NEIMME Transactions
Volume 35
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
TRANSACTIONS
VOL. XXXV.
18 8 5-86.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE : A. REID, PRINTING COURT BUILDINGS, AKENSIDE
HILL
1886.
CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXV.
PAGE.
Report of Council............... vii
Report of Finance Committee ix Awards for Papers in Vols.
XXXIII. and XXXIV....... x
Treasurer's Accounts ......... xii
Account of Subscriptions ... xiv
General Account.................. xvi
Patrons .............................. xvii
Honorary and Life Members xviii
Officers.............................. xix
Original Members ............... xx
PAGE.
Ordinary Members............... xxx
Associate Members............... xxxii
Students.............................. xxxvi
Subscribers under Bye-Law 9 xxxviii
Charter .............................. xlv
Bye-Laws ........................... li
Barometer Readings............ 247
Index ................................. 255
Abstracts of Foreign Papers, end of Proceedings.
GENERAL MEETINGS.
1885.
page.
Oct. 10.—Paper "On the Testing of Safety Lamps: An Account of Experiments
made ty Professors Kreischer and Winkler," by Professor P. Phillips Bedson,
D.Sc......................... 3
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 43
Discussion on Mr. C. C. Leach's Paper " On the Shrinkage of Paper " 44
Dec. 12.—Paper " On a Portable Electric Safety Lamp for Miners," by Mr.
Joseph Wilson Swan, M.A. ... .. ... ...
... ... 51
Discussed ... ......... ... ... ......
... 54
Paper " On the Douglas' Patent Miners' Safety Lamp," by Mr. John Douglas
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 65
Discussed ... ...... ... ... ... ...
... ... 67
Paper " On an Improved Levelling Staff for Underground Work," by Mr. R.
Linsley ........................69
Paper " On the Loss of Life in Coal Mines," by Mr. W. J. Bird ...
71
(vi)
Feb. 13.—Paper " On Transylvanian Gold Mining," by Mr. Edward H. Liveing
81
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
,,, ... ... 93
Paper " On a new system of Coal-getting with Burnett's Patent Roller
Mining Wedge, etc." (Supplementary Remarks) by Mr. W. J. Bird 97
Discussed ... ,,. ... ... ... ...
,,. ... ... 99
April 10.—Paper " On the Iron Ores of the English Secondary Rocks," by Mr.
J. D. Kendall, C.E., F.G.S................... 105
Paper " On the Transmission of Power by Steam," by Messrs. Liddell
and Merivale ... ... ... ... ...
...... ... 159
Discussed ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ±Q2
Paper " Regulations for the Management of Fiery Mines in Prussia,"
translated by Mr. M. Walton Brown............... 167
June 12.—Paper "On Coal Mining in New Zealand," by Mr. George J. Binns ...
173
Discussed ......... ...... ... ... ......
218
Aug. 7.—Presidential Address by Mr. John Daglish .........
... 223
It is with great pleasure the Council report that the Institute continues
its career of usefulness, and that its affairs are in a prosperous
condition.
The first paper in the Transactions of the past year, by Dr. P. Phillips
Bedson, on the " Testing of Safety Lamps," founded upon and explanatory of
the experiments made by Professors Kreischer and Winkler, at the request of
the Saxon Royal Commission in Freiberg, is particularly interesting, as it
contains much valuable information on the action of small quantities of gas
on the flame, produced by the combustion of various classes of oil. This
research occurs opportunely when the use of electric lamps is being
discussed as a substitute for the ordinary safety lamp, which not only
affords light, but can be relied on as an indicator of the presence of gas,
whether explosive or mephytic.
Mr. Swan's interesting description of his portable electric lamp clearly
showed the possibility of making a lamp—not unduly heavy, which would give
out a light in excess of that usually obtained—at a reasonable price, and at
a cost for maintenance below that usually incurred in the ordinary oil
lamps.
Mr. Kendall's comprehensive paper on the Iron Ores of the English Secondary
Eocks forms a valuable work of reference on this subject.
The Gold Mines of Transylvania form the subject of a valuable contribution
from Mr. E. H. Liveing, a gentleman who has, on more than one occasion,
added to the interest of the Transactions.
Mr. Binns, an old student of geology in the College of Science, who is now
Government Inspector of Mines in New Zealand, has given a valuable
description of the coal industry of that colony, together with an account of
its harbours and railways, and the geological formation of the country.
Among other contributions may be mentioned the description of a new form of
levelling staff by Mr. Linsley; a paper by Messrs. Liddell and Merivale,
giving the details of a case in which power was by means of steam
successfully transmitted a long distance in the workings of a colliery; a
translation by Mr. M. "Walton Brown of the Prussian laws for the regulation
of fiery mines; and a valuable statistical table, coupled with remarks by
Mr. Bird, which go far to prove that the loss of life by accidents in mines
forms but a small percentage of the ordinary death rate of any district.
(viii)
The Council would draw attention to the fact that principally by having
adopted a system of exchanges with Foreign and English learned societies, in
about fifteen years a library of upwards of 8,000 volumes has been
collected, at an expense of about £580. A catalogue of these works has been
formed, in which an attempt has been made to indicate clearly the contents
of the volumes, and draw attention to the large mass of original information
contained in the MSS. in the Bell, Hall, Watson, and other collections,
which form a remarkable feature of the Library.
During the year, 1,016 books have been issued, as against 713 in the
previous year, and it is hoped that in future the number of works consulted
will materially increase, owing to the catalogue which has been prepared.
On July 14th, at the kind invitation of Sir Lowthian Bell, an interesting
excursion was made to the ironstone mines at Lumpsey and Skelton, to enable
the members to examine the hydraulic drilling machines at the former mine,
and those worked by compressed air at the latter. Another excursion was made
to Marsden Rock, to entertain a number of Members of the Geologists'
Association, on August the 3rd.
In October last a discussion arose as to how the Institute could repay the
hospitality many of its members had received at Douai, Birmingham, Cardiff,
Glasgow, Sheffield, Leeds, and other places. After much deliberation, it was
decided to hold a Mining Exhibition in 1887, to which our friends might be
invited. A committee was formed to report on and carry out the scheme.
Singleton House was proposed as the site, and details were prepared; but so
soon as the scheme became known in the City, it was taken up by the Mayor
and many of the Members of the City Council, and, at a public meeting in
Newcastle, was received with such favour that it was determined to expand
the project, and make it a Mining, Engineering, and Industrial Exhibition
(International and Colonial), worthy of the celebration of the Jubilee year,
1887. The various Committees were enlarged to carry out this extended
scheme, and your President, Mr. John Daglish, was chosen Chairman of the
Executive Council, as a compliment to the Institute which had initiated the
movement.
In conclusion, the Council think that the members will be satisfied there
has been no relaxation in the efforts made during the last year to extend
the usefulness and maintain the prestige of the Institute.
The Income for the year 1885-86 has amounted to £1,714 18s. 9d., and the
expenditure to £1,624 8s. 7d., leaving a surplus of income over expenditure
of £90 10s. 2d.
The total amount of subscriptions and arrears received has been £1,391 2s.
The arrears of unpaid subscriptions are £541 16s., being £2 2s. less
than last year.
WM. COCHRANE. JOHN DAGLISH. G. B. FORSTER.
July 2ith, 1886.
AWARDS FOR PAPERS WHICH HAVE APPEARED IN VOLUMES XXXIII. AND XXXIV. OF THE
TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE.
VOLUME XXXIII.
Name. Title of Paper.
Amount.
£ s. d. G. A. Lebour ... ... On a Great Fault at
Annstead, in North
Northumberland ............ 3 3 0
E. F. Molly ...... Notes on the Warwickshire Coal-Field ...
1 10
M. Walton Brown ... On the Observation of Earth-Shakes
or
Tremors, in order to foretell the issue of sudden outbursts of Fire-damp
... ... 2 2 0
George Lee ...... The Endless Chain in Spain......... 3
3 0
B.J.Forrest ...... The Bilbao Iron Ore District ......
3 3 0
12 12 0
VOLUME XXXIV.
Sydney F. Walker ... On the principles of Electric Lighting, and
the construction and arrangement of Electric Light Apparatus ...
... ... 5 50
D. Tyzaek... ... ... Notes on the Coal-Fields and
Coal-Mining
Operations in North Formosa (China) ... 220
J. D. Kendall ...... The Carboniferous Bocks of Cumberland and
North Lancashire, or Furness ...... 3 3 0
C. C. Leach ...... On the Shrinkage of Paper......... 22 0
12 12 0
(xii) TREASUEEE IN ACCOUNT WITH THE NOETH OF ENGLAND
De.
August 1st, 1885
1885.
£ a. d. £ s. d.
August 1st.
To Balance at Bankers ... ... ... ... ...
... 651 0 4
1886. July 20th. To Dividend at the rate of 7 per cent, per annum on 134
£20 Shares in the Institute and Coal Trade Chambers
Company, Limited, for the half-year ending December,
1885 ... .................. 93 16 0
To Ditto., half-year, June, 1886 ............ 93 16 0
187 12 0 To Interest on Investments, Tyne Commissioners ... ...
58 0 4
------------- 245 12 4
To Rent of College Class-Booms ............
48 14 2
To Subscriptions for 1885-86, from 373 Original Members... 783 6
0
To Do. do. 25 Ordinary
Members... 77 14 0
To Do. do. 117 Associate
Members... 245 14 0
To Life Subscription, 1 Associate Member ... ... ...
20 0 0
To Subscriptions for 1885-86, from 48 Students ...... 50 8
0
To Do. do. 1 Associate ...
... 2 2 0
To Do. do. 1 New Ordinary'Member
3 3 0
To Life Subscription, 1 New Ordinary Member ...... 25 0 0
To Subscriptions for 1885-86, from 6 New Associate Members 12 12 0
To Do. do. 1 New Student......
110
1,221 0 0
To Subscribing Collieries:—
Ashington............... £2 2 0
Birtley Iron Company ... ... ... 660
Haswell ............... 4 4 0
Hetton ............... 10 10 0
Lambton............... 10 10 0
Londonderry ............ 10 10 0
Marquess of Bute............ 10 10 0
North Hetton ............ 6 6 0
By hope ... ... ... ... ... 440
Segbill ............... 2 2 0
South Hetton and Murton ...... 4 4 0
Stella ............... 2 2 0
Throckley............... 2 2 0
Victoria Garesfield ... ... ... 2 20
Wearmouth ... ... ... ... 440
--------— 81 18 0
1,302 18 0 To Members' Arrears ... ... ... ...
... ... 81 18 0
To Students' do................... 6 6 0
------------ 1,391 2 0
To Sale of Publications, per A. Beid............ 27 13 0
Less 10 per cent. Commission ... ... ... ...
2 15 3
2~4~17 9 To Sale of Publications, per Secretary............ 4 12
6
----------- 29 10 3
£2,365~19~I
(X'iii)
INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
to July 20th, 1886.
Ce.
1885.
£ s. d. £ s. d. August 1st.
By Balance due Treasurer ... ... ...... ...
19 8 1
1886. July 20th.
By Andrew Beid:—
Publishing Account ............... 297 2 6
Covers for Parts, Folding and Stitching ... ... 26
8 4
Binding and Sewing Volumes ... ... ... ... 22
11 10
Borings and Sections ... ... ... ... ...
42 18 6
Library Catalogue ... ... ... ... ...
119 19 8
Library ..................... 15 12 9
Stationery and Circulars... ... ... ... ...
73 15 5
Postage '..................... 38 8 6
----------- 636 17 6
By Books for Library, in addition to amount paid A. Beid ... 30 11
0
By Printing and Stationery, do. do.
... 13 3
By Abstracts of Foreign Papers... ... ... ...
... 39 13 9
By Secretary's Incidental Expenses and Postage ... ...
52 14 4
By Sundry Accounts and Payments ... ... ... ...
91 10 1
By Travelling Expenses ... ... ... ... ...
... 2 15 10
By Secretary's Salary .................. 300 0 0
By Cashier's Salary .................. 75 0 0
By Clerks' Wages .................. 140 14 6
By Beporter's Salary .................. 12 12 0
By Furniture and Bepairs ... ... ... ...
... 11 19 10
By Bent ........................ 77 18 11
By Bates and Taxes .................. 16 12 8
By Fire Insurance ... ...... ... ...
... 8 14 11
By Water, Gas, and Coals ............... 13 4 6
By Awards for Papers .................. 29 15 6
------------ 905 1 1
By Lit. and Phil. Society, Shelving, Wood Memorial Hall ... 35 0
0
By Purchase of Stott's Becords of Borings, &c. ... ...
20 0 0
By Associated Conversazione expenses ... ... ... ...
15 0 0
Bv Wailes & Strang, Wood Memorial Hall Windows ... 12 10
0
------------ 82 10 0
1,643 16 8
By Invested with Tyne Commissioners... ... ... ...
500 0 0
By Balance at Bankers ... ... ... ... ...
... 211 15 9
By Do. in hands of Cashier ... ... ... ...
... 10 6 8
-------------- 222 2 5
Audited and found correct,
JOHN G. BENSON,
Chaeteeed Accountant. Newcastle- on-Tyne,
27th July, 1886.
£2,365 19 1
(xiv) Dr. THE TREASURER IN" ACCOUNT
To 468 Original Members, as per List 1885-6. 11 of whom are Life Members.
----
£ s. d.
457@£2 2s......................... 959 14 0
To 40 Ordinary Members, as per List, 1885-6. 2 of whom are Life Members.
_38, 36 @ £3 3s., and 2 @ £2 2s. ............... 117 12 0
To 152 Associate Members, as per List 1885-6. 7 of whom are Life Members.
145 @ £2 2s...................£304 10 0
1 paid Life Subscription ... ... ...... 20 0 0
—------------324 10 0
To 77 Students, as per List, 1885-6, @ £1 Is....... 80 17 0
1 paid extra as an Associate... ... ... ... 110
— ¦---------- 81 18 0
To Subscribing Collieries ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 81 18 0
To 1 New Ordinary Member @ £3 3s.......... £3 3 0
1 do. paid Life Subscription ...
2500
----
---------------28 3 0
2
To 8 New Associate Members @ £2 2s................ 16 16 0
To 1 New Student @ £1 Is. ................. 110
1,611 12 0 To Arrears as per Balance Sheet, 1884-85 .........£543 18
0
Deduct—Irrecoverable ............... 222 12 0
--------------- 321 6 0
Audited and found correct,
JOHN G-. BENSON, Chartered Accountant. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 27th July. 1886.
£1.932 18 0
(XV)
WITH SUBSCRIPTIONS, 1885-80. Oe.
PAID. UNPAID.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
By 373 Original Members paid @ £2 2s....... 783 6 0
......
By 62 Do. unpaid .........
...... 130 4 0
By 3 Do. dead............
...... 6 6 0
By 6 Do. resigned .........
...... 12 12 0
By 2 Do. gone, no address ... ...
...... 440
By 11 Do. struck of .........
...... 23 2 0
457
By 24 Ordinary Members paid @ £3 3s....... 75 12 0
......
By 1 Do. paid @ £2 2s....... 2
2 0 ......
By 10 Do. unpaid® £3 3s.......
...... 3110 0
By 1 Do. unpaid @ £2 2s.......
...... 2 2 0
By 1 Do. gone, no address ... ...
...... 330
By 1 Do. struck off .........
...... 3 3 0
J38
By 117 Associate Members paid (w £2 2s. ... ...
245 14 0 ......
By 25 Do. unpaid .........
...... 52 10 0
By 1 Do. dead .........
...... 2 2 0
By 1 Do. resigned .........
...... 2 2 0
By 1 Do. struck off .........
...... 2 2 0
145
1 Do. paid Life Subscription ... 20
0 0 ......
By 48 Students paid @ £1 Is............. 50 8 0
......
By 1 Do. paid as Associate ... ... ...
220 ......
By 21 Do. unpaid............... ......
22 1 0
By 1 Do. resigned... ... ... ... ...
...... 110
By 4 Do. gone, no address ... ... ...
...... 440
By 2 Do, struck off ............
...... 2 2 0
By Subscribing Collieries paid ... ... ... ...
81 18 0 ......
By 1 New Ordinary Member paid @ £3 3s....... 330
......
By 1 Do. paid Life Subscription
25 0 0 ......
2
By 6 New Associate Members paid @ £2 2s. ... 12 12
0 ......
By 2 Do. unpaid ......
...... 440
_8
By 1 New Student paid ............ 110
......
1,302 18 0 308 14 0
By Members'Arrears ............... 8118 0 20112
0
By Students' do................ 6 6 0 3110
0
1,391 2 0 541 16 0
1,391 2 0
£1.932 18 0
Dr. GENERAL STATEMENT, JULY
20th, 1886. Or. ImMIitijess/
Qwite.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
None ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ...... Balance of Account at Bankers
... ... £211 15 9
Capital....................... 11,382 13 11 Do. in Cashier's
hands ......... 10 6 8
-------------- 222 2 5
134 Shares of £20 each in the Institute and Coal Trade
Chambers Company, Limited ... ... ... ...
2.680 0 0
Invested with the River Tyne Commissioners ... ... 2,000
0 0
Arrears of Subscriptions ... ... ... ...
... 541 16 O
Value of 463 Bound Volumes of Transactions, @ lis. 6d. ... 266 4
6
Value of 4,329 Sewn Volumes of Transactions, (a), 9s. ... 1,948
1 0
Value of sundry Unbound Parts of Transactions ... ... 80
0 0
Value of 35 Copies of Mr. T. F. Brown's Map of South Wales
"*~
Coal-field ..................... 8 15 0 ^
Value of 385 Copies of General Index, @ 3s. ... ... ...
57 15 0
Value of 766 Copies of Fossil Illustrations, @ 12s. 6d. ... 478
15 0
Value of 859 Copies of Catalogue of Fossils, @ 5s....... 214 15 0
Value of 330 Copies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. I., @ 5s. 82 10
0
Audited and found correct.
Value of 33*7 c°pies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. II.,
@ 5s. 84 5 0
(Share Certificates and Bonds produced.)
Value of 357 Copies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. 111., (w 5s. 89
5 0
-r^-r,-*, „ -r^^-r,^-^
Value of 1,600 Copies of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. I., in sheets 300 0
0 JOHN G. BENSON.
n
Value of sundry Sheets of Borings and Sinkings, Vol. IV.,
Chartered Accountant. unpublished
at date............... ... 61 15 0
Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Value of 267 Copies of Library
Catalogue. @ 5s....... 66 15 0
27th July, 1886.
Value of Office Furniture and Fittings
......... 450 0 0
Value of Books and Maps in Library ... ... ... ...
1.750 0 0
£11,382 13 11
£11.382 13 11
Jatrong.
His Grace the DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND. His Grace the DUKE OF CLEVELAND. The
Most Noble the MA.RQUESS OF LONDONDERRY. The Right Honourable the EARL OF
LONSDALE. The Right Honourable the EARL OF DURHAM. The Right Honourable the
EARL GREY.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF RAVENSWORTH.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF WHARNCLIFFE.
The Right Reverend the LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM.
The Very Reverend the DEAN AND CHAPTER OF DURHAM
WENT WORTH B. BEAUMONT, Esq., M.P.
(xviii)
j§0n0rar# |$Lembm.
--------
Elected.
* Honorary Members during term of office only. Mem.
Hon.
The Right Honourable the EARL OF RAVENS WORTH, Ravens-worth Castle,
Gateshead-on-Tyne... ... ...... ...
187?
* Proe. P. PHILLIPS BEDSON, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.G.S., Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
... 1888
M. DE BOUREUILLE, Commandeur de la Legion d'Honneur,
Conseiller d'etat, Inspecteur General des Mines, Paris ...
1853
* Prof. G. S. BRADY, M.D., F.R.S., P.L.S., Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
... 1875
Db. BR ASSERT, Berghauptmann, Bonn-am-Rhein, Prussia ...
1883
Dr. H. VON DECHEN, Berghauptmann, Bonn-am-Rhein, Prussia...
1853
JOSEPH DICKINSON, Esq., E.G.S., Inspector of Mines, Manchester
1853 THOMAS EVANS, Esq., E.G.S., Inspector of Mines, Pen-y-Bryn,
Duffield Road, Derby .................. 1855
* Prof. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L., Principal of the Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
1884
M. THEOPHILE GUIBAL, School of Mines, Mons, Belgium ...
1870
* HENRY HALL, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Rainhill, Prescott ...
1876
* Prop. A. S. HERSCHEL, M.A., F.R.S., P.R.A.S., Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ... ... ...
... 1872
The Very Ret. Dr. LAKE, Dean of Durham ......... 1872
* Proe. G. A. LEBOUR, M.A., F.G.S., Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne ..................1873 1879
* RALPH MOORE, Esq., Inspector of Mines, Glasgow ......
1866
WARINGTON W. SMYTH, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., P.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
28, Jermyn Street, London ... ... ... ...
... 1869
M. E. VUILLEMIN, Mines d'Aniche. Nord, France ......
1878
* FRANK N. WARDELL, Esq., F.G.S., Inspector of Mines, Wath-on-
Dearne, near Rotherham ... ... ... ..,
... 1864 1868
* JAMES WILLIS, Esq., Inspector of Mines, 14, Portland Terrace,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.....................1857 1871
THOMAS WYNNE,' Esq., F.G.S., Inspector of Mines, Manor House,
Gnosall, Stafford..................... 1853
%xk l§tmbe\%
______ Elected.
Mem. Lieu.
C. W. BARTHOLOMEW, Esq., Blakesley Hall, near Towcester ... 1875
1875
THOS. HUGH BELL, Esq., Middlesbro'-on-Tees ......... 1882 1882
DAVID BURNS, Esq., C.E., F.G.S., Clydesdale Bank Buildings,
Bank Street, Carlisle ......' ............ 1877 1877
T. E. CANDLER, Esq., F.G.S., Canton Club, Canton, China...... 1875
1885
E. B. COXE,Esq., Drifton, Jeddo, P.O., Luzerne Co., Penns., U.S. ... 1873
1874
JAMES S. DIXON, Esq., 170, Hope Street, Glasgow ...... 1878
1880
ERNEST HAGUE, Esq.. Castle Dyke, Sheffield ......... 1872 1876
G. C. HEWITT, Esq., Coal Pit Heath Colliery, near Bristol ...
1871 1879
JAMES HILTON, Esq., Wigan Coal and Iron' Co., Limited, Wigan... 1867
1883
THOS. E. JOBLING, Esq., Croft Villa, Blyth, Northumberland ... 1876
1882
ROBERT KNOWLES, Esq., Arncliffe, Cheetham Hill, Manchester... 1886
1886
HENRY LAPORTE, Esq., M.E., 80, Rue Royale, Brussels...... 1877 1877
W. MERIVALE, Esq., Kirwee, Manikpur, Bhopal, Central India ... 1881
1884
NATHAN MILLER, Esq...................1878 1878
H. J. MORTON, Esq., 2, Westbourne Villas, South Cliff, Scarborough 1856
1861
RUDOLPH NASSE, Esq., Oberbergrath, Dortmund, Prussia ... 1869
1880
ARTHUR PEASE, Esq., Darlington......... ,..... 1882 1882
W. A. POTTER, Esq., F.G.S., Cramlington House, Northumberland 1853
1874
EDWARD G. PRIOR, Esq., Victoria, British Columbia ...... 1880
1883
R, CLIFFORD SMITH, Esq,, F.G.S., Parkfield, Swinton, Manchester 1874
1874 T. H. WARD, Esq., F.G.S., Assistant Manager, East Indian Railway
Collieries, Giridi, Bengal, India...............1882 1882
(xix)
OFFICERS, 1886-87.
Sir LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.R.S., F.C.S., Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
^ire-flrmtoiifs.
WM. ARMSTRONG, Esq., F,G.S., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street. CUTHBERT
BERKLEY, Esq., Marley Hill, Whickham, R.S.O., Co. Durham. T. J. BEWICK,
Esq., M.I.C.E., F.G.S., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland. WM. COCHRANE, Esq.,
Grainger Street West, Newcastle-on-Tyne. THOMAS DOUGLAS, Esq., Peases' West
Collieries, Darlington. JAMES WILLIS, Esq., 14, Portland Terrace,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Central ?
WM. ARMSTRONG, Jun., Esq., Wingate, County Durham.
J. B. ATKINSON, Esq., Stocksfield-on-Tyne.
T. W. BENSON, Esq., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
R. F. BOYD, Esq., Moor House, Leamside, Fence Houses.
B. C. BROWNE, Esq., M.I.C.E., 2, Granville Road, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
THOS. HEPPELL, Esq., Leafield House, Chester-le-Street.
T. G. HURST, Esq., F.G.S., Osborne Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
H. LAWRENCE, Esq., Grange Iron Works, Durham.
W. G. LAWS, Esq., Town Hall Buildings, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Prop. G. A. LEBOUR, M.A., F.G.S., Durham College of Science, Newcastle.
GEO. MAY, Esq., Harton Colliery Offices, near South Shields.
Proe. J. H. MERIVALE, M.A., 2, Victoria Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
M. W. PARRINGTON, Esq., Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
A. M. POTTER, Esq., Shire Moor Colliery, Earsdon, Newcastle.
R. ROBINSON, Esq., Howlish Hall, near Bishop Auckland.
A. L. STEAVENSON, Esq., Durham.
J. G. WEEKS, Esq., Bedlington, R.S.O., Northumberland.
W. H. WOOD, Esq., Coxhoe Hall, Coxhoe, County Durham.
/ Sir GEORGE ELLIOT, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., Houghton Hall, Fence HousesA E. F.
BOYD, Esq., F.G.S., Moor House, Leamside, Fence Houses. Sir W. G.
ARMSTRONG, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., D.C.L.. Jesmond, JS :>
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
\ S 3
I LINDSAY WOOD, Esq., Southill, Chester-le-Street.
£?£
? G. C. GREENWELL, Esq., F.G.S., Elm Tree Lodge, Duffield, Derby.
2
J G. B. FORSTER, Esq., M.A., F.G.S., Lesbury, R,S.O.,Northumberland.
* ' JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., Marsden, South Shields.
/
JOHN MARLEY, Esq., Thornfield, Darlington. )
Retiring Vice-
\ J. B. SIMPSON, Esq.. F.G.S.,Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne. J
Presidents.
THEO. WOOD BUNNING, Neville Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
d
(XX)
fist 0f fgUmlrtra.
AUGUST, 1886.
©ripnal ULerabm.
Marked * are Life Members.
1 Adams, W., 15, Park Place, Cardiff ...............
1854
2 Aitkin, Henry, Falkirk, N.B................... Mar. 2,1865
3 Anderson, C. W., Belvedere, Harrogate ............ Aug. 21,
1852
4 Andrews, Hugh, Swarland Hall, Felton, Northumberland...... Oct. 5,
1872
5 Appleby, C. E., Charing Cross Chambers, Duke St., Adelphi, London Aug.
1, 1861
6 Archer, T., Dunston Engine Works, Gateshead ......... July 2,
1872
7 Armstrong, Sir W. G., C.B., LL.D., E.E.S., D.C.L., Jesmond,
Newcastle-on-Tyne (Past President, Member of Council) ...May 3,1866
8 Armstrong, Wm, P.G.S., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street (Vice-
President) ........................Aug. 21, 1852
9 Armstrong, W., Jun., Wingate, Co. Durham (Member of Council)... April 7,
1867
10 Armstrong, W. L., Oaklands Rock, near Bewdley .........Mar. 3,1864
11 Arthur, D., M.E., Sherfin House, Baxenden, nr. Accrington, Manchester
Aug. 4, 1R77
12 Ash worth, James, Stanley Hall, near Derby............Feb. 5,1876
13 Asquith, T. W., Harperley, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Feb. 2, 1867
14 Atkinson, J. B., Stocksfield-on-Tyne (Member of Council)......Mar. 5,
1870
15 Atkinson, W. N., Shincliffe Hall, Durham ............June 6,1868
16 Aubrey, R. C, Wigan Coal & Iron Co. Ld., Standish, near Wigan ... Feb.
5, 1870
17 Austine, John, Cadzow Coal Co., Glasgow ............Nov. 4,1876
18 Aynsley, Wm., Chilton Colliery, Fence Houses .........Mar. 3,
1873
19 Balles, George, Murton Colliery, Sunderland ......... Feb.
3,1877
20 Bailes, T., 6, Collingwood Terrace, Jesmond Gardens, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7, 1858
21 Bailes, W., Cortonwood Collieries, Wombwell, near Barnsley ...
April 7,1877
22 Bailey, Samuel, Perry Barr, Birmingham ............June 2, 1859
23 Bain, R. Donald, Newport, Monmouthshire............ Mar. 3,1873
24 Bainbridge, E., Nunnery Colliery Offices, Sheffield......... Dec.
3,1863
25 Banks, Thomas, 60, King Street, Manchester............ Aug. 4,1877
26 Barclay, A., Caledonia Foundry, Kilmarnock ......... Dec.
6, 1866
27 Bartholomew, C, Castle Hill House, Ealing, London, W....... Aug.
5,1853
28*Bartholomew, C. W., Blakesley Hall, near Towcester ...... Dec.
4,1875
29 Bassett, A., Tredegar Mineral Estate Office, Cardiff.........
1853
30 Bates, Matthew, Bews Hill, Blaydon-on-Tyne .........Mar.
3,1874
31 Bates, W. J., Winlaton, Blaydon-on-Tyne ............Mar. 3,1873
32 Batey, John, Newbury Collieries, Coleford, Bath .........Dec.
5,1868
33 Beanlands, A., M.A., North Bailey, Durham............Mar. 7,1867
34 Bell, Sir Lowthian, Bart., F.R.S., F.C.S., Rounton Grange,
Northallerton, (President)..................ju1y 6,1854
(xxi)
ELECTED.
35 Bell, John, Messrs. Bell Brothers, Middlesbro'-on-Tees ......Oct.
1,1857
36 Benson, J. G., Accountant, 12, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Nov. 7,1874
37 Benson, T. W., 11, Newgate Street, Newcastle (Member of Council) Aug.
2, 1866
38 Berkley, C, Marley Hill, Whickham, R.S.O., Co. Durham (Vice-
President) ........................Aug. 21, 1852
39 Bewick, T. J., M.I.C.E., F.G.S., Haydon Bridge, Northumberland
(Vice-President).....................April 5,1860
40 Bigland, J., Bedford Lodge, Bishop Auckland .........June 4,
1857
41 Biram, B., Peaseley Cross Collieries, St. Helen's, Lancashire
... 1856
42 Black, W., Hedworth Villa, South Shields ............April 2, 1870
43 Bolton, H. H, Newchurch Collieries, near Manchester ......Dec.
5,1868
44 Booth, R. L., Ashington Colliery, near Morpeth .........
1864
45 Boyd, E. F., Moor House, Leamside, Fence Houses (Past President,
Member of Council).....................Aug. 21, 1852
46 Boyd, R. F., Moor House, Leamside, Fence Houses (Mem. of Council) Nov.
6, 1869
47 Boyd, Wm., 74, Jesmond Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Feb.
2, 1867
48 Breckon, J. R., 32, Fawcett Street, Sunderland .........Sept.
3,1864
49 Brettell, T., Mine Agent, Dudley, Worcestershire .........Nov.
3,1866
50 Bromilow, Wm., Preesgweene, near Chirk, North Wales ......Sept. 2,
1876
51 Brown, John, Priory Place, 155, Bristol Road, Birmingham ...
Oct. 5, 1854
52 Brown, J. N., 56, Union Passage, New Street, Birmingham ...
1861
53 Brown, Thos. Forster, Guildhall Chambers, Cardiff ......
1861
54 Browne, B. C, M.I.C.E., 2, Granville Road, Jesmond, Newcastle
(Member of Council) ..................Oct. 1,1870
55 Bryham, William, Rosebridge Colliery, Wigan .........Aug. 1,
1861
56 Bryham, W., Jun., Douglas Bank Collieries, Wigan ......Aug.
3, 1865
57 Bunning, Theo. Wood, Neville Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Secretary and Treasurer) 1864
5S*Burns, David, C.E., F.G.S., Clydesdale Bank Bgs., Bank St., Carlisle May
5, 1877
59 Burrows, J. S., Yew Tree House, Atherton, near Manchester ...
Oct. 11, 1873
60 Campbell, W. B., Consulting Engineer, Grey Street, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7, 1876
61 Carr, Wm. Cochran, South Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Dec. 3,
1857
62 Chambers, A. M., Thorncliffe Iron Works, near Sheffield ......Mar.
6,1869
63 Cheesman, I. T., Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Feb.
1,1873
64 Cheesman, \V. T., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Hartlepool ......Feb.
5,1876
65 Childe, Rowland, Wakefield, Yorkshire ............May 15,1862
66 Clarence, Thomas, Elswick Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Dec.
4,1875
67 Clark, C. F., Garswood Coal and Iron Co., near Wigan ......Aug.
2, 1866
68 Clark, R. B., Marley Hill, near Gateshead ............May 3,1873
69 Clark, W., M.E., The Grange, Teversall, near Mansfield ......April
7, 1866
70 Clarke, William, Victoria Engine Works, Gateshead ......Dec.
7,1867
71 Cochrane, B., Aldin Grange, Durham...............Dec. 6,1866
72 Cochrane, C„ Green Royde, Pedmore, near Stourbridge ......June
3,1857
73 Cochrane, W., St. John's Chambers, Grainger Street West, Newcastle
(Vice-President)..................... 1859
74 Cole, Richard, Walker Colliery, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
.April 5,1873
(xxii)
ELECTEB.
75 Cole, Robert Heath, Lord Street, Basford, Stokc-upon-Trent ... Feb.
5, 1876
76 Collis, W. B., Swinford House, Stourbridge, Worcestershire ...
June 6, 1861
77 Cook:, J., Jun., Washington Iron Works, Gateshead.........May 8, 1869
78 Cooksey, Joseph, West Bromwich, Staffordshire .........Aug.
3,1865
79 Cooper, T., Rosehill, Rotherham, Yorkshire ............April 2,
1863
80 Corbett, V. W., Chilton Moor, Fence Houses .........Sept.
3, 1870
81 Corbitt, M., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead ......Dec.
4, 1875
82 Coueson, F., 10, Victoria Terrace, Durham ............Aug. 1,1868
83 Coulson, W., 32, Crossgate, Durham...............Oct. 1,1852
84 Cowen, Jos., Blaydon Burn, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct.
5,1854
85 Cowet, John, Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland .........Nov.
2,1872
86 Cox, John H., 10, St. George's Square, Sunderland .........Feb.
6,1875
87*Coxe, E. B., Drifton, Jeddo, P. 0. Luzerne Co., Penns., U.S.
... Feb. 1, 1873
88 Coxon, S. B., 3, Poets' Corner, Westminster, London
......June 5, 1856
89 Craweord, T., Littletown Colliery, near Durham .........Aug. 21,
1852
90 Ceaweord, T., 3, Grasmere Street, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......Sept.
3,1864
91 Crawford, T., Jun. Littletown Colliery, near Durham ......Aug.
7, 1869
92 Crawshay, E., Gateshead-on-Tyne ...............Dec. 4,1869
93 Crawshay, G., Gateshead-on-Tyne ...............Dec. 4,1869
94 Crone, E. W., Killingworth Hall, near Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar.
5,1870
95 Crone, J. R., Tudhoe House, via Spennymoor ... ... ...
... Feb. 1,1868
96 Crone, S. C., Killingworth Hall, Newcastle ............
1853
97 Cross, John, 77, King Street, Manchester ............June 5,1869
98 Croudace, C. J., Bettisfield Colliery Co., Limited, Bagillt, N. Wales
Nov. 2, 1872
99 Croudace, John, West House, Haltwhistle ............June 7, 1873
100 Croud ace, Thomas, Lambton Lodge, New South Wales ......
1862
101 Daglish, John, F.G.S., Marsden, South Shields (Past President,
Member of Council).................. ... Aug. 21, 1852
102 Daglish, W. S., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne............July 2,1872
103 Dale, David, West Lodge, Darlington...............Feb. 5, 1870
104 D'Andrimont, T., Liege, Belgium ...............Sept. 3,1870
105 Daniel, W., Steam Plough Works, Leeds ............June 4, 1870
106 Darling, Fenwick, South Durham Colliery, Darlington ......Nov.
6, 1875
107 Darlington, James, Black Park Colliery, Ruabon, North Wales ... Nov.
7, 1874
108 Darlington, John, 2, Coleman Street Buildings, Moorgate Street,
Great Swan Alley, London..................April 1,1865
109 Davey, Henry, C.E., Leeds ..................Oct. 11,1873
110 Dees, R. R., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Oct.
7,1871
111 Dixon, D. W., Lumpsey Mines, Brotton, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ...
Nov. 2,1872
112 Dixon, Nich., Dudley Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ......Sept.
1, 1877
113 Dixon, R., Wire Rope Manufacturer, Teams, Gateshead ......June
5, 1875
114 Dodd, B., Bearpark Colliery, near Durham ......... ... May
3,1866
115 Dodds, Joseph, M.P., Stockton-on-Tees ............Mar.
7,1874
116 Douglas, C. P., Parliament Street, Consett, Co. Durham ......Mar.
6, 1869
117 Douglas, T., Peases' West Collieries, Darlington (Vice-President)...
Aug. 21,1852
118 Dove, G., Viewfield, Stanwix, Carlisle...............July 2,1872
(xxiii)
ELECTED.
119 Dowdeswell, H., Butterknowle Colliery, via Darlington ......April
5,1873
120 Dyson, George, Middlesbro' ..................June 2, 1866
121 Dyson, 0., Pooley Hall Colliery, Polesworth, near Tamworth ...
Mar. 2, 1872
122 Elliot, Sir George, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., Houghton Hall, Fence
Houses, (Past President, Member of Council)......... Aug. 21, 1852
123 Elsdon, Robert, 76, Manor Road, Upper New Cross, London ...
Nov. 4, 1876
124 Embleton, T. W., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds ......... Sept.
6, 1855
125 Embleton, T. W., Jun., The Cedars, Methley, Leeds......... Sept.
2,1865
126 Eminson, J. B., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour ......
Mar. 2, 1872
127 Everard, I. B., M.E., 6, Millstone Lane, Leicester ......... Mar.
6,1869
128 Farmer, A., Seaton Carew, near West Hartlepool .........Mar.
2,1872
129 Farrar, James, Old Foundry, Barnsley ............July 2,1872
130 Favell, Thomas M., Etruria Iron Works, near Stoke-on-Trent ...
April 5, 1873
131 Fenwick, Barnabas, 84, Osborne Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Aug. 2,1866
132 Ferens, Robinson, Oswald Hall, near Durham .........April
7,1877
133 Fidler, E., Piatt Lane Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire......... Sept.
1,1866
131 Fletcher, H., Ladyshore Coll., Little Lever, Bolton, Lancashire ...
Aug. 3,1865
135 Fletcher, Jas., Manager, Co-operative Collieries, Wallsend, near
Newcastle, New South Wales ...............Sept. 11, 1875
136 Fletcher, John, Eock House, Ulverstone ............July 2, 1872
137 Foggin, Wi, North Biddick Coll., Washington Station, Co. Durham Mar.
6, 1875
138 Forster, G. B., M.A., F.G.S., Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland
(Past President, Member of Council) ............Nov. 5,1852
139 Forster, J. R., Water Company's Office, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
July 2, 1872
140 Forster, J. T., Burnhope Colliery, near Lanchester, Co. Durham ...
Aug. 1, 1868
141 Forster, R,, 25, Old Elvet, Durham ...............Sept. 5,1868
142 Foster, George, Osmondthorpe Colliery, near Leeds.........Mar. 7,
1874
143 France, Francis, St. Helen's Colliery Co. Ld., St. Helen's, Lancashire
Sept. 1, 1877
144 France, W., Lofthouse Mines, Loftus-in-Cleveland, R.S.O.......April 6,
1867
145 Franks, Geo., Victoria Garesfield Colliery, Lintz Green, Newcastle...
Feb. 6, 1875
146 Galloway, T. Lindsay, M.A., Argyll Colliery, Campbeltown, N.B. Sept. 2,
1876
147 Gerrard, John, Westgate, Wakefield...............Mar. 5, 1870
148 Gillett, F. C, 20, Midland Road, Derby ............July
4,1861
149 Gilpin, Edwin, 75, Birmingham Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia ...
April 5, 1873
150 Gilroy, G., Woodlands, Parbold, near Wigan............Aug. 7,1856
151 Gilroy, S. B., Mining Engineer, Hednesford, Stafford
......Sept, 5,1868
152 Gjers, John, Southfield Villas, Middlesbro' ............June 7,1873
153 Goddard, F. R., Accountant, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Nov.
7,1874
154 Gordon, James N., c/o W. Nicolson, 5, Jeffrey's Square, St. Mary
Axe, London, E.C......................Nov. 6 1875
155 Grace, E. N., Dhadka, Assensole, Bengal, India .........Feb.
1,1868
156 Greaves, J. 0., St. John's, Wakefield...............Aug. 7,1862
157 Green, J. T., Mining Engineer, Ty Celyn, Abercarne, Newport, Mon. Dec.
3, 1870
158 Greener, John, General Manager, Vale Coll., New Glasgow, Pictou,
Nova Scotia........................Feb. 6,1875
(xxiv)
ELECTED.
159 Gbeenwell, G. C, Elm Tree Lodge, Duffield, Derby (Past Presi-
dent, Member of Council) ... ...............Aug. 21, 1852
160 Geeenwell, G. C, Jun., Poynton, near Stockport ... ...
... Mar. 6,1869
161 Gkeig, D., Leeds........................Aug. 2,1866
162 Grey, C. G., Land Commission, 24, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin ... May
4, 1872
163 Grieves, D., Brancepetb Colliery, Willington, County Durham ...
Nov. 7,1874 161- Griffith, N. R., Wrexham ..................
1866
165 Geimshaw, E. J., 23, Hardshaw Street, St. Helen's, Lancashire ...
Sept. 5, 1868
166 Haggie, D. H., Wearmouth Patent Rope Works, Sunderland ...
Mar. 4, 1876
167 Haggie, P., Gateshead ..................... 1854
168*Hague, Eenest, Castle Dyke, Sheffield ............Mar.
2,1872
169 Haines, J. Richard, Adderley Green Colliery, near Longton ...
Nov. 7,1874
170 Hales, C, Nerquis Cottage, Nerquis, near Mold, Flintshire ...
... 1865
171 Hail, M., Lofthouse Station Collieries, near Wakefield
......Sept. 5, 1868
172 Hall, M. S., 8, Victoria Street, Bishop Auckland .........Feb.
14, 1874
173 Hale, Wm., East Hetton Colliery Office, Coxhoe, Co. Durham ...
Dec. 4, 1875
174 Hale, William F., Haswell Colliery, Fence Houses.........May 13, 1858
175 Hann, Edmund, Aberaman, Aberdare ... ... .........Sept.
5,1868
176 Harbottle, W. H., Orrell Colliery, near Wigan ... ...
... Dec. 4, 1875
177 Hargeeaves, William, Rothwell Haigh, Leeds .........Sept.
5,1868
178 Haele, Richaed, Browney Colliery, Durham............April 7, 1877
179 Haele, William, Pagebank Colliery, near Durham.........Oct. 7,1876
180 Haeeison, R., Eastwood, near Nottingham ............
1861
181 Habeison, T. E., C.E., Central Station, Newcastle-on-Tyne......May
6,1853
182 Habeison, W. B., Brownhills Collieries, near Walsall
......April 6,1867
183 Hay, J., Jun., Widdrington Colliery, Acklington .........Sept.
4, 1869
184 Heckels, Matthew, F.G.S., Walker Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... April
11, 1874
185 Heckels, W. J., Evenwood, Bishop Auckland .........May
2,1868
186 Hedley, J. J., Consett Collieries, Leadgate, County Durham ...
April 6,1872
187 Hedley, J. L., Flooker's Brook, Chester ............Feb.
5,1870
188 Hedley, T. F., Valuer, Sunderland ...............Mar. 4,1871
189 Hedley, W. H., Consett Collieries, Medomsley, Newcastle-on-Tyne...
1864
190 Henderson, H., Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street .........Feb.
14, 1874
191 Heppell, T., Leafield House, Birtley, Chester-le-Street (Member of
Council) ........................Aug. 6,1863
192 Heppell, W., Western Hill, Durham...............Mar. 2,1872
193 Heedman, J., Park Crescent, Bridgend, Glamorganshire ......Oct.
4, 1860
194 Heslop, C, Lingdale Mines, via Skelton, R.S.O., Yorks.......Feb.
1,1868
195 Heslop, Grainger, Whitwell Coal Company, Sunderland ......Oct.
5,1872
196 Heslop, J., Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.........Feb. 6,1864
197 Hetherington, D., Coxlodge Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... •
... 1859 198*Hewitt, G. C, Coal Pit Heath Colliery, near
Bristol ......June 3, 1871
199 Hewlett, A., Haseley Manor, Warwick ............Mar. 7,1861
200 Higson, Jacob, 94, Cross Street, Manchester............
1861
201*Hilton, J., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan ......Dee.
7,1867
202 Hilton, T. W., Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Limited, Wigan......Aug. 3,
1865
(xxv)
ELECTED.
203 Hodgson, J. W......................... Feb. 5,1870
204 Holliday, Maetin F., Langley Grove, Durham ......... May
1,1875
205 Holmes, C, Grange Hill, near Bishop Auckland ......... April
11, 1874
206 Homer, Chaeles J., Mining Engineer, Stoke-on-Trent ...... Aug.
3, 1865
207 Hood, A., 6, Bute Crescent, Cardiff ............... April 18,
1861
208 Hope, Geoege, Success House, Fence Houses............ Feb. 3,1877
209 Hoensby, H., Hamsteels Colliery, near Durham ......... Aug.
1,1874
210 Horsley, W., Whitehill Point, Percy Main, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Mar. 5, 1857
211 Hoskold, H. D., C. and M.E., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., M. Soc. A., &c. ...
April 1, 1871
212 Howard, W. F., 13, Cavendish Street, Chesterfield ......... Aug.
1,1861
213 Humble, John, West Pelton, Chester-le-Street ......... Mar.
4,1871
214 Humble, Jos., Staveley Works, near Chesterfield ...
...... June 2,1866
215 Hunter, J., Waratah Coal Co., Charlestown, N.S. Wales, Australia...
Mar. 6, 1869
216 Hunter, W......................... Oct. 3,1861
217 Hunter, W. S., 34, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne......... Feb.
1,1868
218 Hurst, T. G., F.G.S., Osborne Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Member of
Council) ........................Aug. 21, 1852
219 Jackson, C. G., Chamber Colliery Co., Limited, Hollinwood......June 4,
1870
220 Jackson, W. G., Loscoe Grange, Normanton, Yorkshire ......June
7,1873
221 Jaeratt, J., Houghton Main Colliery, near Barnsley.........Nov. 2,
1867
222 Jeffcock, T. W., 18, Bank Street, Sheffield ............Sept.
4,1869
223 Jenkins, W., M.E., Ocean S.C. Colls., Ystrad, nr. Pontypridd, So. Wales
Dec. 6, 1862
224 Jenkins, Wm., Consett Iron Works, Consett, Durham ......May
2, 1874
225 Johnson, John, M.I.C.E., F.G.S., 21, Grainger St. W., Newcastle Aug.
21, 1852
226 Johnson, J., Carlton Main Colliery, Barnsley............Mar. 7, 1874
227 Johnson, R. S., Sherburn Hall, Durham ............Aug. 21, 1852
228 Joicey, J. G., Forth Banks West Factory, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 10,1869
229 Joicey, W. J., Urpeth Lodge, Chester-le-Street .........Mar.
6,1869
230 Kendall, John D., Roper Street, Whitehaven .........Oct.
3,1874
231 Kimpton, J. G, 40, St. Mary's Gate, Derby ............Oct.
5,1872
232 Kirkby, J. W., Ashgrove, Windygates, Fife............Feb. 1,1873
233 Knowles, A., Swinton Old Hall, Manchester............Dec. 5,1856
234 Knowles, John, Westwood, Pendlebury, Manchester ...
... Dec. 5,1856
235 Lamb, R., Bowthorn Colliery, Cleator Moor, near Whitehaven ...
Sept. 2, 1865
236 Lamb, R. O., The Lawn, Ryton-on-Tyne ............Aug. 2,1866
237 Lamb, Richaed W., 29, Great Cumberland Place, London......Nov. 2,1872
238 Lambeet, M. W., Widdrington Office, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
July 2,1872
239 Lancaster, John, Biltoii Grange, Rugby ............Mar. 2,1865
210 Landale, A., Echo Bank, Inverkeithing, Fife............Dec. 2,1858
241*Lapoete, Heney, M.E., 80, Rue Royale, Brussels .........May 5,1877
242 Laveeick, Robt., West Rainton, Fence Houses .........Sept.
2,1876
243 Lawrence, Heney, Grange Iron Works, Durham (Mem. of Council) Aug.
1,1868
244 Laws, H., Grainger Street W., Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Feb.
6,1869
245 Leboub, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Durham College of Science, Newcastle,
(Member of Council) ..................Feb. 1, 1873
(xxvi)
ELECTED.
246 Lee, Geoege, 18, Newcomen Street, Coatham, Redcar ......June
4,1870
247 Leslie, Andbew, Coxlodge Hall, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Sept. 7,1867
248 Levee, Elms, Bowdon, Cheshire ...............
1861
249 Lewis, Sie William Thomas, Mardy, Aberdare .........
1864
250 Liddell, G. H., Somerset House, Whitehaven .........Sept.
4,1869
251 Linsley, R., Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland.........July 2,
1872
252 Linsley, S. W., Whitburn Colliery, South Shields .........Sept.
4, 1869
253 Lishman, T., Jun., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........Nov. 5,
1870
254 Lishman, Wm., Witton-le-Wear... '...............
1857
255 Lishman, Wm., Bunker Hill, Fence Houses ............Mar. 7, 1861
256 Livesey, C, Bradford Colliery, near Manchester .........Aug.
3,1865
257 Livesey, T., Bradford Colliery, near Manchester .........Nov.
7,1874
258 Llewelyn, L., Abersychan House, Abersychan ... ...
... May 4,1872
259 Logan, William, Langley Park Colliery, Durham .........Sept.
7,1867
260 Longbotham, J., Barrow Collieries, Barnsley, Yorkshire ......May
2, 1868
261 Longeidge, J. A., 15, Great George Street, Westminster,London, S.W.
Aug. 21,1852
262 Lupton, A., F.G.S., 4, Albion Place, Leeds ............Nov.
6,1869
263 Maddison, Henry, The Lindens, Darlington............Nov. 6,1875
264 Maling, C. T., Ford Pottery, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct.
5,1872
265 Mammatt, J. E., C.E., St. Andrew's Chambers, Leeds ......
1864
266 Maeley, John, Thornfield, Darlington (Retiring Vice-Peesident,
Member of Council).....................Aug. 21,1852
267 Maeley, J. W., Marley, Pinching, & Marley, 41, Threadneedle St, London
Aug. 1, 1868
268 Maeshall, F. C, Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, St. Peters, Newcastle. Aug.
2, 1866
269 Maeston, W. B., Leeswood Vale Oil Works, Mold .........Oct. 3,
1868
270 Maeten, E. B., C.E., Pedmore, near Stourbridge .........July
2,1872
271 Matthews, R. F., Ridley Hall, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.........Mar.
5,1857
272 Maughan, J. A., Nerbudda Coal & Iron Co. Ld., Garrawarra, C.P., India
Nov. 7, 1863
273 May, Geo., Harton Colliery Offices, nr. So. Shields (Mem. of Council)
Mar. 6,1862
274 McCeeath, J., 95, Bath Street, Glasgow ............Mar.
5,1870
275 McCtiLLOCii, David, Beech Grove, Kilmarnock, N.B. ......Dec.
4, 1875
276 McGhie, T., Loch View, Burnside, Rutherglen, near Glasgow ...
Oct. 1, 1857
277 McMijeteie, J., Radstock Colliery, Bath ............Nov.
7,1863
278 Meeivale, Pboe. J. H., M.A., 2, Victoria Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Member of Council) ..................May 5,1877
279 Millee, Robeet, Beech Grove, Locke Park, Barnsley ...
... Mar. 2, 1865
280 Mills, M. H., Kirklye Hall, Alfreton...............Feb. 4,1871
281 Mitchell, Chas., Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........April
11,1874
282 Mitchell, Joseph, Bolton Hall, Rotherham ... ........Feb.
14,1874
283 Mitchinson, R., Jun., Pontop Coll., Lintz Green Station, Co. Durham
Feb. 4, 1865
284 Moeeat, T., Montreal Iron Ore Works, Whitehaven
......Sept. 4,1869
285 Monkhouse, Jos., Gilcrux, Cockermouth ............June 4, 1863
286 Mooe, T., Cambois Colliery, Blyth ...............Oct, 3,1868
287 Mooe, Wm., Jun., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........July
2,1872
288 Mooee, R. W., Colliery Office, Whitehaven ............Nov. 5,1870
289 Moee'is, W., Waldridge Colliery, Chester-le-Street .........
1858
(xxvii)
ELECTED.
290*Mobton, H. J., 2, Westbourne Villas, South Cliff, Scarborough ...
Dec. 5, 1856
291 Moeton, H. T., Lambton, Fence Houses ............Aug. 21, 1852
292 Moses, Wm., Wardley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Mar.
2,1872
293 Mundle, Aethue, St. Nicholas' Chambers, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
June 5, 1875
294 Mundle, W., Redesdale Mines, Bellingham ............Aug. 2, 1873
295*Nasse, Rudolph, Oberbergrath, Dortmund, Prussia.........
1869
296 Nevin, John, Dunbottle House, Mirfield, Normanton ...... May
2, 1868
297 Newall, R. S., Ferndene, Gateshead-on-Tyne............ May 2, 1863
298 Nicholson, E., Jun., Beamish Colliery, Chester-le-Street ......
Aug. 7,1869
299 Nicholson, Maeshall, Middleton Hall, Leeds ......... Nov.
7,1863
300 Noble, Captain, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., Jesmond, New-
castle-on-Tyne .....................Feb. 3,1866
301 Noeth, F. W., F.G.S., Rowley Hall Colliery, Dudley, Staffordshire ...
Oct. 6, 1864
302 Ogden, John M., Solicitor, Sunniside, Sunderland .........Mar.
5,1857
303 Ogilvie, A. Geaeme, 8, Grove End Road, St. John's Wood, London Mar.
3, 1877
304 Olivee, Robeet, Charlaw Colliery, near Durham .........Nov.
6,1875
305 Palmes, A. S., Usworth Hall, Washington Station, Co. Durham ... July
2, 1872
306 Palmee, Sie Chaeles Maek, Bart., M.P., Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne Nov.
5, 1852
307 Pamely, C, Springfield, Berw Road, Pontypridd, South Wales ...
Sept. 5,1868
308 Panton, F. S., Silkswortb Colliery, Sunderland .........Oct.
5,1867
309 Paeeington, M. W., Wearmouth Coll., Sunderland (Mem. of Council) Dec.
1, 1864
310 Paeton, T., F.G.S., Hill Top, West Bromwich............Oct. 2,1869
311 Peace, M. W., Wigan, Lancashire ...............July 2,1872
312 Peacock, David, West Bromwich ...............Aug. 7, 1869
313 Peaece, F. H, Bowling Iron Works, Bradford ...... ,..
Oct. 1,1857
314 Pease, Sir J. W., Bart., M.P., Button Hall, Guisbro', Yorkshire
... Mar. 5, 1857
315 Peel, John, Wharncliffe Silkstone Collieries, near Barnsley .
... Nov. 1, 1860
316 Peel, John, Leasingthorne Colliery, Bishop Auckland ......Mar.
3, 1877
317 Peile, William, Cartgate, Hensingham, Whitehaven ......Oct.
1, 1863
318 Penman, J. H, 2, Clarence Buildings, Booth Street, Manchester ...
Mar. 7, 1874
319 Pickup, P. W., Bishton, near Blackburn ............Feb.
6,1875
320 Pinching, Aechd. E., 41, Threadneedle Street, London ......May
5,1877
321 Pottee, Addison, C.B., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Mar.
6,1869
322 Pottee, A. M., Shire Moor Coll., Earsdon, Newcastle (Mem. of
Council) ........................Feb. 3,1872
323 Pottee, C. J., Heaton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct.
3,1874
324*Pottee, W. A., F.G.S., Cramlington House, Northumberland ...
1853
325 Peice, John, 6, Osborne Villas. Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Mar. 3, 1877
326 Peice, J. R., Standish, near Wigan .........• ......Aug.
7, 1869
327 Peiestman, Jonathan, Coal Owner, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Sept.
2,1871
328 Peingle, Edwaed, Choppington Colliery, Northumberland......Aug. 4,
1877
329 Ramsay, J. A., The Villas, Middleton-One-Row, near Darlington .,.
Mar. 6, 1869
330 Ramsay, Wm., Tursdale Colliery, County Durham .........Sept. 11,
1875
e
(xxviii)
ELECTED.
331 Eeed, Robert, Felling Colliery, Gateshead ............Dec.
3,1863
332 Rees, Daniel, Glandare, Aberdare ... ... ...
... ... 1862
333 Reid, Andbew, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...............April 2,1870
334 Richardson, H., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ...
Mar. 2, 1865
335 Richardson, J. W., Iron Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
... Sept. 3,1870
336 Ridley, G., Tyne Chambers, 38, Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
... Feb. 4, 1865
337 Ridley, J. H., Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 6, 1872 333 Ridyard, J., Bridgewater Offices, Walkden, nr.
Bolton-le-Moors, Lan. Nov. 7, 1874
339 Ritson, U. A., 6, Queen Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct,
7,1871
340 Ritson, W. A., Tamworth Colliery Co., Tamworth .........April 2,
1870
341 Robertson, W., M.E., 123, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow ......Mar.
5,1870
342 Robinson, G. C, Brereton and Hayes Colls., Rugeley, Staffordshire...
Nov. 5, 1870
343 Robinson, R., Howlisli Hall, near Bishop Auckland (Mem. of Council)
Feb. 1,1868
344 Robson, J. S., Butterknowle Colliery, via Darlington.........
1853
345 Robson, Thomas, Lumley Colliery, Fence Houses .........Oct.
4,1860
346 Rogerson, John, Croxdale Hall, Durham ............Mar. 6,1869
347 Roscamp, J., Shilbottle Colliery, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland...
Feb. 2,1867
348 Ross, J. A. G., Consulting Engineer, 13, Belgrave Terrace, Newcastle
July 2, 1872
349 Rosser, W., Mineral Surveyor, Llanelly, Carmarthenshire ......
1856
350 Rothwell, R. P., 27, Park Place, New York, U.S..........Mar. 5,1870
351 Routledge, Jos., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland .........Sept. 11,
1875
352 Routledge, Wm,, S. and L.C. and R. Co., Reserve Colliery, Sydney,
Cape Breton........................Aug. 6,1857
353 Rutherford, J., Halifax Coal Co., Ld., Albion Mines, Nova Scotia...
1852
354 Rutherford, W., So. Derwent Colliery, Annfield Plain, Lintz Green Oct.
3, 1874
355 Ryder, W. J. H., Forth Street Brass Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
Nov. 4, 1876
356 Saint, George, Vauxhall Collieries, Ruabon, North Wales......April 11,
1874
357 Scarth, W. T., Raby Castle, Staindrop, Darlington.........April 4,
1868
358 Scott, Andrew, Broomhill Colliery, Acklington .........Dec.
7,1867
359 Scott, C. F., Medomsley, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......April
11, 1874
360 Scoular, G., Cleator Moor, via Carnforth .........- ...
July 2,1872
361 Shaw, W., Wolsingham, via Darlington ... ... ...
... June 3,1871
362 Shiel, John, Framwellgate Colliery, County Durham ...
... May 6,1871
363 Shone, Isaac, 4, Westminster Chambers, Victoria Street, London, S.W.
1858
364 Shuts, C. A., Westoe, South Shields ...............April 11, 1874
365 Simpson, J., Heworth Colliery, near Gateshead-on-Tyne ...
... Dec. 6, 1866
366 Simpson, J. B., F.G.S., Hedgefleld House, Blaydon-on-Tyne (Retiring
Vice-President, Member of Council) ............Oct, 4,1860
367 Simpson, R., Moor House, Ryton-on-Tyne ............Aug. 2.1, 1852
368 Simpson, Robt., Drummond Coll., Westville, Pictou, Nova Scotia ...
Dec. 4,1875
369 Slinn, T., 2, Choppington Street, Westmorland Road, Newcastle ...
July 2,1872
370 Smith, G. F., Grovehurst, Tunbridge Wells ............Aug. 5,1853
371*Smith, R. Clieeord, F.G.S., Parkfield, Swinton, Manchester ...
