
(c) Thoroughly burnt ... ... ... ...
18
3.—Brick from boundary wall of the Halle salt mine ... 21£
4.—Burnt shale from a brickfield at the Tollinggrab colliery 2
5.—Serpentine stone from Kraubath ... ... ...
f
6.—Trachyte (2 pieces) ...............f to lT3g-
7.—Chrome ore from Kraubath ... ... ... ...
2f
8.—Clean sparry iron ore ... ... ... ...
... —
9.—Calcined „ „ ............... 19|
10,—Iron screw, at a distance of 4 inches, of considerable influence, but at
a distance of 2 feet 7 inches
A. R. L,
55
ECONOMY OF FUEL IN IRON MANUFACTURE.
Studien ilber Brennstoff-Brsparung bei einigen Buttenprocessen. PROFESSOR
Kupelwieser. Vereins Mittheilungen, Beilage zur oesterreichischen
Zeitschrift fur Berg- und BZuttenwesen, 1883, pp. 27-29.
The Givors Ironworks possesses three blast-furnaces, of which two are
usually at work, and two Bessemer converters.
The two boilers, in which steam is generated for the blast, stand one above
another, and are heated by gas from the blast furnaces instead of by the
usual methods of separate firing. The gases are first led into a separate
chamber and mixed with previously heated air, and thence made to pass under
the upper boiler and right round the lower one, reaching the chimney at a
temperature of about 530° F.
The saving of fuel by this means amounts to from 20 to 30 tons per 100 tons
of Bessemer ingots produced.
In cases where it is possible to convert the ingots at once into finished
iron a further saving in heat, and therefore in fuel, can be effected by
working them before they have had time to cool, and, considering these two
savings, what may be called the combination system of working will compare
with the usual system as follows:—
To Produce 100 Tons op Rails.
To Produce 100 Tons op Rails.
Usual System. Combination System, Tons. Tons.
Ingots ............ 120 ... 116
Raw iron ............ 133'2 ... 128'8
Iron ore ............ 252 ... 245
Fuel.
Tons. Tons.
(a) Coke for production of raw iron ... 133'2 ...
128'8
(b) „ Bessemer process ...... 6
... 5'8
„ „ as boiler firing 30
... —
(c) Coal for rolling (exclusive of that for
motive power) ... ... ... 30
Total amount of Fuel required.
Tons. Tons.
Coke ............ 139-2 ... 1346
Coal ............ 60
A. R. L.
WATER GAS. Brzeugung und Verwendung von Wassergas als Brenn- und
Beleuchtungs materiale. Hofrath ton Tunner. Vereins-Mittheilungen,
Beilage zur oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Huttenwesen, 1883,
pp. 48-49.
A comparison between common gas and water gas made by Strong's Gas Generator
shows that 1 lb. of clean coal will, in the first case, produce 88 cubic
feet of heating gas with 948 cubic feet of illuminating gas of 3,416° F., or
22,144 units of heat. In the case of water gas 1 lb. of coal will produce 68
cubic feet of heating gas with 1,137 cubic feet of illuminating gas of
5,135° F., or 41,667 units of heat, giving thus nearly twice as many units
of heat and a temperature about one-third higher. This apparent gain is,
however, balanced by the loss of the fuel expended in raising the steam
required in the water gas process.
A. R. L.
00
BLASTING WITH DISTRIBUTED CHARGES.
Sprengungen rn.it vertheilten Ladungen. Hugo Mtjnch. Vereins-Mittkeilungen,
Beilage zur oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hiittenwesen, 1883,
pp. 52-53.
During some quarrying operations at Trifail a mass of 11,137 cubic yards of
rock was blasted down with 170775 lbs. of dynamite in eight charges, which
were fired simultaneously by electricity. The cost for material and wages
amounted to £97, or 2-09d. per cubic yard. Herr Munch recommends a still
further distribution of blasting charges, and calculates that to have done
the same work with 17 boreholes, each containing two charges, would have
cost £88, or about 1 '9d. per cubic yard.
He also maintains that with charges thus reduced the shattering effect of
the explosion would be considerably lessened.
A. R. L.
EXPERIMENTS WITH GUIBAL FANS.
TJeber Grulenventilatoren nach Daniel Murgue und der Guibal- Ventilator zu
Com-beredonde. Mahe-Osteait Cittb. Vereins-Mittheilungen, Beilage zur
oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Suttenwesen, 1883, pp. 4-7.
Paetictjxabs op Fan.
Paetictjxabs op Fan.
Diameter .................. 29 feet 6 inches
Breadth..................... 6 „ 7 „
Revolutions per minute ... ... ... • • •
45
Theoretic height of water-gauge ......... 2*08 inches.
Density of atmosphere being taken at ... ... 1"15
Paeticuiaes op Engine.
Diameter of piston ............... 19f inches.
Length of stroke ............... 1 foot 71 inches.
Paetictjeabs op Aie Measurement.
Section of air passage at fan inlet ......... 8"93 sq. yards.
Section in the pit ... ... ... ... ...
5'28 ,,
Results or Density or Manometric Performance
OBSERVATIONS. CALCULATIONS. THE AIR,
PERFORMANCE. OF MACHINERY.
S3*» a O . § o o 5
K ob
no. u |5 h if II *ihd II 4, i M U It *i it %
li *$ il it «£ lis lis is § * «Ha ^ . II 4 1
11 l* pi £| iSlil&HSl 2 I U is 4 It ft |
** i§ i is i-9 §* i* i» i11-§ ** w w
1 4P14 462 1-10 295 Ml 505 134 6'51 1207
1-150 1'34 207 "647 497 990 '502
2 42-58 644 122 38'2 1'47 681 137 9 00 1-200
1134 1*38 2 '05 '672 7'62 13'22 '576
3 49-44 1,111 T49 737 2'31 905 P23 11-96 1195
1137 123 2'05 601 15'86 29'62 '535
4 43-60 1,525 "20 851 8'66 1,574 '21 323 1189
1172 '21 211 101 2'94 3013 097
5 52-54 605 P83 611 112 520 135 884 1181
1118 T35 202 "670 1397 2176 "642
The fan outlet was adjusted to suit No. 2 experiment, and kept the same
throughout the trials.
Expeeiments with a Gutbal Pan at the Ceachet et Pxcqueey Colxieey
in the Yeae 1865.
Diameter of fan, 23 feet; breadth of fan, 5 feet 7 inches.
i g* fe£ |M- °%
II j
| ¦%# K2 5.3 ss fits !
Condition of Venti- £ P£ ag a g -S^Ph'
*g c^ !
lator, Date, g N g^ g^ S^Strj
^^ S I Remarks,
and Number of $ «o K.S S& ¦SaT
.Slfe
Experiment. a| *-g gng *|3 |/
o « ® ^ g ^fl teg Od
No. 3. The blades J8-76 1-40 ....... ......
taken off. House not 30'?0 2-80 ............To determine fric-
vet built 50-o0 9-01 .., ...
... ... tion of machinery.
J 75-00 24-80 ............
19-25 2-37 ............) tv „
3000 3-52
Diagrams from
No. 4. House partly 48*50 6-80 '.'.'. .'.'.'
'.'.'. '.'.'. f ^ot,tom o£ ^'
built. Ventilator 87"50 20-46 ............J lmcier-
mounted, but with- 87"00 27"00 ............
out blades. 19-75 2'26 ... i ...
... ... ( Diagrams from
51-00 9-86 ............( top of cylinder.
8450 24-80 ............)
16-00 1-30 ... -14 ......
20-00 1-87 ... -20 ......
No.l. Blades in place. 29'50 426 ... -31 ......
House not built. Air 40-00 6-50 ... '49 ......
from shaft shut off. 49'50 10*94 ... '69 ......
Experiments on
K J?'S - !'?o ...... depression at dif-
72-00 3-06 - l-'m ...... ferent speeds with
________________________72 00 3106 ... 161 ......
and without the
tvt k u v -u 39-00 5-36 ... -43
..... hoU!?e*
w >?T%- J' 43-00 8-00 ... -71 .....
but without adjust- ^
irA?ldue'. i1 r°m 82-00 33-00 ... 2-13 .
snait snut on._________9000 38-38 ... 2"56
......____________________
No 6 Blades in Dlace 43'00 H'77 ^ *57 1-1° "09
In the case where
ffn„«,P hnilVJSS5 57'00 19'40 31° 110 3'27 "l7
93 revolutions
nouse omit except 1Q.Q0 2g.68 ^ 1-54 6>37 #21
^^ obtained ft
I™infnWt,,'f 93'5° 59*22 636 2'81 17'17
'29 d0OT WaS °Pened
a ° pt> 93-00 64-41 735 2-81 19-80
"31 18 inches square.
30-50 4-80 235 -33 75 -16
No. 2. Ventilator 38"50 8'53 ... -59
......
complete. Air being 53-00 17'22 337 '94 305 '18
T.
drawn from pit. 63-10 26"34 ... 1-30 ......
Uoor open.
House not built. 72-00 37-88 ... 1-69 ......
________________________76-50 44-24 517 T93 9 57 '22
_________________
AFa m t, a a . 41-00 7-45 305 -67 1'95
-26
f,'n™ rfi! h!!! 61,°° 17"94 497 1>57 7'50 ^
Experiments to de-
ri'MltW 88'00 47'00 838 3'33 26'70 -57 termine
influence
wiric'Sp 84"001 47'00 i-040 3-11 31-°2 -57
of vent-
without snde. 101,Q0 47.0Q i 1040 I 4,49 31,Q2
,57 | ____________
No. 8. Everything
complete. Slide with 68'00 18-66 ... T26 ......
6 inches opening.
No. 9. Slide in most
effective position = 68-00 2010 ... 1-93 ......
25^ inches opening.
A. R. L.
58
NEW SAFETY-LAMP.
Unexplodirbare Sicherheitslampe. Professor V. Citrtbr.
Vereins-Mittheilungen, Beilage zur oesterreichisch&n Zeitschrift fur Berg-
und Hiittenwesen, 1883, pp. 45-46.
Professor V. Carter is the inventor of a safety-lamp, which he believes to
be much safer than any of tbose in use. The construction is such that the
air in its passage to and from the light must pass either through several
coils of spirally wound copper wire or through a system of brass plates
placed parallel to each other and very close together, the usual wire-gauze
cylinder giving way to one of glass. The lamp is so contrived that the act
of opening it puts the light out. In connection with this subject, an
apparatus is described called the Anselm Indicator, which is a kind of
manometric balance, and will indicate the presence of dangerous quantities
of gas, by means of the varying specific gravity of the atmosphere. The
indicator has electric connection with an alarm bell which rings when the
arm of the balance falls so low as to indicate danger.
A. R. L.
IMPROVEMENTS IN MINING METHODS.
Verbesserungen bei den bergmannischen Gewinnungsarbeiten. Professor Rochelt.
Vereins-Mittheilungen, Beilage zur oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg-
und Suttenwesen, 1883, pp. 39-41.
The Professor mentions some improved methods of blasting, and describes
several boring and coal-cutting machines used in Saarbriicken, Westphalia,
and other mining centres. The driving of air passages with the pick has been
superseded in these districts by the use of hand machines, which can bore
cylindrical holes of from 10 to 20 inches in diameter. The machines of Wegge
and Pelzer, Gildemeister, and Munscheid and Hussmann are specially mentioned
and described. That of Wegge and Pelzer, for holes from 12 to 14 inches in
diameter, is worked by two men at a time, each turning a handle, and when
worked by four men, in relays of two, will penetrate, according to the
hardness of the coal, from 120 to 145 yards per shift of 10 hours. The
machine of Munscheid and Hussmann also requires two men to work it, and with
ordinary hardness of coal will bore a 20^-inch hole at the rate of l-09
yards per hour. With holes of llf inches in diameter the cost of boring is
given as about Is. 4|d. per yard. The ordinary sizes are for holes of 14^
inches, 16^ inches, 18J inches, and 20f inches respectively, and the first
cost of a machine is about £35.
A comparison is made between hand kirving and that done by cutting machines.
A "Reska" machine working in a 27 to 29-inch seam in the Ostra-n pit will
kirve a surface of 48 square yards, the depth of the cut being 2*952 feet
and the width 3*15 inches, a hewer being able to kirve a surface of 1'8 to
2'15 square yards in the same time, with a depth of cut of 29 feet and a
width of llf inches. The machine work shows a saving of 2|d. per cwt. of
coal worked, and, at the same time, an increased proportion of round coals
to the extent of 10 per cent., the whole gain being about 3d. per cwt.
»
59
Reference is made to the use of compressed blasting powder in Prussian
Silesia with good results. In the Laura pit, Upper Silesia, a blasting
cartridge is in use which, with an increased fall of coal of about 5 to 6
per cent., shows a saving in powder of 23 per cent. Its peculiarity lies in
the fuse being introduced into the charge through a perforated paper case,
about 20 inches long by i inch inside diameter. It is considered that the
ignition of the powder is by this method more complete, and that the
explosion takes place more nearly instantaneously.
A. R. L.
PRODUCTION OF ZINC.
Zur Geschichte des Zinkes. Reguertwgsrath Ernst. Vereins-Mittheilungen,
Beilage zur oesterreiohischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und ttuttenwesen, 1883,
pp. 44-45.
This gives a history of zinc from early times, and shows its production to
have greatly increased during the last quarter of a century. The figures
are as follows :—
1858. 1881.
Owts. Cwts.
Silesia................ 380,000 ... 675,470
Rhine districts and Westphalia ... 154,000 ...
325,200
Belgium, Vieille Montagne Works ... 270,000 ...
496,000
Do.- other works......... 95,000 ... 442,110
England............... 75,000 ... 151,860
France ............... 5,000 ... 104,450
Spain ............... 15,000 ... 70,320
Austria ............... 10,500 ... 42,300
Russia ............... 15,000 ... 43,000
North America ... ... ... ... —
... 300,000
Total............ 1,019,500 2,650,710
A. R. L.
SILVER AMALGAMATION.
Anfang und Ende der europdischen Silberamalganiation. Professor V. Curter.
Vereins-Mittheilungen, Beilage zur oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg-
und Silttenwesen, 1883, pp. 21-22.
The extraction of silver from the ore by means of quicksilver, which had
been practised in Austria from very early times, was revived in the year
1570 by Johann de Cordova, his method being borrowed from America.
The ore was ground fine in a mill and mixed with salt, copper vitriol, and
iron vitriol. It was then damped and left lying till it became warm, when it
was strewed with quicksilver and well mixed. This process being completed,
fresh quicksilver was added, which, by combination, took up the amalgam
crystals. The amalgam was then filtered put into leather bags and pressed,
and finally smelted.
Just 100 years ago Bergrath von Born introduced, at Glashutten, near
Schemnitz, a method differing slightly from the foregoing, and this was
followed till it gave way to newer modes of working some 25 or 30 years ago.
A. R. L.
TRANSOAUCASIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS.
Gisements de Manganese de la Transcaucasie. By J. Rettleatix. Annates
de la Societe Geologique de Belgique, Vol. IX., 1883, pp. cxxxviii.-cxlii.
The manganese deposits described in this paper are situated in the
neighbourhood of the village of Tchiatura, about 40 versts from the Koirile
Station on the Poti-Tiflis Railway, in the Government of KutaTs. They occur
as compact, hard, or oolitic masses, forming thin beds in the upper portion
of the Eocene, where the latter passes insensibly into Miocene. There are
nine of these beds, having a total thickness of 880 metres, and they
alternate with talcose or manganesiferous clay. Analyses of five varieties
of these ores show the following composition:—
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
H20 ...... 2-40 ... 1-61 ... 1-20 ...
074 ... 1-26
Si02 ...... 4-49 ... 6-67 ... 2-88 ...
0-74 ... 1-69
A1203 ...... 168 ... 214 )
( 1-27
Fe203 ...... 0-53 ... 0-03 ) "
( 0-26
Mn02 ...... 85-67 ... 85-77 ... 84-90 ... 94-32
... 91-23
MnO ...... 1-98 ... 0-80 ... 2"50 ...
1-82 ... 2"40
CaO ...... 0-76 ... 0-87 ... 033 ...
traces ... 0-58
MgO ...... 0-20 ... 0-24 ... 0-32 ...
0-20 ... 0-31
BaO ...... 0-88 ... 068 ... 3-11 ...
traces ... traces
S03 ...... — ... — ... 1-19 ...
— ... —
Ph203 ...... 0-42 ... 0-40 ... 0-35 ...
006 ... 008
Total ... 99-01 ... 99-21 ... 9912 ... 99-00 ...
99-08
The deposits were formed, the author thinks, in a shallow sea, near coasts
where periodical currents were common.
G. A. L.
GOLD IN BORNEO.
Das Goldvorkommen von Borneo. By Theodob Posewitz. JahrbucJi d. Tc.
ungar. Geol. Anstalt, Buda-Pesth, Vol. VI., 1883, pp. 175-190.
A general account of the distribution of gold in Borneo. The auriferous
deposits are of three kinds—alluvial, diluvial (drift), and massive rock.
The first, for ages past worked by the natives, are now much reduced in
value, but were once of great extent, following the course of all the rivers
of the country. The second, or drift deposits, are at present the richest in
the island, and are chiefly worked in West Borneo, between the Rivers Landak
and Sambas. They are generally concealed by a covering from two to ten feet
thick of clay or loam, and themselves vary in thickness from a few inches to
between 30 and 40 feet in places. They consist principally of quartzose
sand, mixed occasionally with fragments of greenstone, syenite, and gabbro.
The gold found in these sands is associated with platinum, diamonds,
magnetite, and chromite. Underlying the gold drift beds is almost invariably
a layer of clay due to the weathering of the massive rocks beneath, and
containing no precious metals.
The gold, both of the alluvium and drift, is, of course, derived from the
older rocks, and in these—though sparingly—it is still found. Thus it occurs
disseminated in metamorphic schists, and even in granite as well as in
quartz veins, in the more usual manner. It is also common in various
proportions associated with iron and copper pyrites, zinc blende, tenorite.
and tellurium in copper and other lodes.
G. A. L,
GOLD AND SILVER IN THE UNITED STATES.
Production of the Precious Metals. By Claeence King. Second Annual Report of
the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior, for
1880-81. Washington, 1882, pp. 337-401. Six Plates (PI. xlviii.-liii.)
The author groups the gold and silver mines of the country under two
heads—deep mines and placer mines. The former comprise:—1.—Mines of free
gold, or of gold alloyed with a small proportion of silver. 2.—Mines of
silver ores, containing only traces of gold. 3.—Mines yielding dore bullion
from milling ores containing both gold and silver in appreciable quantities.
4.—Mines yielding base bullion from smelting ores, in which the precious
metals are associated with larger quantities of lead, copper, etc. The
leading types of the placer or drift and alluvium diggings are (1) hydraulic
mines; (2) dry washings; (3) booming and shovel-sluicing; (4) river mines;
(5) pocket mines; (6) drift mines; (7) branch mines; (8) black sand littoral
deposits. Full statistics of the production of the precious metals for the
census year (June 1st, 1879, to May 31st, 1880) are then given by
geographical divisions. Summarized, these tables give the following
results:—
-bles give the following results :—
Gold. Silver. Total.
Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.
Pacific division ...... 25,261,828 21,143,881
46,405,709
Rocky Mountains division... 7,878,189 19,917,490 27,795,679
Eastern division ...... 239,646 49,586
289,232
Total ...... 33,379,663 41,110,957 74,490,620
In converting United States money into Troy weight it should be remembered
that for gold, 1 dollar = 0-048374957925 ounce Troy, and 1 ounce Troy =
20-671834 dollars. For silver, 1 dollar = 0-773455023513 ounce Troy, and 1
ounce Troy = T2929 dollar.