Dec. 5, 1874
372 Smith, T. E., Phoenix Foundry, Newgate Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Dec. 5, 1874
373 Sop with, A., Cannock Chase Collieries, near Walsall.........Aug. 1,
1868
374 Sopwith, Thos., 6, Great George St., Westminster, London, S.W. ... Mar.
3, 1877
(xxix)
ELECTED.
375 Southern, R,, Burleigh House, The Parade, Tredegarville, Cardiff...
Aug. 3, 1865
376 Southworth, Thos., Hindley Green Collieries, near Wigan...... May
2, 1874
377 Spencer, John, Westgate Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne......... Sept.
4,1869
373 Spencer, M., Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ......... Sept.
4,1869
379 Spencer, T., Ryton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.............Dec. 6, 1866
380 Spencer, W., Southfields, Leicester ...............Aug. 21,1852
381 StBAVENSON, A. L., Durham (Member of Council) .........Dec.
6,1855
382 Stephenson, G. R., 9, Victoria Chambers, Westminster, London, S.W. Oct.
4, 1860
383 Stevenson, R., Janefield Place, Lylesland, Paisley, N.B.......Feb.
5, 1876
381. Stobart, W., Pepper Arden, Northallerton ............July 2,1872
3S5 Storey, Thos. E., Clough Hall Iron Works, Kidsgrove, Staffordshire Feb.
5, 1876
386 Straker, J. H., Stagshaw House, Corbridge-on-Tyne ......Oct.
3, 1874
387 Stratton, T. H. M., Tredegar, South Wales............Dec. 3, 1870
388 Swallow, J., Bushblades House, Lintz Green, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... May
2, 1874
389 Swallow, R. T., Springwell, Gateshead-on-Tyne .........
1862
390 Swan, H. F., Shipbuilder, Newcastle-on-Tyne............Sept. 2,1871
391 Swan, J. G., Upsall Hall, near Middlesbro' ............Sept.
2,1871
392 Swann,C.G., Sec, General Mining Asso.Ld., 6, New Broad St., London Aug.
7, 1875
393 Tate, Simon, Trimdon Grange Colliery, Co. Durham ......Sept.
11, 1875
391 Taylor, Hugh, King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......Sept.
5,1856
395 Taylor, T., King Street, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........July 2,1872
396 Taylor-Smith, Thomas, Greencroft Park, Durham.........Aug. 2, 1866
397 Thompson, R., Jun., Rodridge House, Wingate, Co. Durham ...
Sept. 7, 1867
398 Thomson, John, Eston Mines, by Middlesbro'............April 7,1877
399 Thomson, Jos. F., Manvers Main Colliery, Rotherham ......Feb.
6, 1875
400 Tinn, J., C.E., Ashton Iron Rolling Mills, Bedminster, Bristol
... Sept. 7,1867
401 Tylden-Wright, C, Priory Offices, Dudley, Worcestershire ...
1862
402 Tyson, Wm. John, 15, Foxhouses Road, Whitehaven ......Mar.
3,1877
403 Tvzack, D., c/o Mr, Donnison, 71, Westgate Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne Feb.
14, 1874
404 Tyzack, Wilfred, So. Medomsley Coll., Lintz Green, Newcastle ...
Oct. 7, 1876
405 Vivian, John, Diamond Boring Company, Whitehaven ......Mar.
3,1877
406 Wad ham, E., C. and M.E., Millwood, Dalton-in-Furness ...
... Dec. 7,1867
407 Walker, J. S., Pagefield Iron Works, Wigan, Lancashire ......Dec.
4, 1869
408 Walker, W., Saltburn-by-the-Sea ...............Mar. 5,1870
409 Wallace, Henry, Trench Hall, Gateshead ............Nov. 2,1872
410 Ward, H., Rodbaston Hall, near Penkridge, Stafford.........Mar. 6,
1862
411 Wardale, John D., Redheugh Engine Works, Gateshead ......May
1,1875
412 Wardell, S. C, Doe Hill House, Alfreton ............April 1,
1865
413 Watson, H., High Bridge Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
... Mar. 7, 1868
414 Watson, M., Curzon Street, Maryport...............Mar. 7,1868
415 Weeks, J. G., Bedlington, R.S.O., Northumberland (Mem. of Council)
Feb. 4, 1865
416 Westmacott, P. G. B., Elswick Iron Works, Newcastle ......June
2, 1866
417 White, H., Weardale Coal Company, Tow Law, near Darlington ...
1866
418 White, J. F., M.E., Waketield..................July 2,1872
(xxx)
ELECTED.
419 White, J. W. H., Woodlesford, near Leeds ............Sept. 2,1876
420 Whitehead, James, Brindle Lodge, near Preston, Lancashire ...
Dec. 4,1875
421 Whitelaw, John, 118, George Street, Edinburgh .........Feb.
5,1870
422 Whittem, Thos. S., Wyken Colliery, near Coventry.........Dec. 5,1874
423 Widdas, C, North Bitchburn Colliery, Howden, Darlington......Dec.
5,1868
424 Wight, W. H., Cowpen Colliery, Blyth...............Feb. 3,1877
425 Wild, J. G, Hedley Hope Collieries, Tow Law, by Darlington ...
Oct, 5, 1867
426 Williamson, John, Cannock &c, Collieries, Hednesford ......Nov.
2,1872
427 Willis, J., 14, Portland Terrace, Newcastle (Vice-President) ...
Mar. 5, 1857
428 Wilson, J. B., Wingfield Iron Works and Colliery, Alfreton......Nov.
5, 1852
429 Wilson, Robert, Flimby Colliery, Maryport............Aug. 1,1874
430 Wilson, W. B., Kippax Colliery, near Leeds............Feb. 6, 1869
431 Winter, T. B., Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne .........Oct.
7,1871
432 Wood, C. L., Freeland, Forgandenny, Perthshire ... ...
... 1853
433 Wood, Lindsay, Southill, Chester-le-Street (Past President, Mem-
ber of Council) .....................Oct. 1,1857
434 Wood, Thomas, Rainton House, Fence Houses .........Sept. 3,
1870
435 Wood, W. H., Coxhoe Hall, Coxhoe, Co. Durham (Member of Council)
1856
436 Wood, W. 0., South Hetton, Fence Houses ............Nov. 7, 1863
437 Woolcock, Henry, St. Bees, Cumberland ............Mar. 3, 1873
438 Wright, Rev. G. H., Church of England Temperance Society, West-
minster Bridge, London, W...................July 2,1872
439 Wrightson, T., Stockton-on-Tees ...............Sept. 13, 1873
©rbhwrg H^mbm*.
Marked * are Life Members.
1 A.CKR0YD, Wm., Jun., Morley Main Collieries, Morley, nr. Leeds ...
Feb. 7, 1880
2 Bell, C. E., Park House, Durham ...............Dec. 3, 1870
3 Binns, G. J., Government Inspector of Mines, Dunedin, New Zealand Aug.
7, 1886
4 Broja, Richard, Oberbergrath, Ostwall, Dortmund... ......Nov.
6,1880
5 Charlton, Henry, Hawks, Crawshay & Sons, Gateshead-on-Tyne Dec. 9,
1882
6 Cochrane, John E.......... ............Dec. 9,1882
7 Cross, W. A., Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn, Newcastle-on-Tyne ...
April 12,1884
8 Dacres, Thomas, Dearham Colliery, ma Carlisle .........May
4,1878
9 Davies, John, Hartley House, Coundon, Bishop Auckland ... ...
April 10, 1886
10 Dees, J. G., Floraville, Whitehaven ...............Oct. 13, 1883
11*Dixon, James S., 170, Hope Street, Glasgow............Aug. 3,1878
12 Ellis, W. R., F.G.S., Wigan ..................June 1,1878
(xxxi)
ELECTED
13 Forrest, B. J., Engineer in Charge, Colonia Ocampo, Gran Chaco,
Argentine Republic.....................April 12,1884
14 Forrest, J. C, Witley Coal Co., Limited, Halesowen, Birmingham... April
12,1884
15 Geddes, George H., 142 Princes Street, Edinburgh.........Oct. 1, 1881
16 Gilchrist, Thomas, Eltringham, Prudhoe-on-Tyne.........May 4,1878
17 Goudie, J. H., Ironwood, by Watersmeet, Michigan, U.S.A. ...
Sept. 7,1878
18 Johnson, H., Jun., Mining Offices, Trindle Road, Dudley, So. Staff. Feb.
10, 1883
19 Johnson, William, Leazes Villa, Lintz Green, Co. Durham ...
Dec. 9, 1882
20 Kellett, William, Wigan .;................June 1, 1878
21 Knowles, L, Wigan .. ..................Oct. 13,1883
22*Knowles, Robert, Arnciiffe, Cheetham Hill, Manchester ......April
10,1886
23 Lancaster, John, Auchinbeath, Southfield and Fence Collieries,
Lesmahagow........................Sept. 7,1878
24 Laws, W. G., Town Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Member of Council)... Oct.
2, 1880
25 Leach, C. C, 18, Lord Street, Liverpool ............Mar.
7,1874
26 Liddell, Matthew, Mickley Colliery Offices, Stocksfield-on-Tyne ... Feb.
10, 1883
27 Llewellin, David Morgan, F.G.S., Glanwern Offices, Pontypool ... May 14,
1881
28 Martin, Tom Pattinson, Allhallows Colliery, Mealsgate, Carlisle ... Feb.
15, 1879
29 Oldham, G. H., Barrett Berhm, De Haap Goldfields, Transvaal,
South Africa .....................Aug. 5,1882
30 Potts, Jos., Jun., North Cliff, Roker, Sunderland .........Dec.
6,1879
31*Prior, Edward G., Victoria, British Columbia............Feb. 7,1880
32 Rhodes, C. E., Carr House, Rotherham ............Aug. 4,1883
33 Rogers, William, 30, King Street, Wigan ............Nov. 2,1878
34 Russell, Robert, Coltness Iron Works, Newmains, N.B.......Aug. 3,1878
35 Selby, Atherton, Leigh, near Manchester ............Oct. 13,1883
36 Spencer, John W., Newburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ......May
4,1878
37 Stevens, James, M.E., Kaiping Mines, c/o H.B.M's. Consulate,
Tientsin, Noi-th China ..................Feb. 14, 1885
38 Topping, Walter, Messrs. Cross, Tetley, & Co., Bamfurlong, nr. Wigan
Mar. 2, 1878
39 Walker, Sydney Ferris, 195, Severn Road, Canton, Cardiff ... Dec.
9, 1882
40 Walker, William Edward, Lowther Street, Whitehaven......Nov. 19,1881
41 Winstanley, Robt., M.E., 28, Deansgate, Manchester ......Sept.
7,1878
(xxxii)
Marked * are Life Members.
ELECTED
1 Allison, J. J. C, Hedley Hill Colliery, Waterhouses, Durham ...
Feb. 13, 1886
2 Armstrong, Henry, Pelaw House, Cliester-le-Street ...
... April 14, 1883
8 Abmstbong, J. H., St. Nicholas' Chambers,Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Aug.
1,1885
4 Armstrong, T. J., Hawthorn Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... ...
Feb. 10, 1833
5 Arnold, Tnos., Mineral Surveyor, Castle Hill, Greenfields, Llanelly
Oct. 2, 1880
6 Atkinson, A. A., South Church, Bishop Auckland .........Aug. 3,
1878
7 Atkinson, Fred., Maryport ..................Fob. 14,1874
8 Audits, T., Mineral Traffic Manager, N.E. Railway, Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug.
7, 1880
9 Ayton, E. F., El Bote Mining Negotiation, Zacatecas, Mexico ...
Feb. 5,1876
10 Ayton, Henry, Cowpen Colliery, Blyth, Northumberland ......Mar. 6,
1875
11 Bailes, E. T., Wingate, Ferryhill ...............June 7,1879
12 Barrett, C. R., New Seaham, Sunderland ............Nov. 7, 1874
13 Bates, C. J., Heddon Banks, near Wylam-on-Tyne .........Bee. 11,1882
14*Bell, Thomas Hugh, Middlesbro'-on-Tees ............Dec. 11, 1882
15 Bennett, Alfred H., Dean Lane Collieries, Bedminster, Bristol ...
April 10,1886
16 Berkley, Frederick, Murton Colliery, near Sunderland ......Dec.
11,1882
17 Berkley, R. W., Marley Hill, Whickham, R.S.O., Co. Durham ... Feb.
14, 1874
18 Bewick, T. B., Hebburn, Newcastle-on-Tyne...... ......Mar.
7,1874
19 Bird, W. J., Wingate, Co. Durham ...............Nov. 6,1875
20 Blackett, W. C, Jun., Kimblesworth Colliery, Chester-le-Street ...
Nov. 4,1876
21 Boucher, A. S., La Salada puerto Bertio, E de Antioguia, United
States of Colombia, S.A...................Aug. 4,1883
22 Brough, Thomas, Seaham Colliery, Sunderland ... ......Feb.
1, 1873
23 Brown, C. Gilpin, Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........Nov.
4,1876
24 Brown, M. Walton, 3, Summerhill Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne ... Oct.
7, 1871
25 Brown, Robert M., Norwood Colliery, via Darlington ......April
10,1886
26 Bruce, John, Cannock Chase Colliery, near Walsall ......Feb.
14, 1874
27 Bulman, H. F., Broomside Colliery, near Durham .........May
2,1874
28 Bunning, C. Z., Warora Colliery, Central Provinces, India......Dec.
6,1873
29 Burdon, A. E., Hartford House, Cramlington, Northumberland .., Feb.
10, 1883
30 Cabrera, Fidel, c/o H. Kendall & Son, 12, Great Winchester Street,
London...........................Oct. 6,1877
31*Candler, T. E., F.G.S., Canton Club, Canton, China.........May 1,1875
32 Charlton, W. A., Tangye Bros., 25, Lincoln St., Gateshead-on-Tyne Nov.
6, 1880
33 Clough, James, Bedlington Collieries, R.S.O., Northumberland ...
April 5,1873
34 Cochrane, Ralph D., Hetton Colliery Offices, Fence Houses ...
June 1,1878
35 Cockson, Charles, Ince Coal and Cannel Co., Ince, Wigan......April 22,
1882
36 Cooper, R. W., Solicitor, Newcastle-on-Tyne............Sept. 4,1880
37 Crawford, T. W., Bishop Auckland ...............Dec. 4,1875
38 Crone, F. E., Delaval (Benwell), Newcastle-on-Tyne.........Sept, 2,1876
39 Curry, W. Thos., Usworth Hall, Washington Station, R.S.O., Durham Sept.
4, 1880
40 Dakers, W. R., Croxdale Colliery, Durham ............Oct. 14, 1882
41 Davison, Charles, Cornsay Colliery, near Esh, Durham ......Dec.
11,1882
(xxxiii)
ELECTED
42 Dodd, M., Lemington, Scotswood-on-Tyne ............Dec. 4,1875
43 Donkin, Wn, Warora Colliery, Wardha Coal State Railway, C. P., India
Sept. 2, 1876
44 Douglas, John, Seghill Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland......April 22,
1882
45 Douglas, John, Jun., Seghill Colliery, Dudley, Northumberland ...
April22, 1882
46 Douglas, M. H., Marsden Colliery, South Shields .........Aug.
2,1879
47 Doyle, Patrick, C.E., F.M.S., F.L.S., M.R.A.S., F.G.S., M.S.I.,
The Indian Engineer, 4, Dalhousie Square, Calcutta ......Mar. 1, 1879
48 Dunn, A. F., Poynton, Stockport, Cheshire ............June 2,
1877
49 Durneord, H. St. John, Low Stublin Colliery, near Rotherham ... June
2, 1877
50 Edge, J. C, The Cottage, Madeley, Salop ............Dec.
5,1874
51 Edge, John H., Coalport Wire Rope and Chain Works, Shifnal, Salop Sept.
7, 1878
52 Fairley, James, Craghead and Holmside Collieries, Cliester-le-Stroet
Aug. 7, 1880
53 Farrow, Joseph, Brotton Mines, Brotton, R.S.O..........Feb. 11, 1882
54 Ferguson, D., Cadzow Colliery, Hamilton, N.B..........Dec. 8,1883
55 Fisher, Edward R., Nant Glas, Cross Hands, near Llanelly, So. Wales Aug.
2, 1884
56 Fletcher, W., Brigham Hill, via Carlisle ............Oct. 13,1883
57 Forster, Thomas E., Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland ......Oct.
7,1876
58 Fryar, Mask, Denby Colliery, Derby...............Oct. 7,1876
59 Gerrard, James, 19, King Street, Wigan ............Mar. 3, 1873
60 Gilchrist, J. R, Durham Main Colliery, Durham .........Feb. 3,1877
61 Gould, Alex., Colfcham Wharf, Walsall Street, Wolverhampton ...
Dec. 1, 1877
62 Greener, Henry, South Pontop Colliery, Annfield Plain ......Dec.
11, 1882
63 Greener, T. Y., Hack nail Torkard Collieries, near Nottingham ...
July 2,1872 61 Gresley, W. S., Overseale, Ashby-de-la-Zouch
.........Oct. 5,1878
65 Haddock, W. T., Jun., Ryhope Colliery, Sunderland......... Oct.
7,1876
66 Haggle, Peter Sinclair, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......... April 14,
1883
67 Hallas, G. H., Hindley Green Colliery, near Wigan......... Oct.
7,1876
68 Halse, EdWAHD, Arenig Mines, near Bala, North Wales ...... June
13, 1885
69 Hamilton, E., Rig Wood, Saltburn-by-the-Sea ......... Nov.
1,1873
70 Harris, W. S., Kibblesworth, Gateshead-on-Tyne ......... Feb. 14,
1874
71 Hedley, E., Rainham Lodge, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent ... Dec.
2, 1871
72 Hedley, Sept. H., East Gawber Colliery, Barnsley......... Feb. 15,-
1879
73 Henderson, C. W. C, The Riding, Hexham............ Dec. 11,1882
74 Hendy, J. C. B., Stanton Iron Co's. Collieries, Pleasley, near Mans-
field, Notts.........................Sept. 2,1876
75 Hill, William, Carterthorne Colliery Offices, Witton-le-Wear ...
June 9, 1883
76 Holme, James, McKenzie Block, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada ... June
12,1886
77 Hooper, Fred. G., South Derwent Coll., Annfield Plain, Lintz Green Feb.
14, 1885
78 Humble, Joicey, Wire Rope Manufac, Byker Ropery, Newcastle ... Mar.
3,1877
79 Humble, Robert, Wire Rope Manufac., Byker Ropery, Newcastle... Sept.
2, 1876
80 Humble, Ste phen, 5,Westminster Chambers,Victoria St., London, S.W. Oct.
6, 1877
(xxxvi)
Sitttonta,
ELECTED.
1 Anderson, R. S., Elswick Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne ......June
9, 1883
2 Baebass, M., Weardale Iron and Coal Co., Thornley Colliery, Trimdon
Grange...........................Dec. 10, 1883
3 Baumgaetnee, W. O., Trimdon Grange Colliery, Co. Durham ... Sept.
6, 1879
4 Bell, Geo. Feed., 25, Old Elvet, Durham ............Sept. 6,1879
5 Bied, Haeey, Mexico .....................April 7,1877
6 Blakeley, A. B., Hollyroyd, Dewsbury ............Feb. 15,1879
7 Beamwell, Hugh, Mining Offices, Marsden, South Shields......Oct. 4,
1879
8 Chandley, Chables, Latchford, Warrington, Lancashire ... ...
Nov. 6, 1880
9 Cole, Collin, Simonside Cottage, Tyne Dock, South Shields ...
Oct. 18, 1882
10 Ceawford, James Mill, Murton Colliery, near Sunderland ,..
Dec. 11, 1882
11 Depledge, M. P., Tudhoe Colliery, Spennymoor .........April 7,
1877
12 Douglas, A. S., Stanley Villa, near Crook, via Darlington......June
1,1878
13 Evans, David L., Messrs. Dalziel & Evans, Cardiff.........May 4,1878
14 Ferens, Frederick J., Silksworth Colliery, Sunderland ......Dec.
4,1880
15 Foesiee, C. W., 6, Ellison Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.........June 10,
1882
16 Gallwey, A. P., Ruby and Dunderburg Mining Co., Eureka,
Nevarda, U.S.........................Oct. 2,1880
17 Goedon, Chas.........................May 5,1877
18 Geeig, J., Eston Mines, Middlesbro'-on-Tees............Feb. 5,1881
19 Haggie, Douglas, Thorncliffe Iron Works, Sheffield.........April 14,
1883
20 Haig, R. Noble, 32, Rutland Street, Hampstead Road, London ... Feb.
10, 1883
21 Haee, Samuel, Broughton and Plas Power Coal Co., Ld., Wrexham Aug. 2,
1879
22 Hakeison, R. W., Public Wharf, Leicester ............Mar. 3,1877
23 Hay, W., Jun., Nostell Colliery, Wakefield ............Dec. 10,1883
24 Heslop, Septimus, Asansol, E.I.R., Bengal, India .........Dec.
4,1880
25 Heslop, Thomas, Storey Lodge Colliery, Cockfield, via Darlington... Oct.
2, 1880
26 Hill, Leonaed, Newport Wire Mills, Middlesbro' .........Oct. 6,
1877
27 Hoopee, Edward, The Grange, Claines, Worcester.........June 4, 1881
28 Howard, Walter, Markham Colliery, Duckmanton, near Chesterfield April
13, 1878
29 Hudson, Joseph G. S., Albion Mines, Pictou County, Nova Scotia... Mar.
2, 1878
30 Huest, Geo., Seaton Delaval Colliery, Northumberland ...
... April 14, 1883
31 Hutt, E. H., Usworth Coll., Washington Station, R.S.O., Co. Durham Aug.
4,1883
32 Kayll, A. C, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne ............Oct. 7,1876
33 Kiekhouse, E. G., 1, Edith Street, Consett, Co. Durham ......Aug.
3, 1878
34 Lishman, R. R., CelynenColliery, Abercarne, via Newport, Mon. ...
June 9,1883
(xxxvii)
ELECTED.
35 Mackinlay, T. B., West Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street......Nov.
1,1879
36 McLaeen, B.,Heddon Coal and Fire Brick Co., Wylam-on-Tyne ... Dec.
10, 1883
37 McMueteie, G. E. J., 42, Clough Road, Masbro', Rotherham ...
Aug. 2, 1884
38 Mitton, A. D., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses .........June
9, 1883
39 Mueeay, W. C, Weed Park, Dipton, via Lintz Green Station ... Oct,
4, 1879
40 Mueton, Chaeles J., Jesmond Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne......Mar. 6,
1880
41 Nicholson, A. D., Eldon Colliery, Co. Durham .........June 13,
1885
42 Nicholson, J. H., Cowpen Colliery Office, Blyth, Northumberland... Oct,
1, 1881
43 Oates, Robeet J. W., E.I.R. Collieries, Giridi, Bengal, India ...
Feb. 10,1883
44 Pattison, Jos. W., Londonderry Offices, Seaham Harbour......Feb. 15,
1879
45 Peart, A. W., 70, Caeharris, Dowlais, South Wales.........Nov. 4, 1876
46 Pease, J. F., Pierremont, Darlington...............June 9, 1883
47 Pike, Aenold, Furzebrook, Wareham, Dorsetshire ... ...
... Feb. 5,1881
48 Potter, E. A., Cramlington House, Northumberland ... ...
... Feb. 6, 1875
49 Peingle, H. A., Barrow Collieries, Barnsley, Yorkshire ..,
... Oct. 2, 1880
50 Peingle, Hy. Geo., Tanfield Lea Coll., Lintz Green Station, Newcastle
Dec. 4, 1880
51 Redmayne, R. A. S., Hetton Collieries, near Fence Houses......Dec. 13,
1884
52 Richaedson, Ralph, Field House, West Rainton, Fence Houses ... June
9, 1883
53 Ridley, Wm., So. Tanfield Coll., Stanley, R.S.O., Newcastle-on-Tyne Dec.
11, 1882
54 Rutheefobd, R., So. Derwent Colliery, Annfield Plain, Lintz Green Feb.
14, 1885
55 Scaeth, R, W., Cridling Stubbs, Knottingley............Dec. 4,1875
56 Scott, Joseph Samuel, East Hetton Colliery, Coxhoe, Co. Durham Nov. 19,
1881
57 Scott, Waltee, 6, Sutton Street, Durham ............Sept. 6, 1879
58 Scott, Wm., Brancepeth Colliery Offices, Willington, Co. Durham ...
Mar. 4, 1876
59 Shute, Wm. Ashley, Westoe, South Shields............April 11, 1885
60 Simpson, F. R., Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne ... ...
... Aug. 4, 1883
61 Smith, Thos., Leadgate, Co. Durham...............Feb. 15, 1879
62 Smith, T. F., Jun., Lydbrook, near Ross, Herefordshire ......May
5, 1877
63 Southeen, Thomas A., Cwmaman Colliery, near Aberdare, So. Wales Dec.
17, 1881
64 Steavenson, C. H., Durham ..................April 14, 1883
65 Stobaet, H. T., Mill View Cottage, Southwick, Sunderland ...
Oct. 2,1880
66 Sykes, Feank K., Esh Colliery, Durham ............Feb. 13, 1886
67 Todnee, W. J. S.........................Sept. 6,1879
68 Waugh, C. L., Ffalda Steam Coal Colliery, Garw Valley, nr. Bridgend Nov.
19, 1881
69 Yeoman, Thomas, 1, Westfield Terrace, Loftus-in-Cleveland ...
Feb. 14, 1885
1 Ashingtqii Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Birtley Iron Company, Birtley.
3 Hasvvell Colliery, Fence Houses.
4 Hetton Collieries, Fence Houses.
5 Lambton Collieries, Fence Houses.
6 Londonderry Collieries, Seaham Harbour.
7 Marquess of Bute.
8 North Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
9 Byhope Colliery, near Sunderland.
10 Seghill Colliery, Northumberland.
11 South Hetton and Murton Collieries.
12 Stella Colliery, Hedgefield, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
13 Throckley Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
14 Victoria Garesfield Colliery, Lintz Green.
15 Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
CHARTER
OF
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND
institute jof gpra; miir §pc|awal (fiupttos.
FOUNDED 1852. INCORPORATED NOVEMBER 28th, 1876.
$tct0OT, by tne Grace of God> of fcne United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, to all to whom
THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, GREETING:
Whereas it has been represented to us that Nicholas Wood, of Hetton, in the
County of Durham, Esquire (since deceased); Thomas Emerson Foestee, of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Esquire (since deceased); Sir Geoege Elliot, Baronet
(then George Elliot, Esquire), of Houghton Hall, in the said County of
Durham, and Edward Fen wick Boyd, of Moor House, in the said County of
Durham, Esquire, and others of our loving subjects, did, in the year one
thousand eight hundred and fifty-two, form themselves into a Society, which
is known by the name of The Noeth or England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, having for its objects the Prevention of Accidents in
Mines and the Advancement of the Sciences of Mining and Engineering
generally, of which Society Lindsay Wood, of Sonthill, Chester-le-Street, in
the County of Durham, Esquire, is the present President. And whereas it has
been farther represented to us that the Society was not constituted for
gain, and that neither its projectors nor Members derive nor have derived
pecuniary profit from its prosperity; that it has during its existence of a
period of nearly a quarter of a century steadily devoted itself to the
preservation of human life and the safer development of mineral property;
that it has contributed substantially and beneficially to the prosperity of
the country and the welfare and happiness of the working members of the
community; that the Society has since its establishment diligently pursued
its aforesaid objects, and in so doing has made costly experiments
ii
(xlvi)
and researches with a view to the saving of life by improvements in the
ventilation of mines, by ascertaining the conditions under which the safety
lamp may be relied on for security; that the experiments conducted by the
Society have related to accidents in mines of every description, and have
not been limited to those proceeding from explosions; that the various modes
of getting coal, whether by mechanical appliances or otherwise, have
received careful and continuous attention, while the improvements in the
mode of working and hauling belowground, the machinery employed for
preventing the disastrous falls of roof underground, and the prevention of
spontaneous combustion in seams of coal as well as in cargoes, and the
providing additional security for the miners in ascending and descending the
pits, the improvements in the cages used for this purpose, and in the
safeguards against what is technically known as "overwinding," have been
most successful in lessening the dangers of mining, and in preserving human
life ; that the Society has held meetings at stated periods, at which the
results of the said experiments and researches have been considered and
discussed, and has published a series of Transactions filling many volumes,
and forming in itself a highly valuable Library of scientific reference, by
which the same have been made known to the public, and has formed a Library
of Scientific "Works and Collections of Models and Apparatus, and that
distinguished persons in foreign countries have availed themselves of the
facilities afforded by the Society for communicating important scientific
and practical discoveries, and thus a useful interchange of valuable
information has been effected; that in particular, with regard to
ventilation, the experiments and researches of the Society, which have
involved much pecuniary outlay and personal labour, and the
details of which are recorded in the successive volumes of the Society's
Transactions, have led to large and important advances in the practical
knowledge of that subject, and that the Society's researches have tended
largely to increase the security of life; that the Members of the Society
exceed 800 in number, and include a large proportion of the leading Mining
Engineers in the United Kingdom. And wheeeas in order to secure the
property of the Society, and to extend its useful operations, and to give it
a more permanent establishment among the Scientific Institutions of our
Kingdom, we have been besought to grant to the said Lindsay Wood, and other
the present Members of the Society, and to those who shall hereafter become
Members thereof, our Eoyal Charter of Incorporation. Now know ye that we,
being desirous of encouraging a design so laudable and salutary of our
special grace, certain knowledge, and mere motion, have willed granted, and
declared, and
(xlvii)
do, by these presents, for us, our heirs, and successors, will, grant, and
declare, that the said Lindsay Wood, and such others of our loving subjects
as are now Members of the said Society, and such others as shall from time
to time hereafter become Members thereof, according to such Bye-laws as
shall be made as hereinafter mentioned, and their successors, shall for ever
hereafter be, by virtue of these presents, one body, politic and corporate,
by the name of "The Noeth of England Institute of Mining- and Mechanical
Engineees," and by the name aforesaid shall have perpetual succession and a
Common Seal, with full power and authority to alter, vary, break, and renew
the same at their discretion, and by the same name to sue and be sued,
implead and be impleaded, answer and be answered unto, in every Court of us,
our heirs and successors, and be for ever able and capable in the law to
purchase, acquire, receive, possess, hold, and enjoy to them and their
successors any goods and chattels whatsoever, and also be able and capable
in the law (notwithstanding the statutes and mortmain) to purchase, acquire,
possess, hold and enjoy to them and their successors a hall or house, and
any such other lands, tenements, or hereditaments whatsoever, as they may
deem requisite for the purposes of the Society, the yearly value of which,
including the site of the said hall or house, shall not exceed in the whole
the sum of three thousand pounds, computing the same respectfully at the
rack rent which might have been had or gotten for the same respectfully at
the time of the purchase or acquisition thereof. And we do iieeeby geant
our especial licence and authority unto all and every person and persons and
bodies politic and corporate, otherwise competent, to grant, sell, alien,
convey or devise in mortmain unto and to the use of the said Society and
their successors, any lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding with
the lands, tenements or hereditaments so purchased or previously
acquired such annual value as aforesaid, and also any moneys, stocks,
securities, and other personal estate to be laid out and disposed of in the
purchase of any lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding the like
annual value. And we fuethee will, grant, and declare, that the said
Society shall have full power and authority, from time to time, to sell,
grant, demise, exchange and dispose of absolutely, or by way of mortgage, or
otherwise, any of the lands, tenements, hereditaments and possessions,
wherein they have any estate or interest, or which they shaP acquire as
aforesaid, but that no sale, mortgage, or other disposition of any lands,
tenements, or hereditaments of the Society shall be made, except with the
approbation and concurrence of a General Meeting. And our will and
pleasure is, and we further grant and declare that for the better rule
(xlviii)
and government of the Society, and the direction and management of the
concerns thereof, there shall be a Council of the Society, to be appointed
from among the Members thereof, and to include the President and the
Vice-Presidents, and such other office-bearers or past office-bearers as may
be directed by such Bye-laws as hereinafter mentioned, but so that the
Council, including all cx-offwio Members thereof, shall consist of not more
than forty or less than twelve Members, and that the Vice-Presidents shall
be not more than six or less than two in number. And we do hereby fukther
will and declare that the said Lindsay Wood shall be the first President of
the Society, and the persons now being the Vice-Presidents, and the
Treasurer and Secretary, shall be the first Vice-Presidents, and the first
Treasurer and Secretary, and the persons now being the Members of the
Council shall be the first Members of the Council of the Society, and that
they respectfully shall continue such until the first election shall be made
at a General Meeting in pursuance of these presents. And we do hereby
further will and declare that, subject to the powers by these presents
vested in the General Meetings of the Society, the Council shall have the
management of the Society, and of the income and property thereof, including
the appointment of oiiieers and servants, the definition of their duties,
and the removal of any of such officers and servants, and generally may do
all such acts and deeds as they shall deem necessary or fitting to be done,
in order to carry into full operation and effect the objects and purposes of
the Society, but so always that the same be not inconsistent with, or
repugnant to, any of the provisions of this our Charter, or the Laws of our
Realm, or any Bye-law of the Society in force for the time being. And we
do further will and declare that at any General Meeting of the Society, it
shall be lawful for the Society, subject as hereinafter mentioned, to make
such Bye-laws as to them shall seem necessary or proper for the regulation
and good government of the Society, and of the Members and affairs thereof,
and generally for carrying the objects of the Society into full and complete
effect, and particularly (and without its being intended hereby to prejudice
the foregoing generality), to make Bye-laws for all or any of the purposes
hereinafter mentioned, that is to say: for fixing the number of
Vice-Presidents, and the number of Members of which the Council shall
consist, and the manner of electing the President and Vice-Presidents, and
other Members of the Council, and the period of their continuance in office,
and the manner and time of supplying any vacancy therein; and for regulating
the times at which General Meetings of the Society and Meetings of the
Council shall be held, and for convening the same and regulating the
proceedings thereat, and
(xlix)
for regulating the manner of admitting persons to be Members of the Society,
and of removing or expelling Members from the Society, and for imposing
reasonable fines or penalties for non-performance of any such Bye-laws, or
for disobedience thereto, and from time to time to annul, alter, or change
any such Bye-laws so always that all Bye-laws to be made as aforesaid
be not repugnant to these presents, or to any of the laws of our Eealm.
And we do further will and declare that the present Rules and Regulations of
the Society, so far as they are not inconsistent with these presents, shall
continue in force, and be deemed the Bye-laws of the Society until the same
shall be altered by a General Meeting, provided always that the present
Rules and Regulations of the Society and any future Bye-laws of the Society
so to be made as aforesaid shall have no force or effect whatsoever until
the same shall have been approved in writing by our Secretary of State for
the Home Department. In witness whereof we hate caused these our Letters
to be made Patent.
Witness Ourself at our Palace, at Westminster, this 28th day of November, in
the fortieth year of our reign.
By Her Majesty's Command.
CARDEW.
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. BYE-LAWS
PASSED AT A GENEEAL MEETING ON THE 16th JUNE. 1877.
1.—The members of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers shall consist of four classes, viz.:—Original Members, Ordinary
Members, Associate Members, and Honorary Members, with a class of Students
attached.
2.—Original Members shall be those who were Ordinary Members on the 1st of
August, 1877.
3.—Ordinary Members.—Every candidate for admission into the class of
Ordinary Members, or for transfer into that class, shall come within the
following conditions :—He shall be more than twenty-eight years of age, have
been regularly educated as a Mining or Mechanical Engineer, or in some other
recognised branch of Engineering, according to the usual routine of
pupilage, and have had subsequent employment for at least five years in some
responsible situation as an Engineer, or if he has not undergone the usual
routine of pupilage, he must have practised on his own account in the
profession of an Engineer for at least five years, and have acquired a
considerable degree of eminence in the same.
4.—Associate Members shall be persons practising as Mining or Mechanical
Engineers, or in some other recognised branch of Engineering, and other
persons connected with or interested in Mining or Engineering.
5.—Honorary Members shall be persons who have distinguished themselves by
their literary or scientific attainments, or who have made important
communications to the Society.
6.—Students shall be persons who are qualifying themselves for the
profession of Mining or Mechanical Engineering, or some other of the
recognised branches of Engineering, and such persons may continue Students
until they attain the nge of twenty-three years.
(lii)
7.—The annual subscription of each Original Member, and of each Ordinary
Member who was a Student on the 1st of August, 1877, shall be £2 2s., of
each Ordinary Member (except as last mentioned) £3 3s., of each Associate
Member £2 2s., and of each Student £1 Is., payable in advance, and shall be
considered due on election, and afterwards on the first Saturday in August
of each year.
8.—Any Member may, at any time, compound for ail future subscriptions by a
payment of £25, where the annual subscription is £3 3s., and by a-payment of
£20 where the annual subscription is £2 2s. All persons so compounding shall
be Original, Ordinary, or Associate Members for life, as the case may be ;
but any Associate Member for life who may afterwards desire to become an
Ordinary Member for life, may do so, after being elected in the manner
described in Bye-law 13, and on payment of the further sum of £5.
9.—Owners of Collieries, Engineers, Manufacturers, and Employers of labour
generally, may subscribe annually to the funds of the Institute, and each
such subscriber of £2 2s. annually shall be entitled to a ticket to admit
two persons to the rooms, library, meetings, lectures, and public
proceedings of the Society; and for every additional £2 2s., subscribed
annually, two other persons shall be admissible up to the number of ten
persons ; and each such Subscriber shall also be entitled for each £2 2s.
subscription to have a copy of the Proceedings of the Institute sent to him.
10.—In case any Member, who has been long distinguished in his professional
career, becomes unable, from ill-health, advanced age, or other sufficient
cause, to carry on a lucrative practice, the Council may, on the report of a
Sub-Committee appointed for that purpose, if they find good reason for the
remission of the annual subscription, so remit it. They may also remit any
arrears which are due from a member, or they may accept from him a
collection of books, or drawings, or models, or other contributions, in lieu
of the composition mentioned in Bye-law 8, and may thereupon, constitute him
a Life Member, or permit him to resume his former rank in the Institute.
11.—Persons desirous of becoming Ordinary Members shall be proposed and
recommended, according to the Form A in the Appendix, in which form the
name, usual residence, and qualifications of the candidate shall be
distinctly specified. This form must be signed by the proposer and at least
five other Members certifying a personal knowledge of the candidate. The
proposal so made being delivered to the Secretary, shall be submitted to the
Council, who on approving the qualifications shall determine if the
candidate is to be presented for ballot, and if it is so deter-
(liii)
mined, the Chairman of the Council shall sign such approbation. The same
shall be read at the next Ordinary General Meeting, and afterwards be placed
in some conspicuous situation until the following Ordinary General Meeting,
when the candidate shall be balloted for.
12.—Persons desirous of being admitted into the Institute as Associate
Members, or Students, shall be proposed by three Members; Honorary Members
shall be proposed by at least five Members, and shall in addition be
recommended by the Council, who shall also have the power of defining the
time during which, and the circumstances under which, they shall be Honorary
Members. The nomination shall be in writing, and signed by the proposers
(according to the Form B in the Appendix), and shall be submitted to the
first Ordinary General Meeting after the date thereof. The name of the
person proposed shall be exhibited in the Society's room until the next
Ordinary General Meeting, when the candidate shall be balloted for.
13.—Associate Members or Students, desirous of becoming Ordinary Members,
shall be proposed and recommended according to the Form C in the Appendix,
in which form the name, usual residence, and qualifications of the candidate
shall be distinctly specified. This form must certify a personal knowledge
of the candidate, and be signed by the proposer and at least two other
Members, and the proposal shall then be treated in the manner described in
Bye-law 11. Students may become Associate Members at any time after
attaining the age of twenty-three on payment of an Associate Member's
subscription.
14.—The balloting shall be conducted in the following manner:— Each Member
attending the Meeting at which a ballot is to take place shall be supplied
(on demand) with a list of the names of the persons to be balloted for,
according to the Form D in the Appendix, and shall strike out the names of
such candidates as he desires shall not be elected, and return the list to
the scrutineers appointed by the presiding Chairman for the purpose, and
such scrutineers shall examine the lists so returned, and inform the meeting
what elections have been made. No candidate shall be elected unless he
secures the votes of two-thirds of the Members voting.
15.—Notice of election shall be sent to every person within one week after
his election, according to the Form E in the Appendix, enclosing at the same
time a copy of Form F, which shall be returned by the person elected,
signed, and accompanied with the amount of his annual subscription, or life
composition, within two months from the date of such election, which
otherwise should become void.
h
(liv)
16.—Every Ordinary Member elected having signed a declaration in the Form F,
and having likewise made the proper payment, shall receive
certificate of his election.
17.—Any person whose subscription is two years in arrear shall be reported
to the Council, who shall direct application to be made for it, according to
the Form G in the Appendix, and in the event of its continuing one month in
arrear after such application, the Council shall have the power, after
remonstrance by letter, according to the Form H in the Appendix, of
declaring that the defaulter has ceased to be a member.
18.—In case the expulsion of any person shall be judged expedient by ten or
more Members, and they think fit to draw up and sign a proposal requiring
such expulsion, the same being delivered to the Secretary, shall be by him
laid before the Council for consideration. If the Council, after due
inquiry, do not find reason to concur in the proposal, no entry thereof
shall be made in any minutes, nor shall any public discussion thereon be
permitted, unless by requisition signed by one-half the Members of the
Institute ; but if the Council do find good reason for the proposed
expulsion, they shall direct the Secretary to address a letter, according to
the Form I in the Appendix, to the person proposed to be expelled, advising
him to withdraw from the Institute. If that advice be followed, no entry on
the minutes nor any public discussion on the subject shall be permitted ;
but if that advice be not followed, nor an explanation given which is
satisfactory to the Council, they shall call a General Meeting for the
purpose of deciding on the question of expulsion ; and if a majority of the
persons present at such Meeting (provided the number so present be not less
than forty) vote that such person be expelled, the Chairman of that Meeting
shall declare the same accordingly, and the Secretary shall communicate the
same to the person, according to the Form J in the Appendix.
19.—The Officers of the Institute, other than the Treasurei and the
Secretary, shall be elected from the Original, Ordinary and Associate
Members, and shall consist of a President, six Vice-Presidents, and eighteen
Councillors, who, with the Treasurer and the Secretary (if Members of the
Institute) shall constitute the Council. The President, Vice-Presidents, and
Councillors shall be elected at the Annual Meeting in August (except in
cases of vacancies) and shall be eligible for re-election, with the
exception of any President or Vice-President who may have held office for
the three immediately preceding years, and such six Councillors as may have
attended the fewest Council Meetings during the past
(lv)
year; but such Members shall be eligible for re-election after being one
year out of office.
20.—The Treasurer and the Secretary shall be appointed by the Council, and
shall be removable by the Council, subject to appeal to a General Meeting.
One and the same person may hold both these offices.
21.—Each Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member shall be at liberty to
nominate in writing, and send to the Secretary not less than eight days
prior to the Ordinary General Meeting in June, a list, duly signed, of
Members suitable to fill the offices of President, Vice-Presidents, and
Members of Council, for the ensuing year. The Council shall prepare a list
of the persons so nominated, together with the names of the Officers for the
current year eligible for re-election, and of such other Members as they
deem suitable for the various offices. Such list shall comprise the names of
not less than thirty. The list so prepared by the Council shall be submitted
to the General Meeting in June, and shall be the balloting list for the
annual election in August. (See Form K in the Appendix.) A copy of this list
shall be posted at least seven days previous to the Annual Meeting, to every
Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member; who may erase any name or names
from the list, and substitute the name or names of any other person or
persons eligible for each respective office; but the number of persons on
the list, after such erasure or substitution, must not exceed the number to
be elected to the respective offices. Papers which do not accord with these
directions shall be rejected by the scrutineers. The Votes for any Members
who may not be elected President or Vice-Presidents shall count for them as
Members of the Council. The Chairman shall appoint four scrutineers, who
shall receive the balloting papers, and, after making the necessary
scrutiny, destroy the same, and sign and hand to the Chairman a list of the
elected Officers. The balloting papers may be returned through the post,
addressed to the Secretary, or be handed to him, or to the Chairman of the
Meeting, so as to be received before the appointment of the scrutineers for
the election of Officers.
22.—In case of the decease or resignation of any Officer or Officers, the
Council, if they deem it requisite that the vacancy shall be filled up,
shall present to the next Ordinary General Meeting a list of persons whom
they nominate as suitable for the vacant offices, and a new Officer or
Officers shall be elected at the succeeding Ordinary General Meeting.
23.—-The President shall take the chair at all meetings of the Institute,
the Council, and Committees, at which he is present (he being ex-officio a
member of all), and shall regulate and keep order in the proceedings.
(lvi)
24.—In the absence of the President, it shall be the duty of the senior
Vice-President present to preside at the meetings of the Institute, to keep
order, and to regulate the proceedings. In case of the absence of the
President and of all the Vice-Presidents, the meeting may elect any Member
of Council, or in case of their absence, any Member present, to take the
chair at the meeting.
-25.—The Council may appoint Committees for the purpose of transacting any
particular business, or of investigating specific subjects connected with
the objects of the Institute. Such Committees shall report to the Council,
who shall act thereon as they see occasion.
26.—The Treasurer and the Secretary shall act under the direction and
control of the Council, by which body their duties shall from time to time
be defined.
27.—The Funds of the Society shall be deposited in the hands of the
Treasurer, and shall be disbursed or invested by him according to the
direction of the Council.
»28.—The Copyright of all papers communicated to, and accepted for printing
by the Council, and printed within twelve months, shall become vested in the
Institute, and such communications shall not be published for sale or
otherwise, without the written permission of the Council.
29.—An Ordinary General Meeting shall be held on the first Saturday of every
month (except January and July) at two o'clock, unless otherwise determined
by the Council; and the Ordinary General Meeting in the month of August
shall be the Annual Meeting, at which a report of the proceedings, and an
abstract of the accounts of the previous year, shall be presented by the
Council. A Special General Meeting shall be called whenever the Council may
think fit, and also on a requisition to the Council, signed by ten or more
Members. The business of a Special Meeting shall be confined to that
specified in the notice convening it.
30.—At meetings of the Council, five shall be a quorum. The minutes of the
Council's proceedings shall be at all times open to the inspection of the
Members.
31.—All Past-Presidents shall be ex-officio Members of the Council so long
as they continue Members of the Institute, and Vice-Presidents who have not
been re-elected or have become ineligible from having held office for three
consecutive years, shall be ex-officio Members of the Council for the
following year.
32.—Every question, uot otherwise provided for, which shall come before any
Meeting, shall be decided by the votes of the majority of the Original,
Ordinary, and Associate Members then present.
(Mi)
33.—All papers shall be sent for the approval of the Council at least twelve
days before a General Meeting, and after approval, shall be read before the
Institute. The Council shall also direct whether any paper read before the
Institute shall be printed in the Transactions, and notice shall be given to
the writer within one month after it has been read, whether it is to be
printed or not.
34.—All proofs of reports of discussions, forwarded to Members for
correction, must be returned to the Secretary within seven days from the
date of their receipt, otherwise they will be considered correct and be
printed off.
35.—The Institute is not, as a body, responsible for the statements and
opinions advanced in the papers which may be read, nor in the discussions
which may take place at the meetings of the Institute.
36.—Twelve copies of each paper printed by the Institute shall be presented
to the author for private use.
37.—Members elected at any meeting between the Annual Meetings shall be
entitled to all papers issued in that year, so soon as they have signed and
returned Form F, and paid their subscriptions.
38.—The Transactions of the Institute shall not be forwarded to Members
whose subscriptions are more than one year in arrear.
39.—No duplicate copies of any portion of the Transactions shall be issued
to any of the Members unless by written order from the Council.
40.—Invitations shall be forwarded to any person whose presence at the
discussions the Council may think advisable, and strangers so invited shall
be permitted to take part in the proceedings but not to vote. Any Member of
the Institute shall also have power to introduce two strangers (see Form L)
to any General Meeting, but they shall not take part in the proceedings
except by permission of the Meeting.
41.—No alteration shall be made in the Bye-laws of the Institute, except at
the Annual Meeting, or at a Special Meeting for that purpose, and the
particulars of every such alteration shall be announced at a previous
Ordinary Meeting, and inserted in its minutes, and shall be exhibited in the
room of the Institute fourteen days previous to such Annual or Special
Meeting, and such Meeting shall have power to adopt any modification of such
proposed alteration of the Bye-laws.
Approved,
R. ASSHETON CROSS.
Whitehall,
2nd July, 1877.
(lviii)
APPENDIX TO THE BYE-LAWS.
[FORM A.]
A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in full], being
upwards of twenty-eight years of age, and desirous of being elected an
Ordinary Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, I recommend him from personal knowledge as a person in every
respect worthy of that distinction, because—
[Here specify distinctly the qualifications of the Candidate, according to
the spirit
of Bye-law 3.]
On the above grounds, I beg leave to propose him to the Council as a proper
person to be admitted an Ordinary Member.
Signed___________________________Member.
Dated this day of 18
We, the undersigned, concur in the above recommendation, being convinced
that A. B. is in every respect a proper person to be admitted an ordinary
Member.
FROM PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE.
iFive Members.
[To be filled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as a of the North of England Institute
of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed_____________________Chairman.
Dated this day of 18
(lix)
[FORM B.]
A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in full], being
desirous of admission into the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, we, the undersigned, propose and recommend that he
shall become [an Honorary Member, or an Associate Member, or a Student]
thereof.
! Three* Members.
* If an Honorary Member, five signatures are necessary, and the following
Form must be filled in by the Council.
Dated this day of 18
[_To be filled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as an Honorary Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed______________-_________.Chairman.
Dated day of 18
[FORM C]
A. B. [Christian Name, Surname, Occupation, and Address in full], being at
present a of the North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers, and upwards of twenty-eight years of age, and
being desirous of becoming an Ordinary Member of the said Institute, I
recommend him, from personal knowledge, as a person in every respect worthy
of that distinction, because—
[Here specify distinctly the Qualifications of the Candidate according to
the spirit
of Bye-law 3.]
On the above grounds, I beg leave to propose him to the Council as a proper
person to be admitted an Ordinary Member.
Signed____________________Member.
Dated this day of 18
We, the undersigned, concur in the above recommendation, being
(Ix)
convinced that A. B. is in every respect a proper person to be admitted an
Ordinary Member.
FROM PEBSONAL KNOWLEDGE.
------------------------------------.--------I Two
J Members.
[To be filled up by the Council.']
The Council, having considered the above recommendation, present A. B. to be
balloted for as an Ordinary Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Signed----------------------------------Chairman.
Dated day of 18
[FORM D.]
List of the names of persons to be balloted for at the Meeting on , the
day of 18
Ordinary Members :—-
Associate Members:— Honorary Members:—
Students :—
Strike out the names of such persons as you desire should not be elected,
and hand the list to the Chairman.
[FOKM E.]
Sir,—-I beg leave to inform you that on the day of
you were elected a of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, but in conformity with its Eules your
election cannot be confirmed until the enclosed form be returned to me
Ixi
frith your signature, and until your first annual subscription be paid, the
amount of which is £ , or, at your option, the
life-composition
of£
If the subscription is not received within two months from die present date,
the election will become void under Bye-law 15.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FORM P.]
I, the undersigned, being elected a of the
North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, do hereby a-ree
that I will be governed by the Charter and Bye-laws of the said Institute
for the time being; and that 1 will advance the objects of the Institute as
far as shall be in my power, and will not aid in any unauthorised
publication of the proceedings, and will attend the meetings thereof as
often as I conveniently can; provided that whenever I shall signify in
writing to the Secretary that I am desirous of withdrawing my name
therefrom, I shall (after the payment of any arrears which may be due by me
at that period) cease to be a Member.
Witness my hand this dayof 18
[FORM G.] Sir-1 am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute
of Mining and Mechanical Engineers to draw your attention to Bye-law 17, and
to remind you that the sum of £ of your annua,
subscriptions to the funds of the Institute remains unpaid, and tnat you are
in consequence in airear of subscription. I am also directed to request that
you will cause the same to be paid without further delay, otherwise the
Council will be under the necessity of exercising their discretion as to
using the power vested in them by the Article above
referred to.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary
Dated 18
Ixii
[FORM H.]
Sir,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers to inform you, that in consequence of
non-payment of your arrears of subscription, and in pursuance of Bye-law 17,
the Council have determined that unless payment of the amount £ is
made previous to the day of
next, they will proceed to declare that you have ceased to be a Member of
the Institute.
t
But, notwithstanding this declaration, you will remain liable for payment of
the arrears due from you.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FOEM I.] Sir,—I am directed by the Council of the North of England
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers to inform you that, upon mature
consideration of a proposal which has been laid before them relative to you,
they feel it their duty to advise you to withdraw from the Institute, or
otherwise they will be obliged to act in accordance with Bye-law 18.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary.
Dated 18
[FORM J.]
Sir,—It is my duty to inform you that, under a resolution passed at a
Special General Meeting of the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, held on the day
of
18 , according to the provisions of Bye-law 18 you have ceased to be a
Member of the Institute.
I am, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Secretary,
Dated 18
Ixiii [FORM K.]
BALLOTING LIST.
Ballot to take place at the Meeting of 18 at Two
o'Clock.
President—One Name only to be returned, or the vote will be lost.
----------- President for the current year eligible for re-election.
________V New Nominations.
-g
Vice-Pbesidents—Six Names only to be returned, or the vote
o
will be lost.
j?
The Votes for any Members who may not be elected as §
President or Vice-Presidents will count for them as other Members
§"
of the Council.
g g
j
S £a
-----------I Vice-Presidents for the current year eligible for re-
S V
—---------' election.
^ .g
----------------------- I
q_(
O
O >
> New Nominations.
p g § ^
--------f «
i | s
----------;
| g e * |
Council—Eighteen Names only to be returned, or the vote £ w «
P-, £
Ec 8 p* «2 will be lost.
ee m ^ % a
£ Ph £ H * ------------------
fe ^ U to
--------
I E a § s
_______
g O 02 F3 S
_--------,—
ci
5
----------- (^Members of the Council for the current year eligible for £
£
-----------' re-election.
-g ^
-----------
« 53
---------------------
£>
t>,
____________
<u
o
-----------------------
QJ
-/
.r—5
4> ______________~>
ti
O
-------------
,a
~ > New Nominations.
---------
Extract from Bye-law 21.
Each Original, Ordinary, and Associate Member shall be at liberty to
nominate in writing, and send to the Secretary not less than eight days
prior to the Ordinary General Meeting in June, a list, duly signed, of
Members suitable to fill the Offices of President, Vice-Presidents, and
Members of Council, for the ensuing year. The Council shall prepare a list
of the persons so nominated, together with the names of the Officers for the
current yes-r eligible for re-election, and of such other Members as they
deem suitable for the various offices. Such list shall comprise the names of
not less than thirty The list so prepared by the Council shall be submitted
to the General Meeting 3n June, and shall be the balloting list for the
annual election in August. (See Eorm K in the Appendix.) A copy of this
list shalj be posted at least s^en iaarg
2 PROCEEDINGS.
the members next year, and a committee had been appointed to consider the
matter. At present it seemed to be rather the feeling of the Council that it
would be more advisable for them to stay at home next year and entertain the
members of other Institutes, and, possibly, have some such gathering, in the
form of a Mining Exhibition, as there had been at Glasgow. The subject would
be carefully considered and brought before the members in due course.
Professor P. Phillips Bedson, I). Sc, F.C.S., read the following paper on "
The Testing of Safety Lamps: an Account of Experiments made by Professors
Kreischer and Winkler":—
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 3
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS : AN ACCOUNT OF EXPERIMENTS MADE BY PROFESSORS
KREISCHER AND WINKLER.
By Pkofessoe P. P. BEDSON, D.Sc.
The object of this paper is to give an account of the experiments made by
Professors Kreischer and Winkler in their investigation of the behaviour of
various safety lamps, which was conducted at the request of the Saxon Royal
Commission formed for the purpose of revising the regulations for securing
safety in mines.* It is not intended to give an account of the whole of the
results obtained, but rather such as will bring before the members those
having a more or less direct bearing on the Wolf safety lamp, described by
Mr. T. W. Bunning at the last meeting.
The writer trusts that it will not be considered out of place if he follow,
in some measure, the report itself, and devote a few introductory remarks to
the nature of flame.
The insight into the phenomena of combustion acquired towards the close of
the last century cleared the way towards a true conception of the nature of
flame, an explanation of which was first given by Sir Humphry Davy. It is
interesting to remember that Davy's investigations of flame were a result of
the efforts made by him to secure greater safety in the working of coal
mines, which led to the discovery of the safety lamp known by his name. An
account of his views on the nature of flame was given in a paper entitled "
Some Researches on Flame," and communicated to the Royal Society on the 16th
January, 1817, in which he shows flame to be gaseous matter raised by the
heat of chemical action to temperatures so high as to be luminous.
Sir Humphry Davy was the first to point out that the luminosity of flames
depends not alone upon the temperature produced in the combustion, but upon
the separation, taking place in the flame, of solid matter, which is raised
to incandescence, to undergo, later on, combustion more
* The report of Professors Kreischer and Winkler appeared in the Jahrhuch
fur das Berg- und Hutten-wesen im Konigrciche Sachsen. 1884. Erstes
Heft. Pp. 1-77.
4 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
or less complete. The luminosity of ordinary flames, such as those of coal
gas, and of candles, &c, is, according to the theory of Davy, due to the
separation in them of solid carbon.
From the study of the flames of other combustible substances, Frank-land has
arrived at conclusions, as to the causes of the luminosity of flames,
opposed to those of Davy. According to his views, it is not solid carbon
which separates out in the flame, but gaseous hydrocarbons of great density
which are generated, and to the heating of these to incandescence he assigns
the luminosity of ordinary flames.
To discuss more deeply the nature of the evidence bearing upon this point
would be unsuited to a paper of this character; suffice it to say, that
experiments conducted since the year 1875 by Heumann have resulted in
upholding the views of Davy. A flame is now regarded as nothing more or less
than a stream of strongly heated gas, which, under certain conditions, may
be more or less luminous.
The production of light can, in the case of the ordinary illuminating agents
in use, be only attained when the heat produced in the burning of the
hydrocarbons is sufficiently great to decompose the combustible gas, so as
to effect a separation of carbon and at the same time to raise this carbon
to incandescence. Marsh gas burns with a non-luminous flame, because the
temperature produced by its combustion does not suffice to resolve this
highly stable compound into its elements. On the other hand, the flame of an
easily decomposible hydrocarbon, such as oil of turpentine, is an extremely
smoky one, owing to the ease with which it is resolved into carbon and
hydrogen. At the same time, this flame is but feebly luminous, since the
temperature produced by the combustion of the oil of turpentine is
insufficient to raise the carbon to incandescence. By directing a stream of
oxygen on to the flame of burning turpentine, a more intense combustion
ensues, and it then becomes highly luminous.
The flame is, however, only a part of the stream of gas which produces it,
namely the highly-ignited portion, upon which the recognition of its
existence depends. Its power to give out light is dependent, in the first
instance, on the nature of the combustible gas and of the products of its
combustion, and may, in no small degree, be affected by a variety of
conditions. As far as concerns the safety lamp as a light producer, the
following conditions claim consideration :—
A.—The Safety Lamp as a Light Producer.
(1) The nature of the illuminating agent.
(2) The form of the burner.
(3) The manner in which air is supplied.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 5
1.—The illuminating agents which have, up to the present, been used in
safety lamps, either in practice or merely experimentally, are—
(a) Eape oil.
(b) A mixture of rape oil and petroleum.
(c) Benzine.
a. Inasmuch as rape oil is not volatile, in order that it may be con-
verted into a combustible gas, burning with a luminous flame, the oil must
be subjected to the process of dry distillation, an operation effected at
the expense of the heat of combustion of the oil itself. Not only are
volatile bodies produced in the distillation, but a non-volatile residue of
carbonaceous matter is also formed, filling up, in time, the capillaries of
the wick, interfering in this way with the flow of the oil, and producing
thick crusts on the wick, requiring constant removal, but in spite of which,
this formation soon leads to an irregularity and a diminution in the light
produced.
b. A mixture of rape oil and petroleum possesses the advantage over
rape oil itself, in its mobility, by virtue of which it flows more easily
into the wick. A special form of wick is, however, required for the burning
of this mixture, and it may thus be made to burn with a brightly luminous,
non-smoky flame, and continue to do so for many hours with satisfactory
regularity, the wick requiring but seldom to be freed from the solid matter,
which, in the use of this mixture, makes its appearance more slowly than is
the case when rape oil alone is burnt. With a properly constructed wick
holder, a mixture containing as much as 50 per cent, of petroleum may be
used; the higher the percentage of petroleum, the smaller the tendency to
the separation of carbon in the wick.
c. Owing to its volatility, benzine reaches the wick completely, and
is converted into gas, which burns away entirely without any
separation of carbon. Benzine possesses, therefore, the great
advantage that it burns with a highly luminous flame, without
the wick being destroyed or undergoing any change.
2.—The form of the burner, in the case of the safety lamp, is, of
course, the same as that of the wick. For benzine a common round
wick suffices. A moderately broad flat wick, -32 in. in width, should be
used with rape oil, and for a mixture of rape oil and petroleum a much
wider wick is required (*59 to '67 in.) The effect on the illuminating
power of a flame, produced by the burner, can be observed in any ordinary
6 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
gas flame. The size of the blue non-luminous zone relative to the luminous
portion will be seen to increase with the higher conductivity of the
material of which the burner is constructed ; hence steatite burners are
more economical than those made of metal. Where such materials as rape oil
and mixtures of rape oil and paraffin are used, the heat conducted away by
the burner is so small, compared to that used in the distillation of the
oil, as to need no consideration; but in the case of benzine it would be
useful to try what, if any, advantage would result from the use of a
wick-holder constructed of steatite or other like material.
3.—Considerable differences of opinion have obtained as to the most suitable
manner in which the air should be admitted in a safety lamp. The admission
of air from above must, from a chemical point of view, be described as
totally opposed to the conditions favourable to the process of combustion.
In lamps so constructed the air required by the flame must sink into the
glass cylinder, and the products of combustion formed there must rise in
order to find an outlet. In this way opposing currents are produced,
affecting the intensity of the combustion, and even causing movements in the
flame itself. In this respect, lamps in which the air is admitted from
below, and in which a draught passing vertically through the lamp is
produced, conform in the natural and only way to the conditions favourable
to the production of flame.
B.—The Safely Lam}] as Safe-guard and Indicator.
The changes produced in the appearance of a flame, when surrounded by a
mixture of air and combustible gas, are so characteristic that the safety
lamp serves not only as a light producer, but also as an important and
convenient indicator of the presence of such combustible gases as marsh gas.
The nature of these phenomena may be regarded as dependent upon the
following conditions:—
(1.) Construction of the lamp.
(2.) Nature of the lamp flame.
(3.) Nature of the illuminating agent.
(4.) Nature of the combustible gas.
1.—The influence of the construction of the lamp on the matter under
consideration depends upon the manner in which the air is admitted.
a. With a lamp in which the air is admitted from below, when brought into an
explosive mixture, this latter must, under all conditions, be drawn into
immediate contact with the flame, which will, therefore, form the centre of
the field of explosion, and will be more or less disturbed, or even
extinguished, according to the
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 7
amount of gas in the mixture. The force of the explosion will, with equal
force, extend in an upward and downward direction, and if a series of
explosions are produced in rapid succession the force is, as a rule,
sufficiently strong to extinguish the flame and the cap formed in the gauze.
This behaviour of the lamp is a guarantee not only for its sensitiveness,
but also its safety. o. If the mixture of air and combustible gas reaches
the flame from above, so close a contact with the flame as that described
above cannot be effected, since the path of the air is restricted. The
volume of the mixture which will reach the flame will be approximately equal
to that of the heated products of combustion, and consequently but little
more air^than is required for the support of the combustion of the
illuminating body will find its way into the glass cylinder. On the other
hand, the air will pass through the gauze unopposed. When a lamp so
constructed is brought into an atmosphere containing an explosive mixture,
the gas takes fire with an explosion, but afterwards burns quietly, the
lamp-flame dies out for want of oxygen, and the cap in the gauze will
continue to burn as long as the supply of combustible gas is kept up from
without. The lamp flame is, therefore, extinguished, but the cap continues
to burn, and although the heating of the gauze to redness may never have
been observed, still this behaviour of lamps so constructed constitutes,
without doubt, their greater danger. 2.—The influence of the " nature of the
lamp flame," neglecting that due to the quality of the illuminating material
and the form of the wick, is to be found chiefly in the size of the flame,
of which it is customary to distinguish two sizes, viz.:—
{a.) Normal flame. (&.) Reduced flame. a. The " normal flame " should burn
in pure air with its full luminous power, and continue to do so, with a
sharp, well-defined form. When brought in contact with a mixture of air and
marsh gas, an elongation, a rising up of the flame, is observed, the
luminosity being but slightly effected. Simultaneously a blue
feebly-luminous "cap" makes its appearance, surrounding the flame, produced
by the burning of the marsh gas contained in the air. With mixtures
containing but little marsh gas this combustion takes place in immediate
contact with the flame only, the cooling down due to the indifferent gases
contained in the mixture pre-
8 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
venting the extension of this marsh gas flame. The higher the proportion of
the marsh gas relative to the non-combustible gases associated with it the
more evident and extended is the blue cap, the greater the tendency of the
flame to rise in height, and the greater the diminution in its luminosity.
Together with these may be mentioned the more fugitive phenomena presented
by the flame, such as its circular movement and its flickering, and the
so-called spinning of the flame, in which the flame melts away into the
burning fire-damp and ascends, by reason of its high temperature, with
spiral motion into the gauze, or even to the roof of the lamp itself, at the
same time suffering such complete loss of luminosity that only now and then
single threads, of a dull red colour, are visible in the centre of the blue
column. These luminous threads disappear with larger proportions of marsh
gas; a blue non-luminous flame is produced, extending from the wick into the
cage, and, striking against the top, moves downwards with a wave-like
motion, and a steadily increasing downward movement at its edges, until the
glass cylinder itself is reached. This flame, when the mixture is
permanently ignited, forms a cap of well-defined form, separated completely
from the wick, and the lamp flame is entirely extinguished. As already
mentioned, with lamps in which the air is admitted above the burner, the cap
remains stationary; whereas, with those in which the air enters from below,
a series of small explosions takes place, the flame passing back to the wick
and at times rekindling the lamp, but finally effectually extinguishing both
the lamp flame and the cap itself. The remarkable bell-shape assumed by the
cap in the gauze, under certain conditions, is to be explained by a local
admixture taking place betAveen the combustible gas and the products of
combustion, which, resulting in a reduction of the inflammability of the
former, produces an apparent repulsion of the cap by the walls of the gauze
cage. b. The " reduced flame " of the safety lamp is produced by lowering
the wick until a small non-luminous blue flame, about f of an inch high, is
obtained. Its want of luminosity permits of the changes produced by the
presence of marsh gas being detected with considerable ease, even in the
early stages. According to the proportion of marsh gas in the mixture, there
will either be a narrow pale bluish-red flame floating round the lamp flame,
or the flame may gradually assume a conical form, or, perchance, shoot up-
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 9
wards, fountain-like, in the form of a narrow blue stream, according as the
heat from the lamp flame suffices to raise a smaller or greater quantity of
the gas in the mixture to its temperature of ignition. With further increase
in the proportion of marsh gas the narrow blue stream begins to whirl round
the roof of the gauze cage ; it increases in size, and after assuming,
first, a funnellike form, then bell-like, is severed from the wick, ascends
into the gauze, which it fills completely, there to remain, unless
extinguished by a sudden back stroke. 3.—The material used for illuminating
purposes has certain influence on the sensitiveness of the safety lamp.
The benzine flame has, by reason of its mobility and the ease with which it
may be regulated, shown itself under all conditions to be highly
satisfactory. The changes produced in it by marsh gas are pronounced; more
especially is this the case with the " reduced flame," and further, it is
easily extinguished by the force of explosions produced in the lamp itself.
Only after it has been kept in an atmosphere highly charged with marsh gas
does its behaviour become at all abnormal, insomuch as vaporisation of the
benzine taking place, the appearance of the cap is affected, and, as is
shown in Plate II, a slightly luminous zone makes its appearance.
The flame of rape-oil is, in general, less mobile and sensitive than that of
benzine. As a special disadvantage attending the use of this material may be
mentioned the difficulty experienced in reducing the flame. When this is,
however, successfully accomplished, the flame yields in no degree of
sensitiveness to that of benzine.
In mixtures of gases containing but small proportions of marsh gas the
indications obtained from the flame of the mixture of rape oil and petroleum
place this material above either of the other two. When the marsh gas has
reached a certain proportion, however, the flame becomes so unsteady as to
be practically useless. The " reduced flame " with this material does not in
any way approach in delicacy those of benzine or of rape oil.
4.—The indications given by the flame of a safety lamp further depend upon
the specific character of the combustible gas mixed with the air, as also
upon the composition of the mixture ; thus, marsh gas mixed with air
produces a blue cap, ordinary coal gas a pale blue, whilst hydrogen will
produce an almost colourless cap. The influence of the composition of the
mixture is determined by the amounts of oxygen required for the combustion
of the gases contained in it. If the gas so occluded in coal consisted of
marsh gas or methane alone, it would suffice to consider here its oxygen
VOL. XXXV.-1885.
B
10 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
requirements only, but as coal gas mixed with air is frequently used in
testing lamps, and farther, as in all probability gas occluded in coal, and
consequently that found in the workings, consists of a mixture of other
hydrocarbons associated with marsh gas, it will be necessary to consider the
amounts of oxygen required by these.
The following table gives the volumes of oxygen needed for the complete
combustion of each of the gases mentioned :—
TABLE I.
t
2 volumes of Hydrogen require 1 volume of Oxygen.
2 „ Carbon Monoxide (CO) require 1 volume of Oxygen.
2 „ Marsh Gas (Methane, CH2) require 4 volumes of Oxygen.
2 „ Acetylene (C.2H,2) „ 5
,, „
2 „ Ethylene (C.2H4) „ 6
„
2 „ Ethane (C2H6) „ 7
2 „ Propylene (C,Ha) „ 9
2 „ Propane (C3H8) „ 10
„
2 „ Butylene (C4H8) „ 12
„ „
2 „ Butane (C4H10) „ 13
2 „ Benzene Vapour (CBH6) „ 15 „
„
Supposing the normal amount of oxygen in air to be 20*7 volumes per 100,
then a mixture of each of these combustible gases with air which would
contain oxygen sufficient to burn the gas completely, and which, therefore,
would produce the maximum effect when exploded, must contain the following
amounts of each of the gases :—
TABLE II.
Hydrogen = 29-28 vol. p. c.
Carbon Monoxide = 2928 „
Methane •=¦ 9"38 „
Acetylene = 7'64 .,
Ethylene = 6"45 „
Ethane = 5"58 „
Propylene = 4'39 „
Propane = 3'97 „
Butylene = 3'33 ,,
Butane = 3"08
Benzene Vapour = 2'68 „
These values may be conveniently styled "Explosions Maxima," The
investigations of E. von Meyer have shown that the gases occluded in coal,
contain hydrocarbons belonging to the same series as marsh gas, and, in all
probability, the hydrocarbon ethane, together with smaller quantities of
members of other series such as the olefines, (CnH2n).
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 11
To form some idea of the effect produced by ethane mixed with methane in
fire-damp, two examples of its influence will suffice.
First, taking the results of the analysis of the occluded gas in the
"Zwickau Forstschachtes," made by Von Meyer, and found by him to contain
7*68 volumes of ethane to 59*61 volumes of methane, therefore, leaving the
non-combustible gases out of consideration, the proportion of these gases in
100 volumes would be
Methane ...... 88"59
Ethane ...... 1141
100-00
A gas having this composition would, in order to produce the maximum effect
on explosion, require to be mixed with air in such quantity that 100 volumes
of the mixture would contain 87 volumes of the gas, whilst, as will be seen
from Table JL, 9"38 volumes of pure methane are required. An increase in the
proportion of ethane to methane will have the effect of further reducing the
volume of such gas, which, when mixed with air, will produce a maximum
effect on explosion, or in other words, a smaller volume of the combustible
gas would suffice to impart to the fire-damp a high degree of explosiveness.
A few words must be said of the influence of indifferent gases. Those gases
may be regarded as indifferent which, like nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and
aqueous vapour are unable to take part chemically in the act of explosion.
The combustible gases themselves may also be considered as indifferent
gases, when present in the mixture in amounts so great that the oxygen
present will not suffice for their complete combustion. Indifferent gases
act on explosive mixtures as diluents, and their cooling effect in the
explosion is proportional to their relative amounts, the inflammability and
the effect of explosion being reduced in like proportion. Experiment has
shown that moderate quantities of carbon dioxide in an explosive mixture
have no marked effect upon the flame of the safety lamp. As much as 5 per
cent, of carbon dioxide has been found to be without any effect upon the
flame, and it may, therefore, be concluded that the usually small amounts of
this gas found in the air of mines are without influence on the indications
given by the safety lamp ; the same probably holds true with regard to other
indifferent gases, such as nitrogen.
An explosive mixture of marsh gas and air may suffer a loss of oxygen by
contact with coal, and consequently, a change will result in the proportion
between the volumes of combustible gas, and that of the supporter of
combustion. In the oxidation of coal to carbon dioxide, for every volume of
oxygen used, a volume of carbon dioxide is produced,
12 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
and consequently, after the oxidation, the volume of this gas produced,
will be equal to that of the oxygen, which has disappeared. To illustrate
this by an example, it may be supposed that the fire-damp consists of
pure methane, and that when mixed with air forms a mixture, having
the following composition :—
Methane... ... 7'5 volumes.
Oxygen...... 19-15 ,,
Nitrogen ... 73"35 „
100-00 ,
It has been already shown, that the maximum effect of explosion is produced
when the volumes of marsh gas and oxygen are as 2 : 4. In the above mixture
the proportion is 2 : 5*10. Supposing, now, the coal with which the mixture
comes in contact takes oxygen from it to the extent of 2-5 volumes of oxygen
from every 100 of the mixture, and that this oxygen is converted into the
same volume of carbon dioxide ; the mixture of gases, so produced, would
then have the following composition :—
Methane ... ... ... 7'5 volumes.
Oxygen ... ... ... 16'65 „
Nitrogen ......... 73-35 „
Carbon dioxide ... ... 25 „
100-00
In which the proportion between the marsh gas and oxygen is that of 2 : 4'44
; approaching, therefore, much more nearly the proportion necessary for the
maximum effect of explosion. It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that
the mixture produced by this change is more dangerous than the first,
inasmuch as it is associated with an increase in the carbon dioxide, and it
is a matter of no importance whether the dilution be effected by 2'5 volumes
of carbon dioxide or by the same volume of oxygen.
EXPERIMENTS WITH WOLF'S BENZINE LAMP.
The question naturally arises, whether the use of so volatile a material,
and one so inflammable and so liable to form easily explosive mixtures with
air, as benzine, does not of necessity mean the introduction into the mines
of a new source of danger ? For it must be borne in mind that a lamp, by
long continued burning, may become heated to temperatures very near the
boiling point of benzine, viz., from 122°-266° F., thus causing- a rapid
vaporisation of the benzine in the oil receptacle.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 13
Nor is it inconceivable that drops of this liquid might be forced out of the
receptacle, which, if ignited, would, on finding their way through the wire
gauze, lead to the ignition of surrounding fire-damp.
Experiments conducted by Mine-Inspector Menzel, in conjunction with the
inventor of this lamp, have shown these fears to be groundless. The
experiments consisted in observing the changes produced when the oil
receptacle of the lighted lamp is gradually heated from 122° to 183° F. The
apparatus employed consisted of a hollow cylinder of sheet iron, made open
above, and provided with holes at the base for the admission of air. A
window for observations was let in on one side of the cylinder. At the
bottom of the cylinder was placed a water bath, sufficiently large to hold
the oil receiver of the lamp, and heated by a lamp placed underneath it. A
thermometer placed in the bath served to indicate the changes in
temperature. The water bath having been raised to the required temperature,
the lighted lamp was placed in the bath, and the appearance of the flame
noted as the temperature gradually rose. The following are some of the
results obtained in this way:—
1.—Benzine Lamp, with Air Admission from Below.
Time Temperature of Bath, in Degrees. Degrees.
Observations.
Minutes. C. F.
0 50-2 122 Flame 1'58 in. high.
1 53-7 129
2 56-2 133
3 56'9 134 Flame 177 in. high, flame flickers slightly.
4 57-7 136
5 59*0 138 Flame 1*89 in., flickering more marked.
6 61-2 142
7 62-5 144 Flame 1*97 in.
8 63-7 147
9 65*6 150 Flame flickering, at times rises to the height of
the
brass ring.
10 67-5 154 Flame 2-18 to 2-17 in. high.
11 68-5 155
12 70 158 Flame flickering, rises to heights above the
brass ring.
13 71'2 160 Tip of flame visible in the gauze cage.
14 7T6 161 Flame flickers up, extending at times into
the
gauze cage.
15 73 163 Flame extends to the roof of the gauze cage.
16 74*1 165 Flame begins to smoke : smoky clouds in the cage.
17 76-2 169
14 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Time Temperature of Bath, in Degrees. Degrees.
Observations.
Minutes. 0. F.
18 77"5 171 Very smoky flame, which, rising in cylindrical
form
to the roof of the gauze, widens out as it comes
in contact with it.
19 78-7 174
20 79'4 175 Flame becomes less luminous.
21 80*0 17G Flame separates from the wick, is less smoky, and
brighter.
22 81'2 178 A dark and flaring flame is visible in the gauze,
a slightly luminous portion floats about '39 in. above the wick.
23 82-7 181 A feebly luminous flame is visible in the gauze
only.
24 — — Flame extinguished. A gas flame directed on to
the
gauze ignites the benzine vapours on the outside, but not those on the
inside.
2.—Benzine Lamp, iviih Air Admission from Above.
0 56-7 134 Flame 1-18 in. high.
1 59 138
2 62-2 144
3 65'7 150
4 67-6 154 Flame lengthens.
5 70 158 Flame lengthens until it reaches a height of about
2-17 in.
6 71-9 161
7 74*5 166 Flame flickers now and then.
8 76*6 169 Tip of flame visible in the gauze cage.
9 79*9 176 Flame rises up to the middle of the gauze.
10 81*2 178 Smoky flame reaching to the top of the gauze
cage.
11 83 181 Flame separates from the wick, ceases to be
luminous,
and is then extinguished. The benzine vapours were ignited on the
application of a lighted gas jet, and burnt on the outside of the gauze
only.
These results are supported by further observations, which, in like manner,
bear witness to the safety of the benzine lamp. Even when subjected to
sudden and considerable changes of temperature, or placed in an explosive
atmosphere, consisting of air and coal gas, or air and benzine vapour, or
when benzine was poured on to the lighted lamp, nothing more was observed
than the extinction of the flame, even under the most unfavourable
conditions.
THE TESTING OP SAFETY LAMPS. 15
Professors Kreischer and Winkler have been able to confirm the observations
made by Mine-Inspector Menzel, and add that benzine may be poured over any
properly constructed safety lamp without causing its ignition. Further, that
in no case have the authors observed the heating of the gauze to redness,
even in experiments in which the lamp used was one in which air was admitted
from above. Such a lamp was allowed to remain burning for hours in a
cylinder, through which a mixture of air and coal gas was led. After a time,
a cap made its appearance, almost entirely filling the gauze, and continued
to burn quietly ; the lamp became so hot that the benzine in the receptacle
began to boil, and its vapours burnt inside the lamp with a flickering
yellow flame. A similar experiment with a benzine lamp, in which air was
admitted from below, resulted in the extinction of the flame, and,
consequently, the lamp could not become overheated.
It is difficult to say to what temperature a benzine lamp may be raised by
the burning of the lamp itself. Mine-Inspector Menzel has observed that a
benzine lamp, with the receiver covered by cloths, to minimise the
radiation, burning in a room the temperature of which was 63-5° F., attained
the temperature of 124° F. without the flame indicating any change. So high
a temperature could not be attained in the mines ; but the influence upon
this heating, arising from the presence of fire-damp, may be entirely met by
the use of lamps, with air supplied from below, since the flames of these
lamps are extinguished in anything like dangerous mixtures of gas.
DETERMINATION OF THE OIL CONSUMPTION OF DIFFERENT LAMPS.
The determinations were made by taking a freshly-filled lamp, cleaning it,
and then weighing it carefully. The lamp was next lighted, the flame brought
to a fixed height, and allowed to burn quietly in a position protected from
draughts. In the case of the benzine, the lamps were allowed to burn until
extinguished spontaneously, and then weighed; the length of time elapsing
between the lighting of the lamp and its extinction being noted. From these
data the amount of oil used per hour was calculated. In the case of those
lamps, in which rape oil, or a mixture of rape oil and paraffin, was used,
the lamps were allowed to burn until a change in the character of the flame
could be detected; it was then extinguished, the lamp re-weighed, and the
time of burning noted. This mode of procedure was adopted to exclude the
errors arising from the accumulation of
16 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
carbonaceous matter on the wick, by which the flow of oil to the wick is
retarded, and the length of the flame affected. In this way strictly
comparable results were obtained.
The following materials were burnt in the lamps experimented with :—
(1) Petroleum benzine, specific gravity 0'687.
(2) Eefined rape oil, specific gravity 0*904.
(3) Mixture of four parts by weight of rape oil (specific gravity 0"904)
and one part by weight of refined petroleum (specific gravity 0-782). The
mixture had a specific gravity of 0"878. The following table contains a
statement of the results obtained with the following lamps:—(1) Wolf lamp
No. 1, air admitted belowr; (2) Wolf lamp No. 2, air admitted above ; (3)
Rape oil lamp, air admitted below; (4) Eape oil lamp, air admitted above ;
(5) Rape oil and petroleum, air admitted below:—
Table.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5.
Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Amount of
material used to fill lamp 1379 1034 1755 1678
2731
In. In. In. In. In.
Height of flame ......... 0'98 0-98 079
0-59 0'98
Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Amount of
material burnt per hour... 70 69 72
50 103
Time the above amounts of material
will last, supposing the flame to Hours. Hours. H. M.
H. M. H. M. remain a normal one ...... 19^
15 23 53 33 29 26 22
Taking the following prices of the materials used :—
Lbs.
Shillings. Per lb.
112 benzine ............... 17'5 = 1*87 pence.
112 rape oil ............... 34" = 364 „
112 petroleum ............ 135 = 1*44 „
112 rape oil and petroleum ... ... ... 30" =
321 ,,
as a basis of calculation, the following are the costs per hour for each
lamp, burning under the conditions already mentioned:—
Cost in Pence. i
Cost in Pence. No. 1 ...... -0186
No. 4 ...... -0260
No. 2 ...... -0184 f No. 5
...... '0472
No. 3 ...... -0374 I
In order to form a correct idea of the respective values of these materials,
a determination of the illuminating power of the different lamps was made.
For this purpose a specially constructed Bunsen photometer was used, in
which the scale was divided, on both sides of the centre, into millimetres,
and by its means the illuminating power of the lamps was determined, in
terms of the light given out by standard candle.* * A standard sperm candle
is one which in burning consumes 120 grains per hour.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 17
The following table contains the mean of several determinations made at
different times:—
ct«i-vi «» m.-,- Illuminating Power Description of Lamp.
neignt ot d lame. in percentages 0f
Inches. Standard Candle.
Benzine lamp No. 1............ *98 ... 56*2
No. 1...... ...... 1-38 ... 80-0
No. 2............ '98 ... 43-83
No. 2............ 1-38 ... 62-14
Oil lamp No. 1 ............ "79 ...
34-22
No. 2 ............ '59 ... 26-28
Rape oil and petroleum ......... 1'18 ...
76'56
Benzine lamp, with three wicks ...... 1-58 ...
116-6
A comparison of the candle-power of the two benzine lamps, whether burning
with a flame of "98 or 1*38 ins. in length, shows Lamp No. 1 to have an
illuminating power 28 per cent, greater than that of Lamp No. 2, or this
latter has only 70 per cent, the illuminating power of the former, so that
seven lamps, with air admitted from below, would produce as much light as
ten in which the air is admitted from above.
A comparison of these two sets of determinations, the oil consumption and
the candle-power of the lamps, burning with the same length of flame, gives
a true idea of the relative cost of the burning. In the case of the rape oil
and petroleum lamp the candle-power was determined with a flame T18 ins.
high, whilst the oil consumption was determined with one "98 in. high.
A comparison of the candle-powers of the benzine lamp, burning with
different heights of flame, shows these to be proportional to the height of
flame, and, therefore, the candle-power of rape oil and petroleum lamp,
burning with a flame "98 in. high, may be calculated from the determination
of its candle-power with a flame 1*18 ins. high, thus :—
1-18 : 98 = 76-56 : x
From which x is found to be = 63"88.
Making use of this number, the following comparison can be instituted :—
Illuminating power Lamp. Height of Flame.
Cost per Hour. in percentages of
Standard Candle.
Benzine lamp, No. 1 ... 0-98 in. '0188 pence.
56'2
„ „ „ 2 ... 0-98 „ -0183
„ 43-83
Rape oil „ „ 1 ... 079 „ "0380
„ 34-22
„ „ „ „ 2 ... 0-59 „ -0258
„ 2628
„ „ and Petroleum ... 0.98 „ -0471 „
63-88
VOL, XXXV.-1888'
C
18 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
From these numbers the cost per hour for each of these lamps, burning so as
to give a light equal to that of one standard candle, has been calculated.
The results of these calculations are contained in the following table :—
Benzine Lamp, No. 1 = 0'0344 pence. „ 2
0-0418 „
Rape Oil ., „ 1 = OHIO „
„ „ „ „ 2 0-0982 „
„ „ and Petroleum = 0"0738 „
Taking the cost of lighting with benzine lamp, No. 1, as unit, the cost of
the others, burning with equal effect, would be as follows :—
Benzine lamp No. 2 L252 times as much.
Rape oil „ „ 1 3-328 „
„ „ 2 2-940*
„ and Petroleum 2'505 .,
From which it is seen that the benzine lamp, No. 1, with air admission from
below, is altogether the cheapest illuminant.
EXPERIMENTS WITH LAMPS IN EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES.
The lamps used in these experiments were similar in construction to those
used in the experiments already described, viz.—The two benzine lamps, Nos.
1 and 2, two lamps in which rape oil was burnt, and one in which a mixture
of rape oil and petroleum was used.
The mode of experiment consisted in placing the lighted lamp, with a flame
of fixed height, in a glass cylinder open above, and provided at the base
with a tubulus, through which is passed, by means of a perforated cork, a
glass tube connected with a receiver containing explosive mixtures of
varying, but known, compositions. In this way the changes exhibited by the
flame when a stream of explosive gas is passed into the cylinder in which
the lamp is placed, could be easily observed. The apparatus employed in
these experiments is represented in Plate I: a is a cylindrical gas-holder
with conical ends, made of sheet zinc and provided at the side with a glass
gauge, to which is attached a scale. The total capacity of this holder was
found to be 5'31 cubic feet, but when filled with water to the mark m on the
gauge the capacity is 4-57 cubic feet. By a side tube r this gas-holder is
connected with a water reservoir h, into which water direct from the mains
could be run by means of the
* This number is in all probability too low, as in the determination of the
oil consumption it was found impossible to keep the name at a normal height.
The constant lowering of the flame, consequently reducing the oil
consumption, thus renders these results scarcely comparable with the others,
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 19
pipe r1, and by regulating the flow by means of A1 a constant level in b
could be maintained. The tap h'2 serves to regulate the flow of water from h
into a, by which, on opening the tap /, the gas in a is forced out, passing
along tubes connected with the manometer m1, serving to indicate the
pressure of the gas, and finally through s into the glass cylinder c, in
which the burning lamp is placed; s is a small chamber filled with discs of
wire gauze, its function being to prevent any flame passing back from the
cylinder and consequent ignition of the explosive mixture in the gas-holder,
and is, therefore, but another application of the principle of which the
safety lamp is one of the most practical illustrations.
The mixtures of gas and air were made and filled into the holder a, as
follows:—To measure the gas, a glass gasometer g (Fig. 2) was used,
graduated with a scale, each graduation representing half a volume per cent,
of the contents of the gas-holder a, when filled to the mark m—i.e., when
containing 4/57 cubic ft. of the mixture. The gasometer g is closed at the
top by a brass plate, through which passes a brass tube with a tap o, also a
glass tube p, by means of which g can be filled with water. Fitting into a
tubulus at the base of the gasometer is a glass tube, which can be moved at
will to allow the water in g to flow out.
To fill g with a given volume of gas, g is brought into a vertical position,
and the gasometer filled completely with water. Then o is attached by
india-rubber tubing to the reservoir of marsh gas or coal gas, and lowering
q, water run off, and the required quantity of gas drawn into the gasometer.
The taps are next closed and the gasometer and reservoir disconnected. To
bring the gas in g under the atmospheric pressure, the tap o is opened for a
moment and then closed again, and its volume measured. The transference of
the measured volume of gas to the gasholder a is effected in the following
manner:—a is first entirely filled with water, and then connected by
india-rubber tubing with the gasometer at o, the taps at o and I are opened,
as is also the tube p; then, by opening the tap h3, attached to the
gas-holder a, the water is run off from a. In this way the gas in the
gasometer is drawn off into a, and air drawn in through the tube p, and in
this manner a can be filled to the mark m with a mixture of air and gas in
known proportions.
The 4*57 cubic feet of a mixture of air and gas so prepared is now ready for
use in the manner already described. When passed into the glass cylinder,
under the conditions mentioned above, the rate of transference has been
found to be 0*88 cubic feet per minute.
The combustible gases used in these experiments were marsh gas and coal gas.
The former was prepared in the ordinary way, viz., by heating
20 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
a mixture of sodium acetate and caustic soda. Since the gas so obtained
is not pure marsh gas or methane, it was analysed, and with the following
results :—
Marsh gas (CH4) ... ... ...... 95*36 volumes.
Acetone (C3H60)............ 0-86 „
Hydrogen (H) ............ 3-28
Oxygen (0) ......- ...... 010
Nitrogen (N) ............ 0'40
100-00
—
For the complete combustion of such a mixture, the following volumes of air
would be required:—
Marsh gas (CH4) ... 95-36 ... 900-19 volumes of air,
Acetone (C3HaO) ... 0-86 ... 16"23
Hydrogen (H) ... 3-28 ... 7"74
Oxygen (0) ... 010 ...
„
Nitrogen (N) ... 0-40 ... —
100-00 924-16
Therefore, the maximum effect on explosion would be reached when the mixture
of gas and air contains 9'76 volumes per cent, of the gas.
The coal gas used in this investigation had the following composition :—
Air required for Combustion. Volumes. Volumes.
Hydrogen ......... 49-3300 ... 11913
Methane ......... 38-9300 ... 376-14
Ethylene, etc.......... 3-7800 ... 54"78
Acetylene ......... 0-0467 ... 0-56
Benzene vapour ...... 0-9000 ... 32 61
Carbon monoxide ...... 6-3000 ... 15-21
Carbon dioxide ... ... ... 1-8100 ...
—
Oxygen ......... 0'2400
Nitrogen ......... 0-9600 ... —
Sulphuretted hydrogen ... 0-0011 ... 0-08
Carbon disulphide ... ... 0-0168 ...
024
Ammonia ......... 0-0013 ... 005
102-3159 ... 598-80
In the second part of the above table is given the volume of air necessary
for the complete combustion of the various combustible gases in the coal gas
used, from which has been calculated the percentage of gas contained in a
mixture of air and gas, which, would on exploding, produce the maximum
effect. Calculation shows such a mixture to contain 14'59 volumes per cent,
of the gas.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 21
A.—Results of Experiments with Mixtures of Air and Marsh Gas.
Benzine lamp, with air admission from below, with the normal height of
flame. (See Plate II.)
(a) Normal Flame, *98 in.
Percentage of Marsh Gas
Changes observed in the Flame.
in Mixture.
1 Flame rises some *08 to *12 in. No further change observed.
2 Flame rises some -27 in. No further change observed. 21
Flame rises some *39 in. No further change observed.
3 Flame rises some '59 in. Luminosity diminished at the base.
4 Flame rises some 1*02 in., flickering at the same time, and after-
wards continues burning quietly.
5 Flame rises about 1*8 in., oscillates slightly.
6 Flame oscillates; and rises with a steady spiral motion to the top
of the gauze, is smoky above, red in the middle ; luminosity at the base
very considerably reduced.
7 A cap filling glass cylinder and gauze formed immediately, the
lamp flame enlarged, and undergoing increased diminution in luminosity melts
away into the cap.
8 Flame assumes a long thread-like form, producing no cap, flicker-
ing violently, is extinguished.
9 Flame flickers up, is extinguished ; no cap observed.
10 Flame flickers for a short time, is extinguished ; no cap
observed.
11 In six out of eight experiments, a result similar to the last was
obtained. In one experiment a cap was formed in the gauze which shot
periodically into the glass cylinder, producing at the same time a slight
explosion, the glass cylinder being filled with a blue flame. In a second
experiment the cap remained a short time only.
12 Cap ascends into the gauze, extinguishes the flame, and, after
moving to and fro for a time, is itself extinguished.
13 Flame lengthens out, flickers, and dies out, at the same time a
cap
appears for an instant, and, ascending, disappears.
14 Flame, flickering to and fro, is extinguished by the sudden back-
ward movement of the cap, which assumes the form of a flat, blue, luminous
disc moving to and fro. The cap during this movement to and fro assumes a
red colour, and in a short time disappears.
15 The flame rises suddenly and, after burning a short time, is ex-
tinguished. A cap is formed in the gauze, at first filling it
22 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in the Flame.
in Mixture.
completely, and then, drawing back into the gauze, assumes the form of an
inverted mushroom. The cap is blue on the under surface, and the stem,
stretching to the top of the gauze, is yellowish red. 16 The same changes as
in the last experiment. The cap is more dense, and the stem-like elongation
thicker. The cap disappears after a short time.
Note.—The changes observed in the first instance in each experiment are
those due to the mixtures containing small quantities of gas, which are
formed by the air in the cylinder mixing with the gas coming in below,
whilst those which make their appearance later on must be regarded as
characteristic of the mixtures experimented with.
o.—Experiments with Reduced Flame.
1 The reduced flame, even in pure air, is surrounded by a blue light,
which is characteristic of* the benzine flame. This light is more marked in
mixtures of gas and air, and serves as an indicator of the presence of as
little as one per cent, of gas. The detection of this light is not easy, and
is rendered more difficult by the reflections in the glass cylinder.
2 A conical cap, about '39 in. high, is formed. 2\ The cap well
defined, about *59 in. high.
3 The cap well defined, about '79 in. high.
4 The cap rises to the under edge of the brass ring, a height of
1'77 in., assuming the character of a bright flame.
5 The cap rises in the form of a funnel to the upper edge of the
gauze, striking which, it widens out.
6 The cap extends to the upper edge of the gauze, expanding a little
above the flame, narrows again to widen out again at the top. The flame
rises to some '39 in.
7 The cap rises at once to the top of the gauze, strikes back
quickly,
extinguishes the flame, and disappears itself, without igniting the
surrounding gas.
8 The flame extinguished by the first movement caused by the
ignition of the gas. No cap observed, owing to the rapidity of the change.
9 Flame at once extinguished ; the gas burns at the shield for a
short time.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 23
Percentage of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in the Flame.
in Mixture.
10 Flame extinguished, a cap formed, which after a few movements
to and fro disappears.
11 Flame extinguished, with slight explosion; no cap.
12 Cap extinguishes flame, and after a few movements backwards
and forwards, is itself extinguished.
13 Changes similar to the last.
14 Cap moves convulsively up and down, then flame and it are both
extinguished.
15 Cap rises up, flame extinguished ; cap fills the whole of the
gauze
cage, is gradually drawn into the upper part of gauze ; below it has a
sharply-defined blue edge, sinks again to the lowrer edge of the gauze, is
blue on the edges and yellowish red in the central part, and remains for
some time in this state.
16 The mushroom-like cap is formed just as it is with the normal
flame with a mixture of the same composition, but disappears in a short
time.
B.—Experiments tvith Coal Gas. (a) Normal Flame, "98 in. (See Plate II.)
Percentage
of Coal Gas Appearance of
Flame, &c.
in Mixture.
1 No apparent change in flame.
2 Flame rises some '2 in. No further change observed. 2\ Flame
rises slowly some "27 in. No further change.
3 Flame rises slowly some '31 in. No further change.
4 Flame rises slowly some *39 in., continuing to burn without
flickering.
5 Flame rises some "75 in., i.e., to lower edge of brass ring.
6 Flame rises some *98 in., i.e., becomes twice as long as the normal
flame, and reaches upper edge of glass cylinder.
7 Flame rises some 1*22 in., i.e., to upper edge of brass ring.
8 Flame rising to the roof of the gauze, is drawm together in the
upper part, is dark red, and bent to one side in the middle part.
9 Flame, flickering, rises to roof of the gauze, non-luminous zone
enlarged. Flame extinguished by a backward movement of the cap, which
also disappears. 10 Flame rises up, flickers for a few moments, and is
extinguished. A cap formed in gauze, which remains for a few moments only.
11 & 12 Similar to the mixture with 10.
24 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage
of Coal Gas Appearance of
Flame, &c.
in Mixture.
13 Flame extinguished, at same time a cap is formed, which fills
two-thirds of the gauze cage, and continues to burn. Gases ignited at
the shield.
14 Flame extinguished, a nickering cap formed, filling the gauze
cage, cap moves backwards several times until gases are ignited at shield,
and then continues to burn quietly.
15 Flame extinguished, cap visible in gauze for a short time.
b.—Reduced Flame.
1 Cap not discernible with any degree of certainty.
2 A feebly luminous cap of well-defined form, and *70 in. high. 2^
A feebly luminous cap of well-defined form, and 1'18 in high.
3 Cap, 1*58 in. high.
4 Cap more pronounced, 2*25 in. high, i.e., reaches to the upper
edge of brass ring.
5 Cap rises to the roof of gauze, is slender in form, widening out
where it touches the gauze.
6 A cylindrical cap reaching to the roof of the gauze, slightly
narrowed in the middle, but of a diameter pretty nearly that of the flame.
7 The cap is cylindrical in form, somewhat wider than the flame,
and conical where it touches the roof of the gauze.
8 The cap rises to the roof of the cage, filling it entirely, is per-
manent, and is connected with the flame by a narrow cylindrical column.
9 Cap forms in the gauze, burns unsteadily, and is, together with
the flame, almost immediately extinguished.
10 Cap rises to the roof of the cage, which it completely fills, and
after striking back once or twice is extinguished, together with the flame.
11 Similar to the last.
12 Flame extinguished directly cap appears, cap partially fills the
cage ; gases ignited at the shield.
13 Flame extinguished as the cap is formed, cap fills two-thirds of
cage, shoots back repeatedly until gases at the shield are ignited.
14 Similar to the last.
15 In some cases flame and cap at once extinguished ; in others cap
continued to burn in the gauze for some time.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 25
EXPERIMENTS WITH WOLF LAMP, AIR ADMISSION PROM ABOVE.
A.— With Mixtures of Air and Marsh Gas. (a) Normal height of Flame, *98 in.
(See Plate III.)
Percentage
of Marsh Appearance of
Flame, &c.
Gas.
1 Flame rises about *04 in. N"o further change.
2 Flame rises about #20 in.
2^ Flame flickers for a short time, then rising about -39 in. continues
to burn quietly; non-luminous zone, at base, enlarged.
3 Flame rises about '59 in., burns quietly.
4 Flame flickering and whirling round, rises -91 in. then continues
to burn quietly.
5 Flame flickering, rises about 1*26 in.
6 Flame rises some 1*26 in. bends to one side, and spins round for
a little while, the non-luminous zone becoming larger and larger. A blue cap
is formed in the gauze, which it entirely fills. The lamp flame is
extinguished, and the cap continues to burn, in it are to be seen bluish
violet clouds of flame moving to and fro, and sinking at regular intervals
into the glass cylinder.
7 Flame rises with a flicker, a cap fills the whole lamp for a
moment,
and then both disappear.
8 Flame rises restlessly, whirling, goes out, a cap is formed in the
gauze, which is contracted above, and continues to burn.
9 Flame flickering rises into the gauze and goes out, whilst a
cap in form resembling a flask, fills the gauze and continues to burn.
10 The cap rises quickly into the gauze, filling it completely, the
lamp flame goes out. The cap continues to burn, and in form is slightly
contracted above.
11 The flame goes out as the cap is formed, which continues to burn,
accompanied by slight explosions.
12 The flame goes out as the cap is formed. The cap continues to
burn accompanied by a noise, less marked than in the former instance.
13 Flame flares up and then goes out, whilst the cap, filling the
gauze
completely, continues to burn with violent flickering, accompanied by slight
explosions.
14 Flame whirls restlessly and goes out, whilst a cap is formed
filling
the wire gauze, and continues to burn with a rustling noise. vol.
xxxv.-iseo,
B
26 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage
of Marsh
Appearance of Flame, &c.
Gas.
15 Flame splits up into tongues and goes out. A cap is formed,
which at first fills the gauze cage completely, but afterwards contracts and
continues to burn restlessly, in form resembling a sack, and in the centre
of a faint yellow colour.
16 Flame flickering, rises up and goes out, a restlessly whirling cap
fills the gauze. The cap assumes a form similar to that observed in benzine
lamp, No. 1, with a mixture of the same composition.
b.—Reduced Flame.
1 Cap only just discernible, not so well defined as with lamp No. 1.
2 Cap about '35 in. high, upper outline ill-defined. 2\ A
well-defined cap, about '55 in. high.
3 A sharply-defined cap, about '71 in. high.
4 Strongly marked cap, about 1*54 in. high.
5 Cap reaching to the upper edge of the gauze. Not so well defined
as with benzine lamp No. 1, but broader, and of a more indistinct outline.
6 The cap fills the gauze cage completely, resembles somewhat
a bladder in form, and is surrounded by a blue cloud of flame, which, moving
to and fro, sinks down and partially fills the glass cylinder. The benzine
flame at the same time rises some '89 in. higher, and is finally
extinguished, whilst the cap continues to burn in the gauze.
7 The cap rises, and spreading out in the gauze cage, remains
standing a short time over the lamp flame. The latter, together with the
cap, sinks down, and the flame is extinguished, whilst the cap, of a
vase-like form, continues to burn.
8 The flame is extinguished, whilst the cap rises and fills the gauze
cage. The cap is contracted above, and continues to burn in the gauze.
9 The flame is extinguished, whilst the cap, contracted in the upper
part, continues to burn.
10 The flame is extinguished, the cap shooting up rapidly into the
gauze. The cap is but slightly contracted above, and continues to burn.
11 The flame is immediately extinguished with a sharp explosion.
No cap remains,
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 27
Percentage
of Marsh
Appearance of Flame, &c.
Gas.
12 Similar phenomena to the last.
13 A i'ow moments after the cap is formed in the gauze the
flame is extinguished. The cap continues to burn, accompanied by slight
explosions. 11 The flame is extinguished, whilst the cap formed in
the gauze continues to burn with an unsteady movement to and fro,
accompanied by slight explosions.
15 As the cap rises the flame is extinguished. The former fills
the
whole gauze cage at first, then assumes a contracted form, and continues to
burn with a flame, the central portions of which are slightly yellow. The
cap is irregular in shape, and elongated below.
16 The cap rising fills the whole of the cage, whilst the lamp flame,
after burning some time, surrounded by a separate cap, is extinguished. The
cap whirls round in the gauze, burns with a reddish flame, and disappears
without having once assumed the mushroom-like form observed in other similar
mixtures.
B.—Experiments icith Goal Gas. (a) Normal Flame, height = '98 in. (See
Plate III.)
Percentage
of
Appearance of Flame, &c.
Coal Gas.
1 Not the slightest change.
2 Flame rising about '2 in., continues to burn quietly.
2^ Flame rising quietly about '24 in., without further change.
3 Flame rising quietly about "27 in., without further change.
4 Flame flickering, at times, rises about '55 in., i.e., to the lower
edge of the braes ring.
5 Flame flickering, at times, rises about -79 in., i.e., to the upper
edge of the glass cylinder.
6 Flame rises about '79 in., turning slightly, and flickers rapidly.
7 Flame rises about -79 in., bending somewhat, then whirls slightly.
8 Flame rises to the roof of the gauze cage and spins violently. A
cap is formed, filling the gauze cage, and continues to burn after the
flame, flickering violently, has been extinguished.
9 Flame is extinguished as a cap filling the gauze cage makes its ap-
pearance, which continues to burn.
28 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage
of Appearance of Flame,
&c.
Coal Gas.
10 Flame flickers, shoots up, becomes less luminous, and is extin-
guished, the cap continuing* to burn quietly in the gauze.
11 The flame shoots up, and after gradually becoming less luminous
is extinguished; whilst a cap appears filling three-quarters of the gauze
cage, and continues burning, the cap is contracted above and slightly
luminous in parts.
12 Flame is extinguished quickly ; a cap appears, in many respects
similar to the last.
13 A similar series of changes to the last.
14 A cap is formed and the flame extinguished. The cap exhibits
changes similar to those with 11 per cent, of gas.
15 The flame goes out slowly, and a cap is formed in a manner similar
to the last.
(b).—Reduced Flame.
1 Cap not easily discernible.
2 A very pale cap, rising to a height of about *51 in.
2\ A slightly more luminous cap, rising to a height of about 79 in.
3 Cap reaches a height of 1*18 in.
4 Cap rises to a height of T77 in., i.e., to the upper edge of the
glass.
5 Cap rises in the form of a slender column to the top of the gauze,
is slightly wider at the top, and remains perfectly still.
6 A funnel-shaped cap rising to the top of the gauze, and contracted
a little above.
7 A cap, rising from the flame and ending in a narrow thread, is
surrounded by a second strongly luminous cap, which latter fills the gauze,
and is constricted in the middle.
8 Similar phenomena to the last. The cap of the flame is, however,
completely separated from that in the gauze and is extinguished after a
time, whilst the latter continues burning.
9 The cap shoots up, whilst the flame is extinguished, and the
former remains, filling the gauze cage. 10 & 11 Similar changes to the
last. 12 & 13 Similar to the last. The upper part of the cap only
slightly
luminous.
14 The flame is extinguished, whilst the cap appears, which is
slightly
luminous above, and continues burning.
15 Whilst the cap is slowly produced in the gauze, the reduced flame
gradually disappears, the former continuing to burn.
THE TESTING OP SAFETY LAMPS. 29
RAPE OIL LAMPS.
1.—Lamp with air admission from below (Kaabe-Wolf Form).
A.—Experiments with Mixtures of Air and Marsh Gas. (a) Normal Flame, -79 in.
(See Plate IY.)
Percentage of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in the Flame.
in Mixture.
1 Rising of the flame scarcely perceptible.
2 Flame rises some '27 in., and then continues burning quietly. 2|
Flame rises some *31 in., becoming more sharply defined above.
Continues to burn quietly.
3 Flame rises some ;35 in., its appearance in other respects re-
sembling the last.
4 Flame rises some *71 in., is sharply defined above, and suffers
considerable reduction in luminosity.
5 Flame rises, flickering slightly, some 1*18 in.; the reduction in
luminosity still more marked.
6 Flame rises with an irregular and twisting motion into the gauze,
reaching at times to the roof. As the flame shortens from time to time, the
non-luminous zone at the base becomes larger.
7 The flame rises to the roof of the gauze and is extinguished,
whilst a cap fills the gauze. The latter striking back re-lights the lamp
flame, which, together with the cap, is extinguished at the next back
stroke.
8 Flame rises, then flickering, is extinguished ; as is also the in-
completely developed cap.
9 Cap rising for a moment into the gauze, fills it completely,
strikes
back, and is extinguished, together with the lamp flame.
10 Flame flickers, cap is formed, which, striking back, extinguishes
the flame, and disappears.
11 Cap rises into gauze, and striking back a second time,
extinguishes
lamp flame and itself. 12 & 13 Similar results to the last.
14 The lamp flame flickers, and is extinguished shortly after the
formation of a cap, which, after striking back once or twice, disappears.
15 As the flame disappears the cap is formed, which fills the gauze
completely, and continues burning.
16 The cap rises, whilst the lamp flame is extinguished, and, after
fluttering above in the gauze, disappears.
30 THE TESTING OP SAFETY LAMPS.
(b) Reduced Flame.
Percentage of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in the Flame.
in Mixture.
1 Cap cannot be detected with certainty. A slight blue zone can
be seen at the side of the flame even in pure air, and, therefore, is
characteristic of the rape oil flame.
2 A cap, very pale, about *31 high, surrounds the flame. Cap is
not closed above. i\ Cap is conical, scarcely visible in upper parts,
and is about *63 in. high.
3 Cap is but feebly luminous, but of well-defined form, and attains
a height of *79 in.
4 A well-defined cap, about T77 in. high.
5 Cap long, narrow, and thread-like in form, attaining a height of
4-92 ins.
6 Cap rises with feeble flickering to the roof of the gauze cage,
then
continues to burn quietly.
7 Cap rises up suddenly, filling completely the gauze cage ; strikes
back into the glass cylinder, extinguishing the lamp flame, then disappears.
8 Cap rising into the gauze fills it completely, then, striking back,
extinguishes the lamp flame, and disappears. 9 & 10 Changes similar to 8.
11 The flame disappears, as a cap, filling the whole of the gauze,
makes its appearance, which continues to burn with a rustling noise, and
strikes back at regular intervals into the glass cylinder.
12 Similar to the last; the noise not so perceptible.
13 The cap shoots up into the gauze, completely filling it, whilst
the
lamp flame is extinguished. The cap after striking back a few times is
extinguished.
14 Similar changes to the last.
15 Cap shoots up into the gauze, completely filling it; the lamp
flame is extinguished, but the cap burns on quietly.
16 Cap is observed filling the gauze completely, then, striking back,
disappears with the lamp flame.
THE TESTING OP SAFETY LAMPS. 31
B.—Experiments with Mixtures of Air and Goal Gas. (a) Height of Normal
Flame, *79 in. (See Plate IY.)
Percentage
of Coal Gas Changes observed in
the Flame.
in Mixture.
1 No change apparent.
2 Flame rises some *16 in. 2| Flame rises some '27 in.
3 Flame rises some '31 in.
4 Flame rises some '39 in.
5 Flame rises some *51 in. Non-luminous zone enlarged.
6 Flame rises some *59 in. Non-luminous zone enlarged.
7 Flame rises some -79 in., is red, and but slightly luminous above;
the luminosity at the base greatly diminished.
8 Flame, moving from side to side, rises to the roof of the lamp ;
it burns with a reddish smoky flame, and the luminosity at the base is
greatly diminished.
9 Flame flickers repeatedly, whilst a cap is formed in the gauze ;
the flame, rising, is completely separated from the wick, and floats as a
blue crescent in the glass cylinder; the wick is re-ignited by the flame.
10 The flame goes out; a cap is formed, filling the whole of the
gauze cage. The cap strikes back, at regular intervals, to the wick, without
re-lighting it. The cap is slightly luminous in its upper portions.
11 Flame disappears with appearance of the cap, which extends to
the roof, and in its upper portions is contracted in form. The cap striking
back at regular intervals fills the glass cylinder with a bright blue light.
12 The flame is extinguished as the cap rises; the latter completely
filling the gauze cage is only slightly luminous above, and contracted in
form. The cap strikes back continually until the gases at the shield are
ignited, which, when once ignited, continue to burn quietly. 13,14, & 15 The
same series of changes as with mixtures containing 12 per cent.
(b)—Reduced Flame.
1 No change perceptible.
2 A cap about *24 in. high can be seen, it is feebly luminous in its
upper part, and ill-defined in form.
32 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage
of Coal Gas Changes
observed in Flame.
in Mixture.
2ijf A cap about *63 in. high, conical in shape, and slightly luminous.
3 Cap about #83 in. high; very well defined.
4 Cap assumes the form of a broad flame of about 1*5 in. in height.
5 Cap rises as a narrow cylinder, reaching the top of the gauze
cage,
and burns on quietly. G The phenomena are similar to those observed
with 5 per cent., save that the cylinder is about twice the width.
7 Similar to the last; the cylinder is, however, three times as
wide.
8 A cap is formed which rises rapidly into the gauze cage, where it
remains, whilst the reduced flame is surrounded by a conical cap distinct
from this.
9 The cap extinguishes the reduced flame, and continues burning
in the gauze.
10 Similar to the last. In this case the cap strikes back at
regular
intervals without re-igniting the lamp flame. The luminosity of the cap
somewhat less than with 9 per cent.
11 Similar to the last. The cap in striking back fills the glass
cylinder with a blue luminous flame.
12 Flame disappears as the cap rises ; this is narrow above, and
only slightly luminous in its upper portions. In striking back the cap
ignites the gases at the shield, which continue to burn quietly. 13,14, & 15
Similar to the last.
2.—Rape Oil Lamp, with air admission from above (Clanny form
of Lamp).
A.—Experiments with Mixtures of Marsh Gas and Air. (a) Height of Flame, -59
in. (See Plate V.)
Percentage
of Marsh Gas Changes observed in
Flame.
in Mixture
1 No perceptible change.
2 Flame assuming a slightly conical form, rises about *16 in. 21
Flame assuming a slightly conical form, rises about *24 in.
3 Flame becomes more pointed, and rises about -27 in.
4 Outline of flame still more sharply defined, it rises some *59
in.,
and becomes less luminous.
5 Flame flickers and rises, forming a tail some '88 in. higher than
the original flame. The luminosity of the flame is reduced.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 33
of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in Flame,
in Mixture.
6 Flame flickers violently. A tail extending to about two-thirds
of
the height of the gauze is formed; a cap is formed simultaneously, which
latter moves backwards and forwards into the glass cylinder, thus causing a
reduction in the luminosity of the lamp flame, and finally extinguishing it.
The cap remaining for a short time in the cage, finally disappears.
7 Flame flickers restlessly, and then is extinguished. A cap is
formed, which, after spinning slowly round for a short time, disappears. 8 &
9 Flame flickering violently is extinguished. A cap is formed, which
continues burning in the lower part of the gauze.
10 Flame is extinguished. A cap formed, which, rising rapidly
into the gauze cage, continues burning there with a slight noise.
11 Lamp flame is extinguished as the cap appears. The latter
burns in the lower part of the gauze, with repeated slight explosions. ]
/ 12 A reddish tail is formed reaching to the roof of the lamp. The flame is
extinguished as the cap appears, which, after moving to and fro in the lower
part of the gauze, disappears.
13 & 14 As the flame flickers to and fro a cap forms in the gauze cage. The
flame, after becoming feebly luminous, is extinguished. The cap occupies
only the half of the cage, and after striking back once or twice disappears.
15 The flame;is extinguished. The cap spinning rapidly, remains but
a short time.
16 Flame is extinguished. A cap is formed which, rising into the
upper part of the lamp, remains there for a short time, and then disappears.
(b) With Reduced Flame.
1 No perceptible change.
2 An ill-defined, feebly luminous cap, about -2 in. high. 2$ A
cap similar to the last, about '89 in. high.
3 Cap of well defined form, about -59 in. high.
4 Cap attains a height of 1*1 in.
5 Cap rises to about the middle of the gauze, and is long and
thread-like in form.
Til
YOL. XXXV.-1885.
34 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage of Marsh Gas
Changes observed in Flame,
in Mixture.
6 Cap fills the gauze cage for a short time, and is then extinguished
together with the lamp flame.
7 Cap does not quite fill the gauze, in which it remains for a short
time, and is then extinguished together with the lamp flame. 8 & 9 Lamp
flame is extinguished as the cap rises into the gauze, which continues to
burn in the lower part of the cage.
10 Flame is immediately extinguished as the cap rises quickly into
the gauze, in which it continues to burn, making a slight explosion.
11 Similar to the last, the detonating noise somewhat louder.
12 As the cap rises into the gauze the flame is extinguished. The
former continuing to burn for some time in the lower part of the gauze,
moving to and fro, sinking at times into the glass cylinder, and is finally
extinguished.
13 The cap rises from the lamp flame into the gauze, the latter is
extinguished, the former fills the lower portion of the gauze only, and
disappears in a short time.
14 The cap rises slowly into the cage, whilst the lamp flame con-
tinuing to burn for a short time, and surrounded by a separate cap, is
finally extinguished. The cap in the gauze, after burning for a short time,
disappears.
15 As the lamp flame is extinguished a cap appears. The cap
remains but a short time, moving rapidly with a spiral motion.
16 Cap is seen in the gauze ; which striking back is extinguished
together with the flame.
B.—Experiments with Mixtures of Coal Gas and Air. (a) Height of Flame, 0'62
in. (See Plate Y.)
Percentage
of Coal Gas Changes
observed in Flame.
in Mixture.
1 No change perceptible in flame.
2 Flame rises some *08 to "12 in. 2tt Flame rises some '12
in.
3 Flame rises some "16 in.
4 Flame rises some '2 in.
5 Flame rises some -24 in.
6 Flame rises some • 43 in. The luminosity of flame slightly
reduced.
7 Flame rises about *43 in., and exhibits a slightly circular move-
ment,
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS, 35
Percentage
of Coal Gas Changes
observed in Flame.
in Mixture.
8 & 9 Flame rises up, its luminosity is reduced, and it is finally
extinguished. A permanent cap is formed, which completely fills the
gauze. 10,11,12, & 13 A similar series of changes; the cap is, however,
somewhat slightly contracted in its upper part.
14 The flame is extinguished, the cap rises noiselessly into the
gauze.
The cap does not completely fill the gauze, is contracted above, the upper
part burning with a slightly yellow light, the lower emits a pale blue
light.
15 The flame is extinguished, whilst the cap which fills the gauze
continues to burn.
(b) With Reduced Flame.
1 No sign of a cap.
2 Cap is scarcely discernible.
2£ A feebly luminous, sharply defined cap, about *63 in. high.
3 A well-defined cap, about *94 in. high.
4 A well-defined cap, about T26 in. high.
5 A narrow thread-like cap, about 4 in. high, reaching to the
middle of the gauze.