Comparing the annual bullion production of the great divisions of the world,
North America stands first with 55'78 per cent, of the total product,
Europe, including Russia in Asia, next with 21-75 per cent., then Australia
with 15-93, South America with 4-68, Africa 1"10, and Japan with 076 per
cent.
Altogether seventy-two tables are given, and the information contained in
them is also shown graphically in the plates which accompany the report.
G. A. L.
IRON ORES OF VIRGINIA.
The Iron Ores of Middle James Piver. By De. Peesipoe Feazee. Transactions of
the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XI., 1883, pp. 201-216. Two
Plates (contoured Map and Section).
The ore district described comprises that portion of the ferriferous belts
of Virginia which lies between Josua Falls and Norwood, in Amherst and
Nelson Counties, on the left bank of James River. The ore-bearing rocks are
probably the same in geological horizon as part of the great iron series of
the Northern Peninsula of Michigan. They are probably of Huronian age. The
ores show ample evidence of having been deposited by metasomatic action
among the schists which enclose them, and they are frequently cut off by
intrusive masses (" chutes") of quartz. A general description of the works
of the Central Virginia Iron Company is given, as well as a large number of
analyses of ore from this region, and also from that of Marquette, for
comparison.
G. A. L. i
62
THE BASSICK MINE, COLORADO.
On the Peculiar Features of the Bassich Mine. By L. R. Geabill.
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XI, 1883,
pp. 110-117.
This mine is six miles east of Silver Cliff, Colorado, and is situated near
the centre of a small rounded hill of eruptive trachyte and felspathic
conglomerate. The chief peculiarities of the ore deposit are as follows:—The
ores (gold and silver), instead of being as usual arranged in layers more or
less parallel to the vein walls, are found disposed in concentric coats
surrounding what are regarded as waterworn pebbles or boulders of the same
material as the country rock (trachyte), each ore in a separate layer, and
always in the same order. The first—next to the nucleus—is the thinnest
layer, and consists of i to 1 millimetre, on an average, of mixed sulphides
of zinc, antimony, and lead, carrying about 60 ounces of silver and 1 to 3
ounces of gold per ton. The second coating is not always present, but when
it occurs contains more lead, silver, and gold than the first, often 150 to
200 ounces of silver and 100 ounces of gold per ton. The next shell is 5
millimetres to 5 centimetres thick, and consists of sphalerite in fine
crystals; it yields from 60 to 120 ounces of silver and 15 to 50 ounces of
gold per ton, and forms the most valuable part of the mine. The fourth, and
generally the last coat when present, is of copper pyrites, 1 to 2
centimetres thick. It carries as high as from 50 to 100 ounces per ton of
silver, and about as much of gold. A fifth layer sometimes occurs, formed of
a sprinkling of crystals of iron pyrites. Kaolin fills in the interstices
between the ore-coated boulders, and therefore none of the ordinary spars of
metalliferous veins, except some quartz, which, with tetrahedrite, is found
occupying spaces outside the boulders. This quartz is such as might have
been deposited in a gelatinous state, and, with the other exceptional facts
connected with the deposit, leads the author to regard the latter as having
been the seat of a geyserian mineral- spring. The shape and dimensions of
the fissure, or more properly " opening," containing the ore-boulders, as
well as its verticality, favour this view. Still more striking among all the
singular features of the mine is the presence of charcoal in cavities or
pockets between the ore-coated boulders. This substance occurs at all
depths. The last pocket of it was found at 765 feet from the surface, equal
in size to a cube with an edge of 30 centimetres, and the charcoal showed
the grain of the original wood distinctly.
G. A. L.
GOLD IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS.
On the occurrence of Gold in Williamson County, Texas. By Peoeessob Chaeles
A. ScHiEEFEE. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers,
Vol. XI, 1883, .pi?. 318-321.
This is the first record of the occurrence of gold in Cretaceous rocks in
the United States. It was found irregularly disseminated in a bed of porous
limestone of that age. The gold was introduced into the rock, the author
thinks, in the condition of auriferous iron pyrites. The decomposition of
the latter and of the limestone gave rise to calcium sulphate, which, being
worked out, caused the porous character of the stone, leaving the gold and
some of the brown oxide of iron entangled among its crevices. The amount of
gold found is moderate only, and some parts of the bed of limestone, though
otherwise similar to the rest, contain none at all. There is a tradition
that the Mexicans in former time worked the rock for silver, which it does
not yield.
G. A. L.
65
GILPIN COUNTY MINES, COLORADO.
The Mines and Mills of Gilpin County, Colorado. By Col. A. N. Rogebs.
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XI., 1883,
pp. 29-51. These mines occupy a limited area of a few miles in the immediate
neighbourhood of Central City. Altogether, within this area, some 400
miles of veins are recorded. The country rock is said to be metamorphic
granite, in which the planes of bedding are well marked, and in which two
constant directions of vertical joints are everywhere developed. The
veins or lodes occupy these joints, and no faulting of importance is known
in the district. The vein-stuff consists generally of felspathic quartz,
through which are disseminated fine pyritous matter, as well as " masses,
seams, and strings " of of the various ores characterizing the veins.
Cavities in the vein-stuff are lined with quartz crystals, having their long
axes parallel to the cheeks. The country rock shows no perceptible change
on approaching the veins. The latter are gold and silver bearing, these
precious metals being found in very various associations, thus:—" One lode
may carry its value in copper, another in iron, the next in blende, the
fourth perhaps in gangue or in galena."
The concluding part of the paper comprises an account of the methods of
treating the ores in use in the district, and the discussion which follows
(pp. 51-55) bears chiefly upon this portion of the subject.
G. A. L.
THE SAN JUAN MINING REGION, COLORADO.
Notes on the Geology and Mineralogy of San Juan County, Colorado. By
Theodoee B. Comstock. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining
Engineers, Vol. XL, 1883, pp. 165-191, with Map, and two Woodcuts in text.
San Juan County comprises a portion of the hydrographic basin of one branch
of the Colorado River, and includes all the upper ramifications of the
Animas, with small areas at the sources of the Rio Grande, and of branches
of the Gunnison River. The lowest ground is about 8,500, and the highest
13,975 feet above sea level. The oldest rocks of the country are probably of
Silurian and Devonian age, and are chiefly granites and quartzites, which
together form a Metamorphic series of importance. These are succeeded by
comparatively small outcrops of shales, limestones, and thick red sandstones
of Carboniferous ago. Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous beds are not known
in the region, but the Tertiary age is strongly represented by a
widely-distributed series of volcanic rocks, which may be grouped as follows
(the first-named being the oldest):— Propylite, andesite, trachyte,
rhyolite, and basalt. Hot-spring deposits of later date form a
characteristic feature of some parts of the district.
The great majority of the mineral veins of San Juan County basset in the
Tertiary trachyte, but others are known (including some of great value in
the Metamorphic and Upper Palaeozoic rocks). They are, in the author's
opinion, nearly all of post-Tertiary origin, and date from the first
occurrence of the hot springs. The courses of the lodes bear no relation to
the trend of the principal folds in the old rocks. All the important veins,
on^the contrary, are said to be arranged in a radiating manner round certain
prominent local foci—which, though " geological vein centres," and often
actual peaks (such as Handle's Peak, Kendall Mountain, Red Peak, etc.), do
not by
04
any means always coincide with topographical prominent points. The cause of
this distribution of the veins is connected with the central localities of
trachytic eruption. Thus Red Peak, which is the main centre towards which
the primary lodes converge, is situated where the main outbreak of trachytic
lava took place.
The most prevalent ores are galena, iron, and copper pyrites, bismuth
compounds, and tetrahedrite. Native silver sometimes also occurs, as well as
ruby silver and compounds of antimony and tellurium. The ordinary vein-stuff
is quartz, but calcite, barite, hematite, and fluor spar are also present
occasionally, the last named being least commonly met with.
" The large deposits which are now causing the great rush to the Red
Mountain district are, in my opinion," says the author, " the
representatives of the latest epoch of vein growth, and they must be
regarded as occupying caverns left by extensive hot-springs. On this account
they will, I judge, be found to be quite irregular in position and
dimensions." (p. 190.) •
G. A. L.
NATURAL COKE (CARBONITE).
The Natural Coke of Chesterfield County, Va., by Dr. R. W. Raymond ; and
Chemical Examination of Carbonite, by De. T. M. Deowjs". Transactions of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XL, 1883, pp. 446-450.
In 1882 a mine was open near Midlothian, Chesterfield County, Va., to work a
seam of which the following is a section :—
Pt. In.
Whin rock (not igneous appai'ently) ... ... ...
... 2 6
Hard arenaceous shale ... ... ... ... ...
... 6 0
Dark shale, with laminae of coal ... ... ... ...
... 1 0
Carbonite "")
f 2 0
Dark shale
1 0
Carbonite
2 3
Dark shale , ., ,
13
Carbonite \ - carbointe or coke seam ... {
± g
Shale
0 1
Carbonite I
9 0
Fire clay J
[08
Thin layers of whin rock occasionally (apparently not igneous)... 0 3
A thick seam of highly bituminous coal is said to occur beneath the coke
seam, and to have been extensively worked in a neighbouring property. The
coke seam has been followed 325 feet to the dip; it burns like anthracite,
without smoke or soot. No eruptive rock is reported as occurring in
proximity to the seam. The analysis (proximate) of the carbonite is thus
given:—
Dull Portion. Lustrous Portion. Specific gravity
......... 1'375 ...... 1-350
Loss at 100° C.......... 2'00 ...... 0"69
Volatile matter ......... 15*47 ...... 1110
Ash ......... 3-20 (dark brown) 6-68
(white).
Fixed carbon ......... 79'33 ...... 81-53
100-00 ......100-00
Sulphur ............ 4-08 ...... 1-60
G. A. L.
(50
THE PENNSYLVANIAN ANTHRACITE FIELD.
The Anthracite Coal Beds of Pennsylvania. By Chaeies A. Ashbtxenee.
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XI, 1883,
pp. 136-159, tvith one folding .Plate.
The author, who is in charge of the Second Geological Survey of the
Anthracite Coal-fields of Pennsylvania, gives an account of the
organization, methods, and publications of the survey. The latter
include:—1.—Mining maps on a large scale (800 feet = 1 inch), showing mine
workings, and the lie of the seams by means of underground contour lines, 50
feet apart. 2.—Topographical surface maps of the coal-fields (1.600 feet = 1
inch) contoured every 10 and 20 feet. 3.—Vertical cross sections of the coal
basins (400 feet = 1 inch). 4.—Columnar sections of the Coal-Measures (40
feet = 1 inch). 5.—Columnar sections of individual coal-seams (10 feet = 1
inch). 6.—Other miscellaneous sheets.
Type sections at the more important points of the region are given,
illustrating an attempt to correlate the principal seams, the different
so-called " basins" selected being the following:—Pottsville, Panther Creek,
Shamokin, Shenandoah and Mahanoy, Hazleton, Black Creek, Nanticocke, Wilke's
Barre, Lackawanna, and Carbondale.
A new estimate (and the most accurate up to date) of the areas of the
coal-fields in question is given, viz.:—
Square Miles.
Northern Coal-field ............... 198
Eastern Middle Coal-field............... 37
Western „ „ ... ... ... ...
... 91
Southern ,, „ (exclusive of Panther Creek) 130
Panther Creek Basin ... ... ... ... ...
12-5
Total area............... 468-5
The total production of coal in this region up to and including 1881 is
estimated at 478,052,629 tons.
G. A. L.
ALABAMA COAL AND IRON.
Coal and Iron in Alabama. By De. T. Steeey Htijntt.
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XI, 1883,
pp. 236-248.
The rocks of the state are grouped in four divisions as follows:—1.—The old
crystalline rocks of the Atlantic belt, along the south-east side of the
Coosa Valley, containing occasional deposits of magnetite. 2.—The Ocoee
slates and conglomerates, the Chilhowee sandstones, and the Knox Group
rocks, including great deposits of limonite and oxide of manganese, all in
the Coosa Valley. 3.—The Palaeozoic rocks, between the last and the Upper
Carboniferous, including Silurian beds belonging to the Clinton group, and
containing great beds of red haematite. 4.—The Coal-Measures. These are as
thick here as in Pennsylvania, and contain many coal-seams of sufficient
thickness for profitable working and of excellent quality, especially in the
Warrior and Cahaba fields.
The proximity of the iron ore to the coal is dwelt upon by the writer as
being (with the exception of the north-western portions of the great Ohio
basin) very unusual in the United States, and he adds :—" The development in
Central Alabama, not only of a great coal-trade, but of a vast iron
industry, is certain in the near future, and indeed has already begun."
(p. 247.) C. A. L.
66
MINING IN ARIZONA.
The Mining Region around Prescott, Arizona. By John F. Blandy. Transactions
of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XL, 1883, pp. 286-291,
with folding Map.
The writer deplores the absence of maps of Arizona, and gives the one
accompanying his paper as a rough contribution to the topography of part of
the region. The Prescott district comprises the very high ground about the
head waters of the Hasayampa, Aqua Frio, and Granite Creeks, and their upper
tributaries. The rocks of the country between the Peck Mine and Prescott are
described. They consist of granite, syenitic gneiss, and hornblende slates
and schists, with trap dykes and sheets of basalt. Most of the veins in the
granite and schists have directions varying from N. 20° E. and S. 20° W. to
N. 20° W. and S. 20° E. Some veins, called " layer" veins, appear to be
contact deposits of limited extent, coinciding with the bedding planes of
the rocks. The veins are gold and silver bearing, often very rich, and are
remarkable for the large amount of horn-silver (silver chloride) which some
of them contain. A great variety of sulphides and other ores accompany the
precious metals, and there are rich placer workings due to the decomposition
and disintegration of the lodes by weathering and denudation.
This short paper gives almost the first published account of what is
practically a new mining region.
G. A. L.
THE SEMET COKE OVEN.
Fours a coke du systeme Semet pour la recuperation des sous-produits. Par
Ch. Demanet.. Annuaire de VAssociation des Lngenieurs Sortis de VJEcole de
Liege, Tome IL., 1883, pp. 105-114. One folding Plate.
The author describes the construction and action of the oven in detail, and
gives the results of experiments made at the Bellevue Colliery, Dour, near
Mons, in December, 1882, and some later experiments made at Creusot.
The trials at Creusot were made upon two samples of coal composed as
follows:—
No. 1. No. 2.
Bituminous ... ... ... 62 ... 60
Semi-bituminous ... ... 19 ... 20
Anthracite ......... 19 ... 20
100 100
An analysis of which gave:—
No. 1. No. 2.
Water (from washers) ... 9'65 ... 9-75
Volatile substances ...... 20"35 ... 20'08
Ashes............11-00 ... 10-66
The following results were obtained after coking 50 tons of each of the
above samples:—
Yield per Ton of coal (dry). No. 1.
No. 2.
Coke (dry)...............8007% ... 75-51%
Ammoniacal liquor at l°Baume... ... 4*08 hect. ...
3-00 hect.
Tar..................26-09 kil. ... 15'08 kil.
This is equal to—¦
Ammoniacal liquor ... 89-8 and 66 galls, respectively.
Tar............ 59-18 and 3476 lbs. „ J. H. M
67
EXPERIMENTS ON A NEW VENTILATING FAN.
Resultats d'experiences sur un nouveau systeme de ventilateur a force
centrifuge. Memoire de M. L. Ser, presente par M. Tresca. Comptes Rendus,
Tome XCVLLL,pp. 783-786.
In 1878 the author published a theory of centrifugal fans, in which he
deduced certain formulae which are quoted in this paper. Several fans have
been constructed in accordance with these, and experiments have been made
upon two of them by M. Tresca, at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.
A table is given showing the results, and his conclusions are quoted as
follows:— 1.—There is a complete agreement between the theory and practice.
2.—The ratio between the water gauge observed and the water gauge due to
the velocity of the periphery varies from 1-855 to 2-368. 3.—The volume of
air discharged is practically the same as that given by the formula, and is
equal to about ten times the volume engendered by the blades. 4.—The useful
effect varies from 0-604 to 0-828. J. H. M.
RESUME OF FIRE-DAMP ACCIDENTS IN FRANCE.
Analyse Synoptique des Rapports Officiels sur les Accidents de Qrisou en
France. Par MM. Jities Petitdidier et Charles Lallemand, Ingenieurs au Corps
des Mines. Annales des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome IV., 1883, pp. 67-127.
The present group of accidents comprises those of the Loire district—St
Etienne coal-basin—which are officially numbered from No. 169 to No. 251, a
total of 82 accidents. Tiie first is registered on May 25th, 1840, and the
last on the 11th January, 1877. The most serious appears to have been No.
250, on the 4th February, 1876, at the Jabin pit, when 186 perished and 12
were injured. This explosion appears to have been very disastrous, extending
through every part of the mine. Out of 211 men at work in the day shift only
28 were rescued alive, and of these three subsequently succumbed. The cause
of explosion is officially notified as "lucifer matches or spontaneous fire"
(rather a wide divergence apparently); but the authors, in their remarks,
state the following as their views:—" Coal-dust appears to have played a
certain part in the accident, the direction in which the crusts of coke were
deposited on the timber appearing to indicate that the flame came from the
Treuil district to the Jabin pit, from the central district to the double
shaft, and from the Richelandiere workings to the Jabin pit. The seat of the
explosion must have been in the Treuil district, the only part of the mine
whence the flame appears to have issued in two opposite directions. As for
the cause of the accident, it has remained unknown. . . . . The Mueseler
lamps could only be opened by an electro-magnet, and were subjected to
rigorous scrutiny, and nothing indicates that they had been tampered with
previous to the accident.....Shooting was only permitted in stone drifts,
and
shots fired by the under-viewer only. This last regulation was not always
observed, but no stone work was in progress in the Treuil district at the
time of the explosion. The least improbable theory is that some workman had
obtained a light for smoking. . . . . It is also possible that the sudden
fall in the barometer noted on the day of the accident may have liberated a
quantity of fire-damp from the old workings."
The series has to be completed in a later contribution to the Annales des
Mines, when an abstract will probably enable a summary to be given of the
number of lives lost, and a classification of the different heads of causes
of explosion, etc.
D P. M,
68
ANALYSIS OF THE OFFICIAL REPORTS ON THE COAL GAS EXPLOSIONS IN FRANCE.
Analyse des Rapports Officiels sur les Accidents de Orisou, survenus en
France pendant Vanne 1881. Dressee par M. Chesneatt, Ingenieur au Corps des
Mines. Annates des Mines, 'Ser. 8, Tome IV., 1883, pp. 215-237.
This paper is a continuation of the report by MM. Petitdidier and Lallemand,
but confines its notices to the year 1881. Sixteen explosions occurred
during the above year in France, the casualties being 23 deaths and 33
injured. One was peculiarly painful, resulting in the death of one of the
Government inspectors, the viewer, and two others (one a foreign mining
engineer), who were inspecting the scene of a previous disaster.
Absteact of Accidents in 1881.
No. of Sufferers.
District. Name of Colliery. ------------------------
Supposed Cause of Accident.
Killed. Injured.
iDouchy ... ... 4 5 Outburst consequent on a
shot
being fired. Anzin ... ...... 7 Gas lighted by blown
out shot.
L'Escarpelle ... 1 4 Supposed defective lamp; loose
cartridges ignited near. Hardinghen ...... 2 Naked
lights; gas issued from
borehole in exploring drift over old workings in lower seam. f Roche la
Moliere. 8 3 Gas fired by shot.
Le Cros ... "... 1 ... Naked lights in winning
drift.
I La Beraudiere...... 3 Gas fired by shot.
Loire... -=j Quartier-Gaillard 1 ... Gas fired
while lighting shot.
Plat-le-Gier ...... 4 Gas fired by shot.
I Trelys et Palme-
t salade ...... 1 Gas fired while lighting
shot.
f Trelys et Palme-
salade ...... 1 Naked light.
Gard ... ¦{ Do. ...... 2 Gas fired
while lighting shot.
| Portes et Sene-
(^ chas ... ...... 1 Gas fired by shot.
Saint-Eloi ... La Vernade ... 2 ... Naked
lights; outburst of gas in
proximity to standing fire. ( Lampret ... 1 ...
Slackening or stoppage of air
Champagnac <
current; naked light.
( Do. ... 5 ... Same cause, but
Mueseler lamps
used; exploring locality of previous accident.
23 33
The above are grouped as follows:—
No. of Accidents. Killed. Injured.
Shot firing 1 While lighting...... 4 .... 9 ...
6
° I By shots......... 5 ... 4 ... 20
Defect in I Naked lights ...... 5 ... 4
... 3
local ventilation (Safety lamps ... ... 2 ...
6 ... 4
Total ...... 16 ^3 33
Shot firing thus appears to have been the chief ingredient in fatal results,
only two
accidents being traced to carelessness, and those in the second category.
D. P. M.
69
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAYS ON THE COMBUSTION OF EXPLOSIVE
MIXTURES OF GASES.
Hecherches experimentales et theoriques sur la combustion des melanges
gazeux explosifs. Par MM. Mallaed et Le Chateliee, Ingenieurs au Corps des
Mines. Annales des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome IV, 1883, pp. 274-378.
The Fire-damp Commission, of which the authors were members, entrusted them
with the duty of discovering, by suitable experiments, the conditions under
which firedamp explosions occurred, and their accompanying phenomena.
They accordingly investigated the following questions, of which the two
first are treated in this part:— 1.—The conditions necessary to produce
active combustion, i.e., the temperature of
ignition. 2.—The rapidity with which ignition at one point is propagated
throughout the
inflammable mixture, and the accompanying circumstances. 3.—The pressure
produced in a closed vessel after combustion of the gaseous mixture
contained in it, computing the law of cooling, the temperature of
combustion, and the alteration produced by high temperatures on the specific
gravity of gases. Only a few observations were made o:i each of these
subjects owing to the many difficulties to be overcome.
Question 1 is sub-divided into the following heads :— 1.—History.
2.—Modes and apparatus. 3.—Results of experiments. 4.—Conclusions from
ditto. 5.—Summary. The whole of these five branches are most exhaustively
treated from the time of Davy until the present, and many interesting points
are elucidated, amongst which may be noted the opinion of the authors that
red hot substances, such as lamp gauzes, tobacco, &c, may become causes of
ignition under certain conditions by no means unusual. The inflammation
of explosive mixture thus depends on two factors—the temperature and the
duration of contact.
In the summary the temperatures are given as
555° (= 825° F.) explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. 655° (= 968° F.)
„ carbonic oxide and oxygen.
650° (= 960° F.) „ formene and oxygen.
The formene is almost identical with the light carburetted hydrogen or
fire-damp of mines.
Question 2 includes the following divisions:— 1.—History.
2.—Modes of experimenting. 3.—Results.
4.—Theoretical considerations. 5.—Practical applications. 6.—Summary.
The ignition of a body of explosive mixture is traced to two causes, one
being termed conductivity or normal propagation, and the other wave of
explosion, discovered by MM. Berthelot and Vieille. Each of these modes is
characterized by a constant and specific velocity of propagation under the
lame conditions of mixture and temperature. The former never exceeds, if
it ever reaches, 66 feet (20 metres) per second.
$
70
The usual velocity in a mixture of fire-damp and air is only 2 feet per
second when the fire-damp is from 9 to 12 per cent.; that in hydrogen and
oxygen (40 per cent, of hydrogen) being 14 feet (4-30 metres); ordinary
lighting gas, 4 feet 2 inches (l-25 metres), with 15 per cent, of gas; and
carbonic oxide and oxygen 6 feet 6 inches (2 metres) per second. Any
disturbance in the gaseous mixture increases the rapidity of propagation.
The initial velocity gradually increases on account of vibrations or
oscillations which increase the intensity as well as the rapidity of
propagation, and when this occurs a continuous pressure is transmitted from
layer to layer and the explosive wave is formed.
Some very interesting experiments were also made by the authors on safety
lamps, and on the means of detecting minute percentages of fire-damp.
D. P. M.
NOTES ON THE DUFOUR CONPENSATING LEVER FOR RAILWAY
SIGNALS.
Note sur le Compensateur Systhme Ditjonr. Par M. Schlemmee,
Inspecteur-General des Fonts et Chaussees. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome
IV, 1883, pp. 128-132.
This paper, although short, contains a good description of an apparatus
designed to obviate the torsion between lever handles and signal posts on
railways. The figures illustrating it are on Plate V. (figs. 13,14,15, and
16). The Lyons Railway Company have adopted this system with great success.
The idea appears to be the replacement of the usual round arms or
connections by one of an elliptical form, which only comes into play when
the line is entirely clear or free, the signal remaining at " stop" or "
danger" even when obstruction in the levers might in usual cases prevent
proper working.
D. P. M.
NOTE ON THE EXPLOSION OF A SAW-MILL BOILER.
(EXTEACT PEOM THE REPOET OF THE INSPECTOE OP MINES, M. DE GbOSSOT/VEE.)
Note sur VExplosion d'un Bouilleur dans une seierie a bois, a Vierzon
{Cher). Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome IV., 1883, pp. 238-248.
This boiler was horizontal, 14 feet 6 inches by 3 feet diameter, and
connected with two lateral heaters, each 14 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, the
pressure being 6 kilog., or about 15 lbs. The cause of explosion is stated
to be inferior or brittle plates, and the Central Commission has issued the
following notice:—
" The boiler explosion of 29th December, 1882, at Vierzon, is attributable
in a great measure to the inferior quality of the plates—very brittle and
short in nature. The Government Inspector having only been informed of the
accident some months after its occurrence, cannot produce the accessory
causes.
"A notice should be inserted in the Annates des Mines, as an extract from M.
Grossouvre's report, with special reference to tests on iron boiler plates
to be made in the makers' works."
As no loss of life occurred many details are omitted in the report, but a
very complete table of the comparative tenacity and elasticity is
incorporated, from which it is concluded that the quality of the iron had
sensibly deteriorated owing to undue strain on the elasticity of the plates.
D, P. M,
71
NOTE ON THE EXPLOSION OF A VERTICAL BOILER AT MARNAVAL
IRON WORKS.
(EXTEACT FEOM THE REPOET OP M. TEATJTMANK, CHIEF EnGINEEE.)
Note sur VJSxplosion d'une Chaudiere Verticale aux forges de Marnaval
(Haute-Marne). Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome IV., 1883, pp. 249-268.
This explosion (31st March, 1883) was very disastrous, occurring at the time
(8 a.m.) when fully one hundred men were waiting for their daily start of
work. Of these 28 were killed and 65 injured, many severely. The position of
the boilers, of which there were seventeen, and of the rolling mills and
other plant, is described, and the details of construction given (see Plate
VII.)
The explosion appears to have resulted from inherent defects in the boiler
itself, which, when erected, was purchased second-hand, and subsequently
heightened. There were no indications of shortness of water, and no abnormal
pressure could have taken place, as all the boilers were directly connected.
The Central Commission recommend the report of M. Trautmann to be published
and circulated in works and manufactories, so as to direct general attention
to the points he so carefully investigates.
L\ P. M.
ELECTRIC MACHINERY IN MINES.
Die JEleMrische Kraftiibertragung mit besondere RiicJcsicht auf
BergwerJcszwecJce. F. Poech. 0esterreicfiisclie Zeitschrift fur Berg- und
Suttenwesen, 1883, pp. 174-176 {conclusion from p. 163).
In the Thibaut shaft of the Societe Anonyme de Saint-Etienne an electric
winding engine is at work, drawing from 20 to 25 tons in ten minutes up a 13
fathom shaft. A gramme generator at bank is driven, at 20 to 1, by a small
horizontal engine of 5 I.H.P., the power being transmitted by belting.
From the generator two wires are led to a gramme receiver, which is fixed at
the bottom of the shaft and geared to the winding drum at 250 to 1.
Of the power indicated by the steam engine, 15 per cent, is absorbed by its
own friction, and 50 per cent, by the electric machinery, the useful effect
of the whole installation being 25 per cent.
The cost is as follows:—
The cost is as follows:—
£ s. d.
Steam engine ... ... ... ... ••• •••
52 14 0
Pipes, straps, etc. ............... 19 4 0
Seatings and mountings ............ 9 12 0
Two Gramme machines, A type ......... 143 15 0
Winding machinery in the pit ... ... ... / 6
13 0
Foundations ... ... ... ... ......
12 0 0
Conducting wires (1,640 feet) ......... 28 15 0
Total ............... £342 13 0
At the Jabin shaft at St. Etienne powerful electro-magnets are in use for
opening the safety lamps. The oil can is screwed on to the protecting
cylinder and fixed by two steel pins, which can only be drawn out by the
magnets. The polarization of the magnets is affected by means of a Gramme
machine worked with a treadle.
A. R. L.
72
TWO NEW IRON-SMELTING PROCESSES.
Zwei neuere Processe der Eisen-Erzeugung. Pboe. Josef v. Ehrenweeth.
Oesterreichische Zeitsclirift fur Berg- und Huttemvesen, 1883, pp. 190-193
and 209-210; one Plate.
I.—Me. H. C. Bull's Peocess.
Mr. Bull's process of iron-smelting differs from the usual methods in the
employment of gases at very high temperatures to supersede the use of coal
in the hlast furnace, except in so far as it may be introduced as a
carbonizing agent. The plant consists of an ordinary blast furnace with a
chamber on the top for warming the charge, four large regenerative furnaces
for heating the blast air, and two sets of apparatus for obtaining hydrogen
gas from steam and raising it to the 1,112° Fahrenheit; at which it enters
the blast furnace.
The four regenerative furnaces each consist of a vertical cylinder
containing successive tiers of fire-brick gratings, from the bottom to near
the top, where the combustion chamber is situated. The hot gases issuing
from the top of the blast furnace are collected and led into the combustion
chambers before mentioned, and, together with a certain quantity of cold air
let in from the top, are burned and stream down to the bottom, where an
outlet leads to the chimney. The furnaces being sufficiently heated, the gas
inlets and outlet are closed, and cold air is introduced at the bottom and
rises to an outlet valve at the top, whence it is led through pipes to the
lower part of the blast furnace.
The hydrogen generators, of which there are two sets, each consist of
several pairs, there being in this case four. Each pair consists of two
small cylindrical furnaces with connection at the top, the one, which is the
generator proper, shaped like a blast furnace, for burning coal or coke, and
the other like a regenerative furnace, with successive tiers of fire-brick
grating for superheating the steam.
The generator is charged from the top and fed through an opening in the
bottom with hot air from the large regenerative furnaces.
The superheater is first heated with the gases from the generator, and, the
outlet being then closed, steam is let in at the bottom and streams up to
the top, whence it passes through the burning coals in the generator, and
the resulting hydrogen passes through an outlet at the bottom and is led to
the bottom of the blast furnace.
The advantages of this process are, that the heat in the furnace is not
lowered by the admission of cold fuel; that the proportion of carbon in the
iron admits of very easy regulation; and that the best qualities of iron or
steel can be produced from very inferior ore at a minimum of cost, which is
reckoned at about 30s. per ton. Tables are given of results obtained by the
John Cockerill Company.
II.—M. Latteent Celt's Peocess.
This process is based on the results of a series of experiments in the
laboratory on impure iron under the influence of hydrogen gas. When the iron
was raised to a high temperature and then subjected to the action of wet
hydrogen, it was found that the metalloids which it contained, viz.,
sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, arsenic, carbon, nitrogen, etc., were released
and passed off in the form of gas, leaving the iron as pure and homogeneous
as that made from the best ores. When dry hydrogen was used, only the carbon
was released.
The action on the carbon was somewhat different from that on the other
metalloids, a part of it being carried off in the form of carburetted
hydrogen, and the rest being left behind, but so distributed through the
mass of metal as to give it a high degree of homogeneity.
73
To prove the feasibility of the process, four experimental furnaces have
been erected in the neighbourhood of Paris, capable of dealing with about a
ton of pig iron at a time.
The furnaces being charged and heated to a dull red heat, the air is
expelled by means of a stream of carbonic acid, in order to prevent
explosion, and the liquid re-agent, into which the exhaust pipe discharges,
even at this stage shows signs of released impurities. When every particle
of air has been expelled, the same small pipe admits a stream of hydrogen, a
comparatively small quantity being found sufficient. As soon as the effect
on the liquid re-agent is reduced to the formation of a slight sediment, the
operation may be considered finished; the hvdrogen is then expelled from the
furnace by a stream of carbonic acid, as in the case of the air, and the
furnace may be opened without danger. The hydrogen is obtained in a special
apparatus of small size by the decomposition of zinc by means of diluted
sulphuric acid, and passes through several purifiers before reaching the
furnaces. Experiments with malleable cast iron, steel of inferior quality,
and soft iron, resulted in the production of very good steel. The cost of
the process, as applied to metals containing considerable impurities, proves
to be, at the very outside, about 9|d. per ton.
. A. R. L.
AUSTRIAN MINING INDUSTRY IN THE YEAR 1881.
Der Bergwerlcsbetrieb in Oesterreich im Jahre, 1881 (schluss). Z.
OesterreicMsche Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hiittemvesen, 1883, pp. 180-182.
In the year 1881 there were 791 mines, employing 85,492 persons, and 119
founding and smelting works, employing 10,170 persons, at work in Austria.
Of the total 95,G62 thus employed, 87,002 were men, 6,006 were women, ai.d
2,654 were children, this being an increase of 1*05 per cent, on the
previous year.
These were distributed as follows : —
In coal mines ... ... ... ... ......
37,113
„ brown coal mines ... .. ... ... ...
29,083
„ silver mines ... ... ... ... ... ...
5,623
„ ironstone mines ... ... ... ... ...
4,510
„ lead mines ... ... ... ... ... ...
3,325
„ zinc mines ... ... ... ... ... ...
1,682
„ graphite mines ... ... ... ... ...
991
„ copper mines... ... ... ... .., ...
708
„ sulphur and alum slate mines ... ... ... 627
„ quicksilver mines ... ... ... ... ...
585
„ other mines ... ... ... ... ... ...
1,245
„ ironworks ... ... ... ... ......
8,105
„ other works of various kinds ... ... ... 2,065
Total ............... 95,662
In smelting works, etc., there were 6 deaths and 11 other accidents. As
regards the mines, an average of 53,650 tons per death, and 21.950 tons per
accident, was produced in 1880, and of 48,510 tons per death, and 21,840
tons per accident, in 1881. 167 deaths occurred and 204 serious accidents,
representing 2T and 2'6 per thousand respectively.
A. R. L.
74
EXPERIMENTS WITH THE JAROLIMEK HAND BORING MACHINE.
Ueber den Kraftbedarf der Sand-Brehbohrmaschine von JE. Jarolimeh. Hugo
Pebtjss. Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hilttemvesen, 1883, pp.
187-190, 203-206, and 218-220; one Plate.
The hand machines experimented upon worked at a leverage of 9 to 1, the
borers being from 1 ^ inch to If inch diameter. In addition to these,
experiments were made with similar machines worked by hydraulic power with
diameters of borer of from 2 inches to 2f inches, and with a special
experimental borer of 4£ inches.
The experiments were conducted near the Layer shaft, at Raibl, in
close-grained white-veined dolomite. The power was measured by means of a
crank-dynamometer, the crank, when turned, acting upon a spring to which a
pencil was attached, and so arranged that the work done was graphically
represented by diagrams.
It is considered that a man can exert a power on the machine of about 120
foot pounds per second, and the borers are adjusted to suit this motive
power.
According to a table of results obtained with borers of different sizes, a
If inch borer gave a 44 per cent, better result, and a If inch borer a 70
per cent, better result than one of 1-^ inch, while a still larger borer of
2-^ inches diameter showed a result only 30 per cent, better than the one of
1^ inch, the same motive power being employed throughout.
As a test under the conditions of actual work, a passage was driven 6 feet
6f inches high by 4 feet 11 inches broad and 51 feet 6 inches long, with a
hand boring machine worked by two good hewers, the whole being accomplished
in 20 shifts of 12 hours each. 54 holes were bored, of a total length of 162
feet, in 82 hours, a further time of 53 hours being spent in fixing the
machine and firing shots. The ptassage was driven in 14 lengths, which were
finished by hand work as successive groups of shots were fired.
The cost was 14s.-per yard, and out of this the hewers received 3s. 10|d.
per shift. The best result of hand hewing, which had previously been
accomplished in the mine, was the driving of a 52 feet 6 inches passage in
65"3 shifts of 12 hours each, at a cost of 16s. 8d. per yard, the hewers
receiving 2s. lOd. per shift. A comparison between these results shows an
advantage in favour of the machine of 60 per cent, in the amount of work
done in a given time, and of 15 per cent, in the cost of the work,
notwithstanding the fact that the workmen received 36 per cent, more wages
per shift.
Boring experiments were also made with mixtures of Roman cement, Portland
cement, sandstone, etc., and tables are given of results obtained with
dolomite and with Roman cement.
A. R. L.
EXPLOSIONS IN PRUSSIAN MINES.
Ueber die bisherige Thatiglceit der preussischen Schlagwetter- Commission.
Bekgeath Hassiachee. Vereins-Mittheilungen, Beilage zur Oesterreichischen
Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Huttenwesen, 1883, p. 96.
Between the years 1861 and 1881 there were 1,350 explosions in Prussian
mines, there having been relatively many fewer than in England. Two-thirds
of these were traced to the lights used, the safety-lamp failing to afford
protection in about one-fifth of the number of cases. Only one-eighth
resulted from blasting. During the same period there were also 49 deaths by
suffocation.
Two-thirds of the pits contain inflammable gas, from 9 to 10 per cent,
having natural ventilation, and 82 per cent, being ventilated by furnaces,
fans, etc.
One per cent, of the coals reach the surface by day drifts, and the rest are
drawn by shafts.
A. R. L.
75
HAULAGE AT THE ROTHSCHILD COLLIERY IN HRUSCHAU.
Seilforderung am IdaschacMe der Freiherr von Rothschild'schen
Steinlcohlengrube in Sruschau, Josee Bohm. Vereins-Miitheilungen. Beilage
zur Oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und IHittenwesen, 1883, pp.
61-62.
The hauling distance is about 612 yards, the gradients varying from 0° to
12°, and the work is done by a double air engine, two hauling ropes, and one
tail rope. This last, drawing a weighted tub, is rendered necessary by a
bend in the way of about 360 yards, in wake of a trouble. A set, consisting
of four full tubs, is coupled and drawn in eight minutes, four empty tubs
going in-bye while the full ones are coming out. A tub holds about 14§ cwts.
The air engine, which is fitted with link reversing gear, has a diameter of
cylinder of 8f inches, with llf inches stroke, and is geared to the drum at
2 to 5. The diameter of the drum is 3 feet 1\ inches, the rope being wound
on to it in five plies.
V
The compressed air at five atmospheres is supplied by a Stanek wet
compressor, with 18f inches diameter of plunger and 31 inches stroke,
working at 30 revolutions per minute. The air is stored in three reservoirs
at bank, and led thence a distance of 100 fathoms, through 4-inch pipes, to
a small reservoir beside the engine at the bottom of the shaft. The total
capacity of the reservoirs and pipes is 1,024 cubic feet. The efficiency of
the air delivery is 94 per cent., and of the compressing machinery 72 per
cent. Owing to bends and differences of gradient in the way, the efficiency
of the hauling machinery is low, and varies from 36'6 to 42'9 per cent., the
corresponding amount of air used being from 2,457 cubic feet to 2,866 cubic
feet of atmospheric air. The men required are one brakesman and four
onsetters. The total cost of working and keeping in repair, including
depreciation, amounts to 4^d. per ton of coal drawn, and of this amount 2|d.
is due to the machinery. A. R. L.