6 A cylindrical cap, reaching to the roof of the gauze cage.
7 A somewhat funnel-shaped cap, bent to one side about the middle
and widening out where it touches the roof of the lamp. 8 & 9 Cap flashes
up, fills the gauze cage, remains there for a short time and is then
extinguished together with the flame. 10,11,12 & 13 A similar series of
changes; the cap is, however, less luminous, and is contracted in its
upper part. 14 & 15 The appearances presented are similar to those observed
with the normal flame.
III.—RAPE OIL AND PETROLEUM LAMP (AIR ADMISSION FROM BELOW).
A.—Experiments with Mixtures of Air and Marsh Gas. (a) Normal Flame, height
-98 in. (See Plate YI.)
Percentage
of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in Flame,
in Mixture.
1 A tail about '16 in. high forms above the flame.
2 A tail is formed, reaching to the upper edge of the high glass
cylinder.
36 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in Flame,
in Mixture.
2| Flame rises, moving from side to side, to the upper edge of the glass
cylinder, forming a narrow reddish, tail, which, reaches to the middle of
the gauze.
3 A tail formed, which at times reaches to the roof of the gauze ;
the tail is dull red in colour, and the luminosity of the base of the flame
is greatly reduced.
4 The flame rises quickly to the upper edge of the gauze, and
flickers restlessly. After a time the flickering becomes intense, and the
flame striking back suddenly loses its luminosity almost entirely. The
flickering is at times so violent that the flame is almost extinguished.
5 The flame flares up, reaching the upper edge of the gauze; its
upper portions are so divided up as to resemble a broom in appearance. The
frequent and repeated flickering almost effect the extinction of the flame.
6 The flame shoots up, and the flickering becoming more and more
intense, it is finally extinguished. No cap formed.
7 Flame, after flickering violently, is extinguished. No cap
observed.
8 A tolerably large cap appears, which, at the first back stroke,
disappears together with the flame.
9 Similar to 7.
10 The flame flickers a few times, producing a slight detonating
sound, then disappears. No cap observed.
11 After flickering violently for a short time the flame is extin-
guished, without producing a cap.
12 Flame shoots up, flickers several times, then disappears, produc-
ing a slight explosion. No cap.
13 After flaring up repeatedly and flickering, the flame is
extinguished.
The gas is ignited at the shield, and continues to burn.
14 Flame shooting up repeatedly forms a cap, the gas is ignited at
the shield, and continues to burn whilst the cap and flame are extinguished.
15 The gas is immediately ignited at the shield, and the lamp flame
is, after a short time, extinguished.
16 Flame flickers a few times and is then extinguished. Cap is not
formed, nor is the gas ignited at the shield.
(b) With Reduced Flame.
1 A cap, about "16 in. high, surrounds the flame.
2 A pale, conical cap, about "39 in. high, is formed.
THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 37
Percentage of Marsh Gas Changes
observed in Flame,
in Mixture.
2\ The cap reaches a height of some "59 in.
3 The cap reaches a height of some "79 in.
4 Cap assumes the form of an intensely blue flame, about 2*01 ins.
high.
5 A broad, bright cap is formed, reaching to the top of the glass
cylinder, i.e., about 2*94 ins.
6 The cap does not reach higher than the glass cylinder. After
shooting up once or twice into the gauze, disappears.
7 The cap rises into the gauze, ignites the gas at the shield, which
continues to burn, whilst the cap, after flickering violently,
is extinguished. 8 & 9 A cap is formed, which disappears, together with
the lamp flame,
at the first flicker. 10 & 11 Appearances similar to those observed with
the normal flame in
mixtures of like composition. 12 & 13 The gas entering the lamp is ignited
; the flame, after flickering
for a short time, is extinguished, and the gas also.
14 The flame shooting up produces a cap, ignites the gas at the
shield, and is then extinguished together with the cap.
15 The gas is ignited at the shield, and after a time is
extinguished,
as is the lamp flame also.
16 The flame flickers up and is extinguished, producing a slight
explosion. No cap formed.
B.—Experiments with Mixtures of Goal Gas and Air. (a) With Normal Flame,
height -98 in. (See Plate VI.)
Percentage
of Coal Gas Changes observed in
Flame.
in Mixture.
1 No change in flame.
2 Flame rises about -12 in.
2^ Flame rising about *31 in., is decidedly pointed above.
3 A tail about -91 in. high is produced, the end of which is sharply
pointed, and red.
4 A tail is produced reaching to the height of the glass cylinder,
moving slowly from side to side continues burning.
5 A tail is formed about 4 in. high, i.e., reaching to the roof of
the gauze ; it burns with a restless flickering. Its upper portions are
of a dusky red.
6 The flame flares up to the roof of the gauze, the upper part
assuming a brush-like form. It burns with a dull red colour and flickers
violently.
38 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
Percentage
of Coal Gas Changes observed in
Flame,
in Mixture.
7 The flame flickers continuously and violently, at times flashes of
the flame reach the roof of the lamp.
8 The flame flickers violently, a few dark red threads shooting at
times to the roof of the lamp. At the same time a cap plays restlessly,
moving to and fro in the gauze.
9 The flame shoots up, flickers violently, and disappears, whilst the
gas at the shield is ignited. From the shield a pale cap starts, floating to
and fro for a short time, and is finally extinguished, together with the gas
at the shield. 10 The flame flares up now and then and is at last
extinguished, whilst a cap makes its appearance and remains for a short time
only. 11,12, & 13 The flame is extinguished. A cap is visible, but remains
only for a short time.
14 The cap, rising in cylindrical form, reaches the roof of the lamp,
the flame is extinguished. The cap spreads out and fills the gauze entirely,
and strikes back at regular intervals, until the gas at the shield is
ignited.
15 A cap is formed, which disappears, as also does the lamp flame,
with the first back stroke of the flame.
(b)—With Reduced Flame.
1 No cap.
2 A pale, feebly luminous cap, about "75 in. high. 2^ A pale,
feebly luminous cap, about "98 in. high.
3 A sharpiy-defined luminous cap, reaching a height of 1*49 in.
4 A sharply-defined luminous cap, reaching a height of 1*97 in.
5 A sharply-defined luminous cap, reaching a height of 2'24 in.
6 A long, narrow, conical cap, reaching a height of 3'23 in., i.e.,
to
the upper edge of the glass cylinder.
7 The cap rises into the gauze cage, moving to and fro, and at
times touching the roof of cage with its tip.
8 A very restless cap is formed, which, after moving to and fro for a
short time, disappears, and the lamp flame is also extinguished.
9 The cap rises to the roof of the lamp, is seen also at the shield,
and flickering for a short time to and fro, disappears shortly after the
extinction of the lamp flame. 10 The cap, after burning for a short
time, is extinguished, together with the lamp flame.
THE TESTING OP SAFETY LAMPS. 39
Percentage
of Coal Gas Changes observed
in Flame.
in Mixture.
11,12 & 13 Cap is seen for a moment, and disappears as the lamp flame is
extinguished. 14 & 15 The appearances produced in these mixtures are similar
to those observed with the normal flame in mixtures of the same composition.
In the plates attached to this paper are a series of drawings, taken from
the original report of Professors Kreischer and Winkler, in which it has
been attempted to represent, as far as possible, the changes observed in the
flames in the above experiments. These drawings are taken from sketches made
at the time. The plates are arranged in two horizontal lines: the upper
representing the results obtained with marsh gas mixtures, the lower those
obtained with mixtures of air and coal gas. Further, the tables are so
arranged that the left half represents the phenomena observed with the lamp
burning with normal flame, and the right those obtained with the reduced
flame. In each vertical column have been placed the results observed with
mixtures of like composition. Of the changes observed, those obtained with
mixtures containing small percentages of marsh gas and coal gas, the most
important for practical purposes, are such as most easily lend themselves to
graphic representation, and from these it will be seen that the safety lamp
is a most useful indicator of the presence of gas.
An examination of Plate II, in which the changes observed with benzine lamp
No. 1 are represented, shows that, even with mixtures containing as little
as 1 per cent, of gas, a change is evident in the normal flame—a change
becoming more marked with 2 and 2-| per cent, of gas. Whilst these changes
are so slight as to be of little practical value unless special attention be
paid to them and their study, still with 3 and 4 per cent, the change is so
marked as to be easily observed; so that this lamp indicates the presence of
gas in mixtures by no means easily inflammable. The lengthening of the flame
is still more marked with 5 and 6 per cent, of gas in the mixture, and when
the amount reaches 7 per cent, the flame is extinguished. With mixtures
containing more than 7 per cent, the only changes are those accompanying the
extinguishing of the flame and the caps.
The changes observed with a reduced flame are more characteristic, and, with
practice, would enable one to estimate with a considerable degree of
accuracy the amount of gas in the air of a mine. With 1 per cent.
40 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
of marsh gas the cap can be easily detected, and when the amount of gas
reaches 2 per cent, the cap has attained a height of'39 in. The presence of
between 6 and 7 per cent, of marsh gas—i.e., mixtures which are easily
inflammable and explosive—suffices to extinguish flame and cap. The same
applies to all higher percentages, until the amount of gas reaches 15 per
cent., and then the cap is more permanent.
With regard to the experiments made with mixtures containing coal gas, it
must be remembered that, with the gas used, a mixture containing 14'59
volumes per cent, of the gas is required to produce the maximum effect on
explosion, whereas with marsh gas this is attained with a mixture containing
10 per cent, only of this gas. In consequence of this the changes produced
in the flame by small amounts of coal gas are not nearly so marked as with
similar amounts of marsh gas, a fact which should be borne in mind in
testing lamps with mixtures of air and coal gas.
Benzine lamp No. 2, with air admission above, was found, in cases in which
the amounts of marsh gas were small, to be by no means so delicate an
indicator as the lamp No. 1 ; but with larger amounts of marsh gas, at least
up to 10 per cent., the appearances presented by the flame and caps are so
characteristic as to make this lamp serviceable where the lamp No. 1 would
fail to be of any use.
The rape oil lamp, with the air admitted from below, and burning with a
flame "79 in., gives no certain indication of the presence of gas until the
amount reaches 4 per cent., and then only with a carefully regulated flame.
The appearances presented by the flame with a mixture containing
6 per cent, are similar to those observed with benzine lamp No. 1; with
larger percentages of gas the flame is extinguished. The reduced flame of
this lamp gives no indication with less than 2 per cent., and from 3 to 6
per cent, the changes are similar to those observed with benzine lamp No.
1. Cap and flame are extinguished by mixtures containing
7 per cent, and upwards. As an indicator of the presence of gas this lamp is
much less satisfactory than the benzine lamp, suffering as it does, like all
other lamps in which rape oil is used, from the difficulty attending the
successful reduction of the flame. (Compare Plate III.)
Experiments made with a rape oil lamp, with air admitted from above, show
this to be still more unsatisfactory. It was found impossible with this lamp
to maintain the flame for any length of time at a greater height than "59
in. Such a flame is extinguished by mixtures containing from 5 to 6 per
cent, of marsh gas, or 7 to 8 per cent, of coal gas, just as with benzine
lamp No. 2. (See Plate IV.)
THE TESTING OP SAFETY LAMPS. 41
The lamp in which a mixture of rape oil and petroleum is used, when burning
with a normal flame, is very sensitive to small quantities of gas. The
presence of amounts smaller than 1 per cent, cannot be detected by its aid,
but 1 per cent, can, with absolute certainty, and with 2 per cent. the flame
rises to three times its original length, whilst larger amounts of gas cause
it to flicker restlessly, flare up, and smoke, and then die out. The caps
formed with this lamp are not very characteristic, even with mixtures
containing less than 5 per cent. With this lamp also considerable difficulty
is found in reducing the flame, which, clinging to the wick, carbonises it
and soon gives rise to irregularities. (See Plate VI.)
The whole of the results of these experiments are shown in a very striking
manner in the following tables, in which the asterisks indicate that the
flame continues burning, the strokes that the cap continues burning, and the
dots that both cap and flame are extinguished.
NORMAL FLAME.
Percentage of Marsh Gas in the Mixture.
Name op Lami\ 1 2 2\ 3 4 5 I 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ' 16
Benzine No. 1 ... * * j * * * * * j —
.........I............ — ...
Benzine No. 2 ... * * j * * * „ — | ....
—---------------—---------— ...
Rape Oil No. 1 ... „ * j * * * * *
........................ — ...
Rape Oil No. 2 ... * * j * * * * ...... — — —
— ...............
Rape Oil and Petro-i
I Gil IT! ... ...J-
sH'ik ^; * ;fc »• ¦ J i • *
••• ••• •»• *.....
-------- ¦ • •
|____________________________I___]___________L_J___________! 1
.!___________________
CAP OR GASES BURNING AT THE SHIELD.
Percentage of Marsh Gas in the Mixture. Name of Lamp. I 1 2 J
2h j 3 j 4 j 5 6 7 8 9 I 10 11 j 12 J 13
14 15 16
Benzine No. 1 ... — —]— — — — —i— ..... ... '............ —
...
I I M
Benzine No. 2 ...— — i —, — — — — \ — — — — I ...... — —
— ...
i I ¦ i
RapeOilNo.l ... — — j--------------------------............ — —
...... — ...
Rape Oil No. 2
...---------I--------------------------...--------------------i.............
..
|
Rape Oil and Petro-j leum ... ... i — — — — — —
... — ......... ... ...... — ......
__________________________I________________________!________________________
' I ;_________j______________
VOL. XXXV -1885,
F
42 THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS.
From the above it is at once evident that benzine lamp No. 2, i.e., with air
admitted from above, has the greatest tendency to form a permanent cap, and
that the oil lamp No. 2 stands next in this respect.
The differences between the various lamps are more striking when the results
obtained with mixtures containing from 1 to 10 per cent, are alone
considered. Both lamps in which air is admitted from above form permanent
caps with all mixtures up to 10 per cent., save with that containing 7 per
cent., whereas with those lamps in which air is admitted from below, only
with the mixtures up to G or 7 per cent. As permanent caps are the cause of
the heating of the gauze, which may or may not cause the inflammation of the
surrounding explosive mixture, then all lamps which form permanent caps must
be more dangerous than those in which the lamp-flame and cap are
extinguished. The heating of the gauze to a redness is, as already mentioned
(p. 15), by no means easily attainable, even under exceptionally
unfavourable conditions.
That the above results do not depend alone on the particular lamp used, has
been shown by a repetition of many of the series of experiments with
different lamps, the results in both cases being alike.
The experiments were made with mixtures of gas and pure air, but as carbon
dioxide is a normal constituent of ordinary air, a special series of
observations were made with mixtures containing this gas, the net result of
which being that as much as 5 per cent, of this gas may be present without
affecting in any way the appearances presented by the flame.
The results of these investigations show that with such lamps indications of
less than 1 per cent, of gas cannot be obtained, and for a more exact
examination of the air of mines, a method of examination similar to that
proposed by Pieler is required.
The appearances presented by the flame are such as would be obtained in
observations made in a current of air of low velocity, and can therefore be
compared to those presented by lamps placed in the workings.
The tables have been prepared chiefly with a view to enable officials and
miners to institute comparisons with their own observations, and to give
them as clear an idea as possible as to the different phenomena attending
the combustion of various mixtures of fire-damp. They will, in this way, be
able to form an accurate judgment as to the state of the air in which they
work, and to report more exactly as to the presence or absence of gas.
DISCUSSION—THE TESTING OF SAFETY LAMPS. 43
The President said, the discussion of the paper would be taken at a later
date, but the present was a favourable opportunity for any gentleman to ask
Professor Bedson any question.
Mr. E. F. Boyd asked Professor Bedson if he had ever turned his attention to
reproducing light in a Davy lamp after it had been extinguished by an
explosion ? When an explosion took place in a lamp the man was left in
darkness, and it was very desirable to have some means of reviving the flame
in the lamp, in order to enable the man to get his work accomplished. He
also asked whether Professor Bedson had turned his attention to the largest
amount of area of wire gauze which a Davy lamp might be formed of ? They
might find an objection to the small size of the gauze in the Davy lamp : it
was improved in size in the Clanny lamp.
Professor Bedson, in reply to the first question, explained the means by
which the flame in the Wolf lamp can be relighted, as described by the
Secretary at the previous meeting. In reply to the second question, his
experience of the safety lamp was not a very wide one. He had learnt a
considerable amount in preparing this paper, but his experience of safety
lamps had been chiefly in the nature of lecture experiments, and he could
not form any opinion as to the relative surface of gauze that was required.
Mr. G. Baker Forster had much pleasure in proposing a vote of thanks to
Professor Bedson for his great kindness in translating such a very admirable
paper. The paper was of an exceedingly practical nature, although, perhaps,
it would require to be read two or three times before they could thoroughly
understand it. The paper would be of great service in enabling any one
connected with mines to form a more accurate judgment as to the actual
quantity of gas present in any working place, and this was a point upon
which very much depended in mines—whether the current was likely to be foul
or not.
Mr. E. F. Boyd had great pleasure in seconding the proposition. They were
very much indebted to Professor Bedson for the trouble he had taken towards
enabling them to realise some of their hopes as to the Davy lamp, which was
a subject of great importance, and was becoming still more important when
coal came to be worked in what was called the pillars. There had been no
reference made to the passage of a Davy lamp rapidly through the air, and
what effect that would have in an explosive mixture. Mr. Lindsay Wood had
made some interesting experiments, and he did not know whether Professor
Bedson knew of them.
The President was quite sure the members would cordially approve of the vote
of thanks. The facts which Professor Bedson had brought before them in the
paper were of extreme interest. It seemed to be pretty
44 DISCUSSION—THE SHRINKAGE OF PAPER.
clearly shown that by the use of this lamp a percentage of gas as low as one
per cent, could be indicated; and this was important, as it would show the
very commencement of the fouling of an air-course. Taken in connection with
dust, they found that a small percentage of gas was more dangerous than was
at one time thought; therefore, it was important to be able to ascertain and
find out the very smallest amount of gas. The vote of thanks was unanimously
agreed to.
__________
t
The President said, that Mr. 0. C. Leach, the writer of the paper on "The
Shrinkage of Paper," was present, and this was a favourable opportunity to
discuss the subject, if any gentleman had any remarks to make.
Mr. J. G. "Weeks said, it occurred to him, when Mr. Leach was reading his
paper, that as he had adopted a wood rule, whether that might not account
for some of the shrinkage. With a view to test the matter himself, he had a
distance of 120 chains marked off on a steel straight-edge, and also upon
the painted, plastered inside wall of an office. Notes were taken every
month for the last five or six months, and he found that there had been no
variation at all, so far as regarded the steel and the wall measurements ;
but in the month of July only, there was a slight variation, one link in 120
chains, so far as the wood rule measurements were concerned. The wood seemed
to have shrunk the infinitesimal length of one link. He had used the wall
and the steel straight-edge as things less likely to expand or contract. The
wood rule was that used by Mr. Leach. It showed, therefore, that the
expansions and contractions described were due to the paper itself, and not
to the scale that was employed.
Professor Lebour thought that the experience of those who had to do with
mapping would go to show that Mr. Leach's observations were very correct.
The very small amount of variation which was shown in his results might,
however, make one think that perhaps no greater variations were to be found.
As a matter of fact, he had himself known of variations in paper infinitely
larger than anything Mr. Leach had measured ; and this went to show, that
the plans at Mr. Leach's colliery office were kept on very good paper. The
Government maps, on the other hand, were kept on bad paper, so far as
variable stretching and shrinkage were concerned ; and he had known of
variations of as much as half-an-inch at the side of a six-inch map after it
had been put away for six months
DISCUSSION—THE SHRINKAGE OF PAPER. 45
or so. One result of this was that in preparing maps of the geological
survey, to be engraved by the Ordnance people at Southampton, it frequently
happened that when the lines had been drawn so that they might tally and run
from one map to another, they were engraved so as not to tally at all,
because the paper had altered, and altered quite irregularly. The changes
were often very much greater than anything which Mr. Leach had recorded.
Nothing in the way of observations had been done so systematically as by Mr.
Leach, and his observations were of the greatest interest.
Mr. G-. Baker Forster asked Professor Lebour if he meant that there was a
change in the sheets that had been engraved ?
Professor Lebour : Yes.
Mr. G. B. Forster : Is not the paper damped before printing, and does not
the variation arise from that ?
Professor Lebour said, the paper was damped.
Mr. G. B. Forster said, he had always found that, for this reason, the
Ordnance maps were not to be relied upon. It was not generally known that
they could get tracings from the original copies by sending for them. He
had done so.
Professor Lebour said, it was possible sometimes to get dry proofs, and they
were infinitely better than tracings. Dry proofs did not shrink so much as
ordinary tracing paper. The dry proofs looked very ugly, but everything
practically requisite was on them. The dry proofs were not ordinarily sold,
and the office was apparently very averse to letting them go out; but they
could be got.
The President asked Mr. Lebour if he considered that the variation in the
ordinary Ordnance sheets occurred from time to time, or that it had occurred
all at one time, when the prints were taken ?
Professor Lebour said, that the variation had occurred from time to time,
and was irregular.
The President—It is well known that two sheets never fit each other, but it
was thought it arose at the time of printing, and not by a change
afterwards.
Professor Lebour thought it occurred in both ways, and in the most erratic
manner.
Mr. Ogden said, they should not rely on the horizontal or the vertical
measurement. When paper was made entirely by hand, the contraction and
expansion were equal both ways ; but it was not so now when paper was made
by machinery.
The President—That is a very interesting piece of information.
46 DISCUSSION—THE SHRINKAGE OF PAPER.
Mr. Ogden said, this might be tested with modern papers as compared with
those long past. He did not know the particular way in which the variation
was in hand-made paper.
The President—It would be interesting to know the particular ratio in any
paper.
Mr. Ogden said, he did not know what the variation was, or whether there was
any particular ratio. It would probably be found that they vary both
horizontally and vertically.
Professor Merivale asked if there was no substance on which plans could be
made which would not alter ; or, if the material was expanded by heat, then
it would contract again when in its original atmosphere ? Perhaps Professor
G-arnett or Professor Herschel could say whether thin sheets of vulcanite
retained their size.
Professor Herschel said, they knew that tape measures were made of woven
materials that are practically inextensible, painted with enamel paint
sufficiently smooth to receive the printed marks upon it. The thin glazed
cloth used by engineers as tracing cloth was no less subject to variations
from moisture than paper was, but oiled silk might not be so; and such a
substance as was used for tape measures was, he supposed, capable of being
made on a larger scale suitable for plans, as it was commonly used for wall
maps, but he did not know where it could be got. Ebonite is made soft and
plastic, like gutta-percha, by a very gentle heat.
Mr. Leach said, it is very satisfactory to have it proved that the wooden
scale used was, practically speaking, not liable to either expansion or
contraction, and that therefore the varying measurements set forth in his
paper are due solely to the lengthening and shortening of the papers
experimented upon. Kespecting damping the paper, the writer found that paper
so treated expanded very much, and very unequally; and after being cut off
the board, to which it had been glued, the paper quickly contracted again,
and subsequently varied like undamped paper. Owing to one part of a plan
varying in different proportions and at different times very much from
another part, the base lines became twisted, and this threw the survey out
of troth, and was a very important consideration. He had found, on measuring
papers, that the measurements, both horizontally, diagonally, and
vertically, varied considerably in hand-made papers, as well as all other
papers; and in his opinion, judging from his experimental measurements,
hand-made paper seemed to be worse in this respect than machine-made paper;
the latter seemed to go more evenly. Respecting dry proofs, the director of
the Ordnance Survey wrote him:—" Dry proofs are not more accurate, as to
exact mea-
DISCUSSION—THE SHRINKAGE OF PAPER. 47
surement, than tracings taken from the MS. plans;" and he was told at the
Government Office, at Southampton, that they would not expect the MS.
tracings off the original plans to fit on the plans even if they tried them
as soon as they were traced, and it was with the greatest trouble that they
could get their own plans to stand. They had been conducting experiments at
Southampton for years, but he could obtain very little information from the
Ordnance authorities, as it was against their rules to give any; but, he
thought, probably the great influence of the Council might cause them to
relax in this respect, and so obtain further information.
The meeting concluded.
PROCEEDINGS, 49
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 12th, 1885, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., President, in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentleman was elected, having been nominated at the last
meeting:—
Associate Member— Mr. Edward Septimus Wight, Marsden Colliery, South
Shields.
Mr. Joseph Wilson Swan, M.A., read the following paper " On a Portable
Electric Safety Lamp for Miners" :—
YQL. XXXV—1885.
G
POET ABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP FOR MINERS. 51
ON A PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP FOR MINERS. By JOSEPH WILSON SWAN, M.A.
This paper has been written at the request of the President, to explain to
the members some of the latest results of an attempt to adapt electricity to
the lighting of coal mines.
In endeavouring to render practical this new means of coal mine
illumination, it has been assumed that the existing method is susceptible of
improvement, and that, notwithstanding recent modifications of the safety
lamp, that stage of perfection in pit lighting, beyond which there is
nothing more to be desired, either in respect of safety or sufficiency, has
not been reached.
The members of the Institute, as practical mining engineers, are the most
competent judges how far the inventor has been right in this assumption, and
whether he has been doing necessary or unnecessary work.
As an outsider, and looking at the subject from a theoretical and abstract
point of view, it seems that safety from the danger of the lamp causing an
explosion of fire-damp must necessarily be more absolutely assured if the
light of the lamp be, as in the case of an electric lamp it is, completely
cut off from all communication with the atmosphere. And it also appears
clearly evident that if by means of electricity a better light —a larger
amount of light—can be obtained, those accidents to life and limb which
occur through falls of coal and stone in the workings—a class of accidents
from which, as is well known, there results a far larger mortality than from
explosions—must be diminished. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the object
is not a futile one, and that the only question to be considered is how far
the object has been attained.
At a meeting of the Institute, four years ago, a form of lamp described at
page 149, Vol. XXX, of the Transactions, which required a separate supply of
electricity to be conveyed to it through a flexible cord enclosing two
wires, was shown. A member of the Institute criticised the feature of the
dependence of the light upon an extraneous supply of electric power, and
expressed the opinion that the value of the electric light in mines would
52 PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP.
he greatly enhanced if the lamp and the supply of electricity to it could he
combined in one apparatus. This opinion seemed to be generally concurred
in by the meeting, and it made a strong impression on the writer. Ever
since that time he has kept the idea in mind, and has gradually advanced
towards its realization. The result appears in the lamp now described,
which is both lamp and battery combined, capable of giving during 10 or 12
hours twice or three times the light of a common safety lamp.° On first
lighting, it gives the light of 2 candles, and after 10 hours, about 1\
candles. As in the earlier lamp, the light comes from a filament of
carbon, sealed air-tight in a small tube, and this tube is protected by a
bull's eye of glass, so strong as to be practically unbreakable.
The current necessary to render the filament incandescent is generated by
cells contained in the case. For regular mine working, these are composed of
lead and lead oxide. This kind of cell is what is termed a secondary cell,
or one which is re-charged by being connected for a time with an electric
generator such as a dynamo. Another kind of cell can be used, composed of
zinc and lead oxide, with a special view to the occasional employment of the
lamp for exploration in vitiated air. This is a primary cell, and only
requires filling with liquid to make it ready
to give light.
With regard to the position of the lamp, it is perhaps a question whether it
is better on the side or on the top of the case. Professor Merivale was
strongly of opinion that the lamp should be fixed on the top, and to settle
this point the writer is now having a lamp so fitted.
It will sometimes be convenient to have a duplicate lamp within the bull's
eye, with a switch connection to enable either, but not both, to be lighted,
so that in case a lamp should fail the miner will not be left in the dark.
(A lamp fitted in this manner, and also a lamp fitted with the primary
battery described were here exhibited.)
The writer had hoped to have been able to show a fourth modification, in
which there are only two cells, instead of seven, to light a lamp. By this
arrangement the weight is diminished to between 5 and 6 lbs.
Speaking of the weight, it is perhaps necessary to point out that that is
proportional to the light yielded, and the time during which it is kept up
By taking from the electric lamp as small an amount of light as the ordinary
safety lamp gives, its weight need not much exceed that of the heavier lamps
in common use.
Believing that a good light was the most important point to be gained, after
safety, the electric lamp shown had been constructed to give two or
PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP. 58
three times the light of the ordinary lamps, and consequently it was
heavier; in fact, weight was made subordinate to light, but it is hoped that
the weight and size of the present lamp will not be found unhandy.
The apparatus could have been made much lighter if it had been permissible
to employ a primary battery, instead of a secondary one; but it appears to
be only allowable to use a primary battery to meet sudden emergencies, and
in those cases where there is no dynamo and no regular system in operation
for charging secondary batteries.
For mine exploration, where the air is very foul, as, for example, after an
explosion, which has destroyed the ventilation of the mine, a lamp of this
kind with a primary battery, in conjunction with a Fleuss breathing
apparatus, will probably be found very useful; and it is worth consideration
whether a certain number of lamps of this type, with a primary battery,
ought not to be kept ready to be used in case of accident at every pit
liable to a fire-damp explosion. But as a substitute for the ordinary safety
lamp for general underground lighting, a battery which requires, each time
it is used, to have the spent charge emptied out, and a fresh charge poured
in, and which also requires frequent renewal of the positive plate of each
cell, is impracticable.
On the other hand, a secondary battery such as the writer has adopted can be
charged with even less trouble than attends the trimming of an oil lamp. It
is only necessary to insert a couple of wires from an electric main into the
charging sockets of the battery, in the manner represented in Plate VII, and
to leave it there from the time the lamp is handed in at the end of a shift
until it is wanted again, twelve or fourteen hours after. Hundreds of lamps
can be charged at a time in this way, and at very small cost. An engine
developing an effective five horse-power, and a dynamo electric machine,
correspondingly small, would suffice to charge 300 lamps at one operation.*
Plate VII, Fig. 1, is a section, and Fig. 2 a plan of the electric lamp; a
is a thin ebonite cylinder, about 4^ inches diameter and 1\ high, with an
ebonite cover, to which is attached a handle v, screwed on to it. Inside
this are seven ebonite cells c, about If inch diameter ; each of these cells
is lined with a lead cylinder g, grooved nearly through its whole length,
the grooves being filled with spongy lead h. For the positive element,
fine
* One horse-power (electrical) = 746 watts. The net electrical energy
absorbed in charging each battery is nearly GJ watts; therefore, 300 lamps
absorb two and a-fifth electrical horse-power, and to develop this and
compensate for waste in transforming mechanical into electrical and chemical
energy, about five effective horse-power would be required. This power would
have to be exerted during twelve to fourteen hours.
54 DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP.
lead filament, a material invented and manufactured by Mr. Norman Cookson,
lias also been used with success. The core is a lead wire d, surrounded by
peroxide of lead e, wrapped round with cloth which fills the space; between
the two elements is dilute sulphuric acid ; tit are strips of lead
connecting1 the lead lining cylinders with the lead cores, and by referring
to Fig. 2 it will be seen that a wire n leaves the core of the seventh cell,
passing round and being protected by the ebonite cylinder a till it comes to
q ; it there terminates in a small button which pierces the cylinder a ; p
is a brass cap or switch plate, screwed on to the cylinder a, in which plate
is a small screw with an ebonite knob. When this is pressed on to the button
of the wire, contact is made, and the current passes through from the brass
bracket p along the wire till it comes to the spring r wThich holds the
lamp. The current then passes through the filament to the spring t and back
through o, round the other side of the cylinder, where it joins on to the
lead cylinder No. 1. A small disc y, is placed in the bottom of each cell to
keep the lead wire cores from being-short-circuited with the last cylinder
c. Other wires are attached to the lead cylinder No. 1, and the charging
hole /, and the lead core 7, to another charge hole m ; Jc k h are ebonite
caps which shut the tops of the cells, except a small space around the
central wire.
The lamp is further protected by a strong glass shield u with a reflector x,
composed, by preference, of some brilliantly wdiite unpolished surface.
Fig. 8 is a full sized section of the leaden lining, and Fig. 4 shows the
way the wires are led to and from the filament.
Fig. 5 showrs the way in which the lamps are charged ; a and b are two wires
running from the negative and positive poles of a dynamo, driven by an
engine.
Enough has now been said to explain this new lamp, and the conditions under
which it can be used. It remains for the writer to express the hope that the
invention may commend itself for approval as a safer and better means of
lighting dangerous mines than those hitherto employed.
The President said, they had heard Mr. Swan's description of his very
ingenious lamp, which must be a matter of interest to them all. If any
gentleman had any questions to ask, Mi-. Swan would answer them. Mr. Swan
described the light of a lamp with a secondary battery as being
DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP. 55
of about 2 candle-power and lasting over ten hours. He would ask Mr. Swan,
what was the light and the duration in a lamp with a primary battery ? Mr.
Swan had mentioned that there would be great difficulty in charging lamps
with primary cells. He might mention to Mr. Swan that this was what they had
to do at present with the safety lamps, every lamp had to be charged
independently, and he did not see that there would be so much more
difficulty in charging electric lamps, unless there was some cause, which
did not appear on the surface, which made it difficult to charge them. The
electric lamp might be a little heavier, and take more fluid, but this did
not seem, itself, very objectionable. One observation made by Mr. Swan was a
very valuable one. They were aware that in the employment of the Fleuss
apparatus, after explosions, there had been some awkwardness with the lamp.
He had not heard of any objection to the helmet part of the Fleuss apparatus
for the explorer, but there were objections to the lamp. Mr. Swan, with his
lamp, seemed to have overcome this difficulty, and this, in itself, was a
matter of great importance.
Mr. Lishman said he had to ask a question which was also of some importance,
namely—What was the prime cost of these electric lamps to begin with, and
then the cost of upholding them ? The question applied to both the primary
and secondary lamp.
Mr. George Baker Forster thought they were very much indebted, to Mr. Swan
for exhibiting his lamps before them; and they appeared to him (Mr. Forster)
to be a step towards the final stage, if not the final step. He had no
objection to the lamp in its construction; and the weight could be got over,
as they did not want a lamp so much for travelling with as for use in the
places where the men were at wrork. The only objection he saw was that, by
these lamps, they could not tell the presence of gas, and whether they were
in a breathable atmosphere or not. A man might be suddenly overpowered by
foul gases and have no warning from these lamps. They could not have a man
going about a pit at all times with a gas-tester. If Mr. Swan could take any
weight off, so much the better; but he did not think the present weight
would debar the lamps being used. A lot of lamps might be carried in to the
working's in a tub if necessary. A man, wdien at work, did not carry his
lamp about, he hung it up. He did not agree with Professor Merivale about
having the light on the top of the lamp ; because he believed a man, when at
work could work best with the side light from the lamp. If the light wyas on
the top of the lamp a great deal of the light would be lost, He supposed
the idea of putting the light on the
Of) DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP.
top was to examine the roof; but they did not judge of the roof entirely by
looking at it. They could not always see when a stone was going to fall, and
anyhow, the electric lamp could be turned upon its side.
Mr. Swan—The lamp can be turned almost horizontally, if a secondary one.
Mr. Forster thought that this lamp was the very thing likely to be of great
service in fiery mines - mines liable to sudden outbursts of gas. The cost
would probably be more than that of a Davy lamp; although from what Mr. Swan
had said he should imagine that the cost for upholding would not be more
than for the Davy lamp. The first cost would be rather heavy ; but they had
to consider whether it was not worth it to get absolute safety with lamps in
mines that were liable to accidents.
Professor Merivale said, that with respect to the illuminating of the roof
in mines, he was afraid he was in the minority. The importance of
illuminating the roof he had enforced upon the gentlemen to whom he
lectured. The loss of life from falls of roof and sides was 42 per cent.,
and from explosions of gas 24 per cent.; and he thought this was due to the
fact that, with the ordinary safety lamp, they could not examine the roof.
He knew they did not judge of the roof simply by the eye ; but a good light
upon the roof would be of great assistance in judging whether it were right
or not. The importance of this had escaped the attention of almost e\rery
modern lamp inventor. An inventor screened the lamp with gauze, extra gauze,
sometimes with a shield, and sometimes with tubes, in order to enable it to
stand high velocities; and the result was that no light was thrown except on
the working face. Mr. Swan had promised to introduce a lamp which would
throw light upon the roof. He did not, of course, want a lamp only to throw
light upon the roof, but a lamp to throw as good a light on the roof as on
the place where the work was. As to the primary battery, Mr. Swan told them
that it was lighter, and could be used after explosions. He supposed the
objection to the primary battery was, that,, if carried about, the liquid
would be liable to be spilt. If that was the objection to the primary
battery in Mr. Swan's mind, he (Professor Merivale) did not think it a great
one; because they did not require a lamp to be carried about, but to be set
down where the hewer was at work. As to searches in times of explosions, the
lamp in which there was liquid would be awkward, as they had to crawl
sometimes, and the liquid was liable to be spilt. A very important feature
in Mr. Swan's present lamp was the enormous advance over the lamp shown four
years ago; and it was possible that in the next four years Mr. Swan might
improve his present lamp, and make as great an
DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP. 57
advance upon it, as it now was upon the other. The only objection he had
to the lamp was the impossibility of detecting gas with it.
Mr. Sydney F. Walker congratulated Mr. Swan upon the success which he had
achieved. A great many gentlemen in London and other parts of the country
had tried to make electric lamps for mines; and the lamp shown by Mr. Swan
was, so far as he knew, the only practical lamp of the kind in existence. He
had watched the course of the development of these lamps from the time when
Mr. Swan first brought out his incandescent lamp. Inventors in London and
elsewhere had stated that they had produced lamps wThich would be safe in
coal mines; but, when inquired into, they were found to give only a very
medium light for an insufficient time. His experience of lighting collieries
was this—that, before the electric light came upon the scene, mining
gentlemen were usually content with very bad lights; but now they wanted a
great deal of light, and, like Oliver Twist, wrere alwrays asking for more.
He understood Mr. Swan had improved his lamp since he showed it at the
meeting of the British Association, at which time it gave only half or
three-quarter candlelight, but now it gave two and a half candle-light. He
would ask whether Mr. Swan hoped to increase the light still more. His (Mr.
Walker's) own opinion had been—he gave it with all reserve for what it was
worth— that the illumination of the face of che coal in days to come would
be done by something like Mr. Swan's original lamp; that mains would be laid
to convenient places, and some flexible arrangement be made to communicate
with lamps which a working collier could carry in his pocket, and be taught
to hook up at certain points when used. He thought that the rising
generation of working colliers, with the mark of the School Board on them,
and, perhaps, with some information on electricity taught them in science
classes, when they knew that by using these lamps they kept the colliery
from harm, and wrould have a light to work with such as their forefathers
never dreamt of, it would not be very long before they—to use an old
expression—tumbled to it. A point mentioned by Professor Merivale, and, he
thought, by Professor Abel and others previously, was that the one drawback
to Mr. Swan's lamp wras that it gave no test for gas. He did not know
whether Mr. Swan had given his attention to the point; but he (Mr. Walker)
saw no reason why there should not be a purely testing lamp for managers,
viewers, and so on. The lamps for these officials should have a testing
arrangement attached to them. He thought there might be a glowing platinum
wire; for when gas was allowed to be present it caused the wire to glow
rather more, according to a certain ratio. He saw no reason wmy an
arrangement could not be
VOL. XXXV,-WHS,
"¦
53 DISCUSSION— PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP.
attached to the lamps for the special use of the managers and officials to
test gas. He asked Mr. Swan what was the life of the secondary battery? He
did not mean the number of hours it would last in furnishing the light; but
the number of months or years they could go on charging and discharging it.
The principal objection to the primary battery was the cost of working. The
primary battery had the advantage in point of weight, because the working
material was contained within itself, and was consumed on the spot. In the
secondary battery they had to have, so to speak, a working battery in
addition, and, therefore, the weight was greater. The cost of working by the
primary battery, as against the cost of working by the secondary battery,
would be (he spoke subject to correction) something like fifty times. The
whole question of the improvement of the battery, which was the crux of the
whole thing, was rather a chemical question than an electrical question; and
it was a question which Mr. Swan was more suited than anybody to tackle.
Professor Herschel said, there was one point he would like to raise, and
that was, how far the lamps could stand ill-usage with respect to the
continuity of the battery arrangement—whether the secondary battery could
stand, without damage or injury to its construction or formation, the
violence to which it was liable by shock or blow ? "Would any accident of
this kind be likely to harm the lamp ? Perhaps Mr. Swan would be able to
enlighten them as to the manner in which the plates were charged, or
excited, by the primary current, so as to give them an idea whether care in
charging was necessary; and as to whether any form of gauging the instrument
should be used to prevent over-charging, or injuring the lamp in charging.
Mr. Steavenson said, he felt it very difficult indeed to say anything in the
discussion on this lamp, because, in the first place, he was unwilling to
say a single word to discourage Mr. Swan in his meritorious labours. At the
same time, they could not help feeling that the lamp was rather too heavy
for practical purposes. If put into the hands of an ordinary pitman he would
refuse to carry it to his place. Carrying a lamp along passages five or six
feet high was a different thing to carrying it through workings and returns.
Ho had been considering whether it might not be possible to charge the lamp
during the shift, and this would enable a smaller lamp to be used. To
re-charge the lamps in the pit during each shift was possible; then they had
to consider how far, in this district, such an absolutely safe lamp was
needed. If such a lamp was a necessity, they would put up with it, and use
it. But, if in these mines there was a current of air sufficient to blow the
flame through the gauze, then the
DISCUSSION'—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP. 59
volume of air was sufficient to render harmless any gas there might be
present. In Yorkshire and some other parts such a lamp would be useful
indeed ; but, in these northern counties, where collieries had been worked
for forty or fifty years, and where the gas had got liberated, there was,
perhaps, not so much necessity for this lamp. A man travelling in a seam
three feet six inches high, would, at the end of ten minutes or quarter of
an hour, find this lamp a great inconvenience. He was sorry to discourage
Mr. Swan in any respect by saying anything against the lamp. The only
objection to it was its weight.
Professor G-arnett said, he would like to know whether the lead fibre,
which, according to the British Association paper, appeared to fill the
space between the lead tube and the core, was abolished in the present lamp,
or whether it was simply jammed into the channels which were grooved into
the interior of the tube ? Did the contrivance to prevent the spilling of
the liquid consist simply of the india-rubber cork ? He also asked if Mr.
Swan could give any information as to how long the filaments in the lamp
would last ? From some measurements he (Professor Garnett) had had made on
one of Mr. Swan's lamps a very high result as regards efficiency was
obtained, namely, 2T\ watts per candle-power, which was equal to 357 or 358
candles per horse-power, a very high efficiency for an incandescent lamp,
and that with an electro-motive force of 14 volts and a current of '41
amperes. That was about the force applied to the lamp by the seven cells
within the lamp when first started. As the lamp burned the electro-motive
force slightly diminished, and the illuminating power went down to 2, and
then to 1| candles. When it was burning at about 2 candles, the efficiency
was about 250 candles per horse-power, instead of 357. At that rate of
efficiency they might expect the filaments, if carefully used, to have a
life of 1,300, or 1,400, or 1,500 hours.
Mr. Swan said, the President asked whether there was any difference in the
amount of light given from a primary battery and a secondary battery ? Not
necessarily so. But to that brief reply, he might be allowed to add that his
idea in connection with the primary battery was that it would be specially
and perhaps almost exclusively useful for the purpose of exploration after
an accident, and if used in that way, it might be advantageous to fit such a
lamp to the battery as would give twice or three times the light given by
the lamp with which the secondary batteries, intended for general use in the
mine, were fitted. If this larger quantity of light was to be supported by
the primary battery, it would, of course, be sustained for a proportionally
shorter time. Weight for weight, the amount of electrical energy stored in
the primary battery was larger than
60 DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP.
that stored in the secondary battery, and therefore it would yield, through
the medium of a suitable lamp, as much light as the secondary battery. The
amount of light that can be obtained from any battery depends on two things
; the size of battery, and the length of time during which the light is
maintained. With a given size and construction of battery, time alone has to
be considered, and the lamp can be so constructed as to give more or less
light in proportion to the time it has to last: for example, it would be
possible to have twice the light for half the time by a simple change of
lamp, the battery remaining the same. It was entirely a matter of
arrangement how much light they got, there was no difference between the
secondary and primary battery in this respect. Mr. Lishman had asked the
cost of the lamp. He could not say what the prime cost of the lamp would be,
because only a few had been made, and these experimentally. As to the cost
of charging, he had come to the conclusion that they would not cost more
than 4d. a week per lamp. He was told on very good authority that the
average cost of maintaining the ordinary safety lamp, inclusive of oil,
repairs, and the man's wage for trimming the lamp, was 4d. a week per lamp.
This was, he believed, an amount amply sufficient to cover the cost of
charging his lamp. Considering, therefore, that the maintenance of an
ordinary lamp was nearly £1 per annum, he thought it was pretty obvious that
the interest upon the capital outlay for the lamps themselves could not be a
large addition to this amount. Connected with this question were the
questions asked by Professor Herschel and Mr. Walker. One asked as to the
durability of the battery, and the other whether it would be apt to sustain
injury by being overcharged ? There was a considerable amount of experience
as to the durability of batteries of this kind, and he was quite warranted
in saying that, as care had been taken to eliminate, as far as possible, the
chance of corrosion in the parts where corrosion might take place, the
battery would be very durable. He thought it would last several years. As to
whether there would not be a danger of destroying the battery by
over-charging it, he thought, if Professor Herschel considered the
arrangements made as to the dynamo, and that systematic arrangements would
necessarily have to be made for charging a larger number of lamps together,
he would see that it would not be difficult to provide means for the
perfectly uniform charging of the cells, and very little need be left to the
intelligence of the attendant. They could have the apparatus so arranged as
that the right current should pass through each lamp so that it would be
just sufficiently charged, or, perhaps, rather over-charged, during the time
it was off work, so that
DISCUSSIOX—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP. 61
no harm would come to the battery. With regard to Professor Merivale's
remarks about the illumination of the roof, he thought the Professor
overlooked the fact that by the present arrangement of this lamp they did
get a good illumination of the roof. If he took the lamp into a dark space
it would be seen that the entire area in front was illuminated—floor, walls,
and roof. They had a complete hemisphere illuminated by this lamp. With the
miner's ordinary lamp they had only a circular band of light, and little
illumination of the roof; but with his lamp they had the roof fully
illuminated; and when they wanted to have a special examination of the roof,
they could incline his lamp so as to throw all the light on to the roof.
Several gentlemen seemed to think that the primary battery might be
preferable to the secondary battery. In some cases it would. There were two
objections, however, to the primary battery. One was the trouble of emptying
the cells and refilling them, and of renewing the positive and negative
elements, and this would be both troublesome and costly. There was hardly
room for comparison of the amount of trouble involved in charging primary
batteries and secondary batteries. Primary batteries would also be
considerably more expensive to maintain than the secondary batteries. They
could not get a primary battery maintained at anything like the cost of 4d.
per week. He was very glad to hear Mr. Baker Forster say that he thought the
weight was not a very great objection, it was encouraging to find the
opinion of one of such authority as Mr. Baker Forster, balanced against the
contrary opinion of Mr. Steavenson. But still he had hopes of being able to
reduce the weight; and he took it that it would not be an unacceptable thing
to have the weight reduced. Professor Carnett asked if he still used the
lead filament? He had not abandoned the use of lead filament, but he had not
used it in the particular cells shown to-day. The only means of retaining
the liquid was an ebonite cover, not the india-rubber cork mentioned in the
Plate. He would be glad to show Professor Garnett the inside of the lamp at
the close of the meeting. As to the durability of the lamps, he had very
good reason to expect that the lamps would last a long time. A great deal
depended upon the way the lamp was manufactured. As, with his battery, the
lamp was only subjected to a high pressure for a very short time, they had
every reason to expect that it would not require renewal so often as to make
the cost of renewal too heavy a burden. The principal objection raised
against the lamp had been that it did not indicate the presence of
fire-damp. He realised strongly that it would be a great point gained if
this lamp, like the ordinary lamp, indicated the presence of fire-damp.
62 DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP.
He was told by some that it was not quite an essential thing, but evidently
many held a contrary opinion. There had been sent down to him, by the
kindness of Mr. Liveing, one of his (Mr. Liveing's) ingenious apparatus for
indicating the presence of fire-damp; and gentlemen who had not seen the
apparatus would have an opportunity of doing so at the close of the meeting.
By means of Mr. Liveing's apparatus so small a quantity of fire-damp as one
per cent, was readily shown. It would not be a difficult thing, nor would it
add much to the cost, to adapt this testing apparatus to the electric safety
lamp. It would not be necessary to have TVth part of the weight of Mr.
Liveing's apparatus; in fact, only the top portion of the apparatus was
required; as the means of producing the electric current which was necessary
for the operation of this test already existed in connection with the lamp.
There were several other well-known means of detecting the presence of
explosive gas, which could be employed either independently of the electric
lamp or combined with it. Among these he might mention Ansell's and
Maurice's. They were not yet at the end of the means of detecting the
presence of fire-damp; and he fully hoped he would be able to add a
fire-damp detector to his lamp.
Professor Merivale—It must be remembered that in putting Mr. Liveing's
apparatus to the Swan lamp the danger of having to protect a glowing spark
with gauze will have to be encountered, and no real advance in safety be
obtained.
The President said, he was sure they were exceedingly obliged to Mr. Swan
for bringing this important subject before this Institute, and for having
done so in his usual clear and able manner. He agreed with Professor
Merivale that it was a matter of very great importance to have a good light,
not only, or perhaps not so much, for examining the roof, but because the
lamp could be kept at a greater distance from the point of the actual
working where the light was intended for. They had frequent accidents in
mines from the pick being put into the lamp in consequence of the nearness
at which the lamp was placed to the point of work, to give the necessary
light. A lamp like Mr. Swan's, which gave many times the light of a Davy
lamp, could be kept at a considerable distance from the actual point of work
; and also, in examining in goafs and elsewhere, it would not be necessary
to go so near the danger with a lamp that showed a good light. Therefore, he
agreed with Professor Merivale, that a good light was very necessary. Mr.
Swan did not quite answer his (the President's) question, which was, whether
this particular lamp, with a primary battery, gave a light of 2
candle-powTer for ten hours, the same as the one with the secondary battery
?
DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP. (53
Mr. Swan—Yes.
The President—The same sized light and length of time as the secondary one ?
Mr. Swan—Yes; it will give very nearly the same result.
The President—As to the primary battery lamp, although more expensive and
more difficult to manipulate, there were many places and circumstances under
which it could be more generally used than the secondary battery lamp. If
the secondary lamp was used, the whole colliery would have to be worked upon
the system; it would require a dynamo, and engine, and house properly
arranged. There would be no difficulty in having these; but the use of the
secondary lamp would have to be on a great scale. In many cases, however, as
for instance at an explosion, where there was no dynamo at a colliery, the
primary lamp could be used. Mr. Swan had mentioned various instruments which
were very admirable from a scientific point of view, but which they did not
find of very great practical benefit for detecting gas. He had made his arms
ache with Mr. Liveing's apparatus and had never succeeded in detecting the
presence of gas better than with a lamp.
Mr. Swan said, if it was connected with his lamp there would be no grinding.
The President—He had also, with others, made many experiments with Ansell's
apparatus without much success, but he could not say they were able to
detect small quantities of gas with the apparatus. Possibly the presence of
gas might be ascertained by having a number of ordinary, but specially safe,
lamps in a pit, to be used in conjunction with the general use of Swan's
electric safety lamps. This, no doubt, would be considered a weak link in
the chain by some gentlemen. He would hardly think that. He thought it would
not be a great element of danger if there were a few ordinary safety lamps,
and a large number of these safer electric lamps. He begged to propose a
vote of thanks to Mr. Swan.
Mr. George Baker Forster said, he had much pleasure in seconding the vote of
thanks. He might say, in regard to what he observed about the gas test,
that, if Mr. Swan could add something to his lamp which would safely test
gas, it wrould do away with his (Mr. Forster's) objection on this head. He
did not see any other objection to the lamp. As to their not requiring the
lamp in this district, he would say that, if they did not require it, why
were they making all the stir about lamps, explosions, and accidents in
mines ? Of course, they might not require it in their own immediate
neighbourhood, where they had not so
64 DISCUSSION—PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAFETY LAMP.
much gas, but there was a necessity for it in other parts. This Institute
looked to the whole kingdom for support, and therefore, they should consider
the question as it affected all districts. He felt sure that the
introduction of such a lamp would be a very great success.
Mr. Swan, in returning thanks, said, he had felt great pleasure in bringing
the subject before them; and he was much obliged to them for the kind way in
which they had received it. He felt much encouraged by the way they had
received it; and he would prosecute his experiments further, in the hope at
some time—perhaps, not a very distant time—of being able to show them a
still further development of the lamp.
The following paper, on " A New Description of Safety Lamp," by Mr. John
Douglas, was read :—
DOUGLAS PATENT SAFETY LAMP. 65
THE "DOUGLAS" PATENT MINER'S SAFETY LAMP.
By JOHN DOUGLAS.
The essential qualities of a safety lamp are : (1) Safety in gas, that is,
it should go out amongst gas and should not pass the flame, and stand a good
current. (2.) Brilliancy of light, with a good percentage of light utilized.
(3.) It should be so arranged that it is impossible for workmen to expose
the naked flame. These are the three most important qualifications, but
besides those there are other points, though of less importance, which
should not be overlooked, viz : a lamp should be light, and as simple in
construction as possible, with few parts likely to get out of order, and
arranged so that it can be easily cleaned and examined.
"With these points before him, the writer, some time ago, commenced to
construct a lamp to have as many of these good properties about it as
possible, and he has pleasure in submitting the lamp as shown on Plate VIII,
as the result of his labour.
a is the oil vessel into which the wick-pipe I is made to screw, and through
which the oil is filled. Over this wick - pipe a close fitting tube c having
a flange upon it, called the extinguishing tube, is made to slide; this
flange is arranged so that when the lamp bottom is screwed up it has entered
into the glass holder-plate d and passed the small automatic spring e by
which it is secured, so that when an attempt is made to unscrew the bottom,
the extinguishing tube is retained in position by the spring, which
extinguishes the light. On the top of the oil vessel an upright piece of
brass / is rivetted, through the centre of which there is a hole, into which
an ordinary screw lock g, having a square head, is made to enter. The glass
holder-plate d, which carries the glass i, screws into the bottom part of
the top of the lamp h. On the top of the glass rests the horizontal flange
of the chimney o, a plan of which is shown in Fig. 4, and on this again,
between the glass and the top rim of lamp 7c, rests the gauze cylinder I.
The top and bottom rims of lamp h and 7c are held together by the four
pillars m. These pillars also secure the cylinder n which surrounds the
gauze. The top of this cylinder of brass or sheet steel is covered by a
brass cap, to which, again, is attached the necessary ring for carrying the
lamp. The ventilation of the lamp will be understood by the arrows shown on
the plate.
The lamp is arranged to burn colzaline oil, which the writer prefers on
account of its illuminating power being greater than that of other oils,
VOL. XXXV -1885.
I
66 DOUGLAS PATENT SAFETY LAMP.
and also because it makes less smoke. In the oil-vessel is a sponge which is
saturated with the oil, the superfluous colzaline being poured back again.
This will give a good working light for at least ten hours. It will be
observed that no evaporation can escape except through the wick-pipe.
The lamp goes out in a bath of gas; and although it has been tried at Pelton
Colliery in an explosive mixture at various velocities, it has never caused
an external explosion. The current of air necessary to blow it out has not
been ascertained, the writer not being able to find a current strong enough.
A current of 80 feet per second only causes the flame to waver slightly.
With regard to its illuminating power, an average of several photo-metrical
tests shows that it takes T83 of these lamps to equal a sperm candle, six to
the pound, and the percentage of light utilized to be 95.
The weight of the lamp is 2 _ lbs. Its construction is simple and not at all
complicated, there being only six pieces.
GAS TESTS.
Particulars of experiments made at Pelton Colliery, November 17, 1885, with
the " Douglas" Lamp, in the presence of Mr. Hy. Henderson.
Velocity LAMP in feet
REMARKS.
second
Davy...... 7 2 Fired gas outside in 6 seconds.
Douglas... 7l Went out entirely in 5 seconds.
Do. Vi Flame went out in 3 seconds, but gas burned inside
175
seconds, when supply was cut off. Lamp inclined to
current thus ^----->- \\
Davy...... 9i Fired gas outside in 2_ seconds.
Douglas... 9j Flame went out in 5 seconds. Gas
burned inside 18
seconds longer, then went out entirely. Lamp inclined
to current thus ^jg>----->• \\
Do. 9_ Flame went out in 3 seconds. Gas burned inside 40 seconds longer,
then went out entirely. Lamp inclined from current thus >>$$>>----->¦ If
Davy...... H| Fired gas outside in 2^ seconds.
Douglas.. 11 _¦ Flame went out in 6 seconds. Gas burned inside
80 seconds
longer, then went out entirely. Lamp inclined from
current thus°-^^?>-----s- //
Davy...... 15J Fired gas outside in 5 seconds.
Douglas... 15| Flame only slightly affected by the gas;
not even an
internal explosion. Lamp in test 5 minutes, then experiment
discontinued. Lamp inclined from current
thus m$>----^ //
________________________________________________________
DISCUSSION—DOUGLAS PATENT SAFETY LAMP. 67
The President said that the paper dealt with a subject of much interest, to
which great attention had been given for some time past. He hoped the
consideration of it would end in their ultimately obtaining a good, safe
lamp.
Professor Lebour asked, what was colzaline ?
Mr. Douglas said he expected it was a mineral oil; but the ingredients he
could not remember. It was the same kind of oil that is burnt in the
Protector lamp.
Professor Herschel asked, in what manner the lighting would take place if
the flame was extinguished ?
The Secretary said, a little catch was withdrawn, and the tube came out.
Before lighting the lamp the tube was put over the wick, which is then
lighted. When the lamp is in its place, the little spring goes forward and
catches the rim of the tube, and prevents it from falling down.
Mr. Ryder said, that colzaline was, so far as he knew, benzoline deodorised,
and sold in this country for spirit lamps. Colzaline was the "trade name" of
it, as it was sold in this country. It is a volatile spirit, and is also
produced in Scotland from shale, at two or three mines; and produced during
the manufacture of the mineral colza oils for lubricating purposes, and
paraffin for paraffin candles.
The President proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Douglas for his paper, which
was unanimously carried.
The following paper on "An Improved Levelling Staff for Underground Work,"
by Mr. R. Ltnsley was read:—
IMPROVED LEVELLING STAFF. 69
IMPROVED LEVELLING STAFF FOE UNDERGROUND WORK.
By E. LINSLBY.
The best construction of speaking levelling staff for use in mines is an
oft-mooted point. For use in restricted positions several details must be
attended to. The staff must pack together in a simple manner for carrying,
and be of a suitable length for the seam in which it is intended to be used,
although, generally speaking, fi to 7 feet is ample when the staff is
extended ; thus 3| or 4 feet for the bottom part of the staff is usually
sufficient to meet the requirements of the surveyor in this northern
district.
The arrangement of the improved staff, which has recently been brought out
by Mr. Jas. R. Linsley, the surveyor at Cramlington Colliery, consists in
the use of a tape coiling on a spring drum, fixed on the top end of the
sliding staff, the lower end of the tape being attached to the top of the
main staff; the figures and divisions are painted on the tape the same as on
the staff, and whatever the height from thill to roof, the reading of the
staff is continuous.
The utility of the improvement is very obvious to those acquainted with the
difficulties experienced when conducting levellings in mines; thus if the
ordinary staff is found to be too long, and unable to stand vertical (when
extended), the top rod has to be set at a foot, or two feet division, as the
height of seam or roadway may allow, and this has to be allowed for when
booking the readings: there is thus a constant liability to error.
It is a very tiring job for the man to hold the staff vertical and steady
with one hand whilst holding a light for the surveyor to take the reading
with the other hand ; but the improved staff is simply fixed on the thill or
rail, then by pushing up the sliding rod against the roof, where it stands
until the reading is booked, the man resting on his knee to hold the light
can read the staff with a much greater degree of comfort than with the old
form.
The following paper on " The Loss of Life in Coal Mines," by Mr, W, J. Bird,
was read ;—
LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MINES. 71
LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MINES.
RY W. J. BIRD.
Coal mining occupies no fewer than 520,376* workmen, or, taking-four to each
head of a family, provides for 2,081,504 persons out of 31,028,970,f which
was the population of England, Scotland, and Wales in 1884 ; or about
one-fifteenth of the total number of inhabitants.
The employment of this large number of persons is regulated by the Mines
Regulation Act of 1872, which applies to mines of stratified ironstone,
mines of shale, mines of fire-clay, as well as to coal mines. Coal mines
proper contribute the great bulk of the production obtained under its
provisions. The "output" of each mineral in 1884 being: Coal, 160,757,779
tons ; fire-clay, 2,053,927 tons ; ironstone, 10,412,443 tons ; shale, &c,
1,648,100 tons. This is the largest production on record, except that of
1883, which was : Coal, 163,737,327 tons ; fire-clay, 2,189,452 tons ;
ironstone, 11,495,401 tons ; and shale, 1,341,210 tons.
In the Inspectors' reports the accidents in coal mines are classified under
five heads :—
1. Explosions of fire-damp, including explosions arising from, or
aggravated by, the presence of coal dust.
2. Accidents from stone or coal falling from the roof or sides.
3. Accidents in shafts, which may be caused by ropes or chains breaking,
over-winding, things falling down the shaft, mistakes in signalling,
break-down of machinery, &c.
4. Miscellaneous accidents underground. These are very various, comprising
such as explosions of gunpowder or dynamite (used in blasting), inundations
of water, accidents on inclined planes or roads by trams or tubs, by
machinery, fire, &c. Loss of life from choke-damp or carbonic acid gas (when
not produced by fire-damp explosion) is included under this heading, the
most notable case being the disaster at Hartley Colliery in 1862, when the
pumping engine beam fell down the shaft, and shut off the miners from access
to air, causing over 200 deaths by suffocation.
5. Miscellaneous accidents at the surface are, strictly speaking, not due
to any conditions existing in the mines, and comprise accidents from
* Taken from the Mines Inspectors' Reports for 1884, which include men
employed in getting "coal, fire-clay, ironstone, oil shale and other
minerals." f See Statistical Abstract 1884, page 167.
72 LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MINES.
waggons, boiler explosions, and machinery at.the surface of the mine.
They are always included in the Inspectors' reports.
Sudden deaths from natural causes, such as heart disease, apoplexy, &c,
occur sometimes in mines, but these are, of course, excluded, as being in no
way due to accident.
Statistics of fatal accidents and deaths resulting therefrom go back as far
as 1851, and Table I shows the total number of deaths caused by these
accidents in coal mines ; Table II. gives a classification of them for each
year from 1851 to 1884 ; the number of persons employed' in the mines being
also stated for each year :—
TABLE 1.
Fatal Accidents dtjhing the Thikty-four Yeaks, 1851 to 1884.
Total Number Total Proportion of Proportion of
or Separate Number of Fatal Accidents Deaths to Accidents.
Deaths. to Total.. Total.
Explosion of Fire-damp, with
fatal consequences...... 1,930 7,959 6"9
223
Falls of roof or sides, with fatal
results ......... 13,842 14,307 492
39-6
Accidents in Shafts ...... 4,739 5,390 169
14*9
Miscellaneous fatal accidents
underground ...... 5,136 5,861 18-3
16*2
Miscellaneous fatal accidents
aboveground ...... 2,450 2,552 87
7"0
28,097 36,069 100-0 100-0
This table shows that accidents caused by falls of roof or side account for
the greatest number of deaths in coal mines. The accidents from explosions
are brought most prominently before the public notice, and it is often
supposed that these are the main cause of the loss of life. Undoubtedly
explosions involving great loss of life do occur ; but accidents from other
causes, which seldom result in more than one death from each accident, occur
very frequently without attracting attention beyond the immediate locality.
Taking the entire period of thirty-four years, 1851-84, the following facts
may be noticed :—
At first sight, looking only at the number of deaths year by year, it would
seem that no progress in the diminution of the loss of life has been made.
But it must be taken into account that during that period the production of
the mines has been trebled, and the number of persons employed more than
doubled. The Inspectors' reports show the number of persons employed in
proportion to each death, and also quote the number of tons of mineral
raised per life lost. Considering, however, that in the Registrar-General's
returns for the United Kingdom, the
LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MINES. 73
mortality from all causes (natural and violent) is tabulated as per 1000
inhabitants per annum, it would be more convenient for comparison that the
mortality from accidents in coal mines should also be stated as per 1000
persons employed per annum. The figures in Table II. are worked out in this
way, and Table III. shows the annual mortality per 1000 persons employed in
mines under the Coal Mines Regulation Act, the accidents being classified as
before.
TABLE II. TABLE III.
Number of Deaths. Annual
Mortality per 1,000.
—.-------------------------------------------------
—_--------------------.------------------------- Average.
• Persons § j
___________
Year. '3 -ah. Employed. '3
. a 6
g.at3!:2«i! S a ^ p " J
1851 321 327 219 73 44 984 216217 119 l'Bl 1-02 0-34 0-20 4-56 1-68
—
1852 264 349 209 116 48 986 222843 1/18 1*57 0-94 0-52 0*22 413 1-55
—
1853 214 370 236 94 43 957 229468 0"94 1-62 1*01 0-41 0*19 417 1*29
—
1854 210 389 290 99 57 1045 236094 0"89 1-66 1-23 0-42 0*24 414 1-56
—
1855 146 407 229 127 46 955 242719 061 1*68 0*94 0*52 019 3*94 T06
—
1856 236 400 216 114 61 1027 249345 0'94 1*60 0"86 045 0"24 4*09
1-21 —
1857 377 372 175 141 54 1119 255971 118 115 0'69 0-55 0-21 4-38 1-50
—
1858 215 366 172 140 38 931 262596 0*82 110 0-66 053 014 3"55 0"67
—
1859 95 399 191 160 60 905 269222 0*35 119 071 0-60 0-22 337 019 —
1860 363 388 182 122 54 1109 275847 132 111 0-66 0-44 0-20 4-03 115
—
1861 119 427 164 163 70 943 282473 012 1-51 0"58 0-57 0-25 3-33 015
—
1862 190 422 137 332 52 1133 291000 0*65 115 017 114 018 3"89 L01 —
1863 163 407 147 134 56 907 299000 0*54 136 019 015 019 3-03 015 —
1864 94 395 184 125 69 867 307542 0"30 1-29 0*60 Oil 0"22 2-83 —
0*05
1865 168 381 163 179 93 984 315451 0-53 1*21 0*52 0-56 0*30 3*13
0-25 —
1866 651 361 162 203107 1484 320663 2-04 113 050 063 0*33 4"63 175 —
1867 286 449 158 211 86 1190 333116 0-86 135 017 0*63 0"26 3-57 069 —
1868 154 444 132 204 77 1011 346820 015 T28 038 0-59 0"22 2*91 0"03
—
1869 257 466 129 179 85 1116 345446 074 1-35 0-37 0'52 0*25 3*23 0*35
—
1870 185 411 129 186 80 991 350894 0*53 117 0-37 0-53 0'23 2-83 —
005
1871 269 435 123 176 72 1075 370881 073 1*17 0-33 017 0*19 2-89 0*01
—
1872 154 456 155 217 78 1060 418088 0-37 1*09 0-37 0-52 019 2*54 —
0"34
1873 100 491 171 221 86 1069 512199 0-20 0'96 0-33 013 017 2-09 —
0*79
1874 166 413 154 214109 1056 538829 0-31 076 0-29 010 020 1-96 —
0*92
1875 288 459 172 227 98 1244 535845 0*54 0-86 0"32 013 0*18 233 —
0'55
1876 95 449 129 149 111 933 514532 018 0-87 0*25 0-29 0"22 1*81 —
1*07
1877 345 448 129 187 99 1208 494391 070 0'91 0*26 0"38 0"20 215 —
013
1878 586 469 111 161 86 1413 475329 1*23 0'99 0-24 0-34 018 2"98
010 —
1879 184 426 120 172 71 973 476810 0-39 0"89 0"25 0*36 0*15 2*04 —
0"84
1880 499 462 91 178 88 1318 484933 L03 0"95 019 0*37 018 2*72 —
0*16
1881 116 450 110 190 88 954 495477 0-23 0-91 0*22 0-38 018 1*92 —
0-96
1882 250 468 116 208 84 1126 503987 0*50 0"93 0"23 Oil 017 2*24 —
0*64
1883 134 469 97 246108 1054 514933 0-26 0-91 0*19 018 021 2-05 —
0-83
1884 65 482 88 213 94 942 520376 012 0*93 017 Oil 018 1*81 — 1*07
Totals.
1851-60 2441 3767 21191186 505 10018 2460322 0-99 1*53 0"86 019 0-21
4-07 119 —
1861-70 2267 4163 1505 1916 77510626 3192405 071 1*31 017 0*60 0*24
3*33 015 —
1871-80 2686 4508 13551902 89811349 4821837 0*56 0*93 0*28 0*39 019
2*35 — 0"53
1851-72 51318821 3902 3495143022779 ( 0*80 1*37 0*61 0*54
0*22 3*54 0*66 —
1873-84 2828 5486 1488 2366112213290 Aver- \ 017 0-90 0*25 0*39 018 219
— 0"69
1851-84 79591430753905861255236069 " ' ( 0-64 1*14 013 0*47 0-20
288 — —
VOL, XXXV,—1885,
J
74 LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MINES.
The last column in this table shows the mortality in each year as compared
with the average of the thirty-four years.
From this table it will be seen that the mortality in coal mines has
decreased in all the different classes of accidents. Comparing the
twenty-two years, 1851-1872, as the years previous to the Coal Mines
Eegulation Act, and the twelve years 1873-1884, as the years since the Act,
the following differences are shown :
In accidents from explosions the average annual mortality for the
thirty-four years is 0'64 per 1000, and it has decreased from 0*80 before
the Act to 0*47 since, a reduction of 41 per cent.
In accidents from falls the mortality for the whole period averages 1*14 per
1000. It has decreased from 1'87 before the Act to 0*90 since, a reduction
of 34 per cent.
In shaft accidents, the mortality, averaging 0*48 per 1000 for the
thirty-four years, has fallen from 0*G1 before the Act to 0*25 since, a
reduction of 59 per cent.
In miscellaneous underground accidents, the mortality of 0*47 for the whole
period, has decreased from 0*54 before the Act to 0*39 since, a reduction of
26 per cent.
In miscellaneous surface accidents, the mortality, which is on the whole
period 0*20 per 1000, has fallen from 0*22 before the Act to 0*18 since, a
reduction of 18 per cent.
On the total number of accidents, from all causes, the mortality is 2'88 per
1000 on the whole period, and it has fallen from 3*54 per 1000 before the
Act, to 2*19 per 1000 since, a reduction of 34 per cent.
It is evident, when comparing the mortality in decades of years, as shown in
Table III., that the decrease of mortality has been going on, more or less,
throughout the period ; it is only more accentuated since the passing of the
Coal Mines Eegulation Act. As this Act was based upon the rules and
practices in force at the best regulated mines, where improvements were
first introduced, it is to be expected that the mortality would show some
decrease with the gradual adoption of these improvements. The Act itself was
no advance on the regulations in force at the best managed mines ; what it
aimed at was to compel the introduction of efficient regulations and
improved management in all mines, and, judging from the results shown in the
preceding comparison, it can hardly be doubted that it has been successful.
As might be expected from the various conditions existing in each district
the mortality from accidents varies very much. Table IV, shows
LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MIXES. 75
the number of persons employed, the number of deaths, and the mortality per
1,000 in each separate district of the United Kingdom for the years 1883 and
1884.
TABLE IV.
District. Employed.
Deaths. Ann™* HM^1"*
1883. 1884. 1883. 1884. 1883. 1884. A v.
Northumberland, Cumberland, and North
Durham ............ 49 782 52,306 72 661*45 126 136
South Durham and Westmoreland ... 57,077 56,575 65
74 114 181 123
North Biding and Cleveland ...... 8.243 7,050 30 12
3-64 1*70 2-67
North and East Lancashire ...... 32,466 31,919 136
674"27 210 3"15
Ireland ............... 972 925 1 ...
1-03 ... 0"52
West Lancashire and North Wales ... 41,720 41,905 83
911*99 2*17 2*08
Yorkshire............... 63.248 64,016 108 97171 1*52 1*62
Lincolnshire ........... 140 130 1 ...
7*14 ... 357
Derby, Leicester, Notts, and Warwick ... 52,118 53,278 74 55
142 1*03 123
North Stafford, Cheshire, and Shropshire 24,689 23,277 47 48
1-90 2-06 1-98
South Stafford and Worcestershire ... 23,782 23,816 59 52 2*48
2*18 2*33 Monmouth, Somerset, part of Glamorgan,
and Brecon ........... 33,759 34,945 68 712*02 2*03 2*03
South Wales ............ 58,495 60,779 180 174 3*08 2*87
298
East Scotland ........... 43.606 45,082 87 95 2*00
2-11 2*06
West Scotland ............ 24,836 24,843 43 40 1*73
1*64 1*69
514,933 520,376 1054 942 2 05 1*81 1*93
From this table it will be observed that the mortality in the North of
England, Derby, and Notts districts is considerably below the average. In
Yorkshire and West Scotland the mortality is slightly under the average. It
is near the average in West Lancashire, North Wales, Monmouthshire,
Somersetshire, and East Scotland districts. It is above the average in South
Staffordshire and Worcestershire, more so in North and East Lancashire ; and
is highest in South Wales. Cleveland and Lincolnshire being ironstone
districts only are not included in this comparison.
The Inspectors' records of accidents appear at first sight to be based on
the supposition that miners can only die from accident, and entirely omit
the mortality from other causes that the Registrar's returns show is
constantly going on in their midst.
When the usual death-rate is taken into account, the somewhat formidable
array of figures given in the tables is very materially modified. See
Table V.
For instance, the average mortality over all England, Scotland, and Wales,
in 1884, was 19*58 per 1,000 persons, so that in this year some 10,699
miners might be expected to die from natural causes. If to these
76 LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MINES.
TABLE V.
Persons
^^i. Annual
Mortality
Engaged in
Ponulation per
1,000.
^Wf Mining Districts.
18^3-1884------------------------------------------------------A^T
Population
1883. 1884. 1883. 1884.
age.
17 England & Wales......Total 27,132,449 522.997 531,951
19*27 19'60 19-44
Deduct killed in mines............ 923 807
522,074 531,144 1924 1957 19*41
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
*03 *03 '03
43 Newcastle...............Total 1,151,198 25,064 24,950
2177 21*68 21*72
Killed in mines......... ..... ...... 72
66
24,992 24,884 2171 2L62 21*67
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... .....
'06 '06 '05
121 Durham..................Total 473,143 9,466
9,028 20'01 19'09 19'55
Killed in mines............... ...... 65 74
9,401 8,954 19-88 18'93 19'40
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
'13 '16 '15
18 Manchester ............Total 1,742,857 40,698 42,153
23-35 2418 23*77
Killed in mines............... ...... 136 67
40,562 42,086 23"27 24-14 2371
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
"08 "04 "06
21 Liverpool ...............Total 1,936,537 44,630 45,947
23-05 23-73 23-39
Killed in mines..................... 83 91
44,547 45,856 23-01 23"68 23*34
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
"04 "05 -05
21 Yorkshire...............Total 3,023,501 61,940 63,733
20*49 21-08 20-78
Killed in mines..................... 109 97
61,831 63,636 2045 21-06 2074
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
-04 "03 '04
27 Midland..................Total 1,882,017 37,417 38,952
19-88 20-70 20-28
Killed in mines............... ...... 74
55
37,343 38,897 19-84 20-67 20'25
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
"04 *03 *03
20 Staffordshire (N.)...Total 1,236,415 24,565 24,216
19*87 1959 1973
Killed in mines............... ...... 47
48
24,518 24,168 19*83 19*55 19*69
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
"04 '04 '04
LOSS OF LIFE IN COiL MINES. 77 TABLE
V.—Continued.
Persons
Deaths Annual Mortality
Engaged in
PoDulation per
1,00°*
Mining per Mining Districts.
1883-1884---------------------------------------------------------------
PopTatfon
1883. 1884. 1883. 1884.
%f.~
22 Staffordshire (S.)...Total 1,041,186 21,073 21.492
20-24 20*64 20*44
Killed in mines............... ...... 59
52
21,014 21,440 20-19 20-60 2039
Due to accidents in mines.. ----- ...... ......
-05 *04 *05
16 South Western ......Total 2,091,825 38,858 37,901
18-57 18-12 18-35
Killed in mines............... ...... 68 71
38,790 37,830 18-54 18-08 18-31
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
-03 "04 -04
81 Wales (South).........Total 719,980 15,076 15,041
20-94 20*89 20*91
Killed in mines..................... 180 174
14,896 14,867 20*69 20*65 20*67
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
*25 '24 *24
32 Scotland (East) ......Total 1,352,014 28,827 28,454
21*32 21*05 21*18
Killed in mines............... ...... 87
95
28,740 28,359 21*26 20*97 21*11
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
-06 -08 "07
21 Scotland (West)...... Total 1,202,871 27,126 26,274
22-55 21-84 22-19
Killed in mines ............... ...... 43
40
27,083 26,234 2251 21-80 22-15
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
-04 -04 *04
20 Great Britain.........Total 30,998,970 548,941 607,079 19-32
19-58 19-45
Killed in mines..................... 1,053 942
597,888 606,137 19 28 19*55 19*42
Due to accidents in mines.. ...... ...... ......
*04 *03 *03
be added the 942 persons who met with their deaths while employed about the
mines, the 19*58 deaths per 1,000 is increased to 21*39, and the extra rate
for persons in and about mines is 1*81 per 1,000 more than the average
number of deaths in all Great Britain.
If the total mining population of 2,081,504 persons is taken into account,
then 40,756 deaths per annum might be expected ; and if the 942 accidental
deaths be added to this, the death-rate is increased from 19*58 to 20*03 per
1,000, the increased risk of a thoroughly mining population being only *45
deaths per 1,000.
78 LOSS OF LIFE IN COAL MINES.
If this mode of viewing the subject be applied to the whole population of
Great Britain, it will be seen that the pursuits of one-fifteenth of the
population supported by mining only contribute '08 deaths per 1,000 of the
whole.
To a strictly mathematical mind the results given in Table V. are open to
criticism, inasmuch as the number of men killed by accidents are added to
those who die from the mass of which they form a part, but it' may be taken
for certain that many of those who were killed would have died during the
year from the various causes unconnected with mining which swell the
Registrar's returns. This cause of error, if eliminated by some Insurance
Accountant, would still further diminish the deaths per 1,000.
The writer hopes that this mode of considering the subject may be useful in
showing the true proportions of a loss of life which, little as it may be,
it is hoped may be still further reduced in the near future.
The President said, that Mr. Bird's paper was one of considerable interest,
but it was more a paper for reference than discussion. He proposed a vote of
thanks to Mr. Bird, which was unanimously responded to, and the meeting
separated.
PROCEEDINGS. 79
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 13th, 1886, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., Pbesident, in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Associate Membee— Mr. J J. C. Allison, Hedley Hill Colliery. Waterhouses,
Durham.
Student— Mr. Feank K. Sykes, Esh Colliery, Durham.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election :—
Oedinaey Membees—
Mr. John Davis, Hartley House, Coundon.
Mr. Robeet Knowles, Arncliffe, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
Associate Membees—
Mr. Alfeed H. Bennett, Dean Lane Collieries, Bedminster, Bristol. Mr. Robeet
Michael Beown, Norwood Colliery, Darlington.
The following paper by Mr. Edward H. Liveing on "Transylvanian Gold Mining,"
was read :—
VOL. XXXV.—1886.
,
""
TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 81
TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
By EDWARD H. LIVEING.
The writer having recently resided for some months in Transylvania, trusts
that the following brief notes on the gold mining industry of that district
may be of interest to some members of the Institute.
Transylvania, or Siebenbiirgen, forms the most eastern province of the
present Austro-Hungarian empire. It is bounded on the south and east by
Roumania, and on the west by Hungary proper. That portion of Transylvania
that lies between the towns of Klausenburg, Karlsburg, and Deva, or say,
between the 46th and 47th parallel N. lat., and the 22nd and 24th E. long.,
is commonly called the Transylvanian Erzgebirge (see Plate IX.); it has long
been known for its mineral wealth, and particularly for its gold mines,
which are still the most productive in Europe.
The district is a mountainous one, several of the hills exceeding 4,000 feet
in height. It is intersected by numerous valleys, chiefly those of
tributaries of the rivers Maros and Koros, whose waters finally join the
Danube. The hills are largely covered with forests, and agriculture is
carried on to a very limited extent.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.
The geological structure of this district is somewhat varied. In the north
is a large area of granite, surrounded by metamorphic schists, crystalline
limestones, and other altered rocks ; but in the central portion of the
district the greater part of the hills are formed of rocks of Eocene and of
Neocomian ages. Amongst these are several large masses of eruptive rock,
some of trachytic, and others of basaltic character, besides extensive beds
of tuff, which in places become coarse volcanic breccias.
The gold (except that which occurs in the gravels) is always found
associated with these eruptive rocks. It occurs in veins which are, for the
most part, small, rarely exceeding a foot in thickness, and more commonly
only a few inches, or even fractions of an inch. In the neighbourhood of
Verespatak these veins are very numerous, as many as a hundred, of more or
less distinct character, being cut by a single drift (the St. Kereszt adit)
in this district. They here traverse a mass of quartz
82 TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
trachyte, which passes in parts into a tuff or breccia of a peculiarly
porous and decomposed character, and having crystals of iron pyrites
disseminated throughout the mass. The veins are exceedingly irregular, both
in thickness and extent, and even more so as regards their gold-bearing
character. The gold occurs in the veins either alone or associated with
quartz, calcite, iron pyrites, copper pyrites, zinc blend, galena, and
fahlerz ; more rarely with rhodonite and ruby silver, and at Nagyag and
Offenbanya with tellurium, forming the rare minerals Nagyagite and Sylvanite
(foliated and graphic tellurium). The gold is often also disseminated in
minute particles through the rock itself, so that the stone may be worth
removal and treatment for many feet on either side of the vein. This is
particularly the case where the rock is of the porous character
above-mentioned, and also in places where important intersections of veins
occur. At such points large excavations, or " stock " works, are frequently
made in the mines.
The gold is often found beautifully crystallized in hollows in the veins,
sometimes in regular octohedra, at others in leafy and filamentary forms.
Some of the specimens from the Yerespatak neighbourhood are exceedingly
remarkable. The gold from the whole district is considerably alloyed with
silver, much more so than is Australian or Californian gold; but the
proportion varies widely. In a number of samples which the writer has
assayed, he has found the fineness vary from 23 carats down to 13| carats,
the latter being a sample of free gold in quartz, from the Volkoi mines near
Zalathna. With so large a proportion of silver as this the metal appears
nearly white. The average fineness of the gold of the district appears to be
about 16 to 17 carats.
Gold also occurs in gravel deposits in various places ; that at Szaspian and
Ohlapian, in the neighbourhood of Miihlenbach, being as remarkable as any.
There the gravel beds are of considerable thickness ; they cap and flank the
low hills to the south of the Maros valley, and seem to be of glacial
origin. They contain quartz and garnet pebbles. These gravels, when washed,
yield gold in small quantity. It is here in coarse particles, and of a fine
yellow colour, probably 22 to 23 carats. So also in the valleys of the
Abrud, the Aranyos, and the Koros, and other streams, gold is found in the
river gravels; and a few of the Wallachian inhabitants occupy themselves
during the summer months by extracting it, employing for the purpose a small
inclined table and a wooden hand pan. In this way they make about a florin
(Is. 8d.) a day if they are fortunate in selecting their position ; but the
amount of gold thus obtained in the whole district is very insignificant,
compared with that obtained by mining.
TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 83
HISTORY.
Transylvania has been the scene of mining enterprise from a very early
period. It formed a part of the ancient kingdom of Dacia, which was annexed
to the Roman empire by Trajan, in a.d. 107, and remained a Roman province
nntil A.D. 270, when it was abandoned by the Emperor Aurelian.* During this
period the Roman settlers seemed to have worked the gold very extensively;
they not only washed the gravels of the river beds, but carried on vein
mining to a large extent; and, according to some accounts, in a very
reckless and wasteful manner, so that the Emperors latterly took the working
of the principal mines into their own hands, permitting, however, private
adventurers to explore and open new ones.f
Near Verespatak and Abrudbanya many interesting evidences of the Roman
occupation still remain; perhaps the most remarkable of these is the "
Cetate Mare," a large crater-like excavation on the summit of a hill, which
the Roman miners have produced in their search for gold.J So also at Volkoi,
they have worked open-cast a large quartz vein, leaving a great gash in the
hills that can be seen miles away. There are, besides, many mines worked by
drifts, the smooth chisel cut walls and regular forms of which point to
their Roman origin. Amongst these may be mentioned the celebrated mine at
Ruda, now the largest in Transylvania, which was commenced in Roman times.
In the rubbish heaps of many of these mines Roman coins, both gold and
silver, have been found from time to time. The waiter has in his possession
a silver coin of Claudius found at the Cetate in Verespatak, and another of
Plautilla Augusta found near Ruda.
At Verespatak may be seen several Roman tablets, with inscriptions, built
into the walls of buildings. This place was known to the Romans as Alburnus
Major.
Heaps of ancient slags, too, have been found in several places, from which
it appears probable that the Romans practised some mode of
* Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Vol. I., chap. xi.
f Chalmers (1580) remarks that for a century and a half Transylvania became
to the Romans what Mexico afterwards was to Spain. Much of the gold that
glittered on the tables of the wealthy Patricians, or adorned the reigning
beauties at the gladiatorial shows, was dug from the hills of Abrudbanya or
washed from the sands of the Aranyos and other streams. During the
culminating epoch of Roman luxury Transylvania was regarded as a vast
treasure-house to be ransacked for wealth.
X Pliny (Lib. XXXIII., c. 21), in describing the gold mining operations
carried on in Spain about a century earlier, mentions the use of
fire-setting and an iron-headed battering ram, as a means employed by the
Roman miners to loosen the rocks. He also mentions the use of vinegar for
the same purpose, but this is probably only a fable.
84 TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
smelting for extracting the gold from the pyritous ores that would not yield
it to the simple process of crushing and washing. After the withdrawal of
the Roman power in a.d. 270, the mining industry was gradually destroyed by
the very unsettled times that followed ; for from this date until the latter
part of the 11th century Transylvania formed the great theatre of battles
between the Ostrogoths, Hunns, Longo-bards, Bulgarians, Magyars, Kumans, and
other eastern races, which kept pressing on towards western Europe ; so that
it is improbable that the mining industry revived again until after the
union of Transylvania with Hungary, between a.d. 1078-95, when this district
began to enjoy again some approach to peace and order ; and from that period
until the present day, gold mining has been carried on pretty continuously,
although on a much smaller scale than in Roman times. It is probable that
the Romans exhausted all the richest and most easily available deposits, for
the best of the gold ore in the district seems to have been found in the
upper and middle parts of the hills, and the veins do not appear to hold
good to any considerable depth ; at least this is the prevailing opinion in
the district. It should, however, be remarked that no exploration has
anywhere been attempted far below the level of free drainage, owing to the
very primitive pumping appliances in use.
MINING.
In Transylvania at the present day the modes of mining and of treating the
gold ores are still of the most primitive character, and differ little, if
at all, from those employed in the middle ages. The present population may
be said, roughly, to consist of one-third Hungarians and two-thirds
Wallachians or Roumanians, who consider themselves descendants of the
ancient Roman settlers, and still speak a Latin language; and it is these
latter, almost exclusively, who carry on the mining industry. The mining
laws are very favourable, and tend to encourage small adventures in this
way. Any person expecting the presence of ore in a piece of ground may, by
the payment of four florins (6s. 8d.) to the local government authorities,
claim a Freischilrf, that is the right to search for minerals within a
circle of 465 yards radius from any point that he may chose, provided, of
course, that the ground is not already covered by prior claims of the kind.
He is permitted to take out one or more of these prospecting claims, paying
an annual tax of four florins on each so long as he desires to hold them. In
this way he may protect himself while he is prospecting, and in the event of
success he may then claim one or more permanent mining rights, Grubenmassen
as they are called, each having
TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 85
an area of 8*6 square acres,* but in this case he has to deposit a rough
plan showing the position and extent of the ground so claimed. These claims
extend to an infinite depth, but in the neighbourhood of Verespatak a local
peculiarity in the law exists. Here spherical masses (Kuglemassen) have been
granted, and owing to the numerous claimants, and the very imperfect plans
that are kept, extraordinary complications arise and constant disputes
occur. Here, within a space of some two square miles, no less than 300
mining companies exist, though but a small fraction of this number are in
actual work. At this place a mining company often consists of only three or
four people, who agree together to risk a few hundred, or perhaps a few
thousand, florins in a mining venture, much as the Hungarians and Austrians
put money into the State lotteries. They generally appoint one of themselves
as director to carry out the work and commence by purchasing a Freischmf,
or, more commonly, an old abandoned mine. The capital is expended in
drifting in various directions, and perhaps in re-timbering the adit level.
If they are fortunate and happen to come upon a good deposit, the mine is
for a time profitable, and they may receive back in profits more than they
have invested; but as they do not, as a rule, set apart any portion of the
profits to carry on explorations, the undertaking is soon brought to a close
when a dead portion of the vein or rock is reached. The hills near
Verespatak are literally riddled by small mines of this kind, so that from a
distance they much resemble a rabbit warren.
Besides these very small mines there are some of a more important
character—the Ferdinand mine in the Verespatak Valley and the Valea Verde
mine in a valley of the same name are good instances ; they are both worked
by local companies. The produce of the mine, after being carefully mixed to
render it as uniform as possible, is divided into as many parts as there are
shareholders, who convey it to their own stamp works (Poch-werks) for
treatment, employing for this purpose narrow waggons drawn by oxen. These
waggons carry about 8 cwts. of ore, and although made almost entirely of
wood, they hold together remarkably well, in spite of the extreme roughness
and steepness of the roads. The ore from the higher and more inaccessible
mines is conveyed down into the valleys in baskets on the backs of ponies, a
primitive but expensive mode of transport.
* There are also smaller claims, known as Kleinmassen, which extend only in
a horizontal direction, and have a vertical section of 967 square yards.
They are usually taken so as to surround an exploring drift 16 feet in each
direction. Besides the large prospecting claims above referred to smaller
ones are also granted, if desired, at a less cost,
86 TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
The cost of working the mine, that is the cost of wages, timber, powder, and
other stores, is paid for ibv the shareholders in proportion to the shares
they hold and the ore they receive. The director and officials of the mine
are generally paid by having shares in the mine allotted to them. Those
shareholders who live at a distance, or who do not possess stamp works,
permit their ore to be sold weekly at the mine by public auction, the other
shareholders generally-buying it.
The gold is commonly classed under three heads—1st, the frei gold, or free
gold ;* 2nd, the miihl gold, which is in too small particles and too much
disseminated in the stone to be seen, but which is extractable by the simple
crushing and washing of the stamp works; 3rd, the schlich gold, which is
entangled or combined with the pyrites, and which is here extracted by
smelting operations. When frei gold is found in the mine the stone is
carefully removed and stamped by hand in iron mortars with a little mercury;
the amalgam formed is washed out and heated in a crucible to drive off the
mercury. The gold is sold for the benefit of the company, the money going to
the payment of the working expenses, or if it exceed these in amount, the
excess is divided amongst the shareholders.
The produce of both these mines amounts to between 200 and 300 tons of ore
per week, at a general cost to the shareholders of 2 fl. 50 kr. (4s. 2d.)
per ton at the mine, to which, however, must be added the cost of transport
to their stamp works, which will certainly average another florin per ton.
As some of these are at a considerable distance, and as much of the ore of
these mines only yields about ^ to ^ oz. of (16 carat) gold per ton, there
is not a very wide margin for profit after the expenses of the stamp works
are paid. The shares of these mines are nearly all in the hands of local
Wallachian inhabitants. They are occasionally bought and sold, but the
prices are very variable, as there is no regular market for them.
The largest mine in the Verespatak valley is the Government mine of St.
Kereszt, originally a private undertaking, started about 200 years ago, but
now worked by the State. It is approached by the adit level before referred
to, which has been driven for over T55 miles into the hills. The first part
passes through Eocene sandstone, but further on it strikes into the trachyte
breccia or gold bearing rock of the district. Although in its course this
drift cuts over 100 veins of various thicknesses, on some of which immense
excavations have been made,and although considerable " finds " of gold have
been made at different times in the mine, yet, on
* More correctly called visible gold, since the miihl gold is also free.
TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 87
the whole, it has not been a commercial success ; but the adit level, being
the lowest in the district, serves to unwater many of the mines above, and
it was partly for this object that it has been carried to its present
extent. The ore is conveyed from this mine by means of a horse tramway,
which extends the whole way down the Verespatak valley to the point of its
junction with the Abrud stream, and here large stamp works have been
erected.
The result of last year's working was a loss to the State of £2,500, but
some years a profit of about an equal amount is made. The average yield of
gold from the stone stamped is poor, latterly it has not been more than 5
grams (^ oz.) per ton, and it is said they have stamped stone down to 2
grams (-^y oz.) per ton. The yield of most of the stamp ore of the
Verespatak district is poor, | to ^ oz. ore being considered good, but much
ore, carrying no more than £ or \ oz. per ton, is stamped at the nearer
stamp works. It is, however, the finds of fret, or visible gold, that are
the great source of attraction to the mining speculators of the district.
Some magnificent finds of gold were made in these mines at the end of the
last century and the beginning of this, but latterly they have become less
common, though they are still occasionally made. If the large amounts of
gold obtained here by the Romans, and the steady production of the metal
that has gone on for the past 800 years are taken into consideration, it is
not surprising that the neighbourhood of Verespatak is to a great extent
worked out.
A few miles to the south-east, in the Buchum valley, is situated the
Concordia Mine, which is certainly the most successful of recent
undertakings in the district. The company, which consists of 25 shares, was
started in 1876, and the original capital did not exceed about 1,000 florins
per share (£80). For the first two or three years little or no profit was
obtained, but since that time the mine has paid wonderfully well, the shares
being now valued at at least £1,660 each. The produce of the mine is divided
into 34 parts, 9 of which go to pay the manager and officials, and 25 to the
shareholders. Last year a single share yielded 4,000 grams (130 ozs.) of
gold, and in 1883 3,500 grams (120 ozs.), and in some years considerably
larger amounts have been obtained. The yield of gold per ton varies from
about % oz. in the poorest to 1^ or If oz. in the best ore. A considerable
amount of picked free gold is also obtained; last year this amounted to
£1,500 worth, and a few years back as much as £8,000 worth was found in a
space of 15 feet cube. The total value of the gold produced by this mine
last year, inclusive of that obtained
VOr, XXXV.—1886.
k
88 TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
by smelting the pyrites, was £14,500. By far the richest and most
interesting part is an immense stoclc work, which has been excavated to a
depth of 240 feet below-the adit level, by a series of large chambers
descending in a spiral direction, so that the descent can be made by
walking. The rock is a porous volcanic breccia, containing many veins and
strings of calcite, with which the gold is associated. This rock, though
porous and comparatively soft, is very free from joints, and allows immense
open spaces to be left without the use of timber. As this mine is worked
considerably below the adit level a horse-pump has recently been introduced,
but wooden hand-pumps of the most primitive kind are still employed in the
lowest part of the workings.
A few miles further to the south are the mines of Volkoi and Botes, which
have quite recently been sold to a French company who are starting a battery
of heavy stamps of American type, provided with modern amalgamation
appliances and driven by steam. These mines are undoubtedly good, and with
judicious and economical management the undertaking should pay well.
So also the ancient mines of Ruda, near Brad, in the Koros valley, have
recently been acquired by a German company, who intend applying modern
machinery. The principal lode or vein at Ruda is of great thickness—13 to 23
feet; it dips at a high angle, and strikes nearly east and west in the line
of the small valley in which it occurs. The rock is a greenstone porphyry on
the one side of the vein and a trachyte tuff on the other ; the filling
material of the vein is, to a large extent, calcite, but the centre portion,
for a width of from 11 to 30 inches, is usually filled in with a soft clayey
material, through which is disseminated iron pyrites and gold. The vein is
opened up by four drifts, the mouths of which are passed at different points
in ascending the valley, the highest of these being 170 yards above the
lowest. The ore of this mine yields on an average 10 grams (£ oz.) of gold
to the ton, and is soft and easily stamped. Besides the principal vein there
are several cross veins which, though of less importance, have yielded at
some points considerable quantities of gold. In this mine there is certainly
a very large amount of fairly good stamp ore still available and proved by
the present drifts; and as there are some considerable deposits of fair
brown coal close by, which, though not at present worked, ought to be
obtainable at a price not exceeding 3s. a ton, the cost of stamping need not
be high.
There are many other interesting mines in various parts of the district, but
it is impossible to refer to them in detail without making the present notes
too long.
TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 89
CONDITION OF THE MINERS.
The average wage of miners in the district is 50 kr. to 60 kr. (lOd. to Is.)
per day,* but work is often let by the metre, and in such rock as is
prevalent in the Concordia and Valea Verde mines 7s. 6d. per yard would be
considered a fair price for a drift 21 square feet in section; the men in
this case providing themselves with powder and candles. But in some of the
hard greenstone rock as much as 45s. has sometimes been paid.f
The Wallachian miners are very much given to drinking. They consume a spirit
that is distilled from fermented plums, and which costs only from 10 kr. to
15 kr. per litre (about l^d. to 2d. a pint), this they drink in immense
quantities. It is very difficult to get them to work more than four days in
a week; they very rarely attempt to work on Monday at all, in consequence of
the heavy drinking that goes on on Sunday night; and as there is generally
one Greek church saint-day in each week, which is always kept as a holiday,
it affords them the opportunity of wasting another day in drinking. They are
improvident in the highest degree, and often suffer from extreme want in the
winter when
* With regard to this wage, it may be as well to recollect that the price of
pork is 2d. to 2^d. a lb.; mutton about 3d. a lb.; beef, from oxen that have
worked for years at the oi'e carts, the only quality obtainable, 3gd. a lb.;
chickens 5d. to 9d. each; wheat bread about lid. a lb., or nearly the
present price of bread in England. The Wallachian miners, however, live
almost exclusively on bread or cakes made from maize or Indian corn ; this
they eat with onions and a few other vegetables, and occasionally a little
bacon, but rarely any other meat. The maize bread is cheaper than wheaten
bread, probably about two-thirds the price, and though unpalatable is more
nutritious. (See Dr. Letheby's Lectures, page 7.) Many of the cottagers grow
small patches of luaize on the sides of the hills, and the rest is imported
from the natter surrounding districts; they generally grind and make the
bread themselves. It must be remembered that beyond the cost of food, and of
the spirit which he drinks, the expenses of a Wallachian miner are small. He
generally has no house-rent to pay, his house being a mere log hut; firewood
he can generally help himself to from the forests ; and his clothing is of
the cheapest description—a coat and breeches of a coarse homespun flannel,
with a wide leather belt containing many pockets round the middle, and often
no shirt, form his usual dress; in winter an outer cape of sheepskin, with
the wool turned inwards, is employed when travelling; the lower part of the
legs and feet are bound with long woollen rags, and leather sandals secured
by thongs are generally worn in place of boots amongst the poorer people.
The houses are of logs roughly squared, the cracks being filled with clay;
they are roofed with thatch or wooden tiles, and are generally without a
chimney, the fire being burnt on the floor or on a slightly raised hearth,
the smoke finding its way through the thatch or the cracks in the roof. The
life these people lead is beyond doubt a very hard one, and although their
families are not large, suffering from want and disease is often terrible in
winter.
f In mines where free gold occurs stealing is extensively practised by the
workmen, in spite of many precautions employed to prevent it; and there are
in Abrudbanya and other places persons who will buy gold and valuable pieces
of gold ore at a price that yields them a good profit, and ask no questions.
90 TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
the stamp works are stopped by the frost. They are as superstitious as any
race in Europe, and never do anything without considering whether the time
and circumstances are lucky or otherwise ; yet these men are the supposed
descendants of the ancient Eoman colonists.
MODE OF TREATMENT OF THE ORE.
With the exception of the picked free gold, which is treated as before
described in iron mortars by hand, and of the tellurian ores of Offenbanya
and Nagyag, and of some massive pyritous ores of other localities, the whole
of the ore of the district is stamped in small wooden stamp works, driven by
water-power, where every available fall in the streams is utilized; and, in
the neighbourhood of Yerespatak and Abrudbanya, over 500 of these are at
work. They consist of a battery of from six to twelve stamps, driven by a
water-wheel of from 5 to 9 feet in diameter. The stamps are very light,
generally not exceeding 1-| cwt. each. They are made from beech-wood, and
are provided with hard stone heads of the most primitive description. The
coffers are entirely of wood, the cracks being stuffed with moss. The bottom
of the coffers on which the stamps fall is formed of blocks of beech-wood
with the grain set vertically; these, after a time, become very hard from
the particles of quartz, etc., that become embedded in them. They rest on a
tolerably heavy transverse log of beech, but beyond this are rarely provided
with anything approaching a good foundation. An iron grating of coarse
character is employed in the front of the coffer, and this simply delivers
the crushed material into a rectangular pit dug in the ground and boarded.
The ore is broken up with hammers, until it does not exceed about 2-inch
cube, and is fed into the coffers by hand. The stamps make about 20 to 30
strokes per minute; and a battery of twelve heads will stamp about one ton
of ore in 24 hours. Once a day the stamps are stopped and the coffers
cleaned out; the material removed is sifted with a coarse sieve, and what
will not pass through is returned to the coffers. The remainder is carefully
panned to separate the gold which it contains; for, owing to the slow rate
of the stamps, their short fall, and the height of the gratings, most of the
gold is found to remain in the coffers. The stamped material collected in
the tank is dug out at intervals, and washed over an inclined table of wood,
terminating in a smaller one covered with flannel, in order to separate the
pyrites and the remainder of the gold from the earthy matters. The pyrites,
after careful panning to separate as much free gold as possible, is sent to
the Government smelting works for treatment, as it still contains entangled
or combined gold. The powdery gold that has been obtained by panning
TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 91
is ground with a little mercury in a small iron or stone mortar, and after
careful washing to remove particles of pyrites that remain, is heated to
drive off the mercury. The gold thus obtained has a fineness of about 16 to
17 carats. It is sold to the Government authorities at Zalathna, or to local
merchants in Abrudbanya and elsewhere. The mode of treatment described is
without doubt very imperfect, and a considerable part of the fine gold
certainly escapes with the tailings; indeed this gold may be detected by
panning the sand of some of the streams, and is distinguishable from the
older alluvial gold by its light colour.
The cost of working is, however, very small, one florin (Is. 8d.) a day
probably covering the cost of labour and repairs required for a 12-stamp
battery ; the prime cost of such a stamp work as is described does not
exceed 200 florins (£16), although the water rights are sometimes valued at
as much as 1,000 florins (£80.)
The concentrated pyrites, separated as above-mentioned, generally amounts to
about 2 per cent, of the weight of the ore stamped, and the amount of gold
that it contains generally varies in the Abrudbanya district between 60 and
120 grams (2 to -4 ozs.) per ton, together with about twice this quantity of
silver. When it is sufficiently rich to pay for treatment and carriage, it
is sent in ox-waggons to the Government smelting works at Zalathna, some of
it being conveyed more than 80 miles in this manner.
At Zalathna the mode of treatment at present employed is as follows: The
pyrites is spread out and mixed, and a fair sample taken and assayed, and
the sellers are paid for the gold and silver it contains, minus the cost of
treatment, which averages 45 florins per ton, a small charge being also made
for the assay.
The material, which is moist and still contains a large per centage of
silica from imperfect concentration, is dried on the top of the roasting
furnaces. The furnaces now in use for roasting are Bode's patent. They
consist of a number of narrow chambers one above the other, with thin
fire-brick floors between, and having openings into each other at alternate
ends, so that the current of air travels backwards and forwards through them
until it reaches the highest, from which it passes into a flue. There is a
small door on each level, through which the workmen can rake the pyrites
about, and when it has remained about four hours on one level, it is raked
through the openings on to the next below. The time is so arranged that, on
reaching the lowest level, the roasting is sufficiently complete, a small
amount of sulphur (from 5 to 6 per cent.) being allowed
92 TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
to remain. No fuel is employed, the heat of the last charge being sufficient
to fire the next. A block of four of these furnaces will roast 3| tons of
pyrites in 24 hours, at a cost for labour of one florin per ton.
The roasted pyrites is next mixed with about 6 per cent, of oxide of lead,
and a small quantity of raw ore to supply silica, and is smelted in a small
blast-furnace, beech-wood charcoal being employed as fuel. The furnace is
about 39 inches in diameter and 13 feet in height; it is worked with three
tuyers, and a blast pressure of about 5 inches of water. The oxide of lead
being reduced to the metallic state runs to the bottom of the furnace
carrying with it the gold and silver, and is tapped off at intervals of 2^
hours. The slag, chiefly silicate of iron, runs off continuously at an upper
slag hole. With the lead runs off a smaller amount of regulus of sulphide of
iron and copper, which is subsequently treated to obtain the copper; but
generally the amount of copper pyrites present in the ore is of small
importance. The lead is then cupelled in a German furnace, and the precious
metals obtained are sent to the refinery at Cremnitz for separation. They
have also at Zalathna small chemical works for utilizing the waste products.
Part of the sulphur dioxide from the roasting furnaces is made into
sulphuric acid in the usual way. The sulphide of iron and copper is treated,
after grinding to powder, with sulphuric acid in closed tanks lined with
lead, and the sulphuretted hydrogen evolved, together with a suitable amount
of sulphur dioxide from the roasting furnaces, is conducted to a tower
containing fragments of brick, over which is allowed to flow a solution of
calcium chloride. The reaction that occurs is probably rather complex, but
the chief final products are sulphur, calcium sulphate, and hydrochloric
acid.* The sulphur and calcium-sulphate fall to the bottom and are removed,
and, after drying, the sulphur is separated by melting. The hydro-chloric
acid is neutralized with limestone to form fresh calcium chloride. The
solution of sulphate of iron is treated with scrap-iron to throw down any
copper that is present, and is then permitted to crystallize.
Besides the Zalathna works the Government formerly had a smelting works at
Offenbanya in the Aranyos Valley, and another at Hondol in the Deva
district, with a view to diminish the expense of transport, and so
* It is known that SO2 4- SH2 + H30 give sulphur and pentathionic acid;
thus, 10H2S + 10S0.2 + nH20 = 10S + (n + 8) H20 + H2S506 ; and that H2Sri06
easily splits up into S02 and H2S04. The calcium chloride very probably acts
on the pentathionic acid, thus, 2CaCl2 + 2H2S5Ofi = 6S + 2Ca S04 + 4HcL +
2S02; the S02" liberated by this second reaction will react on fresh SH2,
and so on. Whatever the action may be, they have found the calcium salt a
great assistance in the process.
DISCUSSION—TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 93
encourage the working of the poorer pyritous ores, but from mismanagement
and other causes they ceased to pay, and have been closed for many years and
are now in a ruinous condition ,• but there can be little doubt that with
economical management and more modern metallurgical processes they might be
worked at a profit again.
The President said, they had heard a very interesting paper, and although
the formal discussion would be taken on another occasion, any gentleman
present might ask questions, and they would be communicated to the author of
the paper.
Professor Lebour said, that in the absence of Mr. Liveing, and in the
absence of specimens from the district described in the paper, he had
himself taken the liberty of bringing two or three pieces of gold rock from
the mines, in which, with a glass, they would be able to see that the gold
was crystallized. This was one of the most interesting features as regarded
the gold in the district described. The crystallization was clear, and
frequently in perfect cubes, which was a most unusual occurrence in either
Australia or California, or any of the other well-known gold districts.
Another thing of interest was that this gold occurred often, as Mr. Liveing
told them, in connexion with calcite in the Yerespatak region. In the
Bristol district, gold had been found in small quantities in the Mountain
Limestone. It was very advisable when such papers were read, that the
writers should submit specimens at the same time; because sometimes the
specimens really explained as much as the reading of the paper did. He had
had great pleasure in hearing the paper, which would be a welcome addition
to their Transactions.
Mr. Steavenson proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Liveing for the paper, which
he (Mr. Steavenson) had been the means of inducing him to write. He knew
that Mr. Liveing had been for some months in charge of mines in the district
described, and that he would be able to give information on the subject. In
these depressed times it was very well to know where a little gold was to be
found. Mr. Liveing concluded his paper by saying that " there can be little
doubt that, with economical management and modern metallurgical processes
they might be worked at a profit again." He would like to point out to the
young members of the Institute how often there was extravagant expenditure
on mines of this class. If they would be content to make a little profit,
and then expend that, and not spend all their capital at once, such works
would be more successful; rather than spend the whole of a large capital at
once, and then find the place high and dry before any profit is realised.
94 DISCUSSION—TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING.
The President said, they must all have listened with great pleasure to this
admirable paper. It was most interesting to them, not simply because of its
intrinsic value, but also as coming from one of their own members. He could
hardly call Mr. Liveing a young member now. Mr. Liveing was at one time
connected officially with the Institute, as being one of the engineers who
acted on the Mechanical Ventilation Committee. There were one or two points
in the paper which affected very greatly the working of such a mineral as
gold. One was the extremely low rate of wages paid to the workmen at the
gold mines, and another was the cheap water power which was on the spot. The
result was that it might be quite possible to work gold there profitably,
which could not be done in England, where they would have to pay four or
five times the rate of wages, and where they had not water-power on the
spot. Another point which seemed to him to be worth drawing special
attention to, was a matter which he was not sure they had had very formally
brought before them before. He believed it would have considerable interest,
especially at the present day, if any gentleman who had had experience of
foreign mining could give a paper on the system of concessions—the system
under which all mines were worked abroad. In almost every part of Europe, if
not of the world, excepting in England, the mines belonged to the Crown;
and, so far as his knowledge went—he spoke under correction from any
gentleman who knew better—concessions could be obtained for a very small sum
in the first instance. He believed, in the cases mentioned in Mr. Liveing's
paper, the charge was 6s. 8d., there being simply an obligation on the part
of the Concessionaire to work the mine; if he ceased to work the mine his
concession fell through. The amount of the concession area was very limited,
and the result was that there was an enormous number of these concessions in
a very small area. When a company came forward with the necessary capital to
develop the mines, they were often embarrassed by the great number of small
Concessionaries who had to be bought out. Another point to be borne in mind
was this : they heard persons who did not understand the subject talk of
mines abroad belonging to the Crown, and that there was no royalty rent
paid. That might be so, so far as the first Concession were concerned ; but
rarely did the first Concession work the mines; for no sooner were they
proved than they were sold to some one else for a lump sum or a royalty; and
so the concessions passed through several hands before they came into the
hands of the actual workers. He knew a copper mine in Spain, where the
present working company paid a royalty rent of 4s. 2d. a ton. He seconded
the
DISCUSSION—TRANSYLVANIAN GOLD MINING. 95
vote of thanks to Mr. Liveing for his paper, and hoped that other young
members who went abroad would remember this Institute, and send in similar
valuable contributions. The vote of thanks was agreed to.
The President said, the paper on " The Testing of Safety Lamps; an account
of Professor G. Kreischer and Winkler's experiments" by Professor Bedson,
was now open for discussion.
Professor Bedson said, he had no further information to give on the subject.
There was no discussion.
The President said, that the paper by Mr. W. J. Bird on " A New System of
Coal-getting, with Burnett's Patent Roller Mining Wedge and Nicking Machine
" was open for discussion.
Mr. W. J. Bird read the following supplementary paper:—
ON A NEW SYSTEM OF COAL GETTING. 97
ON A NEW SYSTEM OF COAL GETTING WITH BURNETT'S PATENT ROLLER MTNING WEDGE,
ETC.
SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS.
Since the date of the writer's paper on this subject, various experiments
have been made both in stone and coal at Wingate Grange Colliery.
The Stone Wedge was tried for taking up stone in the Low Main Seam, and
taking down stone in the Harvey Seam. In the first instance a bottom canch
was selected, two feet thick and nine feet across. The wedge hole was
drilled in the middle, and the whole of the canch full width and full depth
was lifted, the working of the wedge occupying ten minutes. The stone was
easily pulled away by " pinches."
In the Harvey Seam experiments were made in a top canch of grey metal, eight
feet across and one foot four inches thick. A diagonal face was here
exposed. The wedge hole was drilled near the left nook and the stone was
brought down right across, the time of working being twelve minutes.
Another trial was made at a top canch of post stone, the place selected
being the drop of a three feet dip hitch. This was in a gateway in the goaf.
The stone was promptly detached, but remained in position supported by the
pack walls on each side until it was pulled down with a " pinch."
The coal wedge last shown was of one-and-a-half inches expansion, but
experiments have since been made with a wedge of two-and-a-half inches
expansion, and as mentioned in the paper, with half-an-inch pitch of screw
instead of five-eighths. It has been found that there is no appreciable
difference in the power required for working, while it has a wider range of
application. This wedge has been tested in the Harvey and Low Main Seams,
which are soft and hard coal respectively.
An experiment was made in the Low Main in a five yard bord, in which two
holes were drilled one foot from each fast end. A wedge was placed in each
hole, one being one-and-a-half inch expansion, the other two-and-a-half
inches. The one-and-a-half inch wedge was worked home, while the
two-and-a-half inch wedge was worked about two-thirds of its
98 ON A NEW .SYSTEM OF COAL GETTING.
travel. It was then worked home while the coal came down right across the
place and the full depth of the wedge hole. This demonstrated that "nicking"
either by hand or by the method described in the paper, is not necessary to
the working of the wedge. In a previous trial where the wedges were inserted
three feet from each nook, the coal was brought down right across, to within
one-sixth from each nook.
These, experiments, in addition to those previously made, conclusively
demonstrate the ample power wdiich the Roller Mining Wedge can exert, and
have induced the inventor to attempt wedging the coal out "of the solid seam
without any " kirving." A trial wras accordingly made on the 28th January.
On the side of a bord just turned away a hole was drilled the usual depth,
about eight inches from the thill. The wedge was inserted and was found to
be easily worked with one hand. A thickness of two feet of coal was wedged
out from the solid, and the fracture extended one foot beyond the depth of
the hole. It would seem that it is practicable to wedge out at least a three
feet block. By thus dispensing with kirving it becomes possible to raise the
proportion of round coal obtained to eighty per cent, and upwards. This
method can be applied to all systems of working.
The inventor has patented a system of coal-getting, intended for Long Wall
working, where compressed air is adopted as a motive power. The working face
is set away from a long bord. One wedge and one drilling machine are each
mounted on a revolving cradle, which in turn are mounted on a suitable tram.
A small motor is attached to both wedge and drilling machine. The total
weight of wedge, drilling machine, uid tram will not exceed five cwt., and
the total height can be kept within two feet. The usual distance between
wredge and drilling machine might be one yard, but it could be modified
according to circumstances. The wedging and drilling could be carried on
simultaneously, and as block after block of coal was detached, the tram
could be moved to each successive position along the face. For ordinary
seams only one hole per yard of coal would be required, and its position
would be determined according to the nature of the top and bottom partings
of the seam. In very thick seams after the bottom portion was thus blocked
out, the superincumbent mass could be wedged down in the ordinary way by a
separate wedge.
In very thin seams where height has to be made for ponies and tubs it is
proposed to employ shallow tubs or hutches to bring the coals to each
gateway along the face, there to be transferred to the ordinary tubs; the
engine banks being kept up as close to the face as practicable.
DISCUSSION—ON A NEW7 SYSTEM OF COAL GETTING. 9'J
The requisite machinery for working on this system is in process of
construction, and the writer hopes to contribute at an early date another
paper giving full details of the practical working.
It is anticipated that the cost of motive power and labour in this system
will certainly be less than the present hewing costs, while shot firing will
be dispensed with, stone work lessened, pit room reduced to a minimum, and
the proportion of round coal greatly increased.
For hand drilling, a machine has been patented, in which the friction is
reduced by dispensing with the screw bar. The feed is regulated by a small
oil pump attached to the machine. The apparatus is made very portable, the
feed bar being telescopic. One drill, half as long as the required depth of
the hole, is required.
Mr. G. Baker Forster said, that without going into the merits of this
particular wedge, he would like to say that it would be a dangerous thing if
they allowed it to go abroad that more round coal could be got by shooting
fast than by kirving. This was only an aggravated resumption of the old
question about nicking, which was at one time a source of trouble in
Northumberland. He had known instances of men shooting coal from a board or
wall, without any kirving, but he had always found that the coal was very
much shattered. He had seen coal brought out by Ohubb's machine, but the
coal was disintegrated, not from any fault of the machine, but from the want
of kirving. There was no doubt they could drive a drift in any stratum
without any nicking or kirving. They could drive a stone drift, and in
Cleveland they drove ironstone drifts, without any kirving or nicking; but
in a comparatively tender material like coal it was important that it should
be kirved. In Northumberland, generally speaking, they always nicked. If
they found a set of men driving a drift, and they could get a little soft
material at the bottom, they always kirved it out, knowing it would require
less force to bring the rest down. It stood to reason that when coal was
brought down with less force the produce of round would be greater.
Mr. Lawrence asked if the side movement of the wedge was l£ inches or only f
inch ? for if the latter, he imagined it would simply be sufficient to bed
itself into the coal, and not bring it down. He thought it would be more
applicable to stone than to coal. With regard to wedging down coal out of
the solid, he agreed with what Mr. Forster had said, that the coal, under
such circumstances, wrould be lessened in value because it would
100 DISCUSSION—ON A NEW SYSTEM OE COAL GETTING.
be shattered. There could be no mistake about that. The force of bringing
down the coal when undercut was comparatively small. Were the wedges steel ?
Mr. Bird—Yes.
Mr. Steavenson said he had no doubt that this was a very good wedge, but
whether it was absolutely the best he could not at present say, neither did
he know whether they should agree which was the best wedge. The great
advantage was that it was drawn into the feathers instead of being forced
between them. He thought, however, that Mr. Eamsay was the first who
introduced drawing as in contra-distinction to forcing as applied to
coal-wedges. With an apparatus which he had at work, the invention of Mr. W.
Eamsay, the men had not yet been able to make the county average, but they
were not very far short of it; he hoped they would soon reach the level
which the men who used powder made. He would be glad to let any one see it
at work, and would be obliged if Mr. Bird would arrange to let them see his
at work. The time was approaching when there would be more restrictions on
the use of powder, and the sooner they got wedges into operation the better.
Mr. Bird said, that with regard to the blocking out of coal having a
tendency to shatter it, he would point out that the wedge had been used to
block down not vertically but horizontally. In the experiments there was not
the slightest appearance of shattering the coal; it was brought out in one
block. As to Mr. Lawrence's remarks, only f inch of the expansion was on the
bar, the other f inch was divided between the feathers. As to Mr.
Steavenson's remarks, he did not intend his paper to make any invidious
comparison between different inventions. He had only pointed out the action
of this particular wedge. He had no doubt Mr. Burnett would be glad to let
the machine be tested in any way. He agreed with Mr. Steavenson's remark
that the time was approaching when there would have to be something done in
connection with the working of coal, owing to restrictions on shot-firing.