THE ARLBERG TUNNEL BORED THROUGH.
Der Stollendurchschlag im Arlbcrgtunnel. Vercins-Mittheilungen,
Beilage zur Oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Iliiltenwesen,
1883, pp. 105-106.
On December 13th, 1883, a shot fired by one of the boring parties in this
tunnel unexpectedly opened communication with those working from the
opposite side, by blowing out a hole at the farther end.
The thickness of the dividing mass of rock, which from the measurements both
parties had believed to be from 9 to 10 yards, proved to be only 2 yards.
In direction, the borings were extremely correct, the difference in the
levels being almost nil, and that in the horizontal direction being barely 8
inches.
In driving the Mont-Cenis and St. Gothard tunnels, similar discrepancies
occurred between the lengths computed by triangulation and those actually
measured, the errors being on the same side.
A. R. L,
76
MODIFICATIONS OF THE BESSEMER PROCESS.
Lecture by Hoffeath t. Ttonek. Vereins MittJieilungen, Beilage zur
Oesterreich-ischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Ruttenwesen, 1883, pp. 99-101.
The most important of these has been in use at Avesta, in Sweden, since the
year 1877. There are two single charcoal furnaces, each possessing its own
movable converter, but, as a rule, only one is at work. A spare converter is
kept in reserve. The charges are from 10 to 16 cwts., and an average of 30
charges is reckoned per day of 24 hours, or 95 tons per week of 5 days. From
87 to 88 per cent, of the raw iron is reproduced in the shape of ingots. The
cost of Bessemer plant for one furnace, exclusive of the blast, is from £480
to £570.
The second method is one patented by Vogel and Nuth. The converter in this
case is fixed and so arranged as not to require a separate blast. As in the
former case, the charges are small, and it is claimed that a very high
quality of steel is produced.
The third method touched upon is "The Chapin Pneumatic Process of Making
Wrought Iron." The converter in this case is movable, but delivers the metal
while still in a fluid state into a rotary puddling furnace, similar to that
of Danks. The iron produced is of excellent quality, and the cost of
production is less than by the ordinary methods of puddling. By the iron
being first put through the converter less puddling is required in the
rotary furnace, and the fettling of iron ore stands considerably better.
A. R. L.
THE BLEIBERG- LEAD MINES.
Orientirender Vortrag iiber Bleiberg. E. Makuc. Vereins-Mittheilungen,
Beilage zur Oesterreichischen Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Ruttenwesen, 1883,
pp. 86-89.
Bleiberg lies in a valley of volcanic origin, and the lead ore occurs
principally in the Hallstadter chalk formation, but is also found amongst
slate and bituminous dolomite. The beds, which are very irregular, appear to
have been formed by the filling up of previously existing caverns, wTiich,
though generally within the limits of one stratum, sometimes extend into
others. The mass of deposit contained in one of these caverns shows a
concentric texture, different mineral layers following each other in regular
succession. The walls have first a coating of blende, and this is followed
by sulphate of baryta, galena, marcasite, dolomite, and fluor. In some cases
the mass of deposit so formed has been subsequently broken, and the
resulting fissures have in their turn been filled, and can be traced in
similar formations containing white and yellow lead ore, ead vitriol,
plumbocalcit, flint zinc spar, coal zinc spar, zinc bloom, anhydrit, gypsum,
brown ironstone, greenockit, loam and ochreous clay.
Some particulars are given of the smelting process, and a historical sketch
of the district.
About 1,100 men are employed and 600 women, and the output of lead is from
4,000 to 5,000 tons a year,
A. R. L.
77
EVAPORATIVE PERFORMANCE OF STATIONARY BOILERS.
Verdarnpfungsversuche mit den Dampfkesseln der Seite 261 besprochenen
Zwei-cylindermaschine der Kammgam Spinnerei Augsburg. Peop. R. R. Weeneb,
Darmstadt. Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp.
394-398.
A series of experiments, extending over five days, was made at Augsburg, in
April, 1880, on two boilers of a spinning manufactory, to determine their
efficiency. Each boiler had two flue tubes, in which lay the grate, having
21 square feet of area. The heating surface of each boiler was 62432 square
feet,and that of the feed water heater 312-16 square feet. The boilers had
been cleaned some weeks before the trials. A table is given of the results
obtained on two different days, viz., April 7th and April 8th, with
different kinds of coal, giving the following analyses:—
April 7th. April 8th.
Per Cent, Per Cent.
Carbon............ 70'89 ... 46'92
Hydrogen ......... 5-06 ... 3;53
Oxygen and sulphur ... ... 12'14 ...
15\L6
Water............ 4"5 ... 12-46
Ash ........... 7-41 ... 21-93
Theoretically, the first of these should contain 13,000 heat units and the
second 8,700 heat units per pound. Of the total heating power thus employed
there was absorbed:—
April 7th. April 8th.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
In evaporating water ... ... 71'4 ...
59'8
By loss through grate and chimney 16'3 ... 32-0
Through imperfect combustion ... 5*7 • • •
3*0
Through radiation......... 66 ... 5"2
Table of performance:—
. ., „,
^
^>ril7th. April 8th.
Number of boilers ... ... ... • ¦ ¦ ¦ • •
*¦ ¦¦¦ "
Quality of coal ............... Oood. ...
Inferior.
Coal per hour in pounds ............ 244'5 ...
457*68
Grate area in square feet............ 21 reduced to 29
Coal per square foot of grate per hour ... .. 11'18 lbs.
... 15-74 lbs.
Heating surface in boiler in square feet...... 624-32 ...
1,248"6
Ditto in feed water heater „ ... ••• 312-16
... 624"3
Coal per square foot of heating surface of boiler "3925 lbs. ...
'3725 lbs.
Water evaporated per hour......... ... 1,989-9 lbs. ...
1,95175 lbs.
One pound of coal evaporated ......... 814 lbs. ...
4-26 lbs. water,
Temperature of boiler-house ... ••¦ ¦•• 75° F.
... /0 t.
Ditto of flue gases entering the chimney...... 362° ...
360
Ditto of flue gases above grate, as calculated ... 2,660°
... 1,240
Ditto of water when entering the boiler...... 200° ...
273
In calculating the amount of heat communicated to the water by one square
foot
of boiler heating surface per 1° difference of temperature, it was found
that this was
greater when using the inferior coal, which was ascribed to the presence of
a larger
proportion of water in this coal.
' '
z-
COST OF ELECTRIC LIGHT.
Ueber die Betriebshosten des eleJctrischen Lichtes. Feed. DECKER.
Zeitschrift des Vereines DeutscAer Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 398-402.
An elaborate comparison of the relative costs of gas and electric lighting
has here been drawn by assuming 150 gas lights of 2,400 candles to be
replaced by electric lights. One gas light was supposed to burn 4'5 cubic
feet of gas per hour, the cost of 100 cubic feet being 6|d. The gas lights
are assumed to be replaced either by 150 incandescent lights of 2,400
candles on Edison's system A, or by 10 arc lamps of 8,000 candles on the
Schuckert system, with opaque glass globes. The cost of the electric light
per cent, of that of gas light is given in the following table:—
Incandescent Lights. Arc Lights.
Hours- Hours. Hours. Hours.
500 3.600 ... 500 3,600 Motive Power.
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
A separate gas or steam engine ... 200 166 ...
90 60
An existing large condensing engine.. 100-125 80 ... 60
40
Taking into consideration the greater lighting power of the ten arc lamps,
which is as 8.000 to 2,400, the cost of these would be reduced to 50 and 30
per cent, respectively with separate engine power, and to 25 and 12 per
cent, respectively with existing motive power. Hence it follows that the
relative cost varies according to the number of hours per year during which
the lights are burnt, and also according to the nature of the motive power,
arc lights driven by an existing engine, and burning for the greater number
of hours, being the cheapest of the three modes of lighting.
J. N.
DETERIORATION OF BOILER PLATING FROM FERROUS SULPHATE.
Die Gefdhrdung der Dampfkessel durch Eisensulfat. Dr. K. List.
Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 411-413.
A sulphurous deposit was found on the surface of an exploded boiler, the
plates of which had been considerably reduced in thickness by corrosion. The
deposit, a reddish powder, gave, when disJfed, ferric oxide and sulphuric
anhydrite, the relative weights being 10 to 1. This plwder is not readily
soluble in cold water, but when boiled in a large quantity of water it will
dissolve, forming sulphuric acid. In this acid iron or zinc is easily
dissolved. The same action takes place on the outer plating of a puddling
furnace heated by waste gases. In that case the vapours arising from the
cooling of the slag jdye^^ necessary water. The sulphuric acid of the flue
gases condenses on the pflH conning ferrous sulphate. This compound takes up
a part of the oxygen of fl Htases, giving ferric sulphate, which is
dissolved by the hydrogen, yielding an acl^tad a basic salt. The latter of
these acts again upon the outer plating of the furnace, forming fresh
ferrous sulphate, so that the iron is slowly consumed.
It has also been stated that ferric sulphate and sulphuric acid are
sometimes carried into the boiler, as in one case where iron liquor from a
wire-making works flowed into the well which fed the boiler. The plating of
this boiler was corroded after three months in such a way that its further
use had to be limited to a short time. Here the action was the following :
the ferric sulphate was dissolved by the boiling giving ferric oxide and
acid; the sulphuric acid acting upon the plates gave ferrous sulphate, which
oxidized by the oxygen of the feed water to ferric sulphate. In this way
ferric sulphate and sulphuric acid were continually produced, so that small
quantities of sulphate caused a constant corrosion of the boiler.
J. N.
79
HYDRAULIC MACHINES IN THE SAXON SILVER MINES.
Ueber die Fntmiclcelung der Wassersdulen MascMnen und die Anlagen zur
Vermehr-ung der Wasserhrdfte im Freiberger Bergrevier. Gustat Hahn.
Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 378-383. One
Plate.
The silver production of the Freiberg mines has been much facilitated by the
extensive employment of cheap hydraulic machines for drawing and pumping
purposes. The feed water for these machines is partly collected in
reservoirs and partly taken from adjacent rivers; the conduits, which are
about 94 miles in length, being partly used for carrying off the water
raised from the mines. The first motors in use were water-wheels, which have
been replaced since 1820 by hydraulic machines placed in the shaft. The feed
water was at first regulated by cocks, latterly by pistons. The prototype of
these machines may be considered to be one which was constructed in 1823,
and which gave a performance = '7. It worked with a head of water of 50
fathoms and had a diameter of cylinder of 18f inches and a stroke of 8 feet
4J inches, the number of lifts per minute being 4. It had one feeding
cylinder with one inlet, one outlet, and one reversing piston. In Plate XX.
are shown three of the present pumping engines. Figs. 1-4 illustrate one
constructed by the lecturer, Herr G. Hahn. It works with a head of water of
68 fathoms, and has a diameter of cylinder of 19| inches and a stroke of 78|
inches, the number of lifts per minute being 4. The greatest speed of the
water is 300 feet per minute, the pressure per square inch of plunger being
240 lbs., and the volume of the feed water per second is 8"38 cubic feet.
The spear works two plungers, one of 18-|- inches diameter at a depth of 56
fathoms, and one of 5 inches diameter at 76 fathoms. The total weight of the
gear is about 52 cwt. The feed is effected by three pistons working in one
cylinder. The flow of the water is regulated by two cocks, one in the inlet
and the other in the outlet pipe, in the latter of which there is also a
throttle valve. These points require special attention in the design; for a
carefully adjusted feed, combined with large sized piping, will prevent
shocks and undue wear. The second machine (see Figs. 5-7) has one piston
only for both inlet and outlet, and one reversing piston. It works at a
speed of water of 330 feet per minute with the greatest smoothness. The
diameter of the plunger is 18| inches and its stroke 94J inches, the number
of^Mts per minute being 4-6. The descending pipe gives a head of water of
30-6 fathoflP The third machine (see Fig. 8) has a leather-packed piston in
lieu of the plunger, and in consequence of having to pump against a
pressure, it is fitted with a hydraulic balance-cylinder. J. N.
THE IRONSTONE SERIES Wk MAINE.
Le Minerai de Fer de Lorraine au point de vue stratigraphique et
paleontologique. By — Bieicher. Bulletin Societe Geologique de France, Ser.
3, Vol. XII., pp. 46-107, with four Tables and one Section in text.
The ironstones of Lorraine occur at or about the junction of the Upper
Liassic and Lower Oolitic rocks, and really form part of both divisions, the
ironstone beds characterized by Trigonia navis belonging to the Lias, and
those with Ammonites MurcMsonce to the Inferior Oolite. Of late years they
have been largely worked in the Meurthe-et-Moselle Department, and the
present paper is chiefly based on the new facts brought to light by these
workings. At Esch, near Villerupt, the ironstone series is 43 metres thick.
In the central region of the Nancy basin the following subdivisions are
recognizable:—
80
b.—Infebiok Oolite Limestones. 5.—Sandy, gravelly, and marly limestone only
occasionally Metres.
sufficiently ferruginous for working ... ... ... 010 to
0'85
4.—Sandy calcareous ironstone, usually red or yellow ...
T50
a.—Upper Liassic Ironstones. 3.—Earthy and marly ironstone ...
... ... ... 1'50 to 3"00
2.—Friable, marly, or nodular ironstone, greyish black and
much worked .................3"00 to 10'53
i.—Sandy ferruginous marls ... ... ... ...
... (?)
In the northern portion of the Nancy basin, though the same geological
horizons are present, the ferruginous character is so slight as to render
the beds unworkable for iron, and the same may be said with regard to its
southern portion.
In the Longwy basin the same series is again found, and is much worked.
After giving very full stratigraphical and palaeontological descriptions of
the beds as they are exposed along an outcrop of 120 kilometres, the writer
concludes, that the actual ironstone affects lenticular forms of various
extent and thickness, and that these lenticular masses occur, within the
limits above given, at several fossil horizons.
G. A. L.
IKON PRODUCTION IN RUSSIA.
Exposition Natianale de Moscou en 1882. & Industrie du Fer, By G. de
Cttypeb.
Revue Universelle des Mines, Ser. 2, Vol. XV., pp. 56-79.
An account of the fluctuations in the production of iron in Russia from 1718
to the
present time. The following table is given, showing (in metric tons) the
position held
in this respect by Russia comparedwith other countries in the years 1870 and
1880 :—
England ... ^^ ... 6,000,000 .. 78oo°000
United States iqosnm 7,808,000
German v '" 1'"8'000 -
3,886,000
Fr-ce ::._ iiii'2 ••¦ 2'720'000
288,000 ... 400.000
In 1880, 240.000 tons were imported into the country. The discovery of coal
in the Urals, where vast deposits of iron ore are lying unworked, does not
promise to add much to Russian total iron production, owing to the quantity
of ash and sulphur which it contains. It is otherwise with the Donetz
district, where coal of good quality and easily-obtained ironstone occur
together in large quantities.
A very brief statistical enumeration of the Russian iron and steel-works
represented at the Moscow exhibition concludes the paper.
Or. A. L.
81
COAL PLANTS AND COAL.
(1) VSgeiaux fossiles dans la houille et le terrain houiller. By M. Fayol.
Comptes-Rendus mensuels, Societe de VIndustrie minerale, 1884, pp. 36-38.
Two Plates (PI. V., VI.)
Attention is called to the presence of well-defined vegetable tissues in
certain bright lenticular portions of the coal of Commentry and Montvicq.
These " organised nodules" (lentilles organisees) alternate with duller
zones of coal, and are repeated several times in lumps from three to four
inches in thickness. Punctate structure and striations are often well shown,
even to the naked eye, and the cellular, fibrous, and other tissue are
sufficiently preserved to show the plants to which they belong. So far as
the author has studied them, the remains must be referred to forms of
calamo-dendron and ferns.
(2) Note pour servir a Vhistoire de la formation de la houille. By M.
Renault. Same publication, pp. 38-40.
In this paper the preliminary results of a microscopic examination of the
tissues mentioned in the foregoing one are described. The conclusions
arrived at are:—(1) That in many cases coal pan only be due to the
transformation in situ of the constituents of plants; (2) that the wood as
well as the bark has contributed to the making of the coal; (3) that in the
process of change into coal the organic elements—cells, etc.—have decreased
in size, in all their dimensions, in a regular and determinable ratio.
These two papers open out an almost untouched field in the investigation of
the structure and origin of coal.
G. A. L.
THE ENDLESS ROPE FOR UNLOADING BOATS.
Application de la corde sans fin au dechargement des bateaux. Par M. V.
Dttjardin. Societe des Ingenieurs sortis de Vecole du Hainaut, Ser. 2, Tome
XIII, pp. 62-70. Three folding Plates.
This paper describes an arrangement for discharging and stacking coal under
the following conditions, viz.:—
The depots were about 60 yards long by 10 yards wide, and placed with their
long sides parallel to the canal, 10 yards beyond the towing path, which was
3 yards wide and might not be interfered with.
A wooden staging was built, 3 yards high, so as to clear the towing path,
from the canal to the centre of a depot, and, branching right and left, was
carried to the end of the depot. Upon this a tramwray was laid, with the
space between the rails left open. Upon the tramway a truck ran, hanging
from which was a one-ton kibble. This truck also carried sundry drums, shown
in detail in the plans, which were set in motion by means of a 10
horse-power stationary engine through the intervention of a leather driving
belt.
The truck being placed over the boat to be unladen, the empty kibble is let
down into the vessel, and a full one is attached to the rope. This is then
wound up to the required height, and held there by a pawl. The truck is then
attached to an endless rope, and run into the depot, when the full kibble is
dropped and an empty one taken up in its place to be carried back again to
the boat; and so on.
The cost, including depreciation and interest on capital, assuming a minimum
of 25,000 tons unloaded and stacked per annum, is 3d. per ton, as against
5|d. when carried by coal-heavers.
J- H. M.
I
S2
FRACTURE OF A BORING TOOL BY DYNAMITE.
Sondage de Witterthum : Rupture d'un trepan par la dynamite. Par M. Bbunet.
Comptes-Rendus mensuels, Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, 1883, pp. 182-183.
One Plate.
A borehole, twelve inches in diameter, put down at Witterthum, near
Marquises, Belgium, was stopped at a depth of 300 fathoms through the trepan
sticking. In attempting to draw it the rods were broken, and the trepan and
five yards of steel rods were left at the bottom of the hole.
After several fruitless attempts to withdraw them the hole was about to be
abandoned, when it occurred to M. Brunet to try to break up the tool with
dynamite. This he succeeded in doing, the broken pieces were drawn with some
difficulty, and the boring proceeded with.
J. H. M.
PUMPING BY ELECTRICITY.
Note sur le transport de force par Velectricite de Sainte-JSlisaheth a, la
pompe de la Sorme. Par M. Gbaielot. Comptes-Rendus mensuels, Societe de
I'Industrie Minerale, 1883, pp. 239, 240. One Plate.
The author describes the arrangements by means of which the surplus power of
the engine of a ventilating machine, situated a long way off, was utilised
for pumping water to some boilers and to a farm.
The distance of the engine from the pump was 775 metres, from the pump to
the farm and boilers 290 metres, the head against which the water was pumped
was 20 metres, and the quantity pumped 1^ litres per second (say about 850
yards, 320 yards 22 yards, and 20 gallons per minute respectively).
J. H. M.
LIFE ASSURANCE. Conference sur Vassurance sur la vie. Faites a I'ecole
des mines de Saint-Etienne, le 3 decembre, 1882. Par M. L. Badon-Pascai,.
Comptes-Rendus tnensuels, Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, 1883, pp.
21-31 and 47-57. This paper is the address of M. Badon-Pascal to the old
students of the School of Mines at St. Etienne. It is the outcome of a
resolution made by M. Chalmeton, at the congress held at Alais that an
address should be given each year to young mining engineers upon life
assurance.
M. Badon-Pascal begins with a short resume, pointing out the rationale of
insurance—both life assurance and insurance against accidents—and its great
importance to professional men. He then recommends a system, introduced by
the Besseges Coal Company, of insuring the lives of principal employes, the
employer paying one-half of the premiums. The Besseges Company insure their
engineers for sums varying from 20,000 to 100,000 francs (£800 to £4,000),
the premiums of course depending upon the age of the assured. No one is
compelled to avail himself of this arrangement; but, on the other hand, the
company consider that they are under no moral obligation to assist the
widows and orphans of those who do not.
The Montrambert and Beraudiere Coal Company have lately adopted the same
system, and there seems to be a prospect of its becoming general, so that on
an engineer leaving a colliery his policy of insurance will be continued by
his new employers.
J. H. M
83
A MINER'S STRETCHER. Appareil pour le transport des blesses dans les Mines.
Par Le Docteue DuJOI. Comptes-Rendus mensuels, Societe de I'Industrie
Minerale, 1883, pp. 244-246. One Plate.
Doctor Dujol's stretcher is in three parts, hinged together, and forms a
couch 6 feet long, by 20 inches wide, and 15 inches high; or a chair, the
back and leg rest of which can be set at any angle. It is specially designed
for use underground, and is provided with straps and padded partitions, so
that the limbs, etc., may be firmly secured and further injury prevented
during transit through the workings and up the shaft.
Many of the members of the Society of Mineral Industry present at the
meeting thought that the stretcher could be easily carried about a mine, and
suggested that it be made capable of being attached to a tram, with which
modification they considered it would be very useful.
The details of its construction can be easily followed from the plan.
J. H. M.
TRANSMISSION OP POWER BY ELECTRICITY AT PERONNIERE*
COLLIERY.
Transmission electrique des mines de la Peronniere. Par M. Chaeoitsset.
Comptes-Rendus mensuels, Societe de I'Industrie Minerale, 1883, pp. 5-10.
M. Charousset first describes some alterations that have been made in the
machinery, and then shows by means of two tables the results of some
experiments undertaken for the purpose of determining the passive
resistances and the percentage of useful work obtained in different
circumstances.
The distance the current is carried is, in one case, 1,330 yards to a
staple, up which coals are drawn; and in the other, 1,650 yards, to a gin
bank.
The useful effect was 30 per cent., with 1,280 revolutions per minute of the
generating dynamo. But a higher efficiency could have been obtained with a
greater number of revolutions.
J. H. M.
THE DEVELOPMENT OP RAILWAYS.
Revue economique et statistique. Par M. Patti Teasenstee. Le
developpement
des chemins defer. Revue TJniverselle des Mines, Ser. 2, Tome XII, pp.
220-248.
In this paper (twenty-nine pages of small print, including two tables), the
author gives the lengths of railway open in each country of the world at the
end of each five years from 1840 to 1870, and at the end of each year from
1870 to 1881. He shows the increase for each period of ten years from 1840
to 1880, and for each year from 1870 to 1881; and tries to deduce, from what
has occurred in the past, what may be anticipated for the immediate future.
As the paper consists almost entirely of figures a reference to it is
perhaps sufficient. Taking the kilometer equal to five-eighths of a mile, we
find that at the end of 1881 there were 249,586 miles (399,338 kilometers)
of railway open throughout the world, and that the present rate of increase
is about 16,000 miles per annum. J. H. M.
* See Trans. N.E.T., Vol. XXXII., Abs. p. 14.
84
AN ENDLESS CHAIN BANK AT MARIEMONT.
Charlonnage de Mariemont. Puits Saint-Abel. Description d'une application de
trainage Mecanique Souterraine. Par M. Jos. Wuillot. Societe des In-genieurs
sortis de VEcole du Hainaut, Ser. 2, Tome XIII., pp. 103-107. One folding
Plate.
The author describes an endless chain underground engine plane, in which the
force derived from a falling gradient upon one part of the plane is utilized
for hauling the coals up a rising gradient upon another part. The details of
the arrangement are shown in the plate.
J. H. M.
MINERAL STATISTICS.
Revue JEconomique et Slatistique. Par M. Paul Tbasenstee. Statistique
Minerale. Revue Universelle des Mines, Ser. 2, Tome XIII, pp. 466-481.
The Coal Trade.—Drawings in Millions of Meteic Tons.
I860. 1870. 1873. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882.
Great Britain...... 85*4 112-2 129*0 135*8 149*3 156*6
158*8
United States...... 15-2 307 51*3 63*8 70*3 77*3
88"1
Germany ...... 12*3 34*0 461 53*6 59*2 61-5
65*4
Prance......... 8*3 13-1 17-5 17*1 19*4 199
208
Belgium ...... 9*6 13*7 15-8 154 16*9 169
17"5
Austro-Hungary ... 3-5 8-3 11*9 149 16-0
17*3 18*0 (?)
Russia............ ........... 3-24 3*24 (?)
Spain ......- .................. 1-17 1-17
(?)
Sweden........................ 012 012 (?)
Australia ..................... 2*20 2*20 (?)
Canada....................... 1*437 1*437 (?)
India ..................... 1-03 1-03 (?) 1*03 (?)
Chili ............... I ......... 0-80 (?) 0-80
(?)
Japan..................... 053 0'53 (?) 053 (?)
China........................ 3*00 3-00 (?)
Other countries .................. ...
2*873 (?)
Total ... ... 134*3 212-0 271*6 300*5 332*66 363-027
385-0
_________________________________________________________________
The paper gives also the consumption per head in some of the more important
countries, and the production per man employed.
The Ieon and Steel Teade.—Peoduction of Iron Ore in Millions of
Meteic Tons.
England .................. 17*0
United States.................. 10*0
Germany and Luxembourg ... ... ... ... 8*3
Spain ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 5*0
France..................... 30 to 35
Other countries ...... ... ...... 4*2
Total ............ 47*5
The paper also contains the production of cast iron, wrought iron, and
steel, and the exportation and consumption of the same in the principal
countries of the world.
85
The Zinc, Lead, Coppee, and Tin Teades. The author gives the like statistics
for these also, from which we find that Belgium produces the greatest
quantity of zinc, England coming second; Spain the most lead, England
standing second; England the most copper; Detroit the most tin, Cornwall
I j. i.
J. H. M.
standing next.
DRAWINGS AND LITHOGRAPHS OF FOSSILS.
Reproduction Autographique des Empreintes. Par M. Chanselle et M. Fayol.
Comptes-Rendus mensuels, Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, 1883, pp. 36 and
119.
The impressions are taken as follows :—Printing ink is spread over the
fossil by
means of a roller, and ordinary white paper is damped and gently pressed
upon it with
the fingers. If a lithograph is required, autographic paper must be used.
As most coal-measure fossils would be damaged by printing ink, they should
first be covered with silicate of potash, dried, and then inked as above.
After the print has been taken every trace of the ink can be removed from
them by washing in spirits {en lavant a, Vessence).
Several lithographic plates taken by this method were exhibited to the
members.
J. H. M.
THE ANTHRACITE AND LIME INDUSTRIES OF MAURIENNE.
Note sur les Anthracites et les Chaux de la Maurienne (Savoie). Par M.
Villet.
Bulletin de la Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, Ser. 2, Tome XII, pp. 5-42.
Two folding Plates. The author first describes the topography of Maurienne,
illustrated by a geological map on a scale of _^ (four miles to the inch)
and two sections; and gives an account of its mineral resources, viz., its
slate, limestone, gypsum, anthracite, spathic iron ore, argentiferous lead
and copper. He then describes the anthracite mines and hydraulic limestone
quarries in detail.
The point perhaps of most interest to the members of the North of England
Institute is his description of the above-ground haulage by means of
suspended railways or suspended inclined planes. This system was adopted
because the mountainous nature of the country would have made ordinary
railways very expensive to construct, and, even if made, the snow would have
rendered them useless during a great part of
the year.
Two iron wire ropes about four inches in circumference are stretched from
point to point, as much as 700 yards being included in one span. An iron
stirrup furnished with wheels runs upon each rope, and the tub is hung from
the stirrup. In order to save weight the tub is made detachable from the
wheels upon which it runs in the mine. These stretched ropes then take the
place of the rails on an ordinary plane, and the sets, or single tubs, as
the case may be, are hauled up and down by stationary engines, or are
arranged to work like self-acting inclines as the gradients suit. The weight
of tub varies from 8 to 10 cwts.
The first cost of a suspended railway to run 15 tons per day in 75 journeys,
assuming a single span of 600 metres, with 300 metres difference of level,
and two iron wire ropes 0'022 metres diameter (say a 2\ inch rope), would be
5,415*45 francs (£216). The iron cables last about six years.
J. H. M,
86
THE SCHOOL OF MINES, LIEGE.—EXTEACT PROM THE REPORT OP M. TRASENSTER.
Bulletin de VAssociation des Ingcnieurs sortis de Vl£cole de Liege, Kouvelle
Serie, Tome VII., pp. 223-238. During the session 1882-83 the names of 1,314
students were on the books, being 111 more than the preceding year. 37* sat
at the final examination, all of whom obtained diplomas, 21 as mining
engineers, 2 as engineers of arts and manufactures, and 4 as mechanical
engineers.
An Electro-Technical Institute is about to be added to the school at a cost
of 100,000 francs (£4,000), presented by M. Montefiore, M.P., and an old
student; and the degree of engineer-electrician has been created by the
Government to be awarded—
1.—To men holding the degree of mining or mechanical engineer (Belgian
Section), after one year's special training on certain subjects, the
programme of which is given. 2.—To students of mining and mechanical
engineering (Belgian Section) who have passed through their preparatory
courses, after two years' special study, the programme of which is given.
3.—Certificates will be given to engineers of arts and manufactures and to
mechanical engineers (Foreign Section), after a special course of one year.
t
J. H. M.
OBSERVATIONS ON UNDERGROUND WATER.
Die'Erscheinungsformen des Grundwassers. O. Smeekee. Zeitschrift des
Yereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 681-691. Illustrated in the text.
The lecturer mentions two theories accounting for the existence of
underground water. According to one of these the moisture of the
atmosphere, when precipitating, partly trickles through the soil into the
lower strata of the earth. The theory of Dr. Vogler maintains that this
-water cannot trickle through to any considerable depth, but that the
atmosphere itself impregnates the ground, and coming into contact with the
deeper and colder strata condenses and forms the underground water directly.
This water, like that at the surface, exists in the shape of brooks,
streams, and large expanses, which, according to the inclination of their
beds, will either be still or flowing. This is ascertained by sounding in a
number of boreholes, the direction of the flow being determined by putting
colouring matter or a salt in the M'ater of one hole, and observing in which
of the other holes the water is affected by it. The underground •water
rises and falls like the surface water, but more slowly. As a rule, the
beds of rivers and lakes allow of no connexion between the respective levels
of the water above and below ground. A striking illustration of this was
given in the case of the River Letta, near Bologna, where the level of the
underground water was found to be 5 feet below that of the river, and this
difference was increased on both sides of the river to 8 feet 10^ inches by
pumping from one borehole.
The underground water is met with in natural springs, artesian and ordinary
wells. Hydrological experiments carried on in the Bohemian Lowlands, while
seeking water for the city of Prague, showed the underground connexion
existing between different
* 27 ?—Sub-Editor.
87
springs. The surface there consists of sandstone, resting partly on a bed of
marl. A plan and section of the Kokerin valley are given in the text. Two
brooks meet near a village, and between their banks are numerous small
springs. In the village are seven wells, and between it and the nearest
brook is a very large spring. The observations were carried on during the
winter of 1880, when the two brooks were dammed up to ascertain the amount
of water which they take in from these sources. The water in the nearer
wells and in the large spring rose 10 inches, that in the wells farthest
away only 5 inches. The soundings taken on December 30th gave a depth of
water in the wells of 15 to 18 inches, showing also that the level of the
underground water was 10i inches lower at the large spring. Four weeks after
the dams had been removed the depth of water in the wells was from 9 to 15
inches. The level of the underground water shown in the section is in
accordance with these soundings, the full line representing, the natural
one. The wells were dug a century ago, and their shallowness is a proof that
the water level has not altered since that time, as its lowering would have
necessitated deeper sinking, there being just water enough to allow the
buckets to be filled. The soundings also show that the underground water
flows from under the village towards the brooks, causing the rise of the
large spring, and the smaller springs result from its breaking through rents
in the clay. J. N.
IMPROVED GAS GENERATOR.
Verbesserter Grobe-Liirmann Generator. Feitz Luemanjv. Zeitscrift des
Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 664-668. Two Plates. The new
Groebe-Liirmann Generator differs from the older one in having a row of
coking holes on each side of the gas chamber, instead of only on one. These
holes are built on a slope, and the coal as it is coked falls on to a grate
at the bottom of the chamber and is gradually raked out, a certain quantity
being always left. The air, rising through the coke on the grate, produces
carbonic oxide gas, which is led by brick passages to the furnace which is
to be heated. From here the burnt gases are led under the furnace where they
heat the air required for the combustion, and round the gas chamber, whence
after passing round the coking holes they reach the boilers and escape
through the chimney.
The double arrangement of coking holes, besides requiring less gas chamber
space, is more efficient in its working, as the coke on the grate is not so
liable to get low, and the formation of carbonic acid instead of oxide is
therefore less likely to result. In some cases the air, instead of passing
through a grate, has been supplied by blast, and the gases are then passed
through a purifier before reaching the furnace, to free them from dust. The
gas may either pass first round the coking holes and then through the
purifier, or it may go to the purifier first, so as to prevent the
accumulation of dust in the brick passages.
When these generators are applied to blast furnaces, or to the production of
heating gas for general household or industrial purposes, precaution must be
taken to prevent their overheating. This is done by the injection of hot
water or steam, which absorbs a portion of the superfluous heat, and passes
with the gases into the furnace in the shape of carbonic oxide.
Gas generators with natural draught must be charged with non-caking coal;
but for those with the blast a certain proportion of nuts of caking coal may
be mixed.
J.N.
88
REFRIGERATING MACHINERY.
Die WirJcungsiveise der Kaeltemaschinen. R. Schottler. Zeitschrift des
Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 549-557. Illustrated in the text.
The author shows that, though in a steam engine efficiency increases with
large variations of temperature, in engines for chilling air or vapour such
variation should be as small as possible.
Most of the latter are open, and compress a fresh volume of air at each
stroke. The engine of Bell and Coleman is referred to as that in most
general use. The air is drawn into a cylinder where it is compressed and
cooled by the injection of water-spray, and passed through the condenser,
where it is further cooled and dried. It is then allowed to expand in a
second cylinder, and finally exhausted into the chamber which is to be
cooled. An insufficient drying of the air will cause ice or snow to form in
the expansion cylinder, and lead to a rapid wear of its Mrorking parts.
In other refrigerators liquid ammonia is vaporized by being passed through
coils of piping surrounded by the water to be cooled. The temperature in
the condenser is usually 68° F.; that in the refrigerator 5° or less. To
compare these two systems of refrigerating, the author calculates for each
the work required to abstract 9,000 units of heat during an hour. The
number of strokes is 100 per minute, the horse-power required being 8'1 for
the air engine and 8-8 for the ammonia engine. The compression cylinder of
the former has a volume of 21*34 cubic feet; the expansion cylinder 19"24
cubic feet; and 7'4 units of heat are abstracted from the air by the
expenditure of one unit of working heat. Assuming the ammonia used to
contain 10 per cent, of water, the volume of its single cylinder would be
only 3'88 cubic feet, and the factor of efficiency 6"8. Although the
vapour engines require additional apparatus when applied to air, they are
preferred for that purpose to the compression engines, the latter being used
with advantage for cooling meat or fish, which will keep better in cold air
than on ice.
A second group of refrigerators is based on the reduction of heat which
accompanies the absorption of ammonia vapour by water. These absorption
engines were invented by Carre. The transmission of the vapour from the pump
cylinder to the condenser is effected by a system of cooling tubes, the
arrangement of which is illustrated by diagrams. They require about three
and a half times as much water as the first-mentioned engines, and their
efficiency is smaller. A combination of the two systems is the vacuum engine
of Carre and Windhausen, which is based on the fact that in a vacuum, water
may be converted into ice as long as its vapour is absorbed by sulphuric
acid. The cooling water in the condenser is constantly being removed, and
the vapour is partly removed by a powerful air-pump.
J. N.
REGENERATORS FOR AIR ENGINES.
Ueber die Amoendung von Regenerator en bei Heissluftmaschinen. M.
Scheoetek. Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 449-459.
The theory of the regenerator as applied to air engines is given at length,
and the
factor of efficiency calculated for an engine with and without a
regenerator. The theoretical assumption that the changes of temperature in
the regenerator correspond exactly with those of the air admitted and
discharged is not borne out in practice, but a mean temperature is created
after a certain time which renders the action imperfect. This is given as
the principal reason why the regenerator fails in practice. In the case of
an air engine constructed recently by J. Hock, in which the air is heated
directly in the engine, a regenerator has been applied with advantage.
Mention is made of the trials with regenerators made by C. W. Siemens, and
published in Rankine's work on the steam engine.
J. N.
89
AIR HEATERS FOR BLAST FURNACES.
Ueber Winderhitzerfur Bochbfen. Fritz Lurmann. Zeitschrift des Vereins
Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 475-485. One Plate.
Criticisms passed upon a former lecture of Herr Liirmann's led him to make
enquiries among furnace managers about some of the points raised, the
results of which he here communicates.
The waste gases from the blast furnace carry with them into the heating
apparatus a good deal of dust, which accumulates there, and, being
afterwards carried back into the furnace by the air, tends to reduce the
efficiency of the blast. The quantity of dust thus carried varies with the
velocity of the gases when leaving the furnace, this being the greater the
more compact the charge and the smaller the pipes. One method of purifying
the gases is to pass them through large chambers, so that their velocity is
diminished and the dust settles down. In the case of two air heaters, built
on this principle in France, the velocity is reduced from 21*5 feet per
second to from 1"6 to 3'3 feet per second, one of the chambers being built
over a stream of water which carries off the dust as it settles. Other
expedients for getting rid of the dust are to pass the gases through loose
heaps of bricks and brushwood, and to hang up sheets of iron vertically in
the heater, the first of these means being found very effective.
Belani moistens the gases by water diffused as spray by a jet of steam, the
dust being thus moistened and laid, and then passes them through a condenser
to dry them.
It is stated that an annual saving of £3,000 has been effected in the
working of a Silesian blast furnace by raising the temperature of the air
admitted to the furnace from 800° to 1,300° F. This has been effected by the
adoption of three Whitwell stoves, each 22 feet in diameter by 65 feet high,
and having a heating area of 25,834 square feet, the cost of each stove
being £1,750. An improvement on these stoves has been patented by Herr
Goedecke, who, in order to introduce it, offers to apply his invention for
two-thirds of its cost.
Figs. 1 and 2 (Plate XXII.) illustrate a Whitwell stove of the latest
design, Figs. 3 and 4 showing an earlier construction. Figs. 5 and 6
represent a stove of the Cowper-Siemens system. In the latter it is stated
to be a great objection that alternate tiers of brick grating are placed at
right angles to each other, as they are thus much more likely to be choked
by dust. M. Remaury publishes the following comparative table of the costs
of the two systems, as experienced with stoves built and •worked in the
North of France:—
H JSSJtaJf^SwKJSf Heating Material
Cost of the
j3 a production of SO tons Area= per
Heater. Finished Heaters.