Mr. Gr. B. Forster said, that in the case he referred to, the coal was
forced out with a loose side, and it was found to be damaged. In firing
shots, when men attempted to fire without any kirving, they did not point
the shot downwards, but sideways to blow the coal out. The shot was made to
act horizontally and not vertically, and therefore he thought that the
action, so far as he could judge, was the same as that of the wedge.
Mr. Bird—Perhaps there may have been something in the Low Main coal
particularly favourably to the use of this wedge.
DISCUSSION—ON A NEW SYSTEM OE COAL GETTING. 101
Mr. Gr. B. Forster—In the Northumberland Low Main the partings are unequal.
It should not go forth in this district that the wedge will do the work of
kirving, because it might greatly raise the percentage of small.
The President said, they were obliged to Mr. Bird for the information he had
given them upon this important matter. He thought, however, they should not
allow themselves to go away with the idea that this wedge was absolutely
successful. He thought there was a great deal to be done yet before they
could substitute any mechanical means for gunpowder, and that they should be
very careful before they concurred in any idea that they could do away with
the use of gunpowder. This was a matter of very serious import to the
general industry of the country at large ; and those interested in mines,
and many of the workmen themselves, were not of opinion that they were
likely to be able to do without gunpowder. They must reserve their decision
on that matter until some appliance was brought before them which was proved
absolutely successful. The termination of Mr. Bird's paper read as if they
were getting to where Mr. Liveing had taken them—that they had been getting
into a gold-field again. If any gentleman could suggest a way to carry this
out, it would be like bringing a gold-field into their district. They must
wait, however, until actual practice had proved the success of this machine.
The next paper for discussion was on " The Loss of Life in Mines " by Mr. W.
J. Bird.
Mr. Bird said, his paper was only a statistical paper, showing the
proportion of loss of life in mines. He had nothing to add to it.
The President—A paper of this kind is more for reference than discussion.
No doubt it will be valuable for reference.
This concluded the business of the meeting.
PROCEEDINGS. 103
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, APRIL 10th, 1886, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL HALL,
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., President, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting, and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Ordinary Members— Mr. John Davis, Hartley House, Coundon. Mr. Robert
Knowles, Arncliffe, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
Associate Members— Mr. Alfred H. Bennett, Dean Lane Collieries, Bedminster,
Bristol. Mr. Robert Michael Brown, Norwood Colliery, Darlington.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election:—
Associate Members— Mr. James Holmes, Mining Engineer, Rat. Portage, Ontario,
Canada. Mr. Henry Mtjsgrave, Mining Engineer, Havercroft Main Colliery,
Wakefield. The Honourable Charles Algernon Parsons, Engineer, Messrs.
Clarke, Chapman,
& Parsons, Gateshead.
The following paper by Mr. J. D. Kendall, C.E., F.G.S., on " The Iron Ores
of the English Secondary Eocks " was taken as read:—
VOL. XXXV.—1886.
N
THE IKON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 105
THE IRON ORES OE THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
By J. D. KENDALL, C.E. F.G.S.
I.—INTRODUCTORY.
Thirty years ago the bulk of the ore used in British iron manufacture was
obtained from the Carboniferous rocks, and only about 10 per cent, came from
the Secondaries. Now, about 56 per cent, of the raise comes from these
rocks, as will be seen by the following table :—
Ore Raised and Consumed in the United Kingdom.
In 1855. In 1884.
From the Secondary rocks......... 1,044.384 9,038,040
Carboniferous rocks ...... 7,478,860 6,934,605
„ Other rocks ...... .. 30,497
165,242
Total......... 9,553,741 16,137,887
The fall that has taken place in the quantity of ore coming from the
Carboniferous rocks is confined almost entirely to the earthy carbonates of
the Coal-measures, as there has been a very considerable increase in the
oxides yielded by the Carboniferous Limestone. This will be rendered clear
by the table that follows :—
Ore Raised from the Carboniferous Rocks or the United Kikgdom.
In 1855. In 1884.
Carbonates, mainly from the Coal-measures ... 7,848,635
4,271,612 Oxides, from the Carboniferous Limestone ... 630,225
2,662,993
Total ......... 8,478,860 6.934,605
It is thus seen that the output from the Coal-measures has during the time
embraced in these tables fallen about 46 per cent., whilst that from the
Secondary rocks has increased nearly 900 per cent.
Notwithstanding this enormously increased importance of the ores from the
Secondary rocks comparatively little is known regarding them, with the
exception of Cleveland and Northamptonshire. A list of the more important
works containing references to the subject of this paper will be found
below.
1857. Outline of the Main or Stratified Ironstone at Cleveland. By John
Marley. Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Vol. V.
VOL. XXXV.-1886.
0
106 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
1857-8. Ironstone of Rosedale Abbey. By Joseph Bewick. Transactions of the
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Vol. VI.
1858-9. Magnetic Ironstone in Bosedale. By Nicholas Wood. Transactions of
the Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Vol. VII.
1859. Geology of the Country around Woodstock. By E. Hull. Memoir of
Geological Survey.
1861. Geological Treatise of the District of Cleveland, in North Yorkshire.
By Joseph Bewick.
1869-70. Magnetic Ironstone of Rosedale Abbey. By John Marley. Transactions
of the Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Vol. XIX.
1870. The Oolites of Northamptonshire, part 1. By Samuel Sharpe. "Quarterly
Journal" of the Geological Society. Vol. XXVL, part 3.
1870. Additional Observations on the Neocomian Strata of Yorkshire and
Lincolnshire. By J. W. Judd. " Quarterly Journal" of the Geological Society.
Vol. XXVI., part 3.
1872. Geology of the neighbourhood of Banbury. By Thomas Beesley.
1873. The Oolites of Northamptonshire, part 2. By Samuel Sharpe.
"Quarterly
Journal" of the Geological Society. Vol. XXIX., part 2. 1875. Geology
of North-West Lincolnshire. By Rev. J. E. Cross. "Quarterly
Journal" of the Geological Society. Vol. XXXL, part 2. 1875. Geology
of Rutland. By J. W. Judd. Memoir of Geological Survey. 1875. The
Beds of Ironstone occurring in Lincolnshire. By J. Daglish and R. Howse.
Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Vol.
XXIV. 1877. On the Corallian Rocks of England. By J. F. Blake and W.
H. Hudleston.
" Quarterly Journal" of the Geological Society. Vol. XXXIIL, part 2.
1877. The Yorkshire Lias. By Tate and Blake.
Partial Description of the Secondary Eocks. The ores to be described in this
communication occur in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, which may be
sub-divided as below.
j Chalk.
{Upper. J Upper greensand.
{ Gault. Lower. Neocomian.
/ I Purbeck beds.
Upper Oolitic. / Portland „
I Kimmeridge clay.
,,.,,, c Coralline rocks.
Middle ,, )
(. Oxford clay.
/ f Cornbrash.
Jurassic. \ _
\ I orest marble.
Lower ,. J Great oolite.
i Fuller's earth.
^ Inferior Oolite.
C Upper Lias.
\ Liassic. < Middle „
(, Lower .,
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 107
It is only intended to notice those ores that either are or have, in recent
times, been worked somewhat extensively. These all occur below the Gault,
and are confined to a few horizons, as will be seen on reference to Plate X.
The rocks in which they are found rise to the surface in two main areas; one
forms an irregular band extending- from the sea coast on the north of
Yorkshire to that on the south of Dorsetshire, a distance of about 300
miles. Its maximum breadth is about 58 miles. Its minimum less than a
quarter of a mile. The other area, which is much smaller, occurs in the
counties of Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent. Although famous as an iron
making district upwards of 200 years ago this area does not now, and has not
for more than 50 years, produced any iron ore, for the simple reason that it
is too far from the coal-fields. In its days of prosperity there was plenty
of timber from which charcoal could be made. Both the areas referred to are
shown on Plate XI., Fig. 1., the larger being coloured in bands of yellow,
crossed horizontally with black, plain yellow and green stippled (lettered
a, b, c,), to indicate the relative areas occupied by the Liassic, Oolitic,
and Neocomian rocks respectively. The smaller area (lettered c), coloured
green and stippled, contains only rocks of Neocomian age. Plate XL, Fig. 2
also gives a generalised section of the strata in the larger area. Generally
speaking the dip of the beds in that area is to the S.E., as shown on the
section. The angle of dip is usually low, and the beds are at times nearly
level. This south-easterly dip is in a great measure due to the thinning of
the beds in that direction, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, which are taken along
approximately N.W. and S.E. lines.
The different members of the Jurassic system are fairly conformable to one
another, and so are those of Cretaceous age, which have to be dealt with;
but there is a great unconformity between the two rock systems. This will be
best understood by reference to Plate XL, which shows how the Cretaceous
rocks overlap those of the system below. South of the Wash there is a broad
band of Oolitic rocks between the Lias and Neocomians, but as the Humber is
approached this band becomes gradually narrower, and at about 12 miles north
of that river it disappears altogether, and the Cretaceous rocks rest
directly upon the Lias. The unconformity is equally marked in other areas,
but the general colour adopted for the Oolitic rocks in Plate XL does not
permit it to be shown.
On reference to Plate X. it will be seen that there is a considerable
difference in the thickness of the various members of both the Liassic and
Oolitic rocks as they occur between Yorkshire and Wiltshire. This
108 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
arises mainly from the south-easterly attenuation of the strata already
pointed out. There are also important changes in the lithological characters
of some of the rocks, as will appear from the following summary of those
characters exhibited by the formations in different parts of their course.
Lower Lias may be said to consist generally of blue shaly clay, with a few
thin beds of limestone in its lower part, especially near the base.
Middle Lias, or marlstone, is divisable into two parts. The upper, or " rock
bed," consisting of argillaceous limestone generally, but sometimes partly
or wholly of argillaceous or calcareous ironstone, the lower member includes
sands (sometimes sandstones) and clay or shale.
Upper Lias.—This formation consists generally of bluish shaly clay with
nodules of earthy limestone, but at places, as in Cleveland, it includes
grey silvery shales.
Inferior Oolite.—This is perhaps the most variable formation of any that has
to be dealt with, and has given most trouble to geologists. In Wiltshire it
consists entirely of calcareous rocks. In Mid-Oxfordshire it is also
calcareous, but the thickness is greatly reduced, and it appears to be the
equivalent of only the uppermost part of the formation as developed in
Wiltshire, the lower portion having thinned off in the manner already
alluded to before reaching this part of Oxfordshire. In Northamptonshire the
formation consists largely of sands and sandstones, the upper part in places
containing irregular calcareous beds. The lower part frequently occurs as an
iron ore. In Mid-Lincolnshire it presents two separate divisions over a
considerable area. The lower part being iron ore, the upper limestone (the
Lincolnshire limestone). In north Yorkshire the formation is made up of
alternations of sandstone and shale, known as the Estuarine series, in which
a bed of limestone called the Millepore bed occurs at about three-quarters
up. The rocks between the Inferior Oolite and the Coral Kag do not contain
iron ore in workable quantities, so far as is known, so that it will perhaps
be unnecessary to notice them at present, and the rocks associated with the
ore of the Coral Hag and the JSTeocomians will be described later on.
II.—DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE ORES.
In the Lower Lias.
The only deposit of ore in these rocks that has been worked up to the
present time occurs at Frodingham in north Lincolnshire. Its vertical
position is shown on Plate X. For a long time it was considered, and perhaps
by some is still thought, to be the equivalent of the Oleve-
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 109
land main bed, but there is now not any doubt whatever that it is in a much
lower geological horizon. It occurs in the zone of A. Semicostatus, which,
in Cleveland, is about 480 feet below the main seam of ore, although at
Frodingham it is only about 161 feet below the equivalent of that bed, owing
to the south-easterly attenuation of the rocks previously mentioned. Plate
XII. will explain the main geological features of the district around
Frodingham. It shows that the ore occurs in the form of a bed with a gentle
inclination towards the east. The maximum thickness of the bed is only about
25 feet, but owing to its slight dip, combined with the level nature of the
ground, its outcrop occupies a wide stretch of country.
The geological horizon in which the ore occurs is exhibited in Plate X., as
well as in Plate XII., but it will be made still clearer by section Fig. 1,
Plate XIII., obtained in sinking a shaft to the ore between Appleby village
and the railway station. Below the main bed of ore, to the bottom of the
Lias, there is probably about 200 feet of bluish clay with thin limestones.
The Ammonites mentioned on the right of the section were not found in the
sinking, but in corresponding beds not far from it.
The working of the ore bed is at present confined to its outcrop, and to the
dip side thereof. The " rise" part of the bed under the -village of
Frodingham, and to the west is not considered worth working. Where the ore
is being got it is merely covered by fine yellow sand, varying from 1 to 20
feet in thickness. The diagramatic section, Fig. 2, Plate XIIL, will perhaps
explain better than many words the general appearance of the outcrop.
As already mentioned, the working is confined to the dip side of the
outcrop, that is, between /and g on the above section, as will also appear
on examining Plate XII. The bottom part of the bed D being very low in iron,
and the workable portions above it containing three limestone bands in its
lower half, it will readily be understood why the deposit under Frodingham
and to the west is so much inferior to the eastern part of the outcrop. The
greatest thickness of the workable part of the ore bed may perhaps be taken
at 16 feet, and the average at about 12 feet. When looked at from a little
distance, the ore has a distinctly bedded appearance, which is decidedly
increased by the occurrence of the calcareous bands as they are of a much
lighter colour than the more orey parts of the bed. But, apart from these
lighter coloured bands, the ore itself is distinctly bedded—the beds being
thin and irregular as in section, Fig. 8, Plate XIII. The general colour
of the ore is snuffy brown.
110 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
The laminations of the top layer A are much thinner than any of those below,
and they are much more broken up. They seem to have been subjected to some
disturbance, as the small thin pieces in which the ore now exist form
anticlinals and synclinals almost throughout, as shown above. This part of
the bed is also much less compact than those below.
Sometimes in the midst of the brown ore a nodule or a discontinuous layer of
nodules of greenish or greyish ore may be seen, especially in the lower part
of the bed, in fact they seem to be entirely absent from the upper part.
They have usually a flattened form, and the brown ore immediately adjoining
them is darker and much more compact than the rest. The ore reached by the
sinking between Appleby and the station was entirely green and grey. Both
the brown and the green ore have a prevailing pelatic appearance, though
both are oolitic in places. This structure occurs in a very interrupted
manner, but still it is so frequent that a piece of the size of a man's hand
is almost sure to exhibit it to some extent. Many of the oolitic grains
are hollow.
The limy bands, which graduate both above and below into the ore, contain
numerous fossils, and so does the ore, the same species being found in both.
The prevailing forms belong to the genera Cardinia and Gryphcea. So abundant
is OrypJuea incurva that one or more specimens may be found in almost every
piece of any size that is lifted. The Eev. J. E. Cross * who has devoted
considerable time to the geology of the district, has obtained from the one
bed a great variety of organic remains, as shown by the following list:—
Ammonites Bucklandi, (?) Sotv. Cueullea ovum, Querist.
„ Conybeari, Sotv. Pholadomya ambigua,
Sow.
„ semicostatus, Fand B. Myoconcha oxynoti, Querist.
„ Brookii, Querist. Modiola oxynoti,
Querist.
„ aureus, Durnortier. „ Morrisii,
Oppel.
„ Gmundensis, Dumortier. Hippopodium ferri, n. sp.
„ Boucaultianus, D'Orb. Gervillia betacalcis,
Querist.
„ Scipionanus, (?) Querist. Lima gigantea, Sow.
„ compressarius, (?) Querist. „ „
small var.
Nautilus striatus, Sow. •,
Hermanni, Voltz.
Belemnines acutus, Mill. „
hettangiensis, Terq.
Pleurotomaria anglica, Sow. „ Dupla
Querist.
Tancredia ferrea, n. sp. Pecten asqualis,
Querist. Cardinia gigantea, Querist. „
durissus, large smooth.
„ Copides, (?) Rychh. „ Texturatus,
Gold/.
„ crassissima. (?) Gryphaea incurva,
Sow.
„ Morrisii, (?) Terq. Carpentaria, sp.
(Terquemia).
„ n. sp. Spiriferina
Walcotti, Sow. Astarte dentilabrum, Ether.
* Geology of N.W. Lincolnshire. Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc, Vol. XXXI., 1875.
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. Ill
Most of the shells retain their limy character, but in some the lime has
been partly, in others, wholly replaced by carbonate or hydrated peroxide of
iron.
The quality of the bed is very unequal in its different layers. The
variations will perhaps be best illustrated by the method adopted in the
Table below; the analyses therein given were made soon after the samples had
been taken from the bed, so that the percentages of hygroscopic water in
them are very nearly the proportions which actually exist in the different
parts of the bed in situ.
It will be seen from these analyses that the bulk of the ore is a hydrated
peroxide, not very rich in iron, but that it is best at the top. In the
course of working, a considerable proportion of the limy beds is rejected,
but even then the average yield of the ore passed through the furnaces is
only about 27 or 28 per cent, of iron. This low yield is compensated by the
ease with which the ore is wrought, and the fact that the furnaces for
smelting it have been built on the spot. The high percentage of carbonate of
lime throughout the greater part of the bed is
112 THE IEON ORBS OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
very conspicuous, much of it is probably due to the large number of shells
in the ore, but it also exists apart from these, and in a mechanical
condition too, as some of the poorer brown ore, where shells are absent,
effervesce very briskly when wetted with acid. The best ore does not so
effervesce. On account of the excess of lime, the ore generally has to be
mixed in the furnace with about 5 or 6 per cent, of siliceous ore from
Mid-Lincolnshire. Beds A and B in the above analyses it will be seen are
much higher in silica than any of the others. This is probably owing to some
of the overlying sand having found its way into the numerous crevices which
exist in A and B, especially in the former ; but the sand would separate
itself naturally from the ore in the process of working, so that the yield
of iron in these two parts of the bed as they reach the furnaces is probably
5 per cent, higher than is shown in the above analyses and the silica
proportionately less.
The average of eleven analyses gives the following as the percentage weights
of the more important earths, etc., contained in the ore :
Below is an analysis of one of the greenish kernels which are found amid the
brown ore :—
Water at 212° P................ 5-31
Combined water and organic matter ... ... 5 31
Peroxide of iron ... ... ... ... ...
12"87
Protoxide of iron ... ... ... ... ...
14-83
Oxides of alumina and manganese ... ... ... 4'89
Lime ..................... 20"78
Magnesia .................. 2"26
Phosphoric acid ... ... ... ... ...
1-00
Carbonic „.................. 23'82
Sulphuric „ ... ... ... ... ...
... trace
Bisulphide of iron ... ... ... ... ...
-26
Insoluble silicious matter ... ... ... ...
8'67
100-00 Metallic iron.................. 20'68
Some of these kernels yield above 30 per cent, of metallic iron, others less
than 20 per cent. They also contain a considerable quantity of carbonate of
lime, much of which seems to be in mechanical combination, as the ore, when
treated with acid, effervesces freely.
The average specific gravity of the brown ore is about 2*8, but it is very
porous, as shown by the fact that it absorbs from 15 to 30 per cent.
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 113
of its volume of water, even when in an air-dried condition. The great
practical importance of this fact will be better appreciated when it is
stated that in dry weather a ton of iron can be made with 5 cwts. less ore
than is requisite in wet weather.
The ore was first worked about the year 1859 ; the annual quantity obtained
since is given in the following table :—
In the Middle Lias.
More ore is raised in the United Kingdom from this formation than from any
other. It all comes from one geological horizon—the " Bock Bed ;' or upper
part of the Middle Lias, and most of it from one locality— Cleveland. The
description will therefore begin with that district.
Cleveland.—The development of the Lias here is partly shown in Plate X.
(Section N. Yorkshire), but it will be better understood with the help of
the following general section.
Dogger Series (Inferior Oolite).
I Shale, with cement stone nodules j>t. In.
jj -r. J (alum shale series) ...... 115 0
A. communis.
i Shale, with dogger (jet rock series) 48 0 A. serpentinus.
^ Grey shale, with doggers ... 30 0 A. annulatus.
C Ironstone (Main Seam) ... 11 6 | .
„,,..,, J- A. spmatus.
Shale, with doggers ... ... 10 6 j
Ironstone (Bottom Seam) ... 2 9 "i
„..,. T. ! Shale, with nodules of clay ironstone 20 0 I
Middle Lias. J ' . . J
\
| Ironstone in thin bands ... 1 9 [
Shale with ferruginous doggers 30 0 C A-
ma,'Saritat,ls-Sandstone, sometimes flaggy, calcareous, and ferruginous
... 40 0 J
f A. capricornus Jamesoni,
Lower Lias, i Shales, with numerous thin lime- \
armatus oxynotus
( stones in the lowest 300 feet 700 0 J Bucklandi,
angul-
(^ atus, and planorbis. * Since 1874 these figures cannot be compared
with one another, as districts are given in separately in some years that
are combined in others.
VOL. XXXV.-1866.
P
114 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
In dividing this section into Upper, Middle, and Lower Lias, litho-logical
characters have been considered rather than pakeontological as being more
useful in practice.
The main seam of ironstone is the only one that has been wrought
extensively, though a lower seam has also been worked in one part of the
district. The Main Seam is known to extend over a very large area, probably
exceeding 350 square miles, but the area over which it can be profitably
worked, at least for many years to come, is much less than this, probably
not a fifth of it, and may be said to lie mainly within the area embraced in
Plate XIV., though at G-rosmont, outside that area, a* considerable quantity
of ore has also been raised, but that came only in part from the Main Seam
and partly from another and lower seam. The Main Seam—so far as is
known—may, approximately, be said to lie within a triangle, having one of
its angles at Eedcar, another at Robin Hood's Bay, and the third at Thirsk.
The general dip of the bed and of the strata in which it occurs is to the
S.E. at a low angle, about 1 in 15 perhaps on an average, but there are
numerous variations and even reversals, where the rocks are thrown into
gentle undulations or are disturbed by faults.
Except at its outcrop the bed, throughout its known area, is covered by the
Upper Lias, and for a great part of that area by the Inferior Oolite as
well.
The outcrop of the ore bed is, as a rule, narrow, as shown on Plate XIY.,
which is partly after Tate and Blake.* The contracted width is owing to the
general steepness of the ground where the bed comes to the surface—a rather
striking feature in the physical geography of Cleveland —which arises partly
from the comparatively soft shales of the Upper Lias being covered, and
therefore partly protected from denudation by the harder sandstones of the
Lower Estuarine series, and partly from the fact that the ore is underlain
as well as overlain by soft shale as shown on Plate XIII., Fig. 4.
In consequence of the narrowness of the outcrop very little of the ore could
be worked "opencast." The bulk of it therefore has had to mined. Some of it,
as at Eston and Upleatham, etc., has been worked by inclined drifts from the
outcrop. In other cases, shafts have been sunk, and some of them are of
considerable depth; one recently put down, at Lumpsey, being over 600 feet.
The North Skelton pit is upwards of 740 feet and the Kilton pit is about 680
feet.
The thickest and perhaps the best part of the bed is along its out-#
Yorkshire Lias.
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 115
crop by JSTormanby, Eston, and Upleathani, whence it becomes gradually
reduced in thickness towards the S.E. until the line AB on Plate XIV. is
reached. Along that line a thin shale appears near the middle of the ore.
This shale increases, and the two beds of ore diminish, in thickness on to
line CD, where, perhaps, the limit of the workable bed is reached ; at
least, it is very unlikely that it will be worked on the S.E. side of CI),
except in good times, until it has been nearly exhausted on the N.W., which
certainly will not be for a great many years. The reduction in the thickness
of the ore and the increase of the intervening shale in a south-easterly
direction will be perhaps best understood by reference to the diagramatic
section on Plate XV., Fig. 1, extending from Eston to Grosmont. It will
there be seen that the bed becomes more and more split up by shale on the
S.E. side of the line CD (Plate XIV.) until at G-rosmont it is scarcely
recognisable. Accompanying the expansion of the intervening shales is a
deterioration in the quality of most of the ore, so that at Grosmont only
the lowest part of the main bed, as developed at Eston, is workable. This
part is called, at Grosmont, the Pecten Seam. About o0 feet below this there
is another seam called the Avicula Seam, which has also been worked at
Grosmont, but it is not at present of any value in the district where the
Main Seam is best, that is in Cleveland.
Examined in detail, along its N.E. outcrop at Eston and Upleatham, the Main
Seam yields the sections given in Plate XIII., Fig. 5.
The alternately hard and soft layers in the top block A are very variable,
as may be seen from the following detailed measurements of them at different
places along the outcrop :—
116 THE IBON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
The bands marked thus * frequently contain a large quantity of bisulphide of
iron, and are consequently known as sulphur bands. They have been largely
used as a substitute for pyrite in the chemical works at Washington and
Middlesbrough. The hard ore bands, at the outcrop, at least, are frequently
in a concretionary condition and often look like lines of doggers.
In Skinningrove and Slapewath Mines, nearly on the dip side of the best part
of the bed, the sections given in Plate XIII., Fig. 6, are obtained.
On the S.E. side of line AB the middle dogger at Slapewath and Skinningrove
is partly replaced by shale as seen in the section, Plate XIII., Fig. 7
(after Marley), of the old Hutton mines.
From the strike line through Old Hutton Mines, that is from line A B (Plate
XIV.), the ironstones diminish and the shale between them thickens gradually
towards the south-east, so that along the line 0 D a section somewhat like
that in Plate XIII., Fig. 8, occurs at Kildale. Then at Grosmont the section
is as shown in Plate XVI., Fig. 1.
Speaking generally, the ore, except the top block, is thick-bedded and
intersected by two sets of vertical joints. Its prevailing colour, where
covered by the Upper Lias, is bluish grey. Towards the base it becomes
somewhat greenish, and the bottom block C is a dark greenish grey. Along the
outcrop the bed is mostly altered to a hydrated peroxide, and the colour is
snuff brown, except where there still remain a few greyish, or greenish grey
cores of the carbonate. These cores are very few and small where the bed is
uncovered, but increase in size and number as the unaltered part of the bed
is approached. The distance to which the brown ore extends inwards depends
upon the thickness of the cover. At Eston, for instance, where the ground is
very steep above the outcrop, and the Upper Lias consequently soon attains a
considerable thickness ; the brown ore does not extend many yards in from
the "day." But at Kirkleatham and Hobb Hill where the cover has been mostly
removed by denudation, the belt of brown ore is much wider. The appearance
presented by the ore where the alteration is incomplete is as shown in Plate
XVI., Fig. 2, which is an exact representation of the upper part of the main
block B, near " The Clump," between Eston and Upleatham.
The ore in places is oolitic, but much of it does not exhibit that
structure, having simply the appearance of a mud stone.
Organic remains are abundant, being almost crowded in places. According to
Tate and Blake* 95 different species have been met with. The following is a
list of the more common forms :—
* Yorkshire Lias.
A. spinatus. Belemnites brevifornris.
,, paxillosus.
Pitonillus turbinatus. Crytema consobrina. Ostrea submargaritaeea.
Pholadomya ambigua. Astarte striato-sulcata. Waldheiniia resupinata.
Terebratula punctata.
Pecten ajquivalvis.
,, lunularis. Monotis cygnipes. Macrodou liasinus. Gresslya intermedia.
Pleuroinya rostrata-Arcomya arcacea. Rhynchonella capitulata.
.. tetrahedra.
„ lineata.
As in the Frodingham deposit the shells generally retain their original limy
nature, but in some of them carbonate of iron has taken the place of the
lime. This fact was first pointed out by Sorby* 30 years ago.
The specific gravity of the blue grey mudstone-like ore is about 2*8, and of
the greenish grey oolitic ore 3. The former absorbs water to the extent of
about 10 per cent, of its volume, and the latter, in some cases, to as much
as 26 per cent., and this when simply air-dried.
Except at the outcrop, the ore is a carbonate of the protoxide, with a small
admixture of the peroxide. Its quality in different parts of the bed at
Eston being shown by the following analyses:—
The seam is not only thickest here—at Eston—but it seems also to be richest
in iron. The composition of the different workable parts of the bed at the
Old Hutton Mines is given in the following analyses, which do not vary
greatly from those of corresponding parts of the seam at, for example,
Slapewath and Lofthouse:—
* Proc. Geo. and Poly. Soc. West Riding, Yorkshire, 1856-7.
At Grosmont, parts A and B of the Main Seam, as developed at Eston and
Hutton, are unworkable, but C, known at Grosmont as the Pecten Seam, is
worked. Its composition, and that of the Avicula Seam below it, being as
follows :—
The Avicula Seam, as shown in the section already given, is about 30 feet
below the Pecten Seam.
The preceding analyses are of air-dried samples, and therefore give the
moisture less, and the other constituents more, than if they had come direct
from the bed.
The average metallic yield of Cleveland ore (Main Seam) is about 30 per
cent., and the proportions of its four most abundant earthy constituents as
given by the average of 18 analyses of the ore as it occurs in the bed are
as under :—
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 119
The working of the Main Seam on an extensive scale was commenced about the
year 1850,* and the output since 1854, including the raise at Grosmont, is
given below :—
Cayfhorpe, Lincolnshire.—This deposit is by many considered to be on the
same geological horizon as the Frodingham ore, and if the general appearance
of the bed, as seen from a little distance, were alone considered, this
opinion would more frequently prevail, for the ore has exactly the
thin-bedded flaggy appearance of the Frodingham ore, which is altogether
unlike the thicker-bedded "blocky" arrangement of other ironstones in the
rock bed, as for insl ance those of Cleveland, Holwell, in Leicestershire,
or Fawler, in Oxfordshire. But when the fossil contents of the bed at
Caythorpe are examined all doubt about its belonging to the Middle Lias at
once disappears, for crowds of ffliynchonella tetrahedra and Tcrebratula
punctata are met with in almost every part of the bed. Most of the former
shells are hollow and lined with crystals of calcite.
The bed has a slight dip to the south-east, and crops out along the level
ground lying to the east of the village of Caythorpe, as shown in Plate XV.,
Fig. 2. Working is confined at present entirely to the outcrop adjoining the
Great Northern Eailway, where the ore is covered by sand, with small
pebbles, varying in thickness from 3 to 7 feet. The greatest thickness of
ore yet exposed is 10 feet: that is near the railway. From there it becomes
gradually thinner to the village of Caythorpe, where it is only about 3 feet
thick. Working operations therefore stop some distance short of Caythorpe.
The ore has a prevailing yellowish colour, but is traversed at irregular
intervals by dark brown bands up to £" wide. This latter part of the ore is
* See Marley, Trans. Inst.. Vol. V. J Include the production of
Rosedale,
120 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROOKS.
much denser than the other, and the bands are in some cases so disposed as
to produce a concretionary appearance. As already mentioned, the ore is
thin-bedded, and in parts oblique lamination is very frequent.
Speaking generally, the bed is harder and more compact towards the base than
it is in the upper part, and it gets gradually harder throughout towards the
railway, that is towards the south-east, as if the Upper Lias clay was not
far off. Towards the "rise" the bed contains a few roughly lenticular pieces
of grey limy rock, which graduate into the ore. They are very full of fossil
shells, and vary in size from 2 to 10 inches in thickness, and from 2 to 4
feet in length. Dipwards they increase in size and frequency, but are
everywhere most common in the lowrer part of the ore, and give to it a very
bedded appearance. In working on the dip side of the outcrop the ore
frequently comes off in large flag-like flakes, sometimes as much as 4 feet
in area, and perhaps not more than 6 inches thick at the thickest part. The
appearance in vertical section of this portion of the bed will perhaps be
better understood from the sketch on Plate XVI., Fig. 8.
Besides the limy cores there are also grey and green cores of earthy
carbonate of iron, similar to those described in connection with the
Frodingham and Cleveland ores. These occur mainly in the low part of the
bed, and towards the dip, very few being met with in the " rise" part of the
bed where the alteration has proceeded further.
Below the ore there is about 3 feet of ferruginous limestone, and under that
blue clay.
The yellow part of the ore is oolitic in places, and so is the included and
under-lying limestone, but the brown ore is only slightly so.
The average specific gravity of the brown ore is about 2*5, but it is
very porous, absorbing water to the extent of 10 to 21 per cent, of its
bulk when simply air-dried. Its average composition is perhaps
fairly expressed by the following analysis :—
Water at 212° F..................... 4-330
„ combined ... ...... ......... ... 10*030
Peroxide of iron ..................... 47*430
Oxides of alumina and manganese ... ... ... •••
10*007
Lime ........................ 7*840
Magnesia........................ *580
Phosphoric acid ... ... ... ... ...
... ... "403
Sulphuric „ ..................... Trace
Carbonic „ ..................... 6*960
Insoluble siliceous matter ... ... ... ...
... 12*260
99*840
Metallic iron ..................... 33*20
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 121
The lime which occurs in the ore is probably as a carbonate, and in a
mechanical condition, as the ore effervesces when wetted with acid ; in some
places only slightly, but in others briskly. The quantity of water lost at
212°F., in the preceding analysis, is probably 8 or 10 per cent, less than
the ore contains in situ, and as it is sent to the market, as the specimen
from which the analysis was made had been in the writer's possession at
least twelve months before being analysed. The metallic yield of the ore as
raised will therefore be about 30 or 31 per cent.
The ore was discovered when carrying out the works in connection with the
making of the railway, and the output in 1880 was 73,680 tons, and in 1881
79,642 tons.
Holwell, &c, Leicestershire.—At Holwell, about three miles north of Melton
Mowbray, and at Eastwell, about three miles north-east of Holwell, as well
as at Waltham and Wartnaby, the Marlstone Rock-bed has recently been largely
worked for iron ore.
The Holwell workings, which may be taken as typical of all in the
neighbourhood, are close to the village of Holwell, but on the opposite side
of the small valley, which lies on the east of the village. On Plate XVI.,
Fig. 4, is a diagramatic section of this valley illustrating its geological
structure. The rocks have a gentle inclination to the southeast.
The working of the ore is confined mainly to its outcrop, where the Upper
Lias is off, although at one point it has been worked where overlain by
about 6 feet of clay belonging to that formation. The ore, however, became
very hard as the thickness of the cover increased. This, combined with the
extra cost of " baring," put a stop to further operations in that direction.
The outward appearance of the ore bed is very much like that of Cleveland at
the outcrop. It is thick-bedded and intersected by two sets of vertical
joints. Many of these are several inches wide and filled with a yellowish
grey clay which has evidently been washed down from the overlying drift.
There are also a number of less persistent joints of a lenticular form, some
of which are as much as 3 inches wide, but they seldom exceed a foot or two
in length. They occur both vertically and along the bed planes. Cases of
false bedding are not infrequent, and in some places the ore is quite soft
and sandy, so that it may be easily crumbled between the fingers. These
sandy places occur along the bed planes, and have a roughly lenticular
form. They are somewhat
VOL. XXXV.—1886.
Q
122 THE IRON ORES OP THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
numerous and very irregular in their disposition in the bed. The ore where
worked, that is at the outcrop, is a hydra ted peroxide, and has a
prevailing yellow or yellowish brown colour, but it contains a few kernels
of green carbonate and some pieces of greyish or greenish grey ferruginous
limestone, which increase in size and number toward the dip. The yellowish
brown ore adjacent to the green kernels is invariably concretionary, lighter
and darker coloured bands alternating. This structure is also seen in other
parts of the bed where the cores are yellow. These are, however, not
abundant. Adjacent to joints, whether vertical or horizontal, the ore is
almost always darker and more compact than it is where joints are absent,
and is of the same character as the darker bands of the concretions. As a
rule the yellow ore is oolitic, but in places it has the character of a
mudstone. The dark brown ore is but slightly oolitic.
Organic remains are abundant both in the ore and in the pieces of enclosed
limestone or " sand rock," as it is locally called, and many of them are in
a fragmentary condition. The common species are of Belemnites Terebratulas
and Rhynchonellas.
The average specific gravity of the ore is about 2*5, and it is very porous,
absorbing water in quantities varying from about 12 to 27 per cent, of its
bulk when merely air-dried. The composition of the yellowish brown ore is
shown by the following analysis of a specimen which had been in the writer's
possession about twelve months before being analysed, and therefore, like
the sample from Caythorpe, gives less hygroscopic water and consequently a
higher metallic yield than the ore will contain in the bed :—
THE IRON ORES OP THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 1 2:<
Much of the ore is not so rich as this. The poorer qualities effervesce when
wetted with acid, the better ore does not, except where shells are present.
The output of ore from Holwell, Eastwell, Waltham, and Wartnaby is given in
the following table :—¦
Tons.
1882 ... ... ... ... ... 267,802
1883 ... ... ... ... ... 294,825
1884 ... ... ... ... ... 261.837
Adderbury and Faivler, Oxfordshire.—On the north-east border of Oxfordshire
a considerable quantity of ore has been obtained from the " Rock-bed" at
Adderbury, and some from King's Sutton in the adjoining county of
Northamptonshire, but operations are suspended at both places for the
present. At Fawler, in Mid-Oxfordshire, ore is still being obtained from
this horizon. When first worked it was got here by open working; but since
the recommencement of operations, about three years ago, it has been "
mined." Plate XVII., Fig. 1, partly after the survey map, will illustrate
the arrangement of the rocks of the district, and the section on Plate XVI.,
Fig. 5, exhibited in the face of one of the open cuttings, will show their
relation to the ore-bed.
The ore, as shown by the section on Plate XVII., Fig. 1, crops out in the
side of the valley of the Evenlode. It is thick-bedded and intersected by
two sets of vertical joints like that at Holwell. Some of the vertical
joints are very wide and are filled with yellowish clay from the overlying
bed of that material.
The ore is mainly a hydrated peroxide, and its colour is partly yellow and
partly brown, not only at the outcrop but also below the Upper Lias as far
as they have yet worked. From the nearer outcrop (the north-east) the faces
are probably not more than 70 yards, though they are much farther from the
south-west outcrop. The brown ore is much denser than the yellow, but it
only occurs in thin bands or "shells" as at Caythorpe and Holwell. The
yellow ore is oolitic, the brown is not. There is almost a complete absence
of grey or greenish cores in the upper 8 feet of the bed, but they are
abundant in the lower part, and some of them are very large, for which
reason this part of the bed is not worked.
The average specific gravity of the ore is about 2*5. Like other ores from
the same geological horizon it is very porous, absorbing water to the extent
of 18 to 27 per cent, of its bulk when only air-dried. Its composition may
be gathered from the following analyses -.—
No. 1 gives the results of a sample dried at 212° F.; No. 2 of the raw ore
partly air-dried.
The ore effervesces in places when wetted with acid ; in other parts it does
not.
It appears to be about twenty-six years since the deposit was first worked
at Fawler. For eight years the ore was obtained by open work, but since the
resumption of operations in 1882 it has been mined. The annual quantity
obtained, both at Fawler and Adderbury up to 1881, is given below :—
In the Lowee Oolite.
The next ferruginous zone of importance is at the base of the Inferior
Oolite, immediately succeeding the Upper Lias, as shown in Plate X. It
exists over a very large area, and has been extensively wrought in
Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Rutlandshire, and Northamptonshire, though with
very different results, as will appear from the detailed descriptions
following.
North Yorkshire.—In the greater part of this district the ore which occurs
in the horizon now reached is not of much value commercially. It is known in
Cleveland as the "Top Seam," and to outsiders as the Dogger series. Its
outcrop, in part of the area, is shown on Plate XIV.
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 125
Since the discovery of the Main Beam (in the Middle Lias) in Cleveland the "
Top Seam" has, in that district, been almost entirely neglected owing to its
great inferiority, in fact over a considerable part of Cleveland it is
unworkable, profitably, under almost any circumstances. Generally it may be
said to increase in thickness toward the south-east, at least for a
considerable distance—which is the reverse of the Main Seam—then it
decreases in that direction. Along the Eston and Upleatham range it is
practically non-existent.
In some of the sinkings that have been made to the south-east of
Gruisborough through the Lower Oolitic rocks to the Main Seam, it is only a
few inches thick. At Eosedale, on the coast between Staiths and Runswick
Bay, it presents the section seen in Plate XVI., Fig. 6.
A few miles further south, at G-oathland, the seam is larger still, as shown
by the section on Plate XVI., Fig. 7.
On the opposite side of the district at Feliskirk, 8 miles north-east of
Thirsk, the seam is about 7 feet thick. From G-oathland to Feiiskirk, as
pointed out by Professor Phillips twenty-eight years ago, is the line along
which the Dogger series "receives its maximum doze of iron," and from this
line it grows gradually poorer, both towards the north-west and south-east.
It will be noticed that it is thinner on the west than on the east, but, as
pointed out by the authority just named, there appears to be a general
thinning of the Lower Oolitic rocks in that direction.
The seam has often been tried at Grosrnont and elsewhere in the same
neighbourhood, but it has always been found to contain too much silica for
metallurgical purposes. The only area where it has been worked at all
extensively in the area now under consideration is in Rosed ale. The general
geological structure of that district is shown in Plate XVIL, Fig. 2, from
which it will be seen that the Dogger series comes to the surface in a
narrow strip along the steep sides of the valley. Elsewhere it is overlain
by a variable thickness of shales and sandstones belonging to the Lower
Estuarine series, as shown in Plate XVI., Fig. 8, where also will be found a
section of the same rocks as they occur in Cleveland for comparison.
The seam is known in Rosedale as " therseam of the district." It dips to the
south at about 1 in 22. As already mentioned, the outcrop is narrow, so that
comparatively little has been worked by opencast, although in 1873 and 1874
a large quantity of ore was worked in this way, but it was very poor. The
same class of ore is now used for road metalling. At the present time
operations are confined to the eastern side of the valley, at what are known
as Rosedale East Mines, but on the opposite side of the valley. The seam
has also been worked at Sheriff Pit and in
126 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
the neighbourhood of the magnetic quarry. These latter mines are called
Rosedale West Mines. A few years ago some ore, occupying the same horizon,
was also worked in the adjoining valley of Farndale.
On the west side of the valley, just opposite the village of Rosedale, the
section of the seam is as shown in No. 1, Plate XVIII., Pig. 1, but near
Sheriff Pit it is as shown in No. 2. On the opposite side of the valley, at
Bell End, the seam is developed as in No. 3. The correlative parts of the
different sections are indicated by dotted lines.
Both A and B have been worked at the outcrop, but B only has been " mined"
on account of its superior quality. At Rosedale East Mine& the workable
height of the seam varies from 5 feet to 9 feet 6 inches, the average
probably being about 6 feet 6 inches. At Sheriff Pit the average, according
to Mr. Charles Parkin, is about 5 feet 10 inches.
The ore is thick-bedded, and at the outcrop is a hydrated peroxide, of a
yellowish brown colour; but as the thickness of the cover increases rapidly,
the oxide soon gives place to a carbonate, and the brownish colour changes
to a greeny grey. The ore is very oolitic both in the weathered and
unweathered parts of the bed. Its chemical qualities are indicated by the
following analysis :—
The metallic yield of the ore, as it occurs in the bed, is probably 2 or 3
per cent, less than in these analyses. It will be noticed that there is a
considerable proportion of peroxide along with the carbonate of the
protoxide, which is suggestive of the ore being magnetic. It is found,
however, that even in large masses it does not affect the magnetic needle
generally, nor is it attracted by the horse-shoe magnet. But if a number of
oolitic grains be extracted from the matrix and placed within the influence
of a magnet they are at once attracted by it. If, further, a thin slice of
stone be placed under the microscope it is at once seen that the oolitic
grains consist partially of magnetite arranged generally in irregular
concentric rings.
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 127.
The average specific gravity of the greeny grey ore is about 2*9, and of the
brown ore from the outcrop 2*7. Their respective porosities are about 16 and
27 per cent, of their bulk.
The following list of fossils from the "Dogger" is given by Mr. W. H.
Huddleston,* many of which he had found converted into carbonate of iron :—
Natica adducta, Phil. Chemnitzia lineata, Sow.
„ Sp.
Nerinsea cingenda, Phill. Cerithium (two specimens). Alaria Phillipsii.
„ Sp. Littorina pnnctura, Bean. Trochus pyramidatus, PMll. Nerita
laevigata, PMll. Trochotoma, sp. n. Acteonina.
Rhynchonella obsoleta, Sotv. Terebratula perovalis (?) Sow. Hinnites velatus
(?) Gold. Gervillia tortuosa, PMll. lata, Phill,
Pteroperna striata, Bean MS. Modiola cuneata, Sow. Cucullaja cancellata,
PMll. Microdon Hirsonensis, d' Arch. Trigonia denticulata, Ag.
„ V. costata, Lye.
„ spinulosa, I^and B.
„ Sp. Cardium acutangulum, PMll.
„ striatulum, PMll. Tancredia axiniformis, PMU. Astarte elegans, Sow.
Opis Phillipsii, Mor. Ceromya Bajociana, Sotv., vel. con-
centrica, Soto. Gresslya adducta, PMll.
Iron ore was worked in Rosedale, doubtless, at a very early date, but recent
operations may be said to have commenced about 25 years ago. The production
up to 1880 being as follows :—f
* Proc. Geol. Assoc.
f Since 1880 it is difficult to obtain the exact figures owing to the most
remarkable way in which the mineral statistics have been kept since that
year. Previously the production of nearly every mine was given separately.
Now those in each county are grouped together, with the result that we
sometimes get, as in the case of Lincolnshire, the production of mines
working ores from four different geological horizons placed under one total,
a mode of procedure which renders this part of the mineral statistics as
near worthless as possible. A much more reasonable method would be to give
the total from each horizon in each county.
% Including magnetic ore.
128 THE IRON ORES OP THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
Rosedale Magnetic Ore.—Besides the bed just described, there is, in
Eosedale, a most remarkable deposit of Magnetic Iron Ore, which, in the
early days of the Institute, was the subject of several papers and
discussions, in which were developed great differences of opinion among the
various members engaged therein. The deposit, or deposits—for there are
really two—occur at the point in Plate XII., marked Magnetic Quarry, and
just under the seam known as " the seam of the district," in two
approximately parallel troughs, between 5 and 6 acres in extent, in the
Upper Lias shale, as shown in Plate XVIIL, Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 ; *the plan
represents them as they would appear if the sandstones and shales of the
Lower Estuarine series were removed.
At first the deposits were quarried, but as the overburden increased, mining
was resorted to, and the deposits have now been almost exhausted in this
way.
Neither Garbutt's nor Kitchin's deposit has been known to yield any organic
remains, so that there is a difficulty in fixing their age, but they seem,
on stratigraphical considerations, to be the equivalent of the Blae "Wyke
Sands, and to have been formed on an eroded surface of the Upper Lias. Small
denuded areas of this character are not uncommon in the Upper Lias of
Yorkshire, as well as of other districts. In Yorkshire they are frequently
occupied by siliceous limestone belonging to the Dogger series, especially
is this so in Bilsdale.
At the outcrop the ore was very much broken up by weathering, and much of it
had a concretionary form. The kernels, which, in some cases, were as much as
4 feet in diameter, were of a bluish black in the centre, but became paler
towards the outside, and the surrounding rings were brown. As the cover
increased, the results of weathering mostly disappeared, and the ore became
much more compact, and had everywhere the blue black colour of the interior
of the kernels found at the outcrop, except along the sides of the stronger
joints where a brown band an inch or so wide might exist.
The ore is very oolitic, and where unweathered is strongly magnetic. Its
chemical composition is shown in the following analysis. No. 1 is of blue
black ore, and No. 2 is of the brown altered ore found along strong joints
or on the outside of the kernels.
The specimens analysed were air-dried, so that the water should be increased
in No. 1 about 10 per cent, and the metallic iron should be reduced 4£ per
cent, probably, to arrive at the composition of the ore in its natural
condition. With these alterations No. 1 may be fairly taken as an average.
It appears from analysis No. 1, that the ore is not a true Magnetite, but a
compound of Magnetite and clay ironstone, the proportions of the different
compounds of iron being in all probability as below:—
Fe O. No. 1.
12-45 + Fe2 03 27'7l = 40-16 Magnetite 14-92 + COa 9-12 = 24-04 Carbonate of
iron 9-40 existing probably in other combinations
36-77
A physical analysis confirms these results. If the ore be examined in a thin
slice under the microscope, it is seen that the Magnetite resides entirely
in the oolitic grains—and mainly in the interior of them in a concretionary
form—the quantity in the different grains being very variable, as shown in
Plate XVIII., Fig. 6.
The specific gravity of the blue black ore, of which analysis No. 1 shows
the composition, is 3"8, and its absorptive capacity, in an air-dried
condition, 15 per cent, of its bulk.
The production of ore, yielding over 40 per cent, of metallic iron, from
1856, about which time operations were first commenced, until 1880, except
for the nine years ending 1866, is given in the following table, most of
which was kindly supplied to the writer by Mr. John Marley. Between 1858 and
1866 inclusive, the production is included in that of the " seam of the
district" already dealt with :—
VOL. XXXV.—1886.
R
180 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
Tons.
1856 ..................... 4,000
1857.................... 7,500
1867................... 44,519
1868 ..................... 66,758
1869 .................... 71,253
1870 ..................... 62,804
1871 ..................... 76,026
1872 ..................... 73,423
1873 ..................... 72,932
1874 ............... ...... 54,213
1875 ..................... 48,394
1876 ..................... 41,665
1877 ..................... 38.192
187* ..................... 33,582
1879 ..................... 7,139
1880 .................... 6.079
Mid-Lincolnshire.—Just east of the city of Lincoln, and on the north side of
the valley of the Witham, at Greetwell and Monks Abbey, a bed of ore, at the
base of the Inferior Oolite, has been worked somewhat extensively. It has
also been worked on the opposite side of the Witham, east of Canwick, as
well as at Waddington and Coleby, a few miles further south along the "
Cliff."
The position of the ore bed and the general geological structure of the
country around Lincoln is indicated on Plate XIX., Fig. 1. The ore, it will
be seen, crops out on both sides of the valley of the Witham, and as the
inclination of much of the ground at the outcrop is very gentle, a
considerable quantity of ore has been got by open working. Where the cover
was too thick for this to be done profitably, mining has been resorted to.
The general dip of the ore bed (and its accompanying rocks) is to the east
at about 1 in 60. Its greatest known thickness is llf ft., and the least,
where worked, 5 ft., although it has been proved by boring to be only 3 ft.
thick in places. The average thickness is probably about 9 ft. A section of
the " face " of part of one of the open-cuts on the north side of the Witham
is given in Plate XVIIL, Fig. 7.
The ore at the outcrop generally is a brown and yellow hydrated peroxide,
very concretionary, and in places very cellular. The concretions o-enerallv
have kernels of soft yellow ore, but near the base of the bed there are a
few small greenish and greyish kernels. These consist of carbonate of
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS'. 131
iron. The ore surrounding the kernels is alternately dark brown and yellow,
the dark brown layers being much harder and denser than those that are
yellow, and as a rule arc much thinner, seldom exceeding |" or |" in
thickness. The yellow, green, and grey ores are very oolitic, but the brown
ore is only partially so. The proportions of the two classes of ore is very
variable, but the largest quantity of the brown kind occurs where the bed
has been most weathered, that is where the cover is least. Thence it becomes
less and less, in proportion to the yellow ore, as the thickness of the
over-lying rocks increases. It is probably very near the mark to say that,
on the average there is, by weight, 20 per cent, of brown ore and 80 per
cent, of yellow ore, or, by volume, 14 per cent, of brown and 86 per cent,
of yellow. The form of the concretions is very variable, sometimes
approaching an irregular spheroid, in other cases to a parallelopipedon.
They also vary greatly in size, being least at the extreme outcrop (where
they are mostly under 4 or 5 inches across) but they increase in size as the
cover becomes thicker. Many of the concretions are hollow, others are not
more than half-filled by their cores, and there are numerous other cavities
in the ore which give it quite a rubbly and cellular appearance at the
outcrop, but as the cover increases in thickness the bed becomes more and
more compact, and contains a larger proportion of the green and grey
carbonate. It also becomes more distinctly bedded and jointed, so that in
the mine, at 200 yards from " day," the section given in Plate XVIII., Fig.
8, was observed.
The thickness of the limestone and superficial beds over this section would
be about 21 ft. At 420 yards further in from "day," that is 620 yards in
all, the section of the bed was as in Plate XVIIL, Fig. 9, shewing a still
larger proportion of the green and grey carbonate and a further
consolidation of the bed. The thickness of the over-lying limestone and
drift here is 34 ft.
The underground operations have not been prosecuted beyond this point, so
that it is impossible to say where the hydrated oxide disappears entirely,
but it cannot be much beyond the present faces, for not far in front of them
a well was sunk through the bed and there it was entirely blue. Where the
thickness of the cover increases more rapidly than in the case mentioned
above, the change from the oxide to the carbonate, with its accompanying
increase of hardness, is effected in a proportionately shorter distance.
132 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
The composition of the different parts of the bed at the outcrop and within
the mine is as under :—
The average yield of metallic iron from the whole bed is probably about 33
or 34 per cent. The chemical composition and the specific gravity of the
different kinds of ore occurring in the bed at the outcrop are set forth in
the following statement:—
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 138
The whole of the analyses relating to this deposit were made soon after the
samples were obtained from the mine, so that they may be looked upon as
showing very nearly the composition of the ore in situ.
Under the microscope the hard brown ore is seen to be very compact, and in
its densest part, i.e., on the inside, as it occurred in the concretions, it
is devoid of oolitic structure, and contains numerous small angular cavities
from -^th to 10100th of an inch across. Some of these cavities are empty,
others are filled with silica. The oolitic grains in the grey, green, and
yellow ores vary from the ±6t\\ to the y^th inch in diameter. Some are
solid, others are hollow, but they all have a concretionary structure.
Organic remains are very scarce ; the writer has only seen a piece of wood,
the tissue of which was replaced by hydrated peroxide of iron.
The working of the bed on the north side of the Witham was commenced in the
early part of 1873, and has continued to the present time without
interruption. The following table gives the quantity of ore obtained in the
district generally during the last 15 years:—
Cottesmore, Rutlandshire.—This deposit, at the base of the Inferior Oolite,
has only been worked about three years. It comes to the surface on the
western side of the rising ground, which extends in a northerly and
southerly direction along by Market Overton and Cottesmore.
The geological structure of the locality is shown on Plate XIX., Fig. 2,
which is partly after the survey map. The general appearance of the ore
corresponds very closely, both in structure and colour, with that occurring
at the outcrop in Mid-Lincolnshire, the main difference being that in some
parts it seems to be more weathered, and to contain a larger proportion of
the dark brown concretionary rings; in fact, at and near the outcrop, it
consists of almost nothing else but pieces of these rings, or " shells,"
which are jumbled together in a most irregular manner— the softer yellow ore
having probably been washed away. The quality of the ore is thereby
improved, but its mechanical condition is not so suitable for the furnace.
Generally the relative quantities of brown and yellow ore are about the same
as at Lincoln.
134 THE IRON ORBS OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
Where the ore has undergone least change by weathering, that is where it is
thickest, it is seen to be thick-bedded, and to be divided by two sets of
vertical joints. Some of these joints are filled with clay which has come
down from the over-lying drift. As a rule the clay joints are only an inch
or two wide, but in some cases they are as much as 12 or 18 inches across,
and have been known to reach six feet. Where frequent, these " gulls," as
they are called by the workmen, interfere greatly with the working of the
ore, and a pit that was opened out, not far from the present one, had to be
abandoned on their account. The thickness of the ore, at its greatest, is
about nine feet, and it is overlaid by sand and clay belonging to the drift,
to a depth of from three to seven feet. A section through one of the "gulls"
is given in Plate XX., Fig. 1.
The yellow part of the ore is very oolitic, some of the cores consisting of
nothing else but loose oolitic grains, which are mostly hollow, and give the
ore in these parts a very sandy appearance. They, however, consist mainly of
peroxide of iron, and readily become magnetic in the blowpipe flame. The
shells of these hollow oolitic concretions are about rhsth of an inch thick.
There does not appear to be any green or grey cores in the deposit where it
has yet been opened.
The quality of the ore may be judged from the following analysis, although,
so far as metallic yield is concerned, it was of a piece better than the
average by perhaps 3 per cent. Moreover, it had been in the writer's
possession a considerable time, so that the metallic yield had in that way
also probably been increased about 5 per cent, through the loss of
hygroscopic water. The average yield of iron, as the ore occurs in the bed,
is about 32 or 33 per cent.
Water at 212° F................ 4*68
„ combined ............... 11*06
Peroxide of iron ............... 57*43
Oxides of alumina and manganese .......... 8'86
Lime ... ... ••• ••• ••• •••
••• '56
Magnesia .................. '50
Phosphoric acid... ............... 2*24
Sulphuric „.................. '03
Carbonic „.................. "66
Insoluble siliceous matter ............ 13*10
99*13
Metallic iron .................. 40*20
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 135
The specific gravity of the piece above analysed was 2'5, and its porosity
29 per cent.
The output since operations were commenced is given in the mineral
statistics as follows :—
Year. Tons.
1882 ............ 12,753
1883 ... ......... 41,645
1884 ............ 32,885
These figures include the production of Fawler, which is, however, small.
The case, nevertheless, illustrates very well the irrational system now
adopted in the mineral statistics, for the deposit at Cottesmore is in the
Inferior Oolite, whilst that at Fawler is in the Middle Lias.
Northamptonshire.—The Inferior Oolite of this county may generally be
divided into two parts, the upper, consisting of sands, sandstones, and
clays, with some calcareous beds, the lower being mainly made up either of
iron ore or ferruginous sandstone. The whole series is known to geologists
as the Northampton Sand, and near the town of Northampton it has a maximum
thickness of about 70 feet, from which point it becomes gradually reduced
both towards the north-east and south-west, as shown below:—
The ore bed is of a quality suitable for metallurgical purposes over a very
large area, as may be judged from the fact that it has been wrought at each
of the following places:—
Blisworth. Finedon. Northampton.
Thrapston.
Brixworth. Irchester. Ringstead.
Towcester.
Desborough. Kettering. Stamford.
Wellingborough.
To attempt a description of the ore bed, as seen at each of these places,
would unnecessarily lengthen this communication, so that only a few examples
will be given, but they will be selected so as to illustrate, as fully as
possible, the various conditions under which the bed occurs.
In the neighbourhood of Wellingborough, where, perhaps, the largest quantity
of ore has been worked, it is found immediately under a super-
136 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
ficial covering of sand, or sand and gravel, varying in thickness from 1 to
about 4 or 5 feet. The various geological formations of the locality are
shown in Plate XXI., which is partly after the survey map. The thickness of
the ore varies with the amount of denudation it has undergone in the
different parts. For instance, at A, the greatest thickness was about 8 feet
6 inches, at B it was only about 5 feet, and at C it was about 10 feet; in
other parts it is more than this. The ore is not worked down to the Upper
Lias clay, one or two inferior beds being left on, but the clay is never far
below the bottoms of the various pits. The unworked beds are of a
concretionary character, but the cores are mostly of sand, the only iron
they contain being in the surrounding rings. The ore, where thickest, is
distinctly bedded and of a concretionary character, consisting of softish
yellow oolitic ore, and thin irregularly-shaped "shells" of hard brown ore,
as shown in Plate XX., Fig. 2. Some of the cores consist entirely of yellow
sand, which, when closely examined, is seen to consist of grains of quartz,
mostly below y-J-^ of an inch in diameter, and they are coated with hydrated
peroxide of iron. The proportion of brown and yellow ore here is about the
same as at Lincoln. Cores of blue-green oolitic ore are scarce, and always
occur near the bottom of the bed. In some parts of the bed walls of clay, or
sandy clay, are met with. They extend from the top of the ore downwards, and
appear to be filled joints like the " gulls" in the ore at Cottesmore, Plate
XX., Fig. 2.
Where the ore is thin, and the cover perhaps also thin, so that weathering
action has been favoured, there is frequently very little else but the
brown,ore "shells," which lie together in a very confused manner. The yellow
ore originally forming the cores has probably been washed awray—unless it be
that the whole of it has been converted' into brown ore by longer exposure.