Name op g 3 m 2i
hours._______________________________________________________
Apparatus. § •¦£ •
'& M oi ofl 2 "3 pPT.
iS For For the
SO ftfe p. o HeVtpr Total- Iron-
I °ne Whole
P aa IH Heater &
Heater. Arrangt.
Whitwell, new Ft' Ft- S<1-
Ft- Sq-Ft- Lbs- Tons. Francs. . .Francs,
system ... 22 56 2 1 0 3 25,188 50,376 123,459
708 2,157 6,471
Do.,old system 22 28| 6 2 0 8 8,61151,666 83,330
358 1,294 10,352
Cowper ... 21 56 2 1 1 4 25,403 50,806 136,686
669 2,118 8,472
I
According to M. Remaury the air heating area for blast furnaces varies with
the local conditions of working and the nature of the charge; but in any
case three Whitwell stoves are equivalent to four Cowper stoves, one of the
latter being always out of
m
90
work for cleaning. The Whitwell stoves can be cleaned while working, and in
them the segregation of dust is facilitated by the frequent reversal of the
direction of the gases passing through them. A matter of importance in
cleaning is the position of the bricks, stoves with tiers of flat bricks
being least liable to shrink. A calculation is given of the heating area of
a stove intended for a furnace dealing with 74 tons, in which 204 lbs. of
carbon are oxidized per minute, the amount of air required for this being
30,700 cubic feet.
It is found that for lower temperatures of the air blast, say up to 1,100°
F., the old cast iron air heaters are better than those of brick.
J. N.
EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRIC AND GAS LIGHT IN A MUNICH
THEATRE.
Beleuchtung des kgl. Residenz Theaters in Milnchen nach Edison's Si/stem.
Bedeutung der electrischen Beleuchtung fur die Oesundheitspflege und das
Rettungsioesen. Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883,^.
508-510.
The light is supplied by three Edison dynamos, pattern K, each feeding 250
six-candle incandescent lamps. The dynamos are each driven by a compound
engine of 40 horse-power, and run at 900 revolutions per minute. Shortly
after leaving the dynamo the current is divided into two, one for 88 candles
for the lobbies and staircases, and the other for 678 candles for the stage
and auditory. The light of the lamps, although without glass globes, is
stated to be more agreeable than gas light.
Experiments have been made to ascertain the relative effects of gas and
electric light on the temperature, and the amount of carbonic acid in the
theatre both empty and when occupied by from 500 to 600 persons. The
temperature was noted every ten minutes. In the upper parts of the house
when empty it was ten times as high with gas light as with electric light.
During a performance by electric light the reading (73° F.) in the higher
parts of the house was about the same as that taken in the pit when gaslight
was used, notwithstanding that the temperature out of doors was higher in
the first case. The greatest amount of carbonic acid in a full house was '23
per cent, with gas and -18 per cent, with electric light.
J. N.
DIAMOND ROCK BORER FOR ARTESIAN WELLS.
Diamantoohrer filr artesische JBrunnen der
American-Biamond-RocJc-Boring-Comp. Beegeath Tecklenbtteg. Zeitschrift des
Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 1883, pp. 517-518. Illustrated in the text.
The boring machine is fixed to a cast-iron framework, which carries an
oscillating steam cylinder turning the spindle by means of spur and bevel
wheels. A cross-bar is mounted on the top of the spindle, to which are
attached the piston rods of two hydraulic cylinders. The drill is thus
forced into the rock by hydraulic pressure, which is regulated by the supply
of water from the accumulator. The spindle consists of tubes coupled by
interior muffs, so that the borehole is round and smooth and ready to
receive the pipes. The rinsing of the hole is effected by a separate pump
delivering the water through the hollow spindle and the annular boring bit.
The machine has been applied lately in Pennsylvania by the Wilkes Coal
Company for boring three 9-inch holes, two of them being 59"4 fathoms and
the other 50 fathoms deep.
J.N.
91
SUBSTITUTES FOR BLASTING IN COAL MINES.
Einiges ilber die Kohlengewinnung mit comprimirten KalJcpatronen und tnif
dem Levefschen hydraulischen Abtrieblceil. J. Mayee. Oesterreichische
Zeitschrift fiir Berg- und Suttenwesen, 1883, pp. 367-370, 386-389, and
407-410. Illustrated in the text.
Two methods of bringing down the coal are here principally dealt with, viz.,
" the compressed lime process " and " the Levet hydraulic wedge."
There are few coal mines in Austria so gassy as to make blasting dangerous,
and to most of the principal seams that are worked neither of these methods
is quite suitable.
In the Polish Ostrau coal-field the seams are as follows :—¦
In the Polish Ostrau coal-field the seams are as follows :—¦
Name. ^"in®'
Q™1^-
Thick Seam ... ... 13 1^ ... Hard and tough and very
gassy.
Juno do. ... ... 3 7 ... Hard and gritty;
kirving practised.
Urania do. 2 ft. 8 in. to 3 0 ... Hard and gritty.
II. Lying Seam ... ... 411 ... In some parts dirty; in
others good
and suitable for kirving.
IV. Do. do. ... ... 3 0 ... Clean hard coal;
suitable for curving.
V. Do. do....... 3 3 ...
......
In these seams the cost of the blasting powder used per ton of coal brought
bank is as follows:—
s. d.
i main way, Wilhelm Shaft ... ... ... ... 0
5|
) do. Jacob Shaft ............ 0 2|
ThlCkBeam] boards, Wilhelm Shaft ............ 10*
( do. Jacob Shaft............... 1 0|
Juno do. do. do. ... ... ...
... ... 0 5j
Urania do. do. do. ... ... ...
... ... 0 5^-
II. Lying Seam do. do. ... ... ...
... ... 0 2|
IV. * Do. do. do. .............. 0 3|
V. Do. do. do. ............... 0
5*
Large quantities of gas were met with in a passage in the Thick Seam near
the Wilhelm Shaft, and recourse was had to the compressed lime process, the
Levet hydraulic wedge being also tried in neighbouring boards.
The passage in question had previously been worked 7 feet 2J inches broad by
6 feet 6| inches high, the practice being to kirve at half height and blast
the top down with two charges of dynamite, the bottom being afterwards
blasted up with two more charges.
The first attempts to bring down the top piece with lime were unsuccessful
with two, three, and even four shots, and it was found necessary to nick the
coal at both sides, after which one shot was found sufficient. The shot
holes, kirving, and nicking were carried to the same depth, viz., about 40
inches.
A miner's wages were about 2s. l|d. per shift of eight hours, during which
he could kirve nearly 13 square feet, or nick nearly 12 square feet of coal.
The cost for kirving, nicking, and bringing down the upper coal was as
follows : —
s. d.
Four shifts nicking and kirving, at 2s. l|d. ... ...
... 8 5
One shift boring and incidental work ... ... ...
... 2 1{
10 6i
Lime cartridges (one hole) .................. 0 7
92
In round numbers the total cost came to lis. 2d. per 40 inches, or 10s. a
yard.
The highest cost of working with dynamite was 6s. Id. per yard, and in
general the work cost upwards of 65 per cent, more with lime cartridges than
with dynamite.
The cost of pure hand work per yard came to lis., but the coals were won in
much smaller lumps. The comparative results were :—
Round Coals. Nuts. Small.
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
With lime blasting ......... 30 ... 25
... 45
With pure hand work ... ... ... 14 ...
25 ... 61
The difference in value of the coals thus won came to about 4d. per yard,
which brought the comparative cost per yard of the hand work up to lis. 4d.
The cost of the hand work thus came to 13 per cent, more than that done with
the lime cartridges, and to 90 per cent, more than with dynamite.
The comparative costliness of the lime cartridge work was due to the badness
of the roof, which limited the width of the passage, the process being most
suitable to long-wall working.
An attempt made to work with a 13-feet board had to be abandoned because the
roof would not stand without timbering.
Another attempt was made to work with the lime process in the Thick Seam
with a face 19 feet 8 inches broad in the full height of 13 feet 1|- inches.
The coal was kirved and brought down in successive juds from the bottom of
from 2 feet 8 inches to 3 feet 11 inches thick, the cartridges failing to
move more than this thickness. Three holes were required in the face breadth
for each jud, those near the top of the seam being found very troublesome to
bore. To prevent danger it was found necessary to shore up the higher juds
until it was time to apply the cartridges. The process was thus found costly
in this case also, but in trials' in the thinner Juno, Urania, and V, Lying
Seams it cost about the same as the ordinary method of blasting.
The Levet hydraulic wedge was tried in the gassy quarter near the Wilhelm
Shaft under the same conditions as the lime process. The holes required for
this are 2 feet 3J inches deep by 3 inches in diameter. Two half-round steel
cheeks project 1 foot 11 inches into the hole, each being tapered thin at
the inner end, Outside is fixed a cylinder Math a long piston rod projecting
between the steel cheeks and attached to the point of an iron wedge, the
butt of which is against the inner end of the hole. Water is introduced to
the piston from a hand-pump underneath, and the wedge is gradually drawn out
of the hole, opening the steel cheeks, and thereby causing a downward
pressure tending to split off the jud.
The first cost of the machine was about £25.
The apparatus being used in the 7 feet board before mentioned, it was found
necessary again to nick on both sides, so that the boring, kirving, and
nicking were much the same as before, except that they only went to the
depth of 2 feet 3J inches. Owing to the hardness of the coal the steel
cheeks frequently got bent, and the machine required constant repairs. A
pair of thicker cheeks was obtained, but the cylinder ultimately burst.
The cost per yard came to lis. 2d.
If applied to long-wall woi'k the system would require a separate apparatus
for each hole, the conditions being otherwise similar to those for the lime
process. A calculation, based on the power which wrould be required to burst
the cylinder, shows the force exerted by the wedge on the coal to be about
33 tons. A. R. L.
93
ROPE TRANSPORT IN SEAMS LYING AT HIGH ANGLES. Seilbremsforderung in
Aufbriichen mit geringer steigung in SiMioeg. Wilhelm: V. Retjsz.
Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Suttenwesen, 1883, " pp.
356, 357. One Plate.
Herr v. Reusz describes an arrangement for bringing out the coals from a
board in a seam rising at an angle of from 20° to 30°. A wire rope is
stretched just below the roof between two upright posts, the one near the
face and the other at the bottom of the board at the farther side of the
main way. Below the rope is laid a small set of rails and two small tubs;
the one hanging on the rope and the other running on the rails are connected
with each other by a smaller rope passing round a sheave fixed in the upper
post, so that when one is filled and allowed to descend to the tub on the
main way, the other is drawn up to be filled again. At the bottom of the
board the rails rise up to the height of the tops of the large tubs, so that
the small tubs can be easily discharged. The upper post is moved farther on
as the work proceeds. The wire rope passes through it, being jammed by a
screw, and must be kept long enough to reach the top of the board, the loose
end being coiled up until required. The rope is made taut by a stretching
screw at the lower post. The loose end of the small running rope is coiled
up on the end of one of the small tubs. The speed of travelling is regulated
by a brake at the top.
As the distance between the posts increases it is necessary to support the
wire rope at intervals, so that the two tubs may not foul each other. It is
claimed that the arrangement has the effect of improving the ventilation,
and an instance is given in which a board was driven for 110 yards in the
middle of summer before the ventilation became bad. For the larger rope
an old winding rope is found to answer well.
A. R. L.
REVOLVING SCREENS. Der Klonne'sche Kreiselrdtter. Oesterreichische
Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Suttenwesen, 1883, pp. 210, 211.
Herr Klonne, manager of the Fortschritt Mine, near Dux, is the patentee of a
new apparatus for screening coals, the novel feature of which is that the
screens are set at small angles of inclination and made to revolve. These
latter, five in number, are set in a box-shaped framework 6 feet 6 inches
long by 3 feet 3 inches broad by V feet 6 inches high, and sloped
alternately towards the front and towards the back. The motive power is
communicated by a horizontal shaft and bevel wheels to a vertical spindle
with a crank-shaped arm, which works in a socket at one side of the box, and
is coupled to a similar arm and spindle on the other side. Each point in the
box is thus made to move in a circle whose radius is the length of one of
the arms.
The apparatus is supported by four stanchions with spherical heads arranged
so as to give the effect of rolling on four balls.
The meshes of the successive tiers are 5j inches, 2 inches, 1£ inches, \
inch, and 5 inch square respectively.
The screens work at the rate of 140 revolutions per minute, and can deal
with from six to eight wagons of coals per hour, the indicated horse-power
required to drive them being about 3|.
The special advantages of the system are that it causes very little damage
to the coals, and that it delivers the different kinds exceptionally clean
and free from dust.
A. R. L.
94
SINKING THROUGH WATER-BEARING STRATA.
H. JPoetsch's Methode des SchacMabteufens im schwimmenden Gebirge. E.
Oester-reichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Huttenwesen, 1883, p. 396. In
the summer of 1883 the first practical attempt to sink a shaft bj the
Poetsch method was made in the Archibald Mine, near Schneidlingen, and
brought to a successful issue.
The sinking is not described in detail, but the principle involved is that
of freezing the water round the sides of the shaft, and keeping it back by a
layer of ice.
The shaft had been sunk 18^ fathoms before water was met with, and the earth
temperature of the watery stratum was then 52° P., that of the air at the
bottom of the shaft being 53^r° F. After six days' work with the freezing
appai'atus the earth temperature fell from 20° to 23° F., the temperature in
the middle of the shaft being about 7° higher.
The shaft was then successfully sunk through the watery stratum, and mining
engineers wishing to see the process at work were invited to communicate
with Herr Poetsch.
A. R. L.
THE JAROLIMEK HAND-BORING MACHINE.
Betriebs-'Ergebnisse mit der IS. Jarolimeh'schen Hand-Drehbohrmaschine beim
Querschlagsbetriebe in Kronprinz Rudolf Stefanschachter Grubenbaue zu
Bohutin bei Pribram. Joseph Hozak. Oesterreichische Zeitschrift filr Berg
und Huttenwesen, 1883, pp. 381-384, 395-396, 411-412, 422-424, and 433-435.
At Bohutin, near Pribram, one of the above machines was obtained for
experimental purposes in March 1882, and set to work in a drift through a
granite dyke. The stone was at first rather broken and moderately soft, but
in the interior of the dyke it became compact and hard.
A regular trial began on the following month, the drift being 5 feet 3
inches wide. At first the price paid was the same as for hand work, viz.,
46s. per yard. In the softish stone first met with the machine bored about
'5 inch per minute, or '1 inch per turn, the gearing being at 1 to 9, and
the turns per minute 5. In the harder stone the advance per stone fell to
"045 inch. It was found desirable to use plenty of water, aad the amount
used rose in the harder stone to l£ gallons per minute.
One man worked the machine from eight to ten minutes at a time, making about
45 turns per minute. The boring tools required sharpening about every 30
inches in the softer stone, and about every 20 inches where it was hard.
The mode of working was to begin with from four to five machine boreholes
from 27 to 43 inches deep, and shoot down a piece of the rock face from the
middle of the passage, and to follow this up by hand-work, and trim down the
remaining pieces with eight to ten hand boreholes of from 12 to 20 inches
deep.
The machine borehole charges were fired together by electricity, the smaller
charges being fired separately by the ordinary methods. The explosive used
for the 2-inch machine holes was blasting gelatine made up in l^-inch
cartridges; that for the 1-inch band holes being the much cheaper dynamite.
No. 3, in f-inch cartridges.
. As to time, a group of four or five machine hole shots fired by
electricity brought down 2 feet 7 inches of rock after about eight shifts'
work, and the trimming up of the passage with eight to ten hand shots
followed in about four more shifts. As a rule a machine hole charge took
about 11 lbs. of blasting gelatine enclosed in a l/B-inch case.
05
This work was continued for four months. Then followed one month of handwork
alone, one month more with machine and hand-work combined, and again another
month of hand-work alone, the explosive used being blasting gelatine and
dynamite No. 3 in each case. The same men were employed throughout, and at
the same rate of pay, viz., 46s. per yard.
Tables of results are given which show that the distance driven was 13 feet
per month by hand-work against 24 feet per month by hand and machine-work
combined during the earlier months, and 21 feet 6 inches per month during
the last month but one, which was entirely in the harder sto'ne. Even in the
latter case the result was thus 65 per cent, better by the combined method
than by hand-work alone.
The cost of explosive materials per yard came to about 15s. for machine and
handwork against 13s. 7d. for hand-work alone. In the former case, though
somewhat the higher, it only amounted to one-third of the wages of the
workmen.
The experiment was tried of working entirely with the machine borer, but the
expense of the blasting gelatine, which was then exclusively used, was found
so great that the attempt was abandoned. The cost of explosive material
would in this case have been nearly two and a half times as great as before.
The expenses incurred for cost of tools, wear and tear, and other
incidentals came to 24s. per yard with machine and hand-work, against 20s.
6d. per yard with hand-work alone.
The result then was that the work was done 70 per cent, more quickly by the
help of the machine, and the workmen being paid in each case by the yard
driven, the expenses were:—
Wages and tools ... ... 70s. Od. per yard for machine and
hand-work.
Explosives ... ... ... 15s. Od. do. do.
do.
Wages and tools ... ... 60s. 6d. do. hand-work
alone.
Explosives ... ... ... 13s. 7d. do.
do.
A. R. L.
CHARCOAL BLAST FURNACES.
Ueber Grosee, Windmenge und Temperalur mit Holzlcohle gespeister
Eisenhochbfen. P. Tunneb. OesterreicMsche Zeitschrift fur Berg- und
Hiittenwesen. 1883, pp. 268-271.
While blast furnaces fed with coke or coal have recently undergone many
improvements and been much increased in size, those fed with charcoal,
except in some cases in America, have remained almost stationary. Herr
Tunner contends that charcoal furnaces with some modifications, rendered
necessary by the smaller specific gravity of the fuel, may be advantageously
altered in the same direction.
From its lightness, charcoal is apt to lie on the top, while the heavier ore
sinks to the bottom, and if the body of the furnace is made very wide this
tendency is much
increased.
Hence it is recommended that the body of the charcoal furnace be kept
narrower in proportion, but that the width of the lower part and the height
be increased to the dimensions usual in coal or coke furnaces turning out
from 50 to 75 tons a day in all cases where the operations are large enough
to keep several of the present furnaces in blast. Also, with regard to
blast, it is considered that the prevailing prejudice against high
temperatures is a mistaken one, and that the volume of air might with
advantage be considerably increased-
A, R. L-
96
METALLIC VEINS IN THE COAL-MEASURES OP UPPER SILESIA. TJeber Erzgange und
Gang miner alien in dem SteinJcoMengebirge Oberschlesiens. Be. Beenhaed
Kosmaot. 0 ester reichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Htitten-tvesen,
1883, .pp. 289-291 and 302-304.
The process of formation of the veins and pockets of metallic ore found in
the C.oal-Measures of the Silesian district, and also in the Mussel
Limestone overlying them, presents a difficulty of which many solutions have
been proposed. Br. Kosmann considers that they have found their way in the
form of mineral springs from the measures below into previously existing
cracks and crevices in the strata. Examples are given of their occurrence in
several different mines, and it is shown that they are generally found in
the neighbourhood of troubles and such like dislocations of the strata; and
that, whereas they do not as a rule penetrate through the limestone, they
can always be traced to the strata below.
A. R. L.
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AT THE GRABENBERG WORKS.
Die eleMrische Beleuchtung der Hiitte Oradenberg bei Koflach. Peop. Josef v.
Ehbejstweeth. Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Huttenwesen. 1883,
pp. 256, 257.