One fact may be noticed, which is of wide occurrence in Northamptonshire,
and that is that the bed-planes, where the ore has been much altered, have a
more rapid dip than the bed itself, as shown in Plate XX., Fig. 8. The bed
here is nearly level, but, as seen in the section, the bed-planes have a
considerable dip.
On the west side of the road leading from Wellingborough to Finedon, and not
far from the latter place, the ore occurs under similar conditions to that
at Wellingborough, but is thicker, being about 13 feet 6 inches thick, under
a sandy cover varying from 1 to 4 feet. The upper 3 feet of ore is
concretionary, cellular, and fragmentary, as at Wellingborough ; but the
lower 10 feet is much more compact, and shows one very well defined bed-
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 137
plane about the middle. This lower part of the bed is also intersected by
two sets of vertical joints, many of which are wide, in some cases being
more than an inch across, and they are mostly unfilled. Kernels of bluish
and greenish carbonate are much more abundant here than at Wellingborough,
and they are much commoner in the compact ore than in the fragmentary ore at
the top.
The open vertical joints just referred to are a very conspicuous feature of
the bed at Duston, near Northampton j some of the joints there are as much
as a foot wide. Sometimes they are filled with fine ore that has fallen from
the upper part of the bed, in other cases they are open. The plane face
exhibited by these joints, when viewed sidewise, does not show the slightest
evidence of the concretionary condition of the ore—which is presented when
the joints are viewed endwise—a fact which will be better understood from
the sketch of part of the ore bed adjoining one of these joints, as shown in
Plate XX., Fig. 4. At Duston also may be seen a striking instance of the
fact already mentioned, that in some instances the bed-planes dip at a
greater angle than the bed itself. It is in that locality, too, that the ore
bed attains its maximum development, having been over 30 feet thick in
places.
On the opposite side of the road from the pit near Finedon—already in part
described—the ore passes in below the clay of the Upper Estuarine Series,
and has been worked in that position with a cover of 15 feet, as shown in
the section on Plate XX., Fig. 5. Here the ore is still more compact, and
more distinctly bedded than in the pit on the opposite side of the road,
where there is only a porcus drift covering, and it contains a larger
proportion of green and grey kernels. These kernels are also of an increased
size, some of them being as much as 18 inches in diameter.
On Hunsbury Hill, near Northampton, the ore is worked with a covering as
thick as at Finedon, but there it is mostly of sand. A section of the bed as
exposed in one of the working faces at the former place is given in Plate
XX., Fig. 6. With this amount of cover the ore is very compact and is as
distinctly bedded and jointed as any sandstone or limestone, but as it is
followed down the hill side, where the cover becomes thinner and eventually
disappears, there is a gradual approximation to the rubbly character
presented by the bed in similar situations elsewhere.
The Northampton ore generally contains numerous organic remains, about 238
different species having been found by Mr. S. Sharpe. A list
VOL. XXXV.-1886.
B
188 THE IRON OSES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
of the Cephalopoda and of the commoner Lamellibranehiata being given below
:—
Ammonites bifrons, Phil.
., insignia, junior, Schubler.
„ Murchisonse, Sow.
Martiusii, D'Orb. opalinus, Rein. Nautilus obesus, Sotv.
,, polygonalis, Sow.
., sinuatus, Sow. Belemnites acutus, Miller.
„ Bessinus, I)' Orb.
„ elongatus, Miller.
Belemnites (phragmocones). Cardium cognatum, Phil. Isocardia cordata. Puchm.
Ceromya Bajociana, D'Orb. Lima, various species. Cucullsea, various species.
Macrodon hirsonensis, Mor. and Lye. Trigonia, various species. Pecten
demissus, Phil. ,, lens, Sow.
Most of the shells have had their limy matter replaced by peroxide or
carbonate of iron, and adjoining the shells there is frequently a narrow
band of the brown denser ore.
The composition of the ore in different parts of the district is set forth
in the following table :—
These analyses are given merely as illustrations of the different classes of
ore and not to show the general composition of the ore yielded by the
particular districts named. The lime, it will be noticed, is very variable,
in some cases being almost absent. There is also considerable variation in
the alumina. Silica is the predominant non-metallic mineral. The above
analyses being of specimens in an air-dried condition, give a higher
percentage of metallic iron than the ore contains in situ. Moreover, 3 and 5
are better than average samples, for taken as a whole this ore, as it comes
from the bed, will not yield more than about 34 or 35 per
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 139
rent, of metallic iron. This is less than is given in most published
analyses, and for the reason that they do not, as a rule, take into account
the full quantity of moisture. This remark also applies to the bulk of the
published analyses of other ores of this class.
The average of 18 analyses gives the percentage weights of lime, etc., in
the ore as follows :—
The average specific gravity of the ore may probably be taken at 2*5; and
its porosity varies from about 13 to 30 per cent.
The recent working of this ore was commenced about 1852, and the quantity
obtained during the last 30 years is shown by the following table :—
In the Middle Oolite. The only deposit at present working in these rocks is
a bed at West-bury station, in Wiltshire ; but some years ago the same bed
was wrought near Heywood, a few miles north of Westbury. It occurs in the
upper part of the Coralline rocks, as shown in Plate X. At Abbots-bury, in
Dorsetshire, there is a similar deposit on the same horizon, but it is not
worked, so that the following remarks will be confined to the former
locality. The superficial areas occupied by the various strata associated
with the Westbury ore are indicated in Plate XXIL, Fig. 1, which is partly
after the survey map. These drawings, with the help of the diagramatic
section on Plate XX., Fig. 7, will make the position of the deposit fairly
clear.
140 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
Below the limestone (F), Plate XX., Fig. 7, there is 12 feet of stiff marl,
and under that about 50 feet of sand, including 4 or 5 separate and distinct
beds ol rock, each about 1 foot thick (lower calcareous grit), then comes
the Oxford Clay.
The dip of the ore bed is to the east at about 1 in 14 to 1 in 20. Its
thickness, just under the Kimmeridge Clay, including inferior bands, is
about 11' 6", but it appears to grow thinner to the dip for about 400 yards
eastward from the present working face, a sinking was made through 50 feet
of Kimmeridge Clay and the ore was found to be only 2 feet thick. On the
opposite side of the railway from the present workings, that is to the rise,
the thickness was about 14 feet.
Where the over-burden is thin or porous the ore is a brown hydrated
peroxide, but under the Kimmeridge Clay it is a dark bluish or greenish
carbonate, the change from one class of ore to the other being gradual, and
dependant, in part, upon the thickness of the cover as shown in the section
on Plate XX., Fig. 8, which exhibits one of the working faces in the pit
just opposite the railway station.
The ore is thin-bedded, particularly near the top, and where blue is fairly
compact and works off in flakes as at Frodingham and Caythorpe, but the
brown ore is in a very loose and fragmentary condition. Nine inches of the
bed just under the Kimmeridge Clay is shaly and fossiliferous and is
consequently rejected in working. Below this there is a 2 feet bed of good
ore, and then another fossiliferous band 9 inches thick, which is also
thrown away. The remainder of the bed below, 8 feet thick, is all sent to
the furnaces.
The composition of the two kinds of ore is given below, though the quality
of the samples from which the results were obtained was better than the
average.
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 141
The dark bluish or greenish ore effervesces when wetted with acid, but the
brown does not. The average specific gravity of the brown ore is about 2-5,
of the blue and green ore 2 • 6, and their respective porosities are about
25 and 14 per cent.
The ore, both blue and brown, is very oolitic, and the grains are mostly
hollow. Organic remains are not abundant, except in the two inferior bands
which are rejected in working. In them Ostrea deltoidea occurs in large
numbers. A list of the fossils found throughout the bed is given below,
after Hudleston and Blake.*
Ammonites Berryeri, Les.
,, decipiens, Soto.
„ pseudo-cordatus, Bl. and II. Cardium delibatum, De Lor. Pholadomya
hemicardia, Ag. Perna quadrata, Sow.
Pecten lens, Sow.
„ nudus, D'Orb.
., distriatus, Leym. Ostrea deltoidea, Sow. Serpula.
The deposit was first worked in or about the year 1856, and the annual
quantity of ore raised during the interval is recorded in the table below:—
In the Lower Cretaceous Eocks.
Iron ore has, in recent times, been worked at two places only in these
rocks, viz., in North Lincolnshire and Wiltshire, but formerly this horizon
was one of the principal sources of iron ore in the country. In the old days
when charcoal was the fuel used in iron smelting, the counties of Surrey and
Kent were famous for their iron furnaces, and the ore used in them was
obtained from these rocks in the district known as the Weald; but the
scarcity of timber, combined with the introduction of coke elsewhere, put a
stop to these once important industries.
Claxby, Lincolnshire.—Along the rising ground, which occurs on the west of
the Lincolnshire Wolds, there crops out a group of strata
* " On the Corallian Rocks of England," Quart. Journal Geo. Soc, Vol.
XXXIII., 1877.
142 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
belonging to the Neocomians. From palseontological considerations they have
been divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper. In the Middle group there is a
bed of iron ore which has been worked in a small way at Hundon, near Castor,
and about seven miles further south at Tealby; but it is only near Claxby
that any quantity of ore has been obtained. The bed there comes to the
surface about half way up the steeply rising ground which extends southwards
from Acre House by the eastern side of the village of Claxhy, and it is
worked by means of mines which, at the present time, have extended about
half-a-mile into the hill. The geological structure of the locality is
represented generally in Plate XXII., Fig. 2, and the exact vertical
position of the ore bed is shown in Plate X., and in the section on Plate
XX., Fig. 9, which was obtained in sinking an air shaft to the mine. -
The dip of the bed is to the east at a very low angle, and the thickness of
the workable part of it is about 6 ft. Under it there is from 5 to 7 ft. of
hard yellowish clay ; below this again is coarse greenish sand, in which are
blocks of sandstone formed of the same kind of sand in a limy matrix. The
roof of the ore is clay: for about 2 ft. above which is clay with iron ore.
The ore is a brownish yellow hydrated peroxide, very oolitic, the grains
being mostly of a shining black and hollow. It has this prevailing brownish
yellow colour even where the working faces are at present— half-a-mile in
from day. It is, however, much harder now than it was at the outcrop.
Organic remains are numerous, the most common form being Pecten cinclus. The
various species found in the ore are named in the following list after
Keeping:—*
Belemnites lateralis, Phil.
„ quadratus, Rom.
„ sp. Ammonites noricus, Schl.
„ plicomphalus, Sow. Exogyra simiata, Sorv. E. Tombeckiana, Z>' Orb.
Pecten cinctus, Sow.
„ striato-punctatus, Bom,.
Avicula macroptera. Rom. Lima Tombeckiana, D' Orb. „ sp.
Pleurotomaria neocomiensis, D' Orb.
„ sp.
Species of Trochus, Turbo, Neritopsis and
Emarginula. Pileopsis neocomiensis, Gardu. Ostrea frons, Park. Trigonia
ingens, Lye. Astarte robusta, Lye. Species of Modiola, Cucullsea,
Tellina,
Sphsera, Cyprina, Mjacites, Phola-
doinya, and Sowerbya. Serpula lophioides, Goldf.
,, gordialis, Schl.
* " On some sections of Lincolnshire Neoconiian." Quart. Journal Geo. Sue,
Vol. XXXVIII., 1882.
THE IKON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 143
The constituents of the ore have been determined by analysis to be as
follows :—
The sample giving these results was in a highly air-dried condition, so that
the metallic iron is from 8 to 4 per cent, higher than would have been
obtained from the same piece of ore immediately after it came from the mine.
For the same reason the water given off at 212° P. is less.
The average specific gravity of the ore is about 2*5, and its porosity about
25 per cent.
The deposit has been worked since 1868, or thereabouts, and the annual
quantity dispatched from the works since has been as under:—
Seend, Wilts.—Some years ago, when the furnaces at Seend were working, a
considerable quantity of ore was obtained between where they stand and the
village. It occurs in the Lower Green Sand, which there reposes on the
Kimmeridge Clay. Plate XXII., Fig. 1, partly after the Survey map, shows the
area occupied by the different rocks of the neighbourhood, and the
diagramatic section, Plate XX., Fig. 10, will convey an approximately
accurate idea of the general appearance presented by the deposit in the
working faces. The lines in this section showing the false bedding are
irregular lines of orey concretions in which the bulk of the iron in the
deposit is concentrated. Many of the
144 THE IRON ORES OP THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
concretions have a core of yellow sand, the grains of which are from the
l-10th" to the l-60th" diameter, and consist of silica dusted with hydrated
peroxide of iron. When exposed to the wind this sand is, in many cases,
blown out, so that a face which has not been worked for some time has a very
cellular appearance. Between the different bands of irony concretions the
bed consists mostly of sand of a similar character to that just mentioned,
and it is in places thickly set with siliceous pebbles, some of which are as
much as three-quarters of an inch on their larger axis. The bed is much
softer in these sandy parts than where it is richest in iron. As shown in
the section just referred to, the deposit is traversed occasionally by
strong vertical joints, some of which much as a foot in width and
open. Others are filled with
surface material. In this respect the deposit, when seen from a little
distance, bears a striking resemblance to some of the ore in
Northamptonshire.
As a rule the deposit is not worked down to the Kimmeridge Clay, about 6
feet at the bottom being so pebbly and otherwise poor that it is usually
left. The greatest thickness that has been worked is about 28 feet, but
ordinarily it will run about 18 to 20 feet with a cover of from 4 to 5 feet.
The quality of the ore as despatched to the market, although certainly
siliceous, is not so bad in that respect as might be expected. This is owing
to the fact that most of the sand and pebbles are easily separated in
working. Below are the results of an analysis of a piece from the orey part
of the deposit:—
Peroxide of iron ... ... ... ... ...
64,'Gl
Silicia ..................... 18-02
Alumina ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 3-85
Lime ... ......... ... ...... "64
Magnesia ..... ...... ... ... "20
Phosphoric acid ... ... ... ... ... ...
'64
Water.................... 11-85
99-81 Metallic iron ............ ..... 45-22
The average specific gravity of the orey part of the bed is about 2'5, and
its porosity varies from 13 to 22 per cent.
It is about 30 years since this ore was first worked, and for about six
years at first the operations were fairly continuous, but from 1862 to 1870
work was altogether suspended. In 1871 it was resumed again,
THE IRON ORES OE THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 145
and continued until 1874, since which time the deposit has remained
unworked, except for a little while in the winter of 1884-85. The details of
output are given below :—
Tons.
1856 ...... 10,000
1857 ...... 15,500
1858 ...... 4,103
1859 ...... 1,381
1860 ...... 32,000
Tons.
1861 ...... 15,000
1871 ...... 50,743
1872 ...... 1,000
1873 ...... 34,200
1874 ...... 500
III.—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS, INCLUDING REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN OE THE
DEPOSITS.
In taking a general view of the deposits one or two rather important facts
appear. In the first place, it will be observed, they are all in close
association with immense masses of clay. Taking the Seend ore first, it
is seen that although that deposit occurs in the Lower Green Sand, yet it
rests directly on the Kimmeridge Clay. Proceeding next to the Claxby ore,
in the Middle JSTeocomian, it is found to be practically based on the same
clay, there being only about 6 feet of coarse sand intervening. Then the
"Westbury bed, in the Coralline rocks, is at the base of the Kimmeridge
Clay. Coming to a still lower horizon the deposits of the Inferior
Oolites of Yorkshire, Mid-Lincolnshire, Rutlandshire, and Northamptonshire
are all found at the top of the enormous mass of clay which constitutes the
Upper Lias, whilst at the base of that clay there are the extensive beds of
ore that are worked in Cleveland, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and
Oxfordshire. Lastly, the Frodingham ore occurs in the midst of a great
body of clay.
Another fact, which is probably more than an accidental occurrence, is that
the deposits, for example, at the top and bottom of the Upper Lias—that is
to say, the ores of the Inferior Oolite and the Marlstone rock-bed—do not,
so far as is known, attain their maximum development in superposition, but
alternately; thus, in Cleveland, when the " Main Seam " (of the Middle Lias)
is best, there is scarcely a trace of the " Top Seam " of the Inferior
Oolite, whilst in Rosedale, where the latter seam acquires its greatest
importance, the former seam has almost disappeared. Again, the ore of the
Inferior Oolite extends in a more or less workable con -dition from
Lincolnshire southward to Coleby whence it rapidly deteriorates, but at
Caythorpe, a few miles south of Coleby, the Marlstone rock-bed is highly
ferruginous, and continues so in a greater or less degree to HolwelL in
Leicestershire, but to the south of that place through Rutlandshire and
Northamptonshire it has more of the character of a
VOL. XXXV.-186S
T
146 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
limestone than of an iron ore. Simultaneously with the deterioration of this
bed, south of Holwell, there is a marked improvement in the ore-bearing zone
of the Inferior Oolite. At Cottesmore, in Eutlandshire, it is so well
developed as to be workable, and it preserves that condition more or less
through Eutlandshire and Northamptonshire as far as Tow-cester, where it
dies out. A few miles beyond, at Adderbury and King's Sutton, the Marlstone
rock-bed again becomes a workable ore, and continues so to Fawler, the most
southerly point at which ore has been obtained from either of the two
horizons under consideration.
The number of places at which the deposits immediately above and below the
Kimmeridge Clay have been worked is too small to enable it to be said
whether a similar alternation exists in them, but it would seem to do so
from the relative position of the deposits at Westbury and Seend. The writer
does not wish to attach an undue importance to this alternation of deposits
in different horizons, as further explorations may prove that it is more
apparent than real, but he considers the facts, so far as known, to be at
least worthy of mention.
When the deposits on any given horizon are examined over a large area it is
found that there is not a great difference in their chemical constitution.
Besides the hydrated peroxide or carbonate of iron contained in these ores
they all possess a considerable proportion of ordinary rock-forming
minerals, such as silica, alumina, lime, and magnesia. The relative
percentage weights of each of these different materials in the ores of the
Inferior Oolites and Middle Lias, at most of the places where they have been
worked, are given in the following statement :—
The ores on both horizons, it will be noticed, contain more magnesia in
Yorkshire than anywhere else. The siliceous and aluminous materials
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 147
are together fairly constant throughout. The greatest variation is in the
lime. 1 and 5 are carbonates, the others are hydrated peroxides. The former
contains a larger proportion of these rock-forming materials than the
latter, but they hold much less water.
Although all the deposits that have been descri bed are at their outcrops
more or less hydrated peroxides, yet there is scarcely room for doubt that
originally they existed as carbonates, and that they have been altered by
the action of oxygenated water in accordance with the re-action indicated by
the following chemical formula :—
4 Fe C03 + 0.2 + 8 Ha 0 - Fe4 H6 09 + 4 C02
In other words the carbonate of iron has been decomposed ; carbonic acid
given off, and oxygen and water taken up. One of the results of this
re-action is a loss of volume of about 18 per cent. As, however, the ore
contains a considerable percentage of impurities which would be unaffected
by the above re-action, the loss of volume would not be so great as just
stated. For the purpose of illustration let it be assumed that the
constitution of the unaltered ore was as follows :
Percentage Weight. Carbonate of iron ... ...
66
Silica, alumina, lime, etc. ... 34
100
The diminution of volume resulting from the alteration of this ore, in
accordance with the above formula, would be about 12 per cent. Thus an
explanation of the open joints and the increased porosity of the ore at the
outcrop is obtained, and it is also seen why the ore is more altered and
less compact as it is more accessible to atmospheric water, and conversely
why it is more compact and less altered as its protection from the action of
such water increases—as set forth in the detailed descriptions of the
deposits of Mid-Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire.
The unequal distribution of iron in the altered part of the bed, that is in
the alternating bands of yellow and brown ore, is a problem of more
difficulty, but it is clearly connected with the jointing, and, therefore,
most probably with the circulation of atmospheric waters. From the analyses
given of the different kinds of ore occurring in the deposit at the base of
the Inferior Oolite in Mid-Lincolnshire—and which may be considered as
typical of the several varieties of ore in most of the deposits, it appears
that the yellow ore contains less and the brown ore more iron than the green
or grey ore, whence they were both derived, the iron in the latter
descriptions of ore being distributed much more evenly
148 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
throughout the mass, or perhaps it is more accurate to say that the
variations are not nearly so great, nor so sudden in them, as in the
weathered portion of the bed. The existence of the green and grey cores, and
their increasing size as the "day" is left, shows that the alteration has
been gradual, whilst such sections as those exhibited in the mine at Lincoln
prove that it has taken place, first along the lines of jointing—the ore
adjoining the main joints first showing evidence of the change, and
afterwards, that traversed by the smaller divisional planes. There being, as
already described, three sets of joints—the bed joints and two sets of
vertical joints nearly at right angles to one another—the ore is split up
into cubes and parallelopipedons of various sizes, so that oxygenated water
acting along these joints would, in the course of time, produce the
irregular cuboidal and spheroidal structure described in the earlier part of
the paper.
The alternation of the yellow and brown ore seems to be due to the
intermittent character of the alteration, the brown bands denoting the
limits of the various stages in the change. This supposition is supported by
the fact that one of these brown bands is always found surrounding the green
and grey cores—the only part of the original bed that now remains. From the
manner in which the proportion of brown ore to yellow decreases as the
distance from the outcrop increases, it is not improbable that the first
formed peroxide may, by the alternate action of organic matter and
oxygenated water, have undergone repeated partial dissolutions and
precipitations by which the relative quantity of brown ore has been
increased. The yellow ore being much more porous . than the brown ore, and,
therefore, much more easily traversed by circulating waters, it is natural
to suppose that any subsequent action on the peroxide after its first
formation would be in this yellow ore, and that, as in the case of its first
precipitation, a brown border was produced, so it is probable that at each
succeeding precipitation this border would be increased, until ultimately,
the yellow ore would disappear entirely, having all been converted into
brown ore.
The magnetic character of the deposit at Eosedale West seems to be due to
the partial peroxidation of the carbonate in the oolitic grains. The " seam
of the district" overlying the magnetic deposit appears also to have been
similarly altered, but to a less extent.
Behind these questions there is a further one which naturally suggests
itself, and that is, how did the carbonate originate ? Most of the writers,
if not all, who have entered upon this part of the subject, are agreed that
the ores were not formed contemporaneously with the rocks in which they
occur, but afterwards. There is, however, less
THE IRON ORES OP THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 149
agreement among them as to the manner in which the ores were deposited. A
few quotations will make this clear. Mr. Sorby,* writing in 1856, on the
Cleveland Main Seam, said, "An examination of the composition of the shells
of the seam shows that whilst some of them still retain their original
composition, almost entirely carbonate of lime, others have changed into
carbonate of iron."
" The microscopical investigation of a thin transparent section of the stone
shows far more clearly that the minute fragments of shell have been
similarly altered—the replacing carbonate of iron extending as yellowish
obtuse rhombic crystals from the outside to a variable distance inwards,
often leaving the centre in its original condition as clear colourless
carbonate of lime, though in many instances the whole is changed. The
oolitic grains, likewise, have such peculiarity as indicate that they were
altered after deposition."
" The peculiarities in microscopical structure, already described, prove
that the same change has occurred in the case of a large proportion of the
constituents of the Cleveland stone."
"Independent, then, of the silica and alumina resulting from the clay so
commonly found in limestone, and the phosphate of iron, the general
composition of the ironstone is very similar to that of the altered shell,
so that as far as the chemical composition is concerned the same
circumstances that must have altered the shell may have changed an ordinary
lime jnto such a rock in the manner indicated by the microscopical structure
to have really been the case."
Mr. S. Sharpe,f speaking of the Northamptonshire ore in 1870, says : " The
numerous living organisms of which these, fossils (many of them as it were
cast in iron) are enduring monuments, could not possibly have existed in
waters charged with iron to the degree apparently indicated by the present
condition of the rock. The iron must have been introduced after the
deposition of the sedimentary material, by infiltration doubtless, but
whence derived is a problem yet, I think, to be solved."
Mr. J. W. Judd,^: writing on " The mode of formation of the Northamptonshire
iron ore," says, " The abundance of Molluscan remains in some of the beds of
ironstone, indicating, as we have seen, that the animals lived and died upon
the spot, precludes the idea that the medium in which the beds were
deposited could have been a strong solution of iron."
* Proc. Geo. and Poly. Soc, West Eiding Yorkshire, 185G-7. t Quart. Journal
Geo. Soc., Vol. XXVL, p. 13. X Geology of Rutland (Survey Memoir).
150 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
" The fact that many of the shells in the unweathered rock are more or less
completely converted into carbonate of iron is, as Mr. Sorby has shown in
the case of the Cleveland ore, a strong proof of the metamor-phic character
of the rock."
"It would be easy to show, were it necessary, from the immense amount of
denudation which has taken place in the district, that the beds of iron ore
now exposed to our observation must have been long buried at great depths in
the earth ; during this period, one of almost inconceivable duration, water
containing carbonate of iron would appear to have constantly penetrated the
porous sandy rock, and thus gradually effected its metamorphosis into an
iron ore. The action of this water would be two-fold. In the first place it
would deposit around the grains of sand and in all the interstices of the
rock the dissolved carbonate of iron, and in the second place, acting under
the favourable conditions of great pressure and high temperature, it would
dissolve a portion of the silica and other ingredients of the rocks. Of the
matter thus dissolved one portion appears to have been re-deposited in new
combinations and with the carbonate of iron, to have formed the oolitic
concretions, while the remainder was probably carried away in solution."
Mr. W. H. Huddleston,* in reporting an excursion of the Geologists'
Association to Northamptonshire, suggests that the ore there has been formed
by the replacement of limestone. He says, " It must be borne in mind that
most, if not all, of these oolitic ironstones either in Yorkshire or
Northamptonshire are overlain by porous sandy beds, which frequently contain
considerable traces of carbonaceous matter. This probably is but a vestige
of what once existed in the peaty beds accompanying " estuarine" conditions.
Layer after layer of micaceous sands, rich in iron, have been permeated by
organic acids, the products of the decomposition of these vegetable masses,
which attacking the mica and any such basic minerals which might be present,
removed their more soluble constituents, and thus by perpetually exhausting
the sands left those bleached and partly coherent masses, which so often
overlie the ironstone beds. This is probably one source of the iron, as the
solution originating in the manner described above, and the ultimate
decomposition of which would most probably result in the formation of
carbonates, might possibly, in the presence of an excess of carbonic acid,
decompose and replace any lime carbonates they might meet with in their
descent. The presence of an impervious bed of clay at the base of such rocks
would materially facilitate the operation by keeping the original Oolite in
a sort of bath containing a solution of the replacing salt." * Proc. Geol.
Assoc, No. IV.
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 151
So far as the Northampton ore and the Cleveland Main Seam are concerned,
which appear to be the only deposits in the secondary rocks that have been
considered from this point of view, there is a concensus of opinion that
they were not formed contemporaneously with the enclosing rocks, but
subsequently. With that opinion the writer agrees entirely, and would
extend it to all the other deposits of the Secondary rocks referred to in
the earlier part of this paper. It is altogether incredible that the
marine organisms, whose remains occur more or less abundantly in most of
these deposits, could have lived in water holding in solution such a
quantity of iron as would be necessary to convert their shells into a
carbonate of that metal. Besides, as will be shown in the sequel, it is
quite unnecessary to assume anything so much opposed to experience.
Eeverting to the preceding quotations, it is found that Mr. Sharpe does not
enter into particulars as to the manner in which he conceives the
Northamptonshire deposits to have originated. Mr. Judd, however, does. He
assumes the bed to have consisted originally of sand, and that the carbonate
of iron was deposited partly in the interstices of the sand and partly in
place of some of it. Mr. Judd considers that, under certain conditions of
heat and pressure, some of the sand might have been dissolved. The
improbability of such a mode of origin is, in the writer's estimation,
something enormous. He cannot conceive of silica being dissolved by any
carbonated solution of iron which did not also remove every vestige of lime
in the inorganic remains. As a matter of fact, however, many of the
shells met with in the ore are in their normal limy condition. Mr. Judd's
explanation moreover does not afford any clue to the oolitic structure of
the ore, nor to the fact of its containing alumina, lime, and other ordinary
rock-forming minerals, in proportions which do not vary greatly in different
areas, and which do not seem to be influenced in any way by the varying
nature of the overlying rocks j for instance, the proportions of silica,
alumina, lime, and magnesia do not differ materially in the ores of
Northampton and Mid-Lincoln, notwithstanding that the former is overlain
principally by sand, whilst the latter is covered by a thick mass of
limestone. In North Yorkshire the same bed is overlain by an enormous
thickness of sandstones and shales, yet the proportions of alumina, etc., in
the ore are almost the same as at Northampton ; and the statement is not
sensibly affected if the comparison is extended to the ores of the Middle
Lias which are everywhere overlain by clay. Mr. Judd's explanation is
therefore insufficient.
The suggestions of Mr. Sorby and Mr. Huddleston as to the origin of the
Cleveland and Northamptonshire ore respectively, are that they were
152 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
produced by the replacement of an ordinary limestone. Mr. Huddleston also
considers that the ironstone of the Dogger series of Yorkshire originated in
this way.* Both these geologists found their conclusions on the fact that
the ores contain shells which are partly or wholly converted into carbonate
of iron.
This explanation commends itself to the writer, and he would extend it to
each of the deposits mentioned in the descriptive part of the paper. His
reasons for so doing are as follows : In the first place there is such a
great similarity in the character of the different deposits that, a priori,
it is extremely probable they all originated in the same way, and as will be
hereafter pointed out, at least one peculiar feature is common to them all.
Let it be assumed that' originally the ore beds consisted of an ordinary
oolitic limestone, the composition of which was somewhat similar to that of
some of the lower beds of the Lincolnshire limestone, an analysis of one of
which, as it occurs at Lincoln, is given below :—
Combined water ......... ... ... 4'87
Peroxide of iron ............ ... 8-46
Oxides of alumina and magnesia ... ... ... 2-04
Lime ..................... 42-18
Magnesia ... ... ... ... ...
... -58
Carbonic acid ... ... ... ... ... ...
30'96
Phosphoric acid... ......... ... ... -35
Sulphuric acid ... ... ... ...... ...
trace
Insoluble siliceous matter ... ... . ...
10'56
100-00
As this limestone was almost resting on the ore it may, to a small extent,
have been subjected to the same metamorphic action as is assumed in the case
of the latter, so that to arrive at its original composition the peroxide of
iron and part of the combined water should be struck out from the above
analysis. There would then be a stone consisting mainly of carbonate of
lime, but containing also about 10'56 per cent of silica, 2*04 of alumina,
and *58 of magnesia, with a small quantity of phosphoric acid and a trace of
sulphuric acid. The percentage of silica and alumina in this stone, it will
be seen on reference to the analyses previously given, are less than they
are in the Mid-Lincolnshire ore, but this is only what might be expected
from the decreasing proportion of these materials in the ore itself from the
bottom upwards, as shown below :— •
THE IRON ORKS OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 153
This upward decrease of siliceous and aluminous materials and corresponding
increase of calcareous matter is surely to be expected in a bed occupying
the position of the Mid-Lincoln iron ore which forms as it were a
transitional stage between the Upper Lias clay and the Lincolnshire
limestone.
Now, as already pointed out, all the ores that have been described in the
earlier part of the paper occupy such a position, with reference to masses
of clay, that the limestones which are assumed to have preceded the ore,
would, in all probability, be more siliceous and aluminous than the stone,
of which the analysis is given above, and therefore, so far as these
materials were concerned, it would correspond more closely with the
quantities actually existing in the ores.
The replacement of carbonate of lime by carbonate of iron is expressed by
the following formula :—
Ca C03 + Pe C2 05 = Pe C03 + Ca C2 05.
One of the results of this re-action is a diminution of volume equal to
about 18 per cent., that is to say, the precipitated carbonate of iron
occupies only 82 per cent, of the volume of the limestone which it replaces.
It is possible, however, that the carbonate of iron may occupy as much space
as the limestone which it replaced, but if so, it must be more porous by 18
per cent. In the case of an ore containing, say, 66 per cent, of carbonate
of iron, the porosity would only be increased 12 per cent. Thus an
explanation is obtained of the increased porosity of the bluish and greenish
carbonate of iron occurring in the ore beds as compared with ordinary
oolitic limestone. This increase is partly shown in the following examples
which, in No. 1, give the relative porosities of a piece of limestone
overlying the Mid-Lincoln ore and of one of the greenish nodules in the ore
bed. No. 2 is of a piece of limestone underlying the ore at Holwell and of
one of the green cores in the ore.
Percentage of Volume. Porosities No. 1.
No. 2.
Limestone...... ... 11 "5 ... 8-5
Green nodule ...... 20'0 ... 17"0
These examples do not show so great a difference in the porosities as was
stated above, but that is easily accounted for when it is borne in mind that
limestones like other bodies vary in their porosities, and that those tested
were not from the same horizon as the ores but as near thereto as they could
be obtained.
The increased porosity of the ores in their carbonated condition is a
feature of all the deposits except that at Seend, which, so far as the
writer
VOL. XXXV.- 1866
^
154 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
knows, contains iron only as a hydrated peroxide. It is, however,
extremely probable that the ore in that deposit existed originally as a
carbonate. The sand and pebbles associated with the ore, and which give
the deposit an entirely different character from any of the others, demand
special notice. It is quite impossible that this bed could have existed
originally as an ordinary limestone, nor is such a supposition necessary,
but, just as a considerable quantity of lime is found cementing together
the siliceous grains of the sandstone blocks which occur amid the coarse
sands underlying the ore at Claxby, so it is quite possible that at Seend,
originally, the sand and pebbles had a limy matrix. A solution of
carbonate of iron coming into contact with this lime would remove it
and leave carbonate of iron in its place, which, by the subsequent action
of oxygenated water, would be converted into hydrated peroxide as is
now seen.
Reverting to the consideration of the other deposits it will be seen that by
the action of a carbonated solution, of iron on an Oolitic limestone
containing certain proportions of silica, alumina, and magnesia an
explanation is obtained of the following facts :—
1.—The partial and in some cases the total conversion of the shells into
carbonate of iron. This is a natural result of the process of replacement,
some shells being more difficult to act upon than others, whilst they all
offer more resistance to an acid solution than ordinary limestone. 2.—The
occurrence of thin beds of limestone in the ore at Frodingham, and of
irregular pieces of the same stone in the deposits at Caythorpe and Holwell,
all of which graduate into the ore, point out clearly that these beds of ore
were formed by the replacement of limestone. The occurrence of limestone
also at the bottom of each of these deposits and its irregular junction with
the ore is further evidence in the same direction, as is also the variable
quantity of lime existing in the ferruginous parts of many of the deposits.
Take for example the ore at Wellingborough, which in four cases gave the
following relative quantities of lime and iron:—
The inverse proportion of the lime to the metallic iron which is seen in
these particulars is frequently found in the Northampton Ore and in
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 155
other deposits as well. Below is an illustration of it from Hutton Old
Mine in the Cleveland Main Seam:—
In making a comparison of this kind the ores must be taken within a small
area, otherwise the results are liable to modification from the variation of
the silica or alumina; for, although as a rule these minerals are more
constant than the lime, yet they vary considerably at times, as will be seen
on reference to the analyses given in the earlier part of the paper, so that
it is quite possible, if the ores compared are from a large area, to have a
small metallic yield with a small percentage of lime, simply because the
silica or alumina, or both, may be unusually high.
3.—Another fact strongly suggestive of replacement is that the beds in the
different ferruginous horizons frequently assume the character of ordinary
limestones. In illustration of this remark reference may be made to the fact
that the Marlstone rock-bed, which is a workable ore of iron in part of
Leicestershire and Oxfordshire, occurs throughout most of the intervening
area and in the south-west of Oxfordshire as a limestone.
4.—The Oolitic character of the ironstones, as well as the presence in them
of variable proportions of silica and alumina, etc., are a direct result of
the replacement of an oolitic limestone containing varying quantities of
clay.
5.—The higher metallic yield of the magnetic ore of Rosedale means simply
that the preceding limestone was purer.
One further question remains, and that is the source of the iron. Mr.
Huddleston has suggested in the case of the Northampton ore, that it came
from the overlying sands; he also suggests that the ore of the Dogger series
of Yorkshire originated from a solution of iron formed in the sandstones and
shales of the Lower Estuarine series which overlie the ore bed. The
difficulty of accepting these suggestions is that the ore of
Mid-Lincolnshire, which is on the same horizon as those of Northampton and
Yorkshire, and is similar to them in all other respects, yet differs from
them in this, that it is overlain by limestone.
The close connection of all these deposits with large masses of clay has
suggested to the writer that the source of the iron was in these clays. The
Jurassic rocks rests almost throughout their entire course, from North
Yorkshire to South Dorsetshire, on the red irony strata of the Permian and
Trias, and there is little doubt that the denudation of the
156 THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS.
latter rocks contributed largely to the formation of the former. On this
point the writer would call attention to the large amount of magnesia in
both the Liassic and Oolitic ores of Cleveland, which is difficult to
account for, unless it be supposed that the limestones which preceded these
ores were mixed with materials derived from the large area of Magnesian
limestone to the north-west. However that may be, it is almost certain that
the clayey and sandy beds of the Lias and Oolite were derived in a great
measure from the red rocks to the north-west. Hence the large quantity of
iron in them. Below are given analyses of the Upper and Lower Lias clays, as
well as of the Kimmeridge Clay, from which it will be seen that they all
contain a large quantity of iron.
A solution of carbonic acid would dissolve the protoxide of iron in the
clays, and this solution, in its circulatory movements through the rocks,
would be precipitated by the limestones, which, it is supposed, occurred at
the top and bottom of the clays, or, as in the case of Frod-ingham, amid the
clay. The alternation of the deposits previously pointed out, if it should
be real, may have resulted from the different directions taken by the
underground currents.
Although the writer believes that the direct source of the iron was the clay
contiguous to the deposits, yet he is of opinion that its original source
was volcanic, that it came to the surface at the time the haematite deposits
of Cumberland and Lancashire were formed, and that, in the first instance,
it was deposited along with the sands and shales of the Permian and Trias.
By denudation, these latter rocks were subsequently in part removed, and
re-deposited in the sedimentary strata of the
THE IRON ORES OF THE ENGLISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 157
Secondaries. As has just been seen, these sediments contain abundance of
iron, but it is scattered through such an enormous mass of earthy material
as to be utterly valueless for metallurgical purposes. By subsequent
chemical action, however, this iron, or some of it, would assume a mobile
condition, and circulate with the underground waters, from which it would be
precipitated in a concentrated form by the limestones which, it is supposed,
preceded the ore beds.
Professor Merivale read the following paper, by Messrs. Liddell and
Merivale, on the " Transmission of Power by Steam: " —
TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM. 159
TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM.
By Messes. LIDDELL and MERIVALE.
One of the most difficult problems that the mining- engineer has to deal
with is the transmission of power to long distances. It is not proposed,
however, to discuss here the various methods in which this may be effected;
but to describe, shortly, a successful attempt lately made at Broomhill
Colliery to convey power by means of steam to a pumping engine, situated
in-bye 1,294 yards from the boiler at bank, a distance, so far as the
authors know, greater than has before been attempted, at least in this
district. (See Fig. 1, Plate XXIII.)
In the first place, the writers were guided in their choice of steam by the
special circumstances of the case, namely, that there was surplus boiler
power already to hand, and that the steam had been carried 342 yards of the
distance previously. The crookedness of the rolley-way also made
transmission by ropes, which is being adopted for pumping upon a large scale
in other parts of the mine, inadmissible.
There are upon the surface two cylindrical boilers, one 20 feet 6 inches
long by 5 feet diameter, the other 29 feet by 5 feet diameter. They are used
alternately, one boiler only being on at a time ; but the little boiler is
found to be rather small for the work required. The consumption is 38 tons
of small coal per pay.
The steam is taken, at 35 to 38 lbs. pressure, through 5-inch cast iron
pipes, to the shaft 19 yards, and down the shaft 27 fathoms. Here is placed
one of Tangye's 5-inch steam traps and separators (Fig. 2), which, when the
engines are running, delivers about 9 gallons of water per hour.
The construction and action of this separator may be thus described : a, the
top portion, is placed in the range of steam pipes by the flanges I and rn;
ii are two splash plates, which deflect the water carried along with the
steam on to the perforated plate b, through which it drops into the lower
portion of the separator c; d is a small floating cistern guided in its up
and down motion by the projections g, and having a small valve / fixed to
its bottom, which opens and closes the pipe e, through which the condensed
water passes away at h; 1c is a self-acting valve for allowing the air to
escape. When the steam is first admitted, k falls by its
160 TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM.
own weight, and is shut by the steam as soon as pressure is obtained. When
it is first set to work water is put into the bottom part to float the
cistern d, which shuts the valve /; when sufficient water has dropped
through the sieve b to cause the cistern d to fall, the valve/ opens, and
the condensed water is forced out through e; the cistern then rises and
again closes the valve/.
The greater part of this water will, perhaps, be due to priming or syphoning
of the water out of the boiler, a phenomenon which, in spite of the baffle
plates with which the boilers are fitted, appears always to accompany the
use of steam a long distance below the level of the generator, more
especially when commencing work and when the boiler is driven hard. These
pipes are covered with Wormald's composition, and the portion in the shaft
is coated in addition with felt and lead. There are two expansion joints;
one placed horizontally between the boilers and the shaft, the other
vertically at the top of the shaft.
The 5-inch steam pipes are then taken a further distance of 269 yards, with
a vertical fall of 44 feet, to a receiver 6 feet long by 8 feet diameter.
The pipes and receiver are covered with "Wormald's composition, and there is
one expansion joint inserted in this range. Near this receiver is placed a
combined hauling and pumping engine, erected two years ago. It is a single
cylinder horizontal engine, 12 inches diameter by 2 feet stroke, and makes
30 revolutions per minute, with a steam pressure of 32 lbs. (i.e., 6 lbs.
less than the pressure in the boiler at bank, which is 342 yards off). It
runs during the day for 11 hours out of the 24, and is laid off when the pit
is idle. It hauls 120 tons of coal per day, up a bank 101 yards long, rising
3-12 inches per yard ; and 70 tons of coal per day up another bank, situated
about half a mile further in-bye, 399 yards long, rising 3*35 inches per
yard. It also deals with a constant feeder of 13 gallons per minute, which
it forces 219 yards and 34 feet vertically, through 4-inch pipes, by means
of a double-acting pump, 6 inches diameter by 1 foot 6 inches stroke.
The receiver is fitted with one of Tangye's 4-inch steam traps and
separators, from which about 17 gallons of condensed water are delivered
per hour.
From the receiver, a range of 2^-inch wrought iron pipes is carried a
further distance of 952 yards, with a vertical fall of 101 feet, to the
in-bye pumping engine. Upon this range there are two of Tangye's 4-inch
steam traps, without separators (one 211 yards from the receiver, delivering
about 10 gallons of condensed water per hour, the other placed near the
in-bye engine, delivering about 31 gallons per hour ; this gives a
TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM. 161
total of about 67 gallons per hour for the total range of 1,294 yards ; in
addition, there will be some condensation in the cylinders) ; and three
expansion joints only, the crookedness of the road making more than this
unnecessary. The steam pipes, traps, and engine are covered with Wormald's
composition.
The engine is a single cylinder horizontal engine, 8 inches diameter by 1
foot stroke, geared 3 to 2 to a Warner's three-throw single-acting ram horse
pump ; each ram is 4 inches diameter by 1 foot stroke.
The pressure of the steam is 25 lbs. (i.e., 13 lbs. below that in the boiler
at bank, distant 1,294 yards as measured along the steam pipes, 314*42 feet
vertical distance). Vacuum—obtained by turning the exhaust into the suction
pipe—varies with the vertical distance of the standage, viz.:—18*4 feet
gives 13 to 14 inches vacuum; 10'30 feet gives 7 inches. The vertical
distances are measured from the level of the water to the vacuum gauge.
The engine works for 6^ hours out of the 24, and 12 days per pay, at 55
revolutions per minute ; and deals with a constant feeder of 13 gallons per
minute, which is drawn 37 yards up 14 feet vertically, and then forced 380
yards up 114 feet vertically. Forster's 4-inch pipes are used, both for the
suction and rising main.
It was first started in October, 1885, before the 2^-inch steam pipes were
covered, and before the 5-inch steam pipes were covered in the shaft—i.e.,
with 1,240 yards of naked pipe out of the total of 1,294 yards. In these
circumstances, the loss of pressure was from 27 to 30 lbs., as compared with
12 to 13 lbs. the present loss ; but no measurement was made of the quantity
of condensed water.
The installation was completed early in December, 1885, since which date it
has been working regularly and satisfactorily.
Tangye's combined steam trap and separator, Forster's patent socket pipe,
the expansion joint used upon the range of steam pipes, and the arrangement
of pipes for turning the exhaust steam into the suction pipe, are given in
Plate XXIII., Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5. A plan of the drift, showing the pipes,
levels, and position of engines, is given on the same Plate.
Since writing the above, the water has increased, and the feeder is now 16
gallons per minute. In addition, an accumulation of water in some old
workings has been pumped out. The face of the workings is advancing, and
preparations are being made to take the steam in a further distance of 100
yards.
VOL, XXXV.-188S,
V
162 DISCUSSION—TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM.
The President said the paper would be open for discussion at a future
meeting, but any gentleman who wished to speak upon it now could do so.
Mr. Lawrence said the only thing which struck him as being novel, and
whereby a great saving had been effected, was the fact of the pipes being
covered with felt and lead. He would be very glad if Mr Merivale would give
a more detailed description of how the covering was done : what thickness of
lead put on, and any other particulars as to the covering of the pipes. Of
course, it would be out of place for him to enter into any argument as to
the logic of taking steam so far into a mine. The mining engineer, as a
rule, would not let him do it. He would like to know from Mr. Merivale how
he takes away the exhaust steam from the 12-inch engine? He could readily
understand what Mr Merivale said about the in-bye pump, but he did not tell
them what he did with the steam from the 12-inch pipe a long way in-bye. His
(Mr Lawrence's) experience of turning the steam into the "return" was that
it brought down a large quantity of stone, and people would not let him do
it. No doubt the crooked ways at Broomhill Colliery would prevent Professor
Merivale economically working there with rope; although it seemed to his
(Mr. Lawrence's) mind that a rope could be taken a long way in. This seemed
to him a long distance to carry steam for so little work. He would also like
to know whether the 12-inch hauling engine had a tail or endless rope; and
whether, if the rope went anywhere near the place in-bye for haulage, the
pumping could not have been done by the rope, instead of carrying steam in
that distance ? He was rather surprised to find Forster's pipes efficient
for the long suction, seeing there was a vertical height of, he thought, 14
feet. Could there not have been a less steam pipe than 5 inches carried such
a long distance ? They all knew that the larger the pipe the larger the
condensation which took place. With regard to the loss of water being caused
by priming, he thought if they took into consideration the surface, and the
distance the steam was carried, it would be found that the condensation
would give that quantity of water without any priming.
Professor Herschel said that in the paper the diminution of pressure at the
end of the steam pipe was observed, he thought, while the engines were
running. He would like to know whether there was any sign of loss of
pressure when the engines were not working at that long distance from the
boiler ?
Professor Merivale said that with regard to Mr Lawrence's general statement,
that it was objectionable to carry steam in-bye to do work which could be
more cheaply done by ropes.
DISCUSSION—TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM. 163
Mr Lawrence remarked that he did not say " cheaply ;" he left out the word "
cheaply."
Professor Merivale said, assuming Mr. Lawrence had used the word "cheaply,"
he would agree with him. He thought it was objectionable to take steam
in-bye for many reasons. But this was a special case: there was already
steam a considerable distance in-bye—put in before their time; and, having
the surplus steam, it was thought it would be cheaper to carry the steam in
a still greater distance. When they were pumping originally with horses, the
cost was 6^d. per ton, and with the present arrangement it was a little over
-|d. a ton. They were well satisfied that if they pumped with ropes, as they
were doing on a very large scale in another part of the mine, they would do
it more cheaply still ; but, considering the circumstances, he thought they
were wise in utilizing the steam. As to the exhaust, he did not think there
was any difficulty in killing the exhaust by turning it into the suction
pipes, so long as there was sufficient water. At Netherton, there was a
larger pumping engine—a pair of cylinders 14 inches diameter, and the
exhaust was turned direct into the return when he went there originally,
with the result which Mr Lawrence had stated, that it did a great deal of
damage. The exhaust was afterwards turned into the suction pipes, and no
difficulty was found. The steam from the 12-inch engine was turned into the
standage, which does not get unmanageably hot. As to covering the pipes it
was only in the shaft, which was rather wet, that felt and lead were used.
The felt was wrapped round the pipes, and then there was a covering of sheet
lead, about ^¥th of an inch in thickness, fastened on with copper wire. The
hauling engine was a single main rope engine, and there wTould have had to
be a second rope if they had wanted to pump with it. As to Forster's pipes,
in another district they were used as sucking pipes, 186 yards long, 7
inches diameter, with a vertical height of 21 feet. At that distance the
pump got a little petted at first. The 5-inch pipe was too big at Broomhill,
but it was already there. The 2^-inch pipe even was too large ; but they had
thought it best to err on the safe side, as it was an experiment taking
steam in so far. As to Professor Herschel's question relative to the
pressure, he said that the pressure stated in the paper was observed when
the engines wrere running. No observations had been made when the engines
were standing, although it would be useful to do so.
Mr. Lawrence asked Professor Herschel whether he would not expect the
pressure would rise to very nearly boiler pressure when the engines were
standing ?
Professor Herschel supposed there would be a little loss.
164 DISCUSSION—TRANSMISSION OF POWEK BY STEAM.
Professor Merivale promised to make the observation. Mr. Lawrence had said
that the larger the pipes the greater the condensation. He (Professor
Merivale) was not quite sure whether that would really be so or not. There
would be a greater surface, but there was a larger body of steam inside. He
would ask Professor Herschel whether, with larger pipes, there would be
greater condensation ?
Professor Herschel said that there would be so; and also an increase of
friction on the surface. But the larger area of section would diminish the
friction in a greater proportion at the same time.
Mr. G-. R. Pearson said he had carried steam 1,390 yards, 440 yards in
4-inch and 990 yards in 2-inch wrought iron pipes, with a loss of 51bs. When
the engine was pumping at its ordinary speed the pipes were covered with a
non-conducting cement.
Mr. Steavenson said that this was one of those excellent papers which he
often encouraged young men to write. He would like, if possible, to have the
inquiry carried further, and compare the work done with the coal used.
Whether the use of steam underground was desirable, or what other power was
they could not decide at present. The question must in a great measure be
ruled by the various circumstances of each case. They had not merely the
"three courses" open to them, they had twice that number—steam, water under
high pressure, ropes, compressed air, gas, and electricity, and whether
there were any more, he would not stop to inquire at present. He must say
that, after his experience, he had a very strong prejudice against the use
of steam underground, not on account of the loss of condensation, but
because of the injury it did to the roads and timbering; it brought
everything about their ears. He endeavoured, if possible, to have the engine
on the surface, and carry ropes down. The very first book he took off the
shelves this morning, the Revue Universelle, for 1884, contained comparisons
between the motive powers he had enumerated, and many more. Of electricity
he had had no experience. He had no doubt that under some circumstances
electricity might be very good, but it incurred a certain amount of danger ;
there was the chance of sparks underground, or a man touching a wire not
sufficiently protected, and being killed. There was more chance of the
machinery going wrong than there was with compressed air, water, or ropes.
He was inclined to think that, under all circumstances, the two latter were
the best. It would not be a bad idea for the Council to appoint a committee
of the Institute to examine a few cases, and ascertain for themselves what
would be the best to do under general circumstances, and then let every one
please himself as to the plan he adopted.
DISCUSSION—TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM. 165
Professor Merivale said he had made the calculation which Mr. Steavenson had
suggested, and he would rather not mention the result. He had given in the
paper such information as would enable any gentleman interested to make the
calculation for himself. If they looked at the matter from a purely
theoretical view, taking steam in-bye was very extravagant. But it was the
special circumstances at Broomhill which induced them to adopt it there. If
he were starting from the surface he would not dream of taking steam in-bye
for a distance of 700 or 800 yards.
Professor Herschel asked whether the consumption of coal at the boilers was
entirely to raise steam for the two engines ?
Professor Merivale : Yes; 38 tons of rough small coal per pay.
Mr. Steavenson : In the Revue Universelle the cost per horsepower per day
for given distances, is reduced to a very small fraction of a franc.
The President said they were very much obliged to Mr. Liddell and Professor
Merivale for the paper which they had contributed; and the interest it had
created must be gratifying to the writers. Probably, at the next meeting,
further remarks would be made by other gentlemen. There was no doubt that
steam was a very handy power to use, especially, as often was the case, and
as in this instance, when it happened to be ready to hand. They were very
much inclined only to lengthen their pipes and use steam as in this case. He
knew several instances where steam was taken great distances, and there was
found no great difficulty or disadvantage, and there was not much extra cost
for the supply, as the first cost of supplying steam was not great.
Probably, the use of compressed air was one of the most effective and
economical means, and gave the least trouble; but it required a considerable
outlay of capital in the first instance. If there was already a boiler on
the surface, and pipes down the pit, it cost very little money to take steam
in-bye for pumping, if they could get quit of the steam. There were in the
paper many facts of interest, and the suggestion made by Mr. Steavenson that
it should form the nucleus for further consideration was an excellent one;
and probably Mr. Steavenson might bring before the Council the question of
forming a committee to consider the best means of transmitting power
underground, which might lead to some useful result. When Professor Merivale
mentioned that the distance in-bye was greater than had hitherto been tried,
he (the President) was not quite sure that he was right. About 1,000 yards
was a common distance to take steam in, and one gentleman who had spoken,
had taken steam further than Professor Merivale mentioned. As to the
question of exhaust-
166 DISCUSSION—TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY STEAM.
ing into the standage, it would be of interest to know how long the engine
was working, and whether the standage did not get very heated. There was a
certain loss from blowing steam through the water, if the exhaust pipe were
put any depth down. He moved a vote of thanks to the writers of the paper.
The vote of thanks was agreed to.
Mr. M. Walton Brown read the following translation of the " Prussian
Regulations for the Management of Fiery Mines":—
PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR FIERY MINES. 167
REGULATIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF FIERY MINES
IN PRUSSIA.
Translated by M. WALTON BROWN.
I— GENERAL REGULATIONS.
1.—Mines are considered as fiery in which fire-damp has been found during
the last two years.
Where several independent divisions of the workings exist, so far as regards
the winding and ventilation, each of these divisions should be regarded as
separate mines.
2.—In all fiery mines there must be at least two entrances, separated by
intermediate rock of sufficient strength. These openings shall be used, one
for the entry and the other for the exit of the air. Exemptions to this rule
are only provisional.
II.—VENTILATION.
3.—In all fiery mines precautions must be taken for a regular ventilation,
so that accumulations of fire-damp, under ordinary circumstances, may be
avoided in the air currents, and all accessible working places or stone
drifts kept in working condition and regularly inspected.
Large mines may be divided into several districts, with independent
ventilation.
It is desirable to keep special plans of the ventilation.
4.—The exclusive production of the air through natural ventilation is
inadmissible.
The exclusive ventilation by means of the boiler chimneys is also forbidden.
The use of furnaces is only admissible when, on one hand, the furnaces are
fed with fresh air, and a safe retreat provided for the furnacemen ; and, on
the other hand, when the ignition of the fire-damp at the furnaces is
impossible.
Open fire kibbles are forbidden.
5.—The quantity of fresh air to be introduced per minute into a fiery mine
must be, for each independent current 53 cubic feet per ton of coal drawn
daily; if this quantity is not sufficient to reduce the estimated fire-damp
to 1^ per cent, of the general current of air it must be correspondingly
increased.
168 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR FIERY MINES.
Where, on the contrary, the proportion of the fire-damp and carbonic acid in
the return air does not exceed 1^ per cent., the quantity of fresh air may
be reduced to 35 cubic feet per ton of coal worked. But in all cases the
quantity must at least amount to 70 cubic feet per workman, calculated for
the largest shift. One horse to be regarded as equal to four men.
The attachment to the ventilator of some registering apparatus is to be
recommended.
The motors for the ventilation must have power sufficient to produce and
maintain the prescribed minimum quantity of air, and, when required, to
increase it immediately by 25 per cent.
6.—It appears necessary that (at least for new drifts and pits) the main
air-ways should have a cross section of at least 32 square feet.
The dimensions of these and the other air-ways should in every case be so
great that with a sufficient ventilation the velocity of the air per minute
does not exceed 800 feet in the intake, or 1,200 feet in the return
currents. However, in general, it is recommended to obtain lower velocities
by increasing the area of the galleries and splitting the currents. The use
of air bore-holes as accessories is not prohibited. 7.—The ventilation in
general and in its details should be so arranged that the fresh air descends
from the surface into the level of the working places by the shortest route,
and that the isolated currents in the divisions of the mine should be always
ascentional.
Descending currents of air should only be allowed exceptionally in special
cases when the current of fresh and pure air is abundant and the intakes
very tightly stopped. Rise drifts are not included, which can only be made
with a descending current of air.
There is no objection to lead descending currents into an air-way where it
is not to be used again.
8.— The number of working places aired by one and the same current shall be
only so many, that the air in these places possesses the requisite freshness
and purity.
An air current considerably fouled must be carried by the shortest route to
the return air-way without passing other working places.
9.—It should be an object of special attention to direct the fresh air along
the face of the working places and galleries.
The ventilation of a working place must not depend upon diffusion alone for
a distance of more than 20 yards. Rise drifts should never be driven without
special ventilation. In dip drifts similar arrangements should be commenced
after the length exceeds 15 yards. Shafts, cross-
PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR FIERY MINES. 16!)
measures, drifts, and galleries, where parallel workings are not made
simultaneously, should never be driven without brattice or air-boxes or
air-pipes of sufficient diameter.
The inclination of rise drifts should not exceed 1 in 100.
For the ventilation of single working places requiring an abundant
ventilation, the use of compressed air and blast pipes is recommended, such
as Koerting's steam jet, or other suitable apparatus.
The greatest care should be taken that hand ventilators are always placed in
fresh air.
All the roads and communications made for ventilation and abandoned should
be permanently stopped off and hermetically sealed in a durable manner.
10.—Air-doors should be erected so as to be self-closing.
"When complete isolation is required, or where, in consequence of the
working of the mine, there is considerable traffic, the doors should be
doubled, and at such a distance apart so that one shall always be closed.
Doors, when out of use, should be removed from the hinges.
11.—No alteration should be made in the arrangements for ventilation without
the special order of the agent in charge.
Any damages occasioned to the brattice doors or air-pipes should be
immediately reported to this agent.
12.—Abandoned workings should be fenced off in an evident manner and
entrance thereto should be forbidden.
13.—The escape of gas from old workings should be prevented, either by
hermetically sealing them up or by the ventilation of these workings.
In places approaching old workings or other places likely to contain gas,
bore-holes should precede the face of the working place.
14.—Each working place in which the workmen do not change in the face must
be scrupulously tested for gas before the entrance of the workmen.
15.—On the ventilation being stopped or suffering serious disturbance the
workmen should be withdrawn at once from the working places rendered
dangerous, and should only return to their work when the removal of the
danger has been proved by careful examination.
As soon as at any point of the workings there is any sign of danger
(threatened accumulation of gas) the workmen should shut or fence off the
dangerous place, leave the place, warn their comrades, and report to the
first official met by them.
16.—The driving of headways and boards should not begin until the
ventilation has passed from the working level to the upper level, except in
the cases where descending ventilation is permitted.
"VOL. XXXV.—1886,
W
170 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR FIERY MINES.
17.—In every fiery mine the ventilation should be examined constantly and
with great care by special workmen if it is necessary.
III.—BLASTING.