A part of the rolling mills of Messrs. H. & C. Mitsch, in Gradenberg, is
lighted by four differential electric lamps of 350 candle-power each from
the firm of Messrs. Siemens and Halske. The lights are required only in the
winter time, when they are in use for four hours every evening.
The motive power is obtained from a water-wheel of 19 feet 9 inches diameter
and 4 feet 11 inches in breadth, which is used during the day to drive one
of the cutting machines. The first cost of the installation was about £230,
the compressed coke-burners costing about 3d. a yard, and a piece 8 inches
long lasting five hours.
The cost of the burners is found to be about equal to that of the oil and
petroleum which were used previous to the electric installation.
A. R. L.
BIFFERENT KINBS OF PETROLEUM.
Verschiedene Petroleumsorten. A. Fattck. Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur
Berg-und Hiltteuivesen, 1883, pp. 331, 332. Raw petroleum is found in many
different conditions, some kinds being almost like tar, and others again
quite thin and very inflammable; and the quality of the refined oil depends
largely upon its comparative purity when raw. In general, America possesses
the best kinds, and afterwards come Galicia, Roumania, Hanover, and Baku in
order.
Good lamp oils should be clear and transparent, and have a specific gravity
of from "82 to -79, and at a temperature of 100° Fahr. they should not give
off inflammable gas.
The petroleum in Russia and Roumania is for the most part heavy and poor in
quality. In Galicia the quality varies considerably, some being very good,
but a large proportion poor.
The sale of petroleum inflammable at 100° Fahr. is in general forbidden in
Austria, but a special exception to this rule was made in favour of that
from Galicia, it being found that the trade of this district would otherwise
suffer very heavily.
A- R. L,
KORTING'S WATER-JET ELEVATOR.
Der Wasserstrahl-Plevator am Budolfschachte in Bleiberg. Edm. Makitc.
Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hiittenwesen, 1883, pp. 332-334.
Illustrated.
One of these machines has been used since the winter of 1882 in the Rudolf
Shaft, at Bleiberg, where it took the place of hand-pumps, worked by fcight
men per shift of 10 hours, or sixteen men per day of 24 hours. The principle
involved is that the pressure on pipes of water flowing through them varies
inversely as the speed, and, when the latter reaches a certain point,
becomes negative, or, in other words, is converted into suction.
The jet is supplied by a 1^-inch pipe, led down the pit with a head of water
of 617 feet. The elevator, which lies in the sump, is about Hi inches long,
and from a diameter of half an inch in the middle widens out towards the
ends. At one end it is flanged to a 2-inch upflow pipe to bank, and at the
other a funnel connected with the downflow pipe is inserted into it, so as
to leave an open space round it, which communicates by a suction pipe with
the sump water.
The downward flow is about '433 gallon per second, at a speed of 6'45 feet
per
second, and the upward flow is about '796 gallon per second, the amount
pumped being
thus #363 gallon per second. The depth of the mine is about 15 fathoms,
and the
performance of the elevator is about 12 per cent. It is calculated that
the same
machine could be used down to a depth of 34 fathoms, when its performance
would
become 20 per cent. At present the machine works 6 hours per day.
A. R. L.
ON VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF STEAM CARRIAGES IN BELGIUM ANB THE RHENISH PROVINCES.
Memoire sur divers systemes de voitures a vapeur employees en Belgique et
dans les provinces Rhdnanes. Par M. Woems de Romiilt, Ingenieur en chef des
Mines. Annales des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome V., 1884, pp. 205-239. Plates VI.
toX.
In a lengthy and detailed paper, well illustrated, the author describes four
systems of steam carriages (or steam trams), pointing out what he considers
as the defects of each system and comparing the miles run and number of
passengers conveyed. The paper concludes by a summary and table of
comparative dimensions, as follows: —
Delpaire, ™ Delpaire, „.,
No. 1 Type. Temeuzen, No 2 Type. Thomas.
Total length of carriage without buffers 37 ft. 4 in. 46 ft 3 in. 39 ft.
4 in. 40 ft.
Bistance between extreme axles ... 23 ft. 4 in. 34 ft. 9 in. 26
ft. 9 in. 24 ft.
Weight of working carriage without
passengers ... ... ... ... 19 tons. 25
tons. 21^ tons. 28 tons.
Seats, first class ......... 22 ...
10 6
„ second class ... ... ... ...
... 10 35
„ third class ......... 22 69
32 40
Biameter of driving wheels ...... 38£ in. 37 in. 38^
in. 42| in.
„ cylinders ... ... ... 7 „ 8
„ 7 „ 9 ,,
Stroke ............... 12*- „ B2| „ 12^ „
14 „
B. P. M.
98
SCHEDULE OP THE ACCIDENTS OCCURRING TO STEAM APPARATUS
IN 1882.
Bulletin des accidents arrives dans Vemploi des appareils a vapeur pendant
Vannee 1882. Annales des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome IV., 1883, #p. 574-584.
This paper enters fully into the causes of each explosion, but we need only
reproduce for sake of brevity the following table :—•
Stjmmaby. i.----by "dustotvatton' ot7 wotf/its
No. of No. of No. of
Accidents. Killed. Injured.
Boats ............... 3 ... 5 ...
2
Laundries ... ... ... ... ... 2
... 2 __
Railways ... ... ... ... ... 1
... __ __
Preserves, manufactories of ... ... 1 ...
1 __
Tools, manufactories of ... ... ... 1 ...
__ __
Distilleries ... ... ... ... 2
... __ __
Cloth, manufactory of ... ... ... 1 ...
__ \
Quarries ... ... ... ... ... l
... __ __
Agricultural machines ... ... ... 3 ...
9 ... q
Spinning mills ... ... ... ... 1
... 2 ... 1
Foundries ... ... ... ... ... 1
... __ 1
Motive power, workshop ... ... 1 ...
l ... __
Forges, workshops of ... ... ... 3 ...
10 ... 5
Oil works ... ... ... ... ... \
... 2 0
Laboratories ... ,.. ... ... 1
... __ __
Mine ... ... ... ... ... \
... \ __
Minoterie ... ... ... ... ... 1
... __ 1
Animal black, manufactory of...... 1 ... 1 ...
__
Paper mill ... ... ... ... 4
... 3 ... \
Refinery ...... ... ... ... 1 ...
__ 1
Rosin, works for preparing ...... 1 ... —
... __
Sawmills ... ... ... ... ... 2
... 1 ... __
Sugar, manufactory of ... ... ... 1 ...
l ... __
Dyeworks ... ... ... ... 1
... __, __
Contractor's yard ... ... ... l ...
1 ... 1
Total ...... 37 ... 40 ... 20
II.—BY DESCBIPTION OF APPAEATUS.
(a.)—Boilers externally fired—
Horizontal, without tubes ...... 11 ... 7
... q
Vertical ... ... ... ... ... 3
... 7 \
(b.)—Boilers internally fired—
Horizontal, without tubes ... ... 1 ...
3 __
Do. more or less tubular ... 8 ... 17
.. 8
Vertical ...... ... ... ... 2 ...
__¦ 1
(c.)—Receivers ... ...... 9 ... 3
3
(d.)—Sundries ... ... ... 3 ...
3 1
Total ...... 37 ... 40 ... 20
99
III.—BY PBESTTMED CAUSES.
(a.)—Defective condition of materials—¦ Construction, arrangement, setting,
or defective materials ... ... 10
(5.)—Defective keep— Wear and tear, deterioration, or thinning ...
... ... ... ] 5
Want of, or defective, repairs ... ... ... ...
... ... 7
(c.)—Mismanagement of the apparatus—¦ Want of water (sometimes with addition
of sudden and injudicious
feed when hot) ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 5
Over-pressure ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 6
Other causes of imprudence and neglect ... ... ...
... 4
(d)—Causes still unknown ... ... ... ...
... 2
Note.—The number of "presumed causes" is in excess of the total number of
accidents, due to one accident being credited occasionally with more than
one cause.
D. P. M.
STATISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION OF MINERALS IN FRANCE.
Statistique de I'Industrie Miner ale de la France. Combustibles Miner
aux. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome V., 1884, pp. 103-105.
Output.
Geographical Situation of
,------------------'------------------• Typical
Coal Basin. 1882. 1883.
Basin.
Tons. Tons.
(a) Coal and Anthracite—
Nord and Pas-de-Calais ... 9,481,021 10,051,401
Valenciennes, etc.
Loife............ 3,620,550 3,(55 L,860 St. Etienne, &c.
Gard............ 1,929,717 2,024,448 Alais, etc.
Bourgogne and Nivernais ... 1,543,508 1,585,173 Creusot and
Blanzy.
Tarn and Aveyron ...... 1,163,113 1,153,320 Aubin, etc.
Bourbonnais......... 1,044,764 1,159,796 Commentry, etc.
Auvergne ......... 316,399 340,713 Brassac, etc.
Herault ......... 287,151 315,720 Graissessac.
Vosges Meridionales ... 199,841 202,093
Ronchamp.
Ouest ......... 187,902 181,071 Le Maine,
etc.
Greuze and Correze...... 143,060 182,896 Ahun, etc.
Alpes Occidentales...... 125,970 147,371 Le Drac.
Maures ......... 800 150 Les
Maures.
Pyrenees ......... ...... ......
Durban, etc.
Total coal ...... 20,046,796 20,887,092
(b) Lignite—
Provence ......... 502,119 511,050 Le Fuveau.
Comtal ......... 28.313 24,456 Bagnols,
etc.
Sud-ouest ......... 14,223 11,114 Millau, etc.
Vosges Meridionales...... 9,777 10.657 Gouhenans,
etc,
Haut-Rhone......... 2,476 1,830 La Tour du Pin.
Total lignite...... 556,908 559,107
Grand total...... 20,603,704 21,446,199
_______ _ p _
100
ON THE COAL BASIN OF LANCASHIRE.
Memoire sur le Bassin houiller du Lancashire. Par M. M. Lttttyt,
Ingenieur des Mines. Annales des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome V., 1884, pp. 5-102.
Paet Second (Page 35).—Mode oe Working.
The author of the paper thus commences the second part of the subject, the
first having been devoted to the geological features. Lancashire is the most
densely-populated county in England, and that in which the railway system
has reached its highest development, four main lines connecting the various
divisions, viz., the London and North-Western Railway, Lancashire and
Yorkshire Railway, Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway, and the
Cheshire lines (Plate L, Fig. 1), traverse the county; and a considerable
quantity of coal is conveyed by canal to Leeds, Liverpool, Stockport,
Huddersfield, etc., part of the coal produced being used in Manchester and
other manufacturing centres, and part exported from Liverpool.
The depth and extent of the coal-mines are noticed, the following being
cited:—
The depth and extent of the coal-mines are noticed, the following being
cited :—
Yards. Metres.
Ashton Moss Colliery, Ashton ...... 937 .., 860
Rosebridge „ near Wigan ... ... 811 ...
745
Bickershaw „ near Leigh ... ... 737
... 647
Abram „ ,, ...... 648
... 595
Clifton „ near Manchester ... 571
... 525
Bridgewater „ „ ... 566
... 520
Bradford „ „ ... 556
... 510
The extent may be exemplified by the Pemberton royalty, which is 3,300 yards
(3,000 metres) across and 3,100 yards (2,800 metres) in vertical depth of
coal-measures. The mode of leasing is then explained, as well as the reasons
for having so few pits in the large allotments of coal-bearing strata.
The general arrangement is that of two neighbouring pits designated the
downcast and the upcast, coal being generally raised in the former, although
in many cases the upcast is also available for coal-drawing. Pumping is of
little importance in Lancashire, and men are raised and lowered in the
ordinary coal-cages. One characteristic feature of the district is the
absence of any building enclosing heapstead, pulleys, screens, etc. (as in
Belgium and other coal-basins).
When the upcast is used for coal-drawing, it is usually, when ventilated by
a fan, covered by a cap or doors, holes being left for the ropes to play.
Several examples are given of this mode of utilizing the upcast, such as
West Leigh, of the Wigan Coal and Iron Co. (Plate I., Fig. 4), where a
40-feet diameter Guibal affects the ventilation. Abram, with its boxed-in
top, and Pemberton, with a nearly similar arrangement, are also described
(Plate II., Fig. 1). The mode of walling, tubbing, etc., is then described
in detail, several examples of the different systems being given, as well as
particulars of cages, pulleys, guides, and all the plant of a complete
Lancashire coal-pit.
The various modes of working the coal were also examined by the author,
whose preference seems to be for the "long-wall" system. Westleigh,
Rosebridge, and Pemberton workings are described minutely.
The coal-getting, use of powder, and compressed air cartridges form the next
subject; and then come the hauling systems, endless rope and chain,
tail-rope, inclined planes, etc., and examples are given with illustrations
,• and then details are given of the various winding-machines, dimensions,
depth of pit, speed, output, etc.; Rosebridge coming first in speed at 49
feet (15"00 metres) per second, and Westleigh
101
second at 45 feet (13'60 metres). Conical, spiral, and plain drums are
described with dimensions, construction, etc., and the pumping-engines at
Outwood, &c, cursorily reviewed.
The question of ventilation is much more fully discussed, and the Guibal
ventilators commended in preference to the furnaces, and Mr. Hall's remarks
in favour of fans quoted at length. The Bickershaw ventilator (Guibal) is
given at 48 feet (14'5 metres), and all the adjuncts, water-gauges,
counters, etc., detailed. Boilers, screens, lamps, management, output,
accidents, have all special and interesting chapters; and, in conclusion,
the writer bases upon Mr. Hall's statistics a conviction that a prosperous
future is in store for the district of Lancashire.
D. P. M.
NOTE OF AN ACCIDENT WHICH OCCURRED JULY 12th, 1883, AT THE PIT "DES
ROSIERS."
Note sur un accident survenu le 12 Juillet, 1883, au puits des Eosiers
(concession de Quartier-G-aillard, Loire). Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome
IV., 1883, pp. 569-573. On July 12th, 1883, Portes, a stoneman in the
Rosiers coal mine, was burnt by a shot under circumstances of some interest.
He was employed, as was also a companion, Blanc, in driving a rise drift in
the upper level of the eighth seam. This drift was 9 yards (8 metres) long
by a little over 3 yards wide, and an average height of 6^- feet. Powder was
used on account of the tough and hard nature of the coal. A hole had been
bored ready for firing in the corner of the drift (Plate XVIIL, Fig. 2)
about 3 feet in depth (1 metre). The weight of powder was 375 grammes (13
ounces), and the stemming about 12 to 15 inches of coal-dust and dirt picked
from the floor of the drift. When all was ready the two men retired to the
points marked P and B on the plan, while the underviewer remained to light
the fuse. The underviewer, after having examined the place with his
safety-lamp, and finding it free from gas, lighted the fuse and sheltered in
a stenton (J). In a few seconds a violent detonation occurred, while volumes
of flame poured against the air current, and burnt Portes, who was stationed
round two corners and 11 yards from the mouth of the rise drift. From
Blanc's evidence it appears that the flame was red in colour, and contained
a number of small particles of ignited matter. It is also to be noted that
Portes was burnt on the side next the direction of the shot, and that his
head was unhurt, being sheltered by his arm and a headtree of timber.
It was at first thought that fire-damp was the cause of the mass of flame,
but the seam had never given off gas, and further examinations and tests
showed the improbability of any outburst. The conclusion arrived at was that
the shot (which had blown out) had ignited the dust in the drift, and this
having raised an eddying cloud in the main level, set fire to this also. To
prove this a similar set of conditions was subsequently organized, and the
results nearly coincided, and the writer considers this as another instance
to be added to the list of explosions of coal-dust from blown out shots.
It is recommended :—
1.__To avoid heavy charges of powder and coal stemmings.
2.__To direct the men to retire to the main level at least 30 yards from the
shot
when being lighted. Watering presents practical difficulties, and in the
absence of gas may be dispensed with.
D'P-M-
102
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL RESEARCHES ON THE COMBUSTION OP
EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES OP GASES.
Pecherches experimentales et tMoriques sur la combustion des melanges gazeux
explosifs. Par MM. Mallard et Le Chatelier, Ingenieurs au Corps des Mines.
Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome IV, 1883, pp. 379-568.
This paper is too lengthy and detailed to be translated in any but a very
concise and general mode; in fact, little more can be effected than a curt
notice of some of the most interesting chapters into which the paper is
divided.
Introduction.
Every combustion is attended with a certain exhalation of heat, which raises
the temperature of the body in combustion. This temperature to which this
said body is subjected is, when isolated from all external causes of
variation, termed the temperature of combustion. This is very useful in many
cases where the temperature of a given body must be raised to a certain
temperature, which temperature can never exceed the temperature of the
flame. The temperature of the body in combustion and the temperature of the
gases produced by the combustion are proved to vary generally and sometimes
considerably, owing to the variation, more or less marked, of the specific
heat of the gases resulting.
Chapter I.
First Series of Experiments with the Deprez Manometre.
It was proposed when the Fire-damp Commission made its experiments on the
explosive nature of fire-damp, to ascertain the pressure in closed vessels,
and to calculate from this the temperature. The want of simultaneous action
was against the correctness of the results, and an apparatus was contrived
(Plate XII.) to obviate these defects. This, however, still gave
erroneous results.
Chapter II. Second Series of Experiments with the self-registering Bourdon
Manometre. This apparatus is also illustrated (Plate XVIII.), and gave much
more exact results, which are illustrated by diagrams and curves (Plates
XII. to XVIII.) The mode of calculating these results is also minutely
explained, and the cooling down following the combustion is carefully
calculated. It would, however, be impossible to give an intelligible summary
of these tables in a condensed form, and the only way of obtaining complete
information is by examining and studying the diagrams and calculations in
extenso.
Chapter III.
This chapter is a compendium of the entire paper, giving the conclusions
arrived at under the following heads, into which it subdivides the subject:—
(a)—Laws of cooling in gases. (b)—Dissociation.
(c)—Temperatures of combustion with constant volumes. (d)—Specific heats of
gases ; carbonic acid; steam; pure gases; hydrochloric
acid; chlorine, (e)—Temperatures of combustion with constant pressures.
(f)—Theoretical considerations.
D. P. M.
103
COMPARISON OF THE TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY ELECTRICITY AND OTHER MODES IN
USE.
Comparaison du Transport de la Force par VElectricite et des autres
transports mecaniques les plus usites. Abstracted by Ch. Arendt, Ingenieur
honoraire des Mines., from the Prize Paper of the EleMrotechniker Verein of
Berlin. Pevue JJniverselle, Ser. 2, Tome XV., 1884, pp. 522-533.
The systems mentioned as being the proper agents for transmitting power to
long distai.Yir'.fis are:—
The systems mentioned as being the proper agents for transmitting power to
long distances are:—
1.—Electricity. 2.—Hydraulic pressure. 3.—Compressed air. 4.—Quick-running
ropes. The elements considered are in each case:—
1.—Cost of power obtained from the motor.
2.—Useful effect.
3.—First cost and wear and tear.
Detailed descriptions of each system are given, and the subdivision of cost
carefully considered, the head of electricity being sub-classified as steam
dynamos and hydraulic dynamos ; but the following summary of the minute
tables drawn up by the translator will give an idea of the scope of the
paper :—
Average Cost per effective Horse-Power per Hour.
Horse-Power Length in Cost in Length in
Cost in
Electro___ Per Hour. Metres.
Francs. Metres. Francs.
Steam ...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0207 ... 10,000
... 0-284
Hydraulic...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0027 ... 10,000 ...
0-032
Hydraulic power— »
Steam ...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0-187 ... 10,000
... 0-479
Water head...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0-022 ... 10,000
... 0-079
Compressed air—
Steam ...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0-227 ... 10,000
... 0-363
Water head...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0-029 ... 10,000
... 0-067
Popes—
Steam ...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0-135 ... 10,000
... 0-470
Water head...... 50 ... 1,000 ... 0012 ... 10,000
... 0'075
The conclusions drawn are mostly in favour of electric transmission, unless
in mines where fire-damp might occur and be subject to ignition by the
sparks of the dynamo. Ropes are liable to the objection of not being easily
applied where much subdivision is required; and compressed air and
electricity both appear to have the advantage in subterranean work. The
former must evidently be more economical in wear and tear. This paper is
well worth the attention of engineers interested in the subject, and the
details are most carefully examined and explained.
D. P. M
104
BEPORT BY THE SUB-COMMITTEE ON SUPERHEATED WATER.
Rapport presents a la Commission Centrale des Machines a Vapeur, au nom de
la sous-commission chargee des etudes et experiences relatives a I'eau
surchauffee. Par M. HirSCH, Ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees.
Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome K, 1884, pp. 171-204.
In a paper presented last year by Commander Treve to the Acadomie des
Sciences on the prevention of boiler explosions, reference was made to the
frequent occurrence of what was known as superheated water, and the above
sub-committee, of which M. Hirsch was a member, was appointed to investigate
and report on the subject.
M. Treve's theory was first examined. His view was that when Avater was in
ebullition for a length of time the air was driven out of it and the
temperature was raised some 80° or 90° above boiling point, and he gives in
corroboration cases where no steam has been drawn from the boiler during the
night, and when disturbed on resuming work violent explosions occurred.
The duties of the sub-committee were to examine and report on the conditions
producing superheating and the means of prevention or neutralisation.
The conclusions arrived at by them were divergent from those of M. Treve,
and are summarized at the end of an elaborate and interesting series of
experiments on different vessels (Plates IV. and V.) as follows :—
" It has not as yet been shown that superheating of the water in any boiler
has been the cause of explosion. If such should have occurred it must have
been through an agglomeration of circumstances coincident, exceptional, and
at present unknown. It is therefore useless to examine the value of any of
the proposed remedies; and it is proposed that an instrument to register the
temperature of the water and the saturation of the steam, might be properly
employed to arrive at precise data relative to this indefinite and unknown
condition of water in a boiler."
The Central Commission adopted the report of the sub-committee. D.
P. M.
ORE-DEPOSITS OP LEADVILLE, COLORADO.
Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, Lake County, Colorado. By S. P.
EmmojSTS. Second Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey,
Washington, 1882 (issued 1883), pp. 203-290. Plates XLIV., XLV.
This is a lengthy preliminary abstract of an exhaustive monograph not yet
published.
Leadville stands on the western flank of the Mosquito or Park range, on the
eastern slopes of the Upper Arkansas Valley. It is about 10,000 feet
above sea-level, but the peaks of the surrounding mountains rise above
14,000 feet. The sedimentary rocks of the region are (in ascending order)
as follows:— 1.— Archcean Pocks—
Granites, gneiss, and hornblende rocks (amphibolites) of various kinds, all
metamorphic. These rocks form the old core of the Rocky Mountains, and in
that part of the Continent of America correspond to the Laurentian deposits
of the Eastern States. In many cases they have never been submerged since
Cambrian times. Thickness unknown.
105
2. —Cambrian—
Lower Quartzite, white, passing into limestone and shales above. 150 to
200 feet. 3.—Silurian—•
(a) White Limestone, with chert. 200 feet.
(b) (above the limestone) Parting Quartzite, white. 40 feet.
4.—Carboniferous—
(a) Blue Limestone.—Compact, dolomitic, cherty above. These are the ore-
bearing rocks par excellence. 200 feet.
(b) Weber Grits.—Coarse white sandstones, with conglomerates, micaceous
shales, and occasional thin beds of limestone. 2,500 feet.
(c) Upper Coal-Measure Limestone.—Blue and drab limestones and dolo-
mite, with red sandstones and shales, mud shales at top. 1,000 to 1,500
feet. 5.— Quaternary—
(a) Lake Beds.—Fresh-water locustrine deposits. (h) Recent
Formations.—Including glacial drift, moraines, etc. The igneous rocks are
Mesozoic porphyritic, basic, and acidic rocks of various kinds, of which
one, the "white" or "Leadville" porphyry, is a normal quartz porphyry
intimately connected with the ore-deposits. It is locally known also as "
block porphyry" and as "forest rock," and occurs chiefly south of an east
and west line drawn through Leadville.
The author states that his investigations have proved (page 234) :—
I.—That the ore-deposits of Leadville have been derived from aqueous
solution. II.—That these solutions came from above. III.—That they derived
their metallic contents from the neighbouring eruptive
rocks. IV.—That in their original form they were deposited not later than
the Cretaceous epoch. V.—That the metals were deposited from their solutions
mainly as sulphides. VI.—That the process of deposition of the vein-material
was a chemical interchange, or actual replacement of the rock-mass in which
they were deposited. VII.—That the mineral solutions or ore-currents
concentrated along natural water-channels, and followed by preference the
bedding planes at a certain geological horizon ; but that they also
penetrated the mass of the adjoining rocks through cross-joints and cleavage
planes. VIII.—That the main mass of argentiferous lead ores is found in
calcareo-mag-nesian rocks; and IX.—That the siliceous rocks, porphyries, and
crystalline rocks contain propor tionately more gold and copper. The
principal ore-deposits occur near the contact of the Carboniferous Blue
Limestone with the overlying porphyry in a gangue of iron, manganese, and
clay. The prevailing ore is argentiferous galena, with its secondary
products, lead carbonate and silver chloride. Sulphate (anglesite) and
phosphate (pyromophite) of lead are also found. Gold occurs native, in
very small flakes or leaflets. Zinc blende, calamine, with arsenic and
antimony minerals also occur, together with sundry others.
A coloured geological map on a scale of ^ mile = 1 inch, and a sheet of
illustrative sections, illustrate the present paper. The forthcoming
complete memoir will, however, be accompanied by a large atlas of many maps,
plans, and sections. A short metallurgical report, by Mr. A. Guyard, is
given in abstract (pp. 285-290).
G. A. L.
o
106
THE WESTPHALIAN COAL-FIELD.
Congres annuel tenu a Dortmund, les 13, 14,15, et 16 AoiU, 1883, par
VAssociation generate des Ingenieurs Allemands. By Ph. Passelecq, P.
Lebacqz, and A. Stoessee. Publications de la Societe des Ingenieurs sortis
de I'JEcole provinciate d'Industrie et des Mines du Hainaut, Ser. 2, Vol.
XV., 1884, pp. 64-98, large folding Map and Section. Plate VII.
This is the official report of a four days' visit to the principal
collieries and works of the Westphalian coal-field. A small longitudinal
section, showing the lie of the beds between Recklinghausen and Sprockhovel.
and a vertical section on a larger scale, showing all the coal-seams,
shales, sandstones, and conglomerates of the district, are given. The
greater portion of the report consists of brief notes giving useful
statistical information (e.g. nature of coal, depth of shafts, output, kind
of pumping and ventilating machinery in use, etc.) respecting the following
colliery concessions :—Alstaden, at Oberhausen; Germania, at Miilleuseifen ;
Minister Stein, near Dortmund; Westphalia, at Dortmund;
Frohliche-Morgensonne, at Wattenscheid; Dahlbusch, at Roth-ausen;
Bonifacius, at Wattenschied; Langenbrame, at Essen. Some account is also
given of the metallurgical works of the Dortmund Union (Union, Actien
Gesellschqft filr Bergbau, Msen und Stahl-Industrie, Dortmund), of the
Hoerde Campany Hoerder Bergwerks und Hiittenverein, zu Hoerde), of the
Bochum Company (Boch-umer Verein fur Bergbau und Qusstahlfabrication), and
of the Hoesch steel works at Dortmund (Eisen und Stahlwerk Hoesch, zu
Dortmund).
G. A. L.
THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF BELGIUM.
(1) Da carte geologique detaillee de la Belgique a Vechelle du 1 ; 20,000.
(2) Sur I'utilite de la carte geologique de la Belgique a Vechelle du 1 '.
20,000. By A. Rtjtot. Revue Universelle des Mines, Ser. 2, Vol. XV, 1884,
pp. 295-335. Three Figures in text.
The first of these papers gives a full account of the methods followed in
drawing up the large scale (1 ; 20,000) Government Geological Map of
Belgium. The map will consist of 432 sheets, of whicli the following have
already been published (up to 1st March, 1884), viz.:—Ciney, Natoye, and
Dinant, with diagrammatic sections and explanatory text. Many other sheets
with accompanying memoirs are nearly ready, viz.:—Hastieres, Clavier,
Modave, Bruxelles, Bilsen, Landen, St. Trond, Heers, Virton, Ruette,
Lamorteau, Achene, Rosee, Philippeville, Senzeilles, Sautour, and Hamoir. In
colouring the maps a distinction is made between those parts of the outcrops
which are actually visible at the surface and those which are concealed by
soil, etc., and the subdivisions of the Post-Tertiary and Recent deposits,
which occupy so large a portion of Belgian territory, are shown
simultaneously (and, it is said, without loss of clearness) with those of
the underlying rocks. The process by which the latter object has been
attained is technically known to the officers of the survey as "fusion du
sol et du sous-sol," and as a result the maps thus coloured are good
agricultural as well as geological maps. The orographical features of the
couutry are shown by contour-lines 5 metres apart on the left side of the
Meuse, and 10 metres apart on the other side.
The second paper points out the special advantages of the new map from
industrial, agricultural, and hydrographical points of view.
The entire cost of the survey is estimated at 2,000,000 francs (£80,000),
and seventeen years are allowed for its completion,
G. A. L.
107
THE COMSTOCK LODE.
A Summary of the Geology of the ComstocJc Dode and the Washoe District. By
GEOEaE E. Becker. Second Annual Report of the United States Geological
Survey, Washington, 1882 (issued 1883),pp. 293-330. Plates XLVI, XLVII.
This again is a preliminary resume of results, based upon details to be
published in an elaborate report now in the press. The Comstock Lode lies in
a desert country forming a north-easterly spur of the Sierra Nevada, and
known as the Virginia Range. Mines were first opened upon it in 1859, and
since that time to 1880 they have produced 315,000,000 dollars worth of
bullion, of which 175,000,000 dollars was silver. At the latter date the
number of men employed was 2,770, the length of shafts and levels more than
150 miles, and the greatest depth above 3,000 feet.
The author examines and criticises the views of Baron von Richthofen and
Professor Church respecting the phenomena of the region. The rock named
Propylite by the former has, he states, no real existence. It is merely the
decomposed form of several kinds of greenstone. The great heat of the
Comstock Lode, regarded by Professor Church as being due to the
kaolinization of felspar, is referred by Mr. Emmons to a source more than
two miles below the surface, and connected with the hot-springs and gases of
dying-out volcanic action. In fact, in his view, the immediate neighbourhood
of the lode is an almost extinct solfatara.
The country on either side of the lode consists of highly metamorphic and
igneous rocks of various kinds, and it is where diabase forms the
hanging-wall and diorite the foot-wall that all the great accumulations of
ore (bonanzas) have hitherto been found. This point is thought to be
important in following the lode in new ground.
The summary concludes with brief accounts of experiments carried out for the
author by Dr. Barus (1) " On kaolinization and the amount of heat to which
it gives rise," and (2) " On the electrical activity of ore bodies."
Plate XLVI. is a coloured geological map of the Comstock region on a scale
of 1 inch = 1,500 feet. Plate XLVII. gives a partial section of the Washoe
district along the Sutro Tunnel line.
G. A. L.
THE LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD.
Memoire sur le Bassin Houiller du Lancashire. By M. Lituyt. Annates des
Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. V, 1884, Geological Part, pp. 7-34. Plate I. fin
part).
After describing the Carboniferous rocks of the Lancashire coal-field, after
Hull and others, the author devotes some pages (pp. 30-34) to the Permian
and Triassic rocks of the district, and discusses the question of the
possible extent of concealed Coal-Measures. He points out that, according to
Strahan, the Permian series is wanting beneath the Trias in South
Lancashire, West of Warrington. He concludes that it is improbable that the
upper coal seams, should they be proved to exist beneath the Trias, will be
easily won, and that in no case will the coal-field on the right bank of the
Mersey be opened out on a large scale until the rest is worked out.
In the course of the paper summarized sections of the coal-seams and other
strata at the following places are given:—Ashton and Hartshead, Wigan
(Middle Coal-Measures), St. Helen's, Manchester, Patricroft, Burnley, Bold
Hall Colliery (1875-78), Collins Green Colliery, Haydock Colliery,
Farnworth, Parkside, and Winswick.
G. A. L,
108
VARIOUS ANALYSES.
Bulletin des Travaux de Chimie executes en 1882 par les Ingenieurs des Mines
dans les Laloratoires Bepartementaux. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. V.,
1884, pp.123-161.
Among the analyses here recorded as having been made by the Departmental
laboratories of Angers, Clermont-Ferrand, Limoges, Le Mans, Marseilles,
Privas, Rennes, and St. Etienne, the following are of mining
interest:—1.—Iron ores (brown haematite and carbonate of iron), from the St.
Laurs mine, in Loiret. 2.—Coals, from new localities in the Commune of Youx.
3.—Antimonite, from Montrome (Haute-Loire) and Langeac. 4.—Phosphate of
lime, from various localities. 5.—Coals, from Cardiff and the Alais
coal-field. 6.—Lignites, from various localities in the Basses Alpes.
V.—Coals, from the Banne coal-field. 8.—Lignite, from the " Minerve" Mine
(Herault). 9.—Galena, from the Salet lode (Puy-de-D6me). 10.—Iron ore, from
the Toussieux boring (Isere) at a depth of 273 metres (895"7 feet).
The results from the Algerian laboratories comprise:—1.—Lead ores, from
Tizi-Ouzou, Djidjelly, Beni-Messaoud, Aoucha, Ouled-Abdallah, Saida, and
Embarka, 2.—Zinc ores, from Tizi-Ouzou, Ouarsenis, and Ouled-Zied. 3.—Coal,
from Bou Saada. 4.—Copper ores, from the Oued-Missia basin. 5.—Iron ores,
from Filfila (Manganesi-ferous brown haematite), and Tazont (red haematite).
G. A. L.
UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE AND TUNNELS.
(1) Le Percement des Tunnels et la Chaleur souterraine. By G. Revattx.
Annates
¦ des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. IV, 1883, pp. 605-610.
Applies Stapff's formulae (see Transactions of the North of England
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, Vol. XXXIII., p. 19) to the
proposed Simplon and Mont Blanc Tunnels, and shows that in the former, which
is to be nearly thirteen miles long, a maximum temperature of 95° P. is to
be expected. In the case of Mont Blanc, where the tunnel will be between
eleven and twelve miles long, the temperature will, it is calculated, be
over 86° P. for more than half the distance, and will probably reach a
maximum of 122° F.
(2) Frdwarme tind Tunnelbau im Sochgebirge. By Db. Gitstav Koch.
Zeitsehrift
des Deutschen und osterreich-Alpenvereins, Vol. XIII. pp. 69-80.
The author states that the isothermal lines beneath mountains are not only
relatively but absolutely deeper than under plains or valleys, and he
illustrates this view by a diagram.
(3) Der Verlauf der Geoisothermen unter Bergen. By De. August Bohm.
Ver-
handlungen der Jc.Jc. geologischen Beichsanstalt, Ann. 1884, pp. 161-164.
Two Figures in text.
A criticism of the last paper, showing Dr. Koch's error. The rate of
increase of temperature is slower beneath mountains than under valleys or
plains; but the isotherms, though farther apart than in the latter case,
rise within mountain-masses, and are therefore often much higher—so far as
absolute level is concerned—than the surfaces of the plains at the mountain
foot. The increase in depth of isotherms beneath mountains is, in fact,
relative only, and not absolute, as Dr. Koch imagines. The author quotes
StapfF, Supan, and Gunther in support of the ordinary view.
G. A. L.
109
EAST AFRICAN COAL.
(1) Note sur le BassinPtouiller de Tete {Region du Zambeze). By E.
Lapieeee. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. IV., 1883, pp. 585-593. Plate
XIX.
Account of a geological exploration carried out in the region about Tete, on
the Zambesi River, in 1881, by the author and others. A very large
coal-field (or possibly a number of detached coal-fields) occur in the
country comprised between the Zambesi, Rovugo, Moatise, and Muarose rivers,
and beyond that area. Its extent could not be determined. Coal was found in
several seams varying in thickness from 30 centimetres (1 foot) to 14 metres
(46 feet). The rocks accompanying the seams are of the ordinary Coal-Measure
type, and seldom dip more than 10° or 12°, except when close to eruptive
masses of greenstone, which are not uncommon in the country. The coal is
described as yielding a fairly good coke, with 22 to 25 per cent, of
volatile matter. It burns with a long clear flame. There is little or no
iron pyrites, and the ash is in consequence white. It is also very
abundant (12 to 15 and even 18 per cent.)
Sketch-maps and sections accompany the paper.
(2) Note sur la Flore du Bassin Houiller de Tete (Begion du Zambeze). By
R. Zeillee. Op. sup. cit., pp. 594-598.
Describes the coal-plants collected by M. Lapierre. All belong to European
Coal-Measure species, and together form a florula (there are but eleven
species) similar to those of the Upper Coal-Measures of the basin of the
Loire. G. A, L,
GEOLOGY OF THE HARTZ.
Etude sur les eruptions du Hartz. By M. Tebmiee. Annates des Mines,
Ser 8, Vol. V., ISM, pp. 243-364. Plate XL
An elaborate stratigraphical and petrological account of the igneous rocks
of the Hartz, chiefly after Dr. Lessen. The mineral deposits associated with
these rocks are also described. Subordinate to the diabases are Ave kinds of
ferruginous deposits, all occurring at or near the contact of the diabase
and the underlying Devonian Strin-gocephalus beds. These, the iron ores of
Elbingerodc, are the result, the author thinks, of hydrothermal action at
the close of the Givetian era. The following are the varieties mentioned:—
1.—A limestone altered for a considerable thickness, so as to contain as
much as
50 per cent, of iron. 2.—A tufaceous ore, somewhat calcareous, but always
very siliceous also, resting on the limestone and passing gradually into
diabase (schaalstein). Sometimes this yields 60 per cent, of iron.
This is, commercially speaking, the most important ore. 3.—An ore due to the
decomposition of a pyritous rock intimately associated with
an albite porphyry. 4.—A jaspoid ore, containing much quartz and anhydrous
sesquioxide of iron, always overlying the albite porphyry, and
underlying sometimes the schaalstein, sometimes limestone. 5. —Granular
brown haematite, evidently of sedimentary origin. G. A. L.
110
MASTGrANESIFEROUS IRON ORES OP RANCIE.
Etude sur la teneur en Fer et en Manganese des Minerals de Mancie (Ariege).
By M. Caecanagtjes. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. V., 1884, pp.
115-122.
The author's object is to find the average percentage of iron and manganese
in the ores (chiefly brown haematite) of Rancic, in Ariege, with special
reference to the relation between the richness of the ore and the state of
fragmentation in which it is extracted from the mine. The mode of sampling
adopted is described, and tables of the results are given. These show very
clearly that as the ore gets smaller the percentage of iron diminishes,
whilst the proportion of manganese generally increases. This is explained by
the small degree of coherence possessed by the manganese oxides. The final
results are shown in the following table :—
Size of the Ore. Moisture. Iron.
Manganese.
Coarse ...... 3"52 ... 53-28 ... 3-47
Medium ...... 3-38 ... 50-10 ... 4"47
Fine ...... 3-32 ... 41-56 ... 5-98
Very fine ...... 372 ... 37"84 ... 5-98
The average percentage of iron and manganese (corrected for dry ore) were
52-85 and 4'13 respectively.
G. A. L.