18.—Blasting with powder or other slow acting explosives should be forbidden
in fiery mines. The use of dynamite or other rapid acting explosives, and of
similar nature to dynamite with regard to coal dust, should only be allowed.
,
The use of dynamite and other similar explosive bodies should be forbidden
in districts or in any working place where any appreciable quantity of gas
can be detected by means of the ordinary safety lamp (more than 3 per cent).
In every case it must be certain, before shooting, that there is an absence
of gas for a distance of 10 metres from the shot-hole.
The stemming of holes with coal dust should be forbidden.
IV.—LIGHTING. 19.—In fiery mines lighting with naked lights should be
forbidden. Safety lamps or incandescent electric lamps should only be used.
However, in the intakes, open lamps may be used in the shafts and their
approaches.
In upcast shafts the use of ordinary lamps should only be allowed
under special authority.
20.—Safety lamps should fulfil the following conditions :—
(a) The combustion chamber of the lamp should be isolated so
as only to communicate with the external air by means of openings of *0004
square inch at most.
(b) The metal gauze should be made of uniform wires of '014 to
•016 inch in diameter, and the openings of the mesh should not exceed "0004
square inch.
(c) All safety lamps should possess a lighting power of "60 of the
standard candle. It is allowable, however, to make use of safety lamps with
a less lighting power to examine the air of the mine for gas.
(d) Every safety lamp should be made so that the different parts
fit together tightly.
(e) The mode of closing the lamp should make it possible to
ascertain whether it has been opened in the workings, and at the same time
provide for the substantial connection together of the different parts of
the lamp.
PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR FIERY MINES. 171
21.—Further, the following arrangements are also to be recommended for
safety lamps :—
(a) In lamps with a glass cylinder the entry of fresh air should
take place from above.
(b) The sides of the glass should be of uniform thickness. The
glass should be of good quality and carefully tempered. The edges should be
horizontal and exactly perpendicular to the axis of the lamp. The height of
the cylinder should be from 2'13 to 2'46 inches; the sides should have a
thickness from '24 to -32 inch.
(c) The'gauze cage should be from 3*74 to 4-13 inches high; the
diameter of the base should not be less than that of the glass cylinder, and
the taper should not exceed *40 inch. 22.—Safety lamps should be supplied,
repaired, and maintained by the proprietors of the mine.
It is advisable to number them, and to always give to each workman the same
lamp.
SPECIAL REGULATIONS. 23.—All fiery mines should establish regulations and
submit them to the approval of the administration of mines ; they should
bear upon the following points:—
I.—The inspection of the ventilation, the regular examination of the mine
for gas, and precautions to be taken when it is found. II.—The inspection of
the blasting of shots and the precautionary measures to be taken in this
work where it is permitted. III.—The management of safety lamps. IV.—Regular
measurements of—
(a) The quantity of air.
(b) The proportion of air to the deleterious gases.
(c) The pressure of the air.
(d) The temperature.
The President said this was an interesting paper. They expected that the
report of the English Commission would soon be published, and it would be
interesting to be able to compare it with what the Prussian
172 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR FIERY MINES.
Government had decided on. This was a paper which could not be discussed,
because it was simply a statement of the official regulations for the
management of fiery mines in Prussia. They were extremely indebted to Mr.
Brown for making this careful translation. The regulations were very
admirable. There might be a few that objection might be taken to, but on the
whole they seemed to treat the matter in a much more common sense way than
the English Mines Act did. Throughout these regulations they took cognizance
of the fact that there mustbe.gas, but in the Mines Act it was laid down
that there was to be no gas at all. The Prussians went a little further than
this, because they prohibited the use of gunpowder in blasting, but they did
not intend to prohibit the use of explosives altogether ; dynamite or other
quickly operating explosives could be used. These regulations specially
mentioned that no explosives had to be used where there existed any gas at
the time it was intended to fire the shot. That was a very common sense
arrangement. The English Mines Act stated that if gas had been found in a
place three months before there was to be special treatment. Mr. Brown, in
giving the dimensions of the different parts of the lamps, had used the
decimals of an inch, with which they were unaccustomed and with which it was
difficult to compare. If Mr. Brown gave the wire gauge and the number of
apertures in the inch, they would be able to make a comparison with the
standard sizes as given by Davy. He moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Brown,
which was unanimously responded to.
This concluded the business of the meeting.
PROCEEDINGS. 173
PROCEEDINGS.
GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, JUNE 12th, 1886. JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., President,
in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the Minutes of the previous meeting, and reported the
Proceedings of the Council.
The Balloting List for the annual election of Officers in August was
submitted to the meeting, in accordance with Eule 21.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated :—
Associate Members— Mr. James Holmes, Mining Engineer, Rat. Portage, Ontario,
Canada. Mr. Henrt Musgraye, Mining Engineer, Havercroft Main Colliery,
Wakefield. The Honourable Charles Algernon Parsons, Engineer,
Messrs. Clarke, Chapman, & Parsons, Gateshead.
The following was nominated for election :—
Ordinary Member— Mr. George J. Binns, F.G.S., Government Inspector of Mines,
Duneilin, New Zealand.
The following paper on •' Coal-Mining in New Zealand," by Mr. George J.
Binns, Government Inspector of Mines, Dunedin, New Zealand, was read:—
VOL. XXXV.-188G
^
4
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 175
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
By GEORGE J. BINNS, F.G.S.,
Government Inspector of Mines, Dunedin, New Zealand.
INTRODUCTION.
The writer believes that among the Transactions of the North of England
Institute of Engineers, where information of almost every kind connected
with mining may he successfully sought, scarcely any mention is made of the
coal-fields of New Zealand ; he, therefore, begs to add another link to the
lengthy chain of subjects upon which those Transactions are a book of
reference. In doing so, it is impossible, even if it were desirable, to omit
reference to the lengthy and indefatigable labours of Dr. James Hector,
F.R.S., C.M.G., etc., Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey, to
whom, and to whose able assistants, Capt. Hutton, F.G.S., etc., and Messrs.
Cox, F.G.S., etc., and McKay, all knowledge of the coal-fields of the colony
is mainly due. The writer has, therefore, made full use of the Progress
Beports of the Geological Survey Department, giving, in almost every case
references, in order that more detailed information may be obtained, if
desired.
GEOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION.
The workable coal-seams of New Zealand occur in what Dr. Hector has named
the "Cretaceo-Tertiary Series" (see Plate XXIV.), which comprises
a. Grey marls;
b. Ototara and Weka Pass stone;
c. Fucoidal greensands;
d. Amuri limestone, chalk marls, and chalk with flints ;
e. Marly greensands;
/. Island sandstone (Eeptilian beds); g. Black grit and coal formation.
These are stratigraphically associated, and contain many fossils in common
throughout, " while, at the same time, though none are existing species,
many present a strong Tertiary facies, and, in the upper part only, a few
are decidedly Secondary forms."
176 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
"The upper part of this formation is a deep-sea deposit, but the lower
sab-divisions indicate the close vicinity of land, and are replaced, in some
areas, by true estuarine and fluviatile beds, containing coal."
" The black grit, which is the lowest marine bed of this group, resembles,
in mineral character, and the contained fossils, the ear-stone and
calcareous greensand of England."
"The principal coal deposits of New Zealand occur in the Cretaceo-Tertiary
formation, but always at the base of the marine beds o£ the formation, in
every locality where they occur. The coal-bearing beds always rest upon the
basement rock of the district, marking a great unconformity and the closing
of long persistent land area at this period. Thus the coal is immediately
overlaid by the grey marls in the Waikato, by the Fucoidal greensands at
Whangarei, and by the Island sandstone in Otago and on the West Coast of the
South Island. The coals immediately beneath the marine beds are everywhere
hydrous brown coals, but upon the "West Coast these rest upon an immense
formation of micaceous sandstones, grits, and conglomerates, in which are
seams of valuable bituminous coal, and this lower part of the formation is
possibly the equivalent in time of the Lower Greensand group."
" The same fossil plants are found associated with all these coal deposits,
and even those of the highest antiquity abound in the fossil remains of
dicotyledonous and coniferous trees of species closely allied to those
represented in the existing flora of the country." {Rector, Handbook of New
Zealand, 1880, page 23.)
For facility of reference, the same observer has divided the coals of this
colony under the following headings, viz.:—
I.—Hydrous (coal containing 10 to 20 per cent, of permanent
water).
a. Lignite.—Shows distinct woody structure, laminated, or shows
that structure on dessication ; very absorbent of water.
b. Broiva Goal.—Rarely shows vegetable structure. Fracture irregu-
lar, conchoidal, with incipient lamination; colour, dark brown; lustre,
feeble ; cracks readily on exposure to the atmosphere, losing 5 to 10 per
cent, of water, which is not re-absorbed ; burns slowly ; contains resin in
large masses.
c. Pitch Goal.—Structure compact ; fracture smooth, conchoidal,
jointed in large angular pieces ; colour, brown or black ; lustre, waxy;
does not dessicate on exposure, nor is it absorbent of water ; burns freely,
and contains resin disseminated throughout its mass.
C )AL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 177
II.—Anhydrous (coal containing less than G per cent, of water).
a. Glance Coal.—Non-caking, massive, compact, or friable; fracture
cuboidal, splintery ; lustre, glistening, or metallic ; structure obviously
laminated ; colour, black ; does not form a caking coke, but slightly
adheres. This variety is chiefly brown coal altered by igneous rocks, and
presents every intermediate stage from brown coal to anthracite.
b. Semi-Bituminous Goal.—Compact, with lamina) of bright and
dull coal alternately ; fracture irregular ; lustre, moderate ; cakes
moderately, or is non-caking.
c. Bituminous Goal.—Much jointed, homogeneous, tender, and
friable ; lustre, pitch-like, glistening, often iridescent; colour, black,
with a purple hue, powder brownish ; cakes strongly, the best varieties
forming a vitreous coke, with brilliant metallic lustre. {Hector, Rep. Geol.
Exploration, New Zealand, 1871-2, page 172.)
The hydrous coals of the South Island occur on the Eastern Coast chiefly,
though they are not unknown on the West Coast, where, however, they are
eclipsed by the splendid deposits of true coal for steam purposes, and by
the abundance of excellent timber for household use, where the true coals do
not exist.
Pitch coal, which is an excellent fuel for every purpose, has been worked
since 1867, at Wanganui (Nelson), and in Otago, at Shag Point, where it has
been mined since 1862. It is also found at Reef ton (Nelson), Waikato and
Wangaroa (Auckland), and in Southland. It belongs to the Upper Cretaceous
period, and has an evaporative power of 5-2 lbs.
Brown coal is worked on the Waikato River in Auckland, in the Kaitangata
mines in Otago, and in Southland. An inferior brown coal is also worked in
the Green Island district, close to Dunedin. It belongs to the Upper
Greensand, and has an evaporative power of 4"2 to 5'6 lbs. Lignite, which is
of Pleiocene age, occurs in great profusion in many of the inland ancient
rock-basins. It contains large wooden fragments, principally of the genus
fagus, and burns slowly, with a disagreeable odour. Though very inferior as
a fuel, these deposits have been of the greatest possible use in the
interior districts of the South Island, where there is no timber or other
fuel, and the great height above sea-level renders the climate extremely
rigorous. Deposits also occur throughout the lower Waikato basin and near
Raglan {Gone, New Zealand Inst.
178 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
Trans., 1882, page 366) further deposits occur, some of the outcrops being
several feet in thickness ; but as brown coals of a superior quality occur
in the locality, the lignites are not worked.
Bituminous Goals.—These occur, unfortunately, only on the somewhat
inhospitable West Coast of the South Island, but their excellent quality has
to a great extent counteracted this defect, and their use is becoming very
general. Both these and the hydrous coals occur at the base of a great
marine formation, underlying limestones, clays, and sandstones of Cretaceous
and Tertiary age, which have a thickness of several thousand feet, the
coal-seams occurring wherever the above formation is in contact with the
older rocks. The value of the coal appears to vary in the inverse ratio to
their state of quiescence since being formed. Thus, the anhydrous deposits,
which are more limited in distribution, appear to be produced by local
disturbance of the strata, and, in some cases, are due to the intrusion or
superposition of volcanic rocks.
Bituminous coal is worked chiefly in Nelson Province, and a description of
the various fields and mines will be found in its place. The only deposit of
bituminous coal on the east side of the main dividing range in the South
Island is at Mount Hamilton, in Southland, where highly contorted seams
occur, one of which measures for a short distance 16 feet. As far, however,
as the writer is aware, there has not been found any deposit which would
warrant the large expenditure necessary to introduce these coals to a
market.
THE AUCKLAND COAL-FIELDS.
Kawa-Kawa District. This coal-field, which belongs to the Upper Cretaceous
period, is situated 120 miles north of Auckland, and has for some years
furnished a considerable output. See (1) Plate XXV. The Coal-measures repose
on the Paleozoic rocks, and follow their wave-like depressions, the seam
being-separated from them only by a thin bed of underclay, nowhere more than
7 feet in thickness, in which rootlets are abundant. {McKay, Geol. Rep.,
1883-4, p. 95.) The general dip is W. 33 degs. S. at 10 degs. Unfortunately,
the seam has gradually diminished in value and thickness as it has been
followed, having split up in going to the dip. Several holes have been put
down with the diamond drill, but the evidence tends to show that the seam
becomes thinner at all points that have been tried. (Hector, Geol. Rep.,
1883-4, p. 32.) In the direction of Ruapekapeka, however, it is believed
that a large workable area will be met with. The mine was commenced in 1868,
coal having been discovered by a person in
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 179
search of Kauri-gum, which underlies the surface in many of the extinct
Kauri forests of this district, and forms a valuable article of commerce.
The seam was originally 13 feet thick, and was worked by a drive from the
outcrop, but a fault was met with, and since that time the company has been
much troubled by these obstacles. The produce has fallen from 54,865 tons
in 1880 to 30,274 tons in 1884. The total output is 547,455 tons. The
produce is raised by an engine plane, and to the dip is a shaft with heavy
pumping gear; ventilation is produced by a furnace. The system of working
is by pillar and stall, but the roof is bad, and the slack is liable to
ignite spontaneously. The colliery is connected with the port by a
Government railway eight miles in length, which cost £86,283. In 1884,109
men were employed. This mine produces a very valuable steam coal, which
has been much used by the San Francisco and other ocean steamers, but its
value is somewhat diminished by the large quantity of sulphur contained. The
analysis gives:—
Whangarei District. The Whangarei-Hokianga basin stretches north-west and
south-east from coast to coast, across the northern part of the Auckland
Province. See (2) Plate XXV. Its breadth varies from six to twenty
miles. (McKay, Geol Rep., 1883-4, p. 111.)
The Cretaceo-Tertiary rocks in this district, which lie unconformably upon
the slates, consist of—
Upper limestone ;
Brown sandstone;
Green sandstone ; containing ostrea caroonacca, which occurs in large
quantities above the coal in the Whauwhau mine. This belt of sandstone is
the equivalent of the island sandstone of the West Coast of the South
Island, and the beds of this district would seem much more like those which
overlie the coal near Greymouth than those which occupy a similar position
in the Waikato basin. (Cox, Geol Rep., 1876-7, p. 100.)
180 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
At Kamo, where the coal-seams have been worked, the area of
Cretaceo-Tertiary rocks is small, as they are obscured by younger volcanic
rocks. {McKay, Geol. Rep., 1883-4, p. 119.)
There were in 1884 two mines at work in this district, namely, the Kamo and
the "Whauwhau. The former only is connected with the Government railway to
port, which is 7 miles long, and has cost £04,032 ; an extension to the
Whauwhau mine is in course of construction. The Kamo colliery, which has
produced altogether 83,444 tons in its eight years of existence, is worked
by a shaft, from which the produce of two seams is extracted ; these vary
from 4 to 12 feet in thickness ; the shaft is rectangular, 15 feet by G, and
221 feet in depth. Sixty-four men were employed in 1884, who put out 19,395
tons. The ventilation is natural; explosive gas has been found in small
quantities, and the seam is liable to spontaneous combustion.
The Kamo coal analyses as follows : —
The Whauwhau mine is on a smaller scale, being worked by a drive, and
putting out, in 1884, 8,000 tons.
At Hikurangi a considerable area may be looked for, the seams varying from 2
to 6 feet. As this is on the proposed line of railway they may sometime
become of value, especially as coal from this locality has been used for
smithy purposes, and found to be superior to that from Whangarei.
{Hector, Geol Rep., 187G-7, p. 14.)
At Whangaroa, seams of coal of fair quality have been found, but have not
been worked. {Hector, Geol. Rep., 1871-2, p. 153.)
At Mongonui, in the extreme north of Auckland, a peculiar mineral occurs,
which, though not exactly perhaps capable of being strictly included in the
subject of this paper, is nevertheless deserving of notice. It resembles the
Torbanehui oil-shale, and has a chemical composition as follows :—
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 181
It has not, however, been found in any quantity. {Hector, Geol. Rep.,
1871-2, p. 155.) At this place rocks belonging to the coal formation are
found, but only masses of lignite and no defined beds.
Waikato District.
The coal formation in this district, which belongs to the Lower Green-sand,
not improbably extends continuously throughout the greater part of the basin
between Mercer and Taupiri. See (3) Plate XXV. {Cox, Geol. Rep., 1876-7, p.
13.)
It is bounded on the east by the Triassic rocks, running from Aotea Harbour
to Pukorokoro on the Firth of Thames ; to the north it is covered
unconformably by the Pleistocene formation. {Cox, Geol. Rep., 1874-6, p.
12.)
The coal-seams are worked where they crop out on the banks of the Waikato
Eiver, at which point they are very favourably situated for working, the
seams being 6 to 45 feet in thickness, with the railway and river alongside.
At Foote's mine, on the Maramarua Creek, a seam 54 feet in thickness lies at
66 feet below the swampy surface. Owing to improper working and insufficient
means of transport, this mine was closed, but it will shortly be re-opened
by a new company, whose boring operations have discovered the same seam to
be 63 feet in thickness.
There are at present two mines working in this locality—the Taupiri and
Waikato. The former is worked by an engine-plane ; the seam is 6 to 45 feet
in thickness, and has a varying dip. A Tangye's " Special" pump is used for
draining the mine, and the ventilation is natural. The output has recently
increased considerably, having reached 35,470 tons in 1884, and totalled
167,687 tons in the nine years the mine has been at work. 56 men were
employed in 1884.
At the Waikato colliery the output is smaller, being 10,764 tons in 1884.
The seam, too, is not so thick, being 6 to 18 feet, and the output is drawn
by horse-power. 21 men are employed.
The Waikato coal is clean-looking, black, lustrous coal, and makes good
fuel, either for house or steam purposes. It is, however, too bulky to
export, besides which it dessicates freely on exposure to the air. It is
subject to spontaneous combustion. The analysis gives :—
182 coal mining in new zealand.
General Remarks. Although the Auckland coals are not of the best quality,
they make good household and steam fuel, and form an important factor in the
prosperity of that district. The seams are, in places, very thick, and the
mines almost entirely free from explosive gas. The liability to spontaneous
combustion, however, constitutes a considerable item of expense. In addition
to the above, there are several localities in Auckland province—Drury,
Ohinemuri, Cabbage Bay, etc.—where eoal is known to exist, but is at present
of no commercial value.
Mokau District.
Although the existence of coal in this locality has been known of for many
years, having been mentioned in the Auckland Chronicle, of the the 8th
April, 1843, it has only recently received any attention. The reason for
this is, that the field is situated in the " King Country," and, therefore,
nntil recently, inaccessible to Europeans. In 1879, however, Dr. Hector
succeeded in penetrating to the outcrops, and describes the seams as varying
from 2 to G feet in thickness, and the quality as excellent. See (4) Plate
XXV. {Hector, Geo!. Rep., 1878-9, p. 21.)
Of late years attempts have been made to work a 5 feet seam, dipping S. 80
degs. W., at 1 in 14. A pair of levels were driven, and 200 tons of coal
taken out. Steamers of 6 feet draught can reach the shoots, which are 30
miles up the Mokau River. No doubt, in the future, this district will become
of great importance. The coal is non-caking, and belongs to the class of
pitch coals. It gives on analysis :—
SOUTH ISLAND.
Leaving the North Island, and crossing Cook Straits, the first coal-field
which claims attention is the
Picton Basin.
The town of Picton is situated at the head of one of the sounds opening on
Cook Straits. See (5) Plate XXY. There is ample depth of water for any
vessels, and the situation is the most central in the colony. Thus an
extensive deposit would be of great economic importance, and would at once
take the lead.
As far as is at present known, the Coal-measures are confined to a
triangular patch, faulted down between schists on the west and Permian
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 183
rocks on the east, and having an extent of half a square mile, and, to a
small extent, outlics at the elevation, about two miles to the south. In the
former only, however, have workable seams been found. (Hector, Geol. Rep.,
1881, p. 13.)
A considerable amount of prospecting has been carried on, and a large amount
of money expended in the effort to find a defined seam, but without success,
the coal occurring only in crushed masses, the largest of which was 13 feet
in thickness. The total output from this field, which is now abandoned, was
700 tons. As the coal is of excellent quality, it-is much to be regretted
that a more regular field does not exist. The output for 1884 was 475 tons.
The analysis is given below :—
Evaporative power, 8T lbs. THE WEST COAST COAL-FIELDS.
The West Coast coal-fields occur in detached masses from Collingwood to
Kanieri, near Hokitika, and the first one claiming attention is the
Collingwood District, where the Coal-measures, which belong to the Lower
Greensand formation, consist of beds of conglomerate, breccia, and hard beds
of indurated sandstones, with thin coal-seams and good beds of fire-clay.
They rest on the upturned edges of the schists, and dip to the West, at 1 in
4 to 1 in 5, under the upper series of the Coal-measures, in which the West
Wanganui seams occur. See (6) Plate XXV. {Cox, Geol. Rep., 1882, p. 71.) As
bearing on the future of this coal-field, it may not be out of place to
mention some of the economic minerals found in the locality. (Cox, New
Zealand Inst. Trans., 1883.)
Hauerite.
Mispickel.
Antimony.
Zinc blende.
Galena.
Pyrrhotine.
Anhydrous hematite.
Limonite.
Spathic iron ores.
Iron pyrites.
Native copper. Chalcopyrite.
Tetrahedrite (Richmondite, up to 1,792 ozs. of silver per ton). Gold
(alluvial and quartz). Platinum. Platiniridium. Osmium iridium. Crystalline
limestone. Plumbago.
184 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
At Parapara inlet, about four miles from the colliery, there occurs an
enormous mass of limonite, or hydrous hematite. This is the pot or bombshell
ore, so largely worked in America. It is a gold-bearing ferruginous cement,
containing 30 to 70 per cent, of limonite, or hydrous brown hematite.
{Hector, Iron and Coal in New Zealand, 1879, Appendix G.) The total quantity
estimated to be available by surface excavation is 52,000,000 tons. {Binns,
Geol. Rep., 1879, p. 64.) In 1879, the Government of New Zealand, by
advertisement in most of the leading iron-producing districts of Europe and
America, invited tenders for the supply of 100,000 tons of steel rails, to
be manufactured within the Colony from native ores. Colling wood,
possessing, as it does, good coal and plenty of ironstone and limestone, is
the natural site for such a manufacture; and, although the project did not
at the time have any practical result, there is no doubt that at some future
period this will become the centre of a great metallurgical industry.
The Wallsend Colliery, which is the only mine working in this district, is
situated 800 feet above sea level, and the seams mined produce a lustrous
black coal, which does not cake strongly. The field contains about 30 square
miles, and the present lease is 990 acres, held at a minimum rent of £16 per
annum from the Crown. The seams are, unfortunately, traversed by beds of
dirt, as will be seen by the following sections, taken in 1878 by the
writer:—
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 185
The mine is worked by a tunnel, which cuts the various seams, from an upper
one, of which the majority of the output is at present derived, and lowered
to the shoots by a self-acting aerial tramway, of which the vertical height
is 135 feet, and the angle 45 degs. The trucks hold 10 cwt. From the
screens the slack is taken by a water-balance tranway to the washer. The
large coal is brought along a siding tramway to the incline, which is 600
feet in vertical height, and then on the flat by horse traction to the
wharf, where there is, unfortunately, a very small depth of water. Great
natural facilities exist for running out a wharf into deep water, where
vessels could lie well sheltered from prevailing winds. Most of the
output is used in Nelson. The total quantity for 16 years to the end of 1884
was 14,832 tons, and the tonnage for that year 3,700. The analysis is:—
(a Cox, Trans. New Zealand Inst., 1882, p. 373 ; b Hector, Geol. Rep.,
1871-72, p. 177.)
About 5 miles up the Aorere River, and some 1,200 feet above river level in
the bed of the Otamataura Creek, are several outcrops of excellent coal. The
writer measured, in 1878, nine seams, varying from 1 inch to 4 feet, but the
last contains no less than six bands of dirt, and only 3 feet 6 inches of
good coal; there is also a great deal of variation in the thickness.
Included in this field is the West Wanganui coal-field, which lies on the
west coast of the island. West Wanganui is a large inlet, about 8 miles
in length, and almost entirely dry at low w?ater. The seams which occur on
the western side, dipping into the hills which form the barrier between open
water and the harbour, are included in the upper measures of the
Cretaceo-Tertiary Series, the beds being sandstones, shales, and grits,
which cover an area about 5 miles in width. {Hector, Geol. Rep., 1882, p.
19.) The strike is N. 60 degs. E., and the dip X. 30 degs. W., at low
angles. (Cox, Geol. Rep., 1882, p. 71.)
The seam was discovered in the year 1840, sticking up at low water from the
mud flat, and from that time until 1878, passing vessels were
186 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
accustomed to mine what they required ; thus large holes were formed, which
were covered by every tide. When a company was formed in 1878 to work the
field, the shaft was inadvisedly sunk close to these holes, out of which it
was necessary to pump the sea after every tide. Naturally, this did not last
long, and bad management soon closed the place, which has not since been
re-opened. In 1878, the writer took the following section of the seam :—
The roof is bad and the seam dips away from any possible site for a shaft,
so the whole output would require to be hauled uphill; the produce is a
lustrous black pitch coal, analysing as follows :—
Reefton Coal-field.
The next in order is the Reefton coal-field, which is situated about 30
miles inland from the West coast of the South Island, and about 50 miles
equi-distant from the ports of Greymouth and Westport. (7) and (8) Plate
XXV. As there is no railway communication, the deposits are only of local
value ; and the field is not large, being composed mostly of patches of
Cretaceo-Tertiary rocks, lying unconformably upon the upturned edges of
Maitai (Carboniferous) formation, in which are the auriferous reefs which
have given their name to the locality, and of the Devonian, which is very
small in extent, and consists of fossiliferous cherts, limestones, and
slates. {McKay, Geol. Rep., 1882.) The rocks consist of sandstones, shales,
and conglomerates, with thick seams of coal, and although a number of small
workings have been carried on, nothing of the nature of true coal mining has
been undertaken. The product is of very excellent quality for steam and
household purposes, and has been classed as intermediate in value between
the pitch coals of West Wan-ganui and the true coals of Westport and
Greymouth.
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 187
The following analyses are taken from the Colonial Laboratory Report for
1885 :—
The field has been open for fourteen years, during which, to the end of
1884, 15,619 tons was produced. In 1884 there were six mines, which employed
10 men, and produced 1,351 tons.
An interesting feature in this neighbourhood is the Golden Treasure coal
mine, in Murray Creek ; within a few yards is the quartz mine of that name,
and, lying on the surface of the coal, is a conglomerate, or rather gravel,
in which good alluvial gold is found.
In other portions of Nelson Province, deposits of coal occur, but none have
as yet been worked.
Bullee Coal-field.
The next district claiming attention is the Buller coal-field, which extends
from the Buller River on the South, to Mokihinui on the North, descending
from the summits of high mountains in the former locality to the sea level
in the latter.
Some years ago a mine was opened on the Mokihinui River, but, proving a
commercial failure, it was abandoned. The present company has only recently
commenced operations, and coal is not yet in the market.
At the point of present operations there are twro seams lying as follows :—
188 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
and the mining operations consist of a drive to the rise with two or three
levels • the dip is N. 20 degs. E., at 1 in 6. Faults have been met with.
The shoots will be connected with the wharf by a railway 1 mile 33 chains in
length, on which a small locomotive will be used. In the river are two bars,
one at the mouth, where there is 14 feet 6 inches of water at high tide, and
one in the channel which has only 12 feet 6 inches. In November last the
steam collier "Timaru" brought 250 tons of steel rails, and when loaded with
coal, she carries 250 tons on 11 feet. A railway 7 miles in length would
connect the mine with the Government line at Ngakawau, and enable the output
to be shipped at Westport. The analysis is :—
Fixed carbon .................. 56"01
Hydro-carbon ... ... ... ... ......
37"17
Water..................... 2-60
Ash ..................... 4-22
10000
The writer is informed that about two miles further up the country there is
a seam of excellent coal, 30 feet in thickness, and lying close to the
surface.
In the Westport coal-field, the seams exist on a high plateau, 900 to 3,000
feet above sea level, and are from 4 to 53 feet in thickness. Accurate
surveys conducted by the Geological Department have shown that it contains
140,000,000 tons of bituminous coal, and on the strength of this the
Government have expended on a railway, 19 miles in length, £210,886, and on
the harbour £13,593. These works were open for traffic in the year 1874, bnt
it was not until some years subsequently, that an export trade commenced.
Several leases have been taken up, but at present only two companies are at
work, viz.: the Westport Coal Company, Limited, and the Koranui Coal
Company, Limited. The former company has a capital of £400,000, of which
£210,000 is paid up, and has expended in this field, £120,000, besides
£30,000 in steam colliers, and a considerable sum on a coal property at
Greymouth, which will be described further on. The leases held by this
company, in the Westport district, comprise 4,300 acres; the term being 99
years, and the royalty 6d. per ton.
The great drawback to the prosperity of this field is the bar-harbour,
which, though sheltered from the prevailing south-westerly and westerly
winds by Cape Foulwind and the Steeples, and formed by the second largest
river in the Colony, is very variable, and appears of late years to
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 189
have varied steadily for the worse. Thus, while in 1879-80, the average
depth of water at spring tides was 12-5 feet; for 1882-83, 13*8 feet; the
average for 1884-85 was only 11*7 feet.
Lately, a Harbour Board Act has been passed, which vests the administration
in a local body, nominated by the Governor, who have power to borrow up to
£500,000, the Government of the Colony giving a guarantee for the principal
and interest of each instalment as borrowed. This Board, which is endowed
for revenue purposes, with all rents and royalties from the coal-field,
receipts from railway and harbour, and revenue from gold fields and lands,
in the district, has so far borrowed £150,000, and is at present engaged in
constructing a breakwater on the designs of Sir John Coode, who estimates
that an expenditure of £480,000 will give 24 feet of water on the bar, and
also that the harbour will benefit pro rata as the works progress.
The self-acting inclines belonging to the Westport Coal Company which serve
to bring the coal to the railway are deserving of notice. The lower one
commences at 158 feet above sea level, and ends at 1,057 feet ; its length
is 59 chains, and maximum grade 1 in 2\, the average being 1 in 4P55. The
brake-power consists of a 9 feet drum with a pair of hydraulic cylinders ;
there is also a band which can be applied if desired. A new 10 feet drum is
being constructed.
The upper incline commences at 1,057 feet, and ends at 1,884 above sea
level, the maximum grade being 1 in 1*816, and the average 1 in 3*48; the
length is 44 chains, and the brake-power at the summit is a 9 feet drum with
3 iron bands.
The gauge on the incline is 3 feet 6 inches, the rails (formerly iron, but
now being replaced with steel), 42 lbs. and the ropes 4 inches in
circumference and made of No. 9 B.w.g. crucible steel. The trucks used are
of the ordinary iron railway hopper pattern, and hold 6 tons 12 cwts. The
two inclines, down which one truck at a time is lowered, work perfectly
smooth, and without any jar whatever. The most that has been lowered is 440
tons in eight hours, and the cost for labour on 400 tons is 4|d. per ton.
The coal is worked by a drive in the seam which extends for 98 chains from
the entrance, with several thirlings to daylight on to the cliff, which
bounds the workings on one side. Originally, the seam worked was small, and
somewhat soft, but now all the coal is got from a 19-foot seam, 3 feet of
which is left to assist the roof; the beds, unfortunately, dip very
capriciously, being separated from the slates by only a small thickness of
measures. In one place the coal lies directly on the upturned
VOL. XXXV.-18S6,
^
190 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
edges of the slates. Haulage is performed by an endless chain, the power
being supplied by a single 20-ineh cylinder engine, with a 48-inch stroke;
the chain is f-inch diameter ; the grade varies, but is mostly uphill
towards the road : the speed, average.
The cost of chain haulage and putting with ponies is Is. 4d. for l£ miles,
or 10'6d. per ton mile for labour alone. The mine trucks will soon all be of
steel (Hudson's patent), holding 11 cwfc.; and the rails are iron or steel,
28 lbs. per yard on the main roads, and 14 lbs. elsewhere ; gauge, 2 feet.
The screening appliances include 8 front tipplers, at a height of 24 feet
above the wagons ; straight bars, on which the main coal passes over f-inch
spaces, and the nuts over ^--inch.
The mine is worked on a system of 6-yard boards and 9-yard pillars ; the
ventilating appliances, which are merely temporary, consist of a 6-foot fan,
driven by hand-power ; the workings are entirely free from explosive gas,
the cover being thin, and intersected with numerous fissures : this causes
parts of the mine to be wet in bad weather, which is very prevalent.
The wages paid are high, being lis. for the day of 8 hours below ground ;
the hewing price is 3s. lOd. per ton, including trucking or putting 30 feet.
Timber is supplied by the owners. 150 men are employed below, and 30 above.
The output for 1884 was 74,187 tons, and from commencement 189,412 tons. The
railway carriage is 2"6|d. per ton for 12 miles, and includes wharfage.
The freights are :—to Lyttelton, 8s. 6d. to 9s.; to Wellington, 8s. to 8s.
6d.; to Port Chalmers, 9s. 6d. to 10s. 6d.; and to Auckland, 13s. to 14s.
The coal is sold f.o.b. in Westport at 12s. 6d. to 13s. 6d., and the small
coal which is used for steamers, at 6s. to 8s.; thus on reaching the main
ports the coal sells at 20s. to 22s. per ton ; the retail price in Dunedin
is about 35s. per ton delivered.
The Westport coal is a bright lustrous fuel, burning with a cheerful blaze,
making very little soot and leaving hardly any ash ; thus it is a
first-class household coal, and equally good for steam or gas purposes.
The analysis is as follows {Cox, Trans. New Zealand Inst., 1882, p. 373) :—
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 191
It seems sad to state that with such a fine property the financial condition
of this company should not be flourishing, but the bad harbour, the high
rate of wages, and a strike which lasted for seven months during the years
1884-85, have prevented the concern from paying dividends. When, to all
these, is added the competition of Newcastle (New South Wales) coal, it
shows a list of obstacles, to conquer which, requires a considerable amount
of patience and perseverance.
The Newcastle coal is hard and bright, and has for many years been
considered the best coal—except Scotch—in the New Zealand markets. Owing to
facilities for working and shipping, which are absent from this Colony, the
New South Wales coal is shipped for lis. per ton, and on account of the
large amount of produce sent from this Colony, the back freights are very
low—about 5s. per ton. Thus Newcastle coal is sold in New Zealand waters at
16s. per ton. When the prejudice which is felt against any local production
is overcome, and the harbour made capable of loading vessels with 2,000 or
3,000 tons, no doubt the superiority of the Westport fuel will make itself
effectually felt. (9) Plate XXV.
GREYMOUTH FIELD.
Whereas in the Westport district the seams lie chiefly at a great height
above sea level, at G-reymouth they are worked principally at or below it.
The seams, which occur in grits and conglomerates of Upper Mesozoic age,
corresponding with the G-ault, or Lower Greensand (Hector, Handbook to New
Zealand, 1880, p. 34), extend from the south side of the River Grey, a
distance of 10 or 12 miles in a northerly direction. The beds have a
westerly dip at an angle of about 1 in 3. The seam, which is 18 feet thick,
is exposed in the upper gorge of the Grey River, where it was originally
discovered. The early workings were a little above ordinary river level, and
have proved a source of danger now that the seam has been followed to the
dip. In the early days the output was carried down the river in barges ;
subsequently the Government constructed a railway 8 miles in length on the
southern bank of the river, which cost £192,975, and expended £127,018 on
the harbour. A suspension bridge, adapted to horse traffic, was also built
for the accommodation of the mines on the north side.
There are at present four mines open, two on each side of the river. The
Brunner colliery, on the north side, has been at work for 20 years, and is
in private hands. The workings are approached by a level, and have been
continued both to the dip and rise ; their continuity on the level was
interrupted by a downthrow fault, which was found to die out
192 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
on the rise. At a distance (to the dip) of 18 chains, the amount of
dislocation is 250 feet. The roof, generally, is good, consisting of very
hard, dark grey micaceous sandstone, which forms an excellent cover, but
over a considerable area this gives place to a close-grained saccharoid
sandstone, which stands very badly. The hauling engine for the dip workings
consists of a pair of coupled 14-inch cylinders, with 18-inch stroke, but
for some time this portion of the mine has not been worked. The rise output
is brought down by a self-acting endless rope, having a length of 830 yards,
and a grade about 1 in 5. The rope is steel, 3 inches in circumference, and
there is a self-acting curve round a turn, making an angle of 16 degs. with
the straight line. At present horses are used on the upper as well as on the
main level, but in the former case, it is intended to continue the endless
rope for a distance of about half-a-mile. Very little gas is given off by
the seam, and the ventilation is produced by a 16 feet G-uibal fan, driven
at 60 revolutions per minute by a small portable engine. The system of
working is board and pillar, the former 18 feet, having pillars 13 yards by
20 yards ; in coming back a very large proportion of the seam is obtained.
The mine tubs, which are of wood, hold 10 cwt. and weigh 5 cwt. Hadfield's
steel wheels are largely used. The gauge is 2 feet. The total output to end
of 1884 was 372,904 tons, and the output for that year 78,368 tons, being
the largest output in the Colony. Of this 15,076 tons was slack, which is
used for coke, a very excellent article being made.
The surface arrangements comprise a large brick and tile yard, and fireclay
works, whence a first-class article is turned out. The fire-clay, after
being got in the mine, is elevated by buckets to an edge-runner crushing
machine, thence it goes to a revolving screen, and through the pug-mill to
the moulding and drying shed. The bricks and gas retorts are used, not only
throughout New Zealand, but also in Melbourne. The slack from the screen is
elevated 42 feet in iron buckets and passed through a revolving screen 7
feet long and T37 inch in diameter. The nuts pass over, and are used for
steam purposes. An endless band, made of an endless chain, each link of
which draws the slack along a trough, is used for conveying the slack, a
canvas band carrying it 30 feet further to the coke ovens, of which there
are twelve, of the beehive pattern, from 10 to 16 feet in diameter. The
slack is not washed.
The boiler-power includes two Cornish multitubular boilers, 15 feet by 5
feet, hand-fed with slack ; steam, 55 lbs.
The total number of men on the works in 1884 was 209, of whom 170 were coal
miners. The lease is 1,280 acres, held from the Crown, and the royalty 6d.
per ton.
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 193
On the same side of the river, and situated to the dip, is the Coal Pit
Heath Colliery, which works a Crown lease of 780 acres, and has been in
operation for eight years.
The seam, which equals the Brunner in thickness, is won by two shafts : one
75 feet deep, close to the rise boundary, and the other, a rectangular 6
feet by 10 feet shaft, 280 feet further to the dip. The level workings met
with the large downthrow7 fault mentioned above, so an engine dip was
driven, and one of Fowler's hauling engines, with a couple of 14 inch
cylinders, was put down. The winding engine at present used consists of a
single 18 inch cylinder, with 3 feet stroke, which also works the slack
elevator, and hauls the railway wagons up a short incline ; until recently
it also worked a set of pump-rods in the shaft. A furnace has for some years
been used for ventilation, but the company is now putting down a 7 feet
Schiele fan. The pumps used are twro of the Tangye " Special" type, and
there wall shortly be three—a large one having been ordered capable of
lifting 20,000 gallons per hour. The boiler plant comprises three 14 feet by
5 feet multitubular boilers, and one of the Cornish type, 28 feet by 6 feet.
The tubs are wooden, and hold 10 cwt., and the rails 14 lbs., replaced by 18
lbs. (fish-plated) on the inclines. The head gear is wooden, and 24 feet in
height from flat-sheets to centre. The cage holds one tub; the pulley wheels
are 6 feet in diameter, and the winding ropes of steel wire, and 3 inches in
circumference. There are four coke ovens of the beehive pattern 11 feet in
diameter.
The main shaft at this colliery was sunk too near the boundary, and it is
intended to put down a larger and better shaft to the dip, with a pair of
engines having 20 inch cylinders and 3 feet stroke, acting direct on to a 10
feet drum. By this means a very valuable property will be opened out.
Since the commencement, in 1875, the output has been, to the end of 1884,
113,616 tons, and for that year 18,989 tons; 57 men were employed below and
13 above.
The G-reymouth Wallsend Colliery, which is on the south side of the river
Grey, was commenced about the year 1877, and at first the wTorks consisted
of a shaft towards the rise, and 116 feet in depth. Soon after, another was
put dowm to the dip, 11 feet in diameter, and bottoming at 670 feet.
Unfortunately, this proved too much for the finances of the company, who,
having spent about £55,000, went into liquidation, and the property was sold
for about £11,000. The second company was also unsuccessful, and sold the
concern to the Westport Coal Company, who
194 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
are now sinking a 14 feefc shaft, and putting down a very excellent plant,
on which operations they have, to February, 1886, spent £65,000. The shaft
is tubbed, where required, with concrete blocks, grouted in with cement, and
bedded on proper curves. It is not, however, perfectly water-tight.
The winding engine consists of a pair of 30 inch cylinders, with 5 feet
stroke, acting direct on to a 16 feet drum, and fitted with steam brake and
starting gear. The boilers, which are of steel, are 30 feet by 7 feet,
fitted with 2 feet 9 inch tubes, and six Galloway tubes ; the pressure is 60
lbs. The head gear, which is of wrought iron, will be 49 feet to centre, or
probably more; and the cages, which will be fitted with safety hooks, are
single decked, and will hold two tubs. A Guibal fan, 30 feet diameter, will
provide ventilation, which is at present done by a small 13 feet Guibal. The
sinking is carried on by a portable double (8 inches by 16 inches) cylinder
engine. An air compressor and Burleigh rock drill are on the ground. The
winding rope is of steel wire 3 inches in circumference. The engine house is
of wrood, 32 feet by 48 feet, and 33 feet high, while the engine foundations
are massive concrete. Borne idea of the cost of sinking may be formed from
the sinkers' wages, which are 12s. 6d. per day of eight hours, though the
pit is by no means what would be called wet in England. This shaft is
expected to bottom about May next, and will be 670 feet in depth. It is
close to the railway line, and should prove a very valuable property. From
the old shaft the tonnage was 12,123 tons.
In addition to the above mines there is a small undertaking known as the
Tyneside Colliery, situated to the rise. This was started in 1870, and
abandoned until July, 1885. The coal, which is a faulted area thrown down to
the S.E., dips E. 20 degs. S., at 1 in 3$, and is 8 feet thick. The railway
runs close to, and the mine is cheaply worked; so if the coal should prove
good the undertaking ought to be profitable.
The following average analyses of the Greymouth coal are given:—
It is an excellent smithy, steam, and gas coal, but not so well adapted for
household purposes, and being rather soft it bears carriage badly.
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 195
In addition to these working mines are other companies, wdio, though holding
leases, have not commenced operations. Among these may be mentioned the
Black Ball Coal Company, who hold an area up the Grey River, and the Coal
Creek Coal Company, whose lease is on the north side of the river, about 5
miles from the mouth. The property has an outcrop of two seams, 6 feet and
10 feet thick respectively, and separated by about 170 feet of measures,
dipping S. 30 degs. W., at an angle of 22 degs. The analysis is :—
Greymouth, like Westport, suffers from a bar-harbour, the state of which,
and the rapid improvement in which, may be gathered from the following Table
:—
The same Parliamentary paper (page 42) states that while in 1879-80 the
average depth at spring tides was 10*425 feet, in 1884-85 it was 137. There
is now a Harbour Board, the constitution of which is exactly similar to that
at Westport; the borrowing powers, however, being only £150,000.
GENERAL REMARKS.
This coal-field has the advantage of Westport, in having the Government
railway at the mines' mouths. The distance to port is 8 miles, and the
carriage 2s. It is worthy of mention that this shoit section is the best
paying line in the Colony, the return being £4 16s. per cent. {Annual Revort
of General Manager of Railways, 1885, p. 11.)
196 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
The two mines on the north side send their output over a suspension bridge,
which is very awkwardly constructed, all the wagons being compelled to pass
over a turn-table, where they are pushed round by hand, and whence they are
drawn by horses across the bridge. This will be very prejudicial to a large
output.
Greymouth is the western terminus of the proposed East and West Coast
Railway, and there is no doubt that while such a means of transport would
enable the mines to be worked more regularly, and therefore more
economically, the railway would probably open up coal-fields to the eastward
of the present workings, which would considerably damage the trade of the
port, which is almost entirely, like Westport, dependent on the coal output.
Still, so long as grey coal is so eagerly sought after in Australia for gas
purposes, the sea-borne coal would always have a great advantage.
At Kanieri, a short distance from Hokitika, on the West Coast, is a deposit
of coal, which was discovered in 1870, and in prospecting which some time
and capital have been expended. (10) Plate XXV. There are several seams
dipping at high angles, and associated with beds closely resembling those
which accompany the Greymouth coals. In 1885 the writer visited the
district, at the request of the local Prospecting Association, with a view
to advising as to the best method of opening up the field, but nothing
definite had been discovered, and surface prospecting is still being carried
on. Although crushed and unmarketable, the coal analyses well, as will be
seen on reference to the following results:—
(a Cox, Trans. New Zealand Inst., 1882, p. 374. B Col. Lab. Rep., 1885, p.
23.)
At other places on the West Coast coal-seams occur, but they are
entirely unproved. It is, therefore, unnecessary to do more than refer
to them.
CANTERBURY COAL-FIELDS.
Crossing the main dividing range, and descending on to the Canterbury
Plains, the Canterbury coal-fields are reached. (10) Plate XXY,
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 197
"The coal-bearing beds in North Canterbury," says Mr. Cox {Geol. Rep.,
1883-84, p. 29), "are found on the southern slopes of Mount Somers, and
extend up the South Ashburton, nearly as far as the lower gorge. They can
also be traced along the south-eastern face of the hills on the edge of the
Canterbury Plains, as far as Taylor's stream. They are again met with in the
Eakaia Gorge, where they form a trough-shaped syncline—a similar one
occurring at Rockwood; and from the Brockley Mine Coal-measures extend to
the Malvern Hills, (11) Plate XXV., enveloping Mount Misery, and being found
below the flat, at the mouth of the Wairiri. They flank the south-eastern
side of the slate rocks in the Malvern Hills as far as Sheffield, and are
probably continuous beneath the flat to Springfield, where the colliery of
the Springfield Company is at work on two seams of coal below the level of
the plain. A small isolated basin also occurs in the upper part of the
Selwyn River below High Peak."
It will thus be seen that they occupy a large extent of country, and,
flanking the lower Secondary rocks, usually dip below the shingle plains.
"The Coal-measures proper," continues Mr. Cox, "consist of beds of sand,
clay, shale, and conglomerate, with seams of brown coal, variously altered
to all stages of non-caking coal, from brown coal to anthracite."
The only commercially important workings have been in the Malvern Hills,
about 40 miles distant from Christchurch, and connected with that city by
the railway over the Canterbury Plains ; and although, as Capt. Hutton
observes (Geol. Rep., 1873-74, p. 42) : "by far the larger part of the coal
in this district is inferior in quality to that from several other
localities in New Zealand; its extent, its easily accessible position, and
its proximity to Christchurch, make it one of the most important fields that
Ave possess. The coal formation can be traced a distance of 40 miles, with
but one break * * * * so there can be little doubt that it extends
continuously from one end to the other."
Unfortunately, these predictions as to the future of the field have not been
realised, and at present the coal industry of the district is in anything
but a flourishing condition.
There are four classes of coal in the locality (Cox, Geol. Rep., 1882, p.
60) :-
1.—Anthracite.
2.—Altered brown coals, in which the percentage of water is not high.
8.—Altered brown coals with high percentage of water.
4.—Brown coals.
VOT,. XXXV.-1886.
¦"
n
198 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
Of the first class, very little has been worked. A four-foot seam has been
known at Acheron Eiver for many years, but in March, 1885, during the
writer's visit, the following section was exposed:—
Towards the crop the seam measures 5 feet 3 inches, and the shale parting is
only 9 inches. This outcrop is about 25 miles from a railway, and the only
question naturally is, what amount of coal of this quality exists ? If the
seam were lying unaltered, or if a large quantity were assured, a railway
would no doubt soon be constructed. As it is the output is merely nominal.
The analysis is given as:—
Evaporative power, 8*5.
A previous analysis, by Dr. Hector, in 1869, gave 88*91 per cent, of fixed
carbon, or an evaporative power of 11*5.
Of the second class, the output has not been extensive, the Brockley Coal
Mine, which for some years yielded a small output, and Lees' Mine, which
merely commenced operations, being the only examples. At the former the coal
stands vertically, and has been altered by the intrusion of a dyke of
dolerite. The total output was 5,606 tons, and the last year's work yielded
300 tons. For some years the mine has been closed, owing to difficulty in
transport, 12 miles cartage on a heavy road proving too expensive.
The analysis is :—
Of the third class, hardly any has been worked. In the Eakaia Gorge a thick
seam has been opened for the use of a sheep station, but the output was very
small. Of the fourth class, a considerable output has been for some years
maintained, the quantity to end of 1884 being 165,432
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 199
tons, and for that year 23,834 tons. At present there are 10 collieries
in the district, the principal of which are briefly described below.
Springfield Colliery has been worked for nine years, and produced to the end
of 1884—51,100 tons. It is the property of a private company, who commenced
operations with a dip drive, from which 10 acres was wrought. The floor was
clay, and the roof of fine grained sandstone. A small steam engine was used
for hauling purposes. This mine was closed in 1880, and a 12 feet by 5 feet
2 inches shaft sunk on the seam, at a depth of 248 feet, by which a new area
in two seams was opened up. The lower seam only is now got by a system of
board and pillar, the former 12 feet wide, of which 6 feet is packed with
stone from the roof, and from a band in the seam. The pillars are 10 yards
wide, and are worked in coming back. The seam dips in a south-easterly
direction at 7 inches to the yard. The winding engine consists of a single
14 inch cylinder, with 21 inch stroke, geared 3 to 1. The rope is steel wire
3 iuches in circumference. The cages hold one tub, which carries 5 cwt., and
runs on a gauge of 18| inches. Iron rails are used. The headstocks are 50
feet in height above the ground, and 30 feet above the stage. A Tangye's "
Special" pump disposes of the water.
The company has, in addition to the colliery plant, which includes neat
little shops, with a 16 inch screw-cutting bed lathe, and a drilling
machine, very complete works for the manufacture of tiles, fire bricks,
terra-cotta goods, and drain pipes up to 18 inches in diameter. There is
also a manager's house, and 23 miners' cottages, 14 of which are built of
brick. The freehold belongs to the company, and comprises several thousand
acres.
Unfortunately, there is only one outlet from the workings, and as "The
Eegulation of Mines' Act, 1874," of New Zealand, permits only 10 men to be
employed below ground, under these circumstances the output is on a small
scale. The coal is used, to a small extent, on the Government railways, with
which the pit is connected by a branch line 140 chains in length. The
freight to Addington (Christchurch) is 6s. per ton, and to other stations
2d. per ton per mile.
Analyses of Springfield Coal (Cox, Trans. New Zealand List., 1882, p. 372):—
200 COAL MINING IX NEW ZEALAND.
The only other colliery connected directly with the railway system is the
Homebush mine, situated on the Whitecliffs branch, and connected therewith
by a horse tramway 1| miles in length, and 2 feet 6 inch gauge. This is in
the hands of the owner of the ground, and the workinga are level free, the
seam having been followed for a considerable distance on the strike, but not
to the dip ; the angle of inclination is E. 10 degs. S., 1 in 8.
At the mine mouth the sequence is :—
But when followed for five chains the A seam splits, and a 6 inch band of
clay is introduced, which gradually cuts the coal out. At about 7 chains
from the mouth B, C, and D unite, forming a 7 feet seam, with a fine grained
shale roof, about 12 inches in thickness, which comes down, leaving a good
parting, and requiring very little timber. At 37 chains on the level the
partings return, and the seam becomes unworkable. The floor is clay, 2 feet
in thickness, underlaid by sandst-one. The mine tubs hold 10 cwt., and are
mostly fitted with steel wheels.
The seam is worked by headings on the fall rise, and boards 9 feet wide on
the level; pillars 10 yards, which are subsequently worked back. The coal is
brought down in tubs on a carriage with a balance weight attached. The
screens are fitted with a revolving tippler. The slack is not subject to
spontaneous combustion; in this respect resembling Springfield. The total
output from this undertaking, which is now closed, has been 6:3,274 tons in
12 years. The tonnage for 1884 was 10.453, reduced from 17,194 in 1883.
Descending into South Canterbury the Mount Somers, Kakahu, and Waikao
coal-fields are found, which have as yet been worked only for local
requirements. (12) Plate XXV.
OTAGO COAL-FIELDS.
On reaching Otago, which had up to the end of 1884 produced 1,140,424 tons,
out of a total of 3,007,198 tons for the whole Colony, the first deposits
claiming attention are those of Wharekuri, Kurow, Dun-troon, Papakaio, and
Ngapara, near Oamaru, none of which are connected
COAL MINING IX NEW ZEALAND. 201
by rail, and which, consequently, are worked on a small scale. The total
output for 1884 from five mines in this locality being under 5,000 tons.
(13) and (14) Plate XXV.
Passing by a small coal-field at Otepopo the Shag Point district is reached,
which is about 40 miles north of Dunedin, and close to the trunk line of
railway, with which it is connected by a private line. The coal seams occur
towards the upper part of the quartz conglomerates of the Horse range (Cox,
Geol. Rep., 1882, p. 56). These beds ordinarily have a dip of E.S.E., at 10
degs., but on the strike of a large fault, running in a N.W. direction from
the mouth of the Shag Eiver, they are highly tilted and contorted. Mr. Cox
considers that a large extension of coal-bearing formation extends below the
Palmerston flat. The seams are overlaid by a remarkable concretionary
ferruginous sandstone, containing septaria.
The Shag Point coal differs from the rest of the East Coast coal in not
having an incandescent ash, which peculiarity renders it a safe fuel for
household use. (15) Plate XXV. From 1863 to 1879 the seams were worked by a
dip drive into the hill a few chains above high water mark, but lately they
have been followed to the dip below the sea. Three seams have been worked,
the upper 4 feet thick, the main seam 50 feet below this, and in places
about 12 feet thick, but usually divided by a clay parting, and, 70 feet
below, another seam also divided. All the coal-beds are capricious in
thickness, and the roof generally is bad. The slack is exceedingly prone to
spontaneous combustion.
The main seam was followed for about 6 chains below high water mark, and was
worked under a minimum cover of about 120 feet, but in March, 1883, the
submarine workings were not considered safe, and were stopped; in February
1884, a marine incursion took place, and the whole of the works were
stopped. ' Since that date, however, the influx of water, which was never
very rapid, has decreased, and by the aid of pumping appliances the colliery
is again, in some parts, working.
The upper seam is worked by an engine plane, 9 chains in length, the motive
power being a pair of 84; inch cylinders, with 14 inch stroke, geared 6 to 1
"to a 6 feet drum ; steam is supplied by a 14 feet by 4 feet boiler ; wire
ropes are used, and iron rails. The main winding engine, which draws coal
from the lowest seam, out of a 13 feet by 5 feet shaft, 247 feet in depth,
has a pair of 12 inch cylinders, with 18 inch stroke. Boilers (tubular), 16
feet by 5 feet and 14 feet by 3 feet 6 inches ; drum, 6 feet. The pumping
appliances consist of a Parker and Weston's 6 inch ram, with 2 feet 6 inch
stroke, and also an automatically emptying barrel, which replaces one of the
cages. The head gear is well designed, and the shaft substantially timbered.
202 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
The system usually adopted for working is the board and pillar ; long-wall
was tried, but for various reasons, one of which was the bad roof, it did
not succeed.
The property, which is a Crown lease, is in private hands ; the position is
excellent, there being no competition, and the coal sells retail in Dunedin
at 26s. and 28s. per ton.
The analysis gives :—
In connection with the property, are well equipped brick and tile works,
where a very superior article is manufactured. The total output of coal up
to end of 1884 was 165,027 tons ; for that year only 4,184 tons ; but in
1880 the amount was 36,066 tons.
Passing sundry outcrops, which are of no commercial value, the next
coal-field is the Green Island basin, which is about 8 miles in extent, and
has the advantage of being within 6 miles of the city of Dunedin. (16) Plate
XXV. This fact, coupled with the existence of a seam 19 i'eet in thickness,
compensates somewhat for the poor quality of the coal, which may be judged
from the analyses given below.
The beds consist of sands, clays, ferruginous gravels, shales, and
fireclays, with seams of coal resting upon the schists, and dipping to the
N.E. at 1 in 10 under the Caversham sandstone, which is a Tertiary-marine
formation, and is again overlaid by the volcanic rocks of the Dunedin basin.
{Hector, Geol. Rep., 1871-72, p. 170.)
The field has been opened for about twenty-five years, during which only one
seam has been worked, and numerous mines have been lost by spontaneous
fires, to which this coal is exceedingly prone. There are at present eight
collieries at work, only four of which are connected with the railway ; the
system throughout is the Scotch " room and ranee ; " the tenure is freehold,
and the royalty, where payable, about Is. per ton. As only 7 to 8 feet is at
first worked, and about 3 feet in coming back, an enormous proportion of the
seam is lost.
The principal colliery is the Walton Park, which put out in 1884, 30,250
tons, and has produced altogether 270,199 tons. 60 men are employed, which
gives upwards of 500 tons per man (above and below) per annum.
GOAL MIX TNG IN NEW ZEALAND. 203
The paid-up capital of the company is £11,000, and the dividends are usually
10 per cent.
About three-quarters of the output is raised by a shaft measuring 12 feet 6
inches by 4 feet 6 inches, and 173 feet deep; the rest comes from a dip
drive, in which horse-power is used, and goes for landsale ; there are two
ventilating shafts, one of which has a furnace. The winding engine is a
single 16^ inch cylinder (geared), which also works an 11 inch bucket lift
with 6 feet stroke. The head-gear is 45 feet in height, the pulley wheels 5
feet in diameter, and a 3 inch flat steel rope is used. In sinking the shaft
a bed of running sand was met with, 65 feet in depth, which, though
extending over the whole field, is nowhere else of such great thickness. It
was overcome by a sinking-box, forced down by screws. This obstacle has
caused the abandonment of four shafts in the immediate neighbourhood.
The seam is of the usual thickness, the "rooms" 12 to 14 feet wide, and the
"ranees" 10 to 25 feet. The roof is, as usual in the neighbourhood, very
bad, to remedy which, coal is left. The mine timber usually used is
Leptospermum sp. (Manuka), costing for an 8 feet prop, 6 inches diameter at
the small end, Is. Id. Wooden rails are general, except in the main roads,
where 14 lbs. iron rails are used, costing £12 per ton. The mine belongs to
a limited liability company, who have purchased the freehold of the land,
and is connected with the Government main line by a branch.
A brick company was started on the same ground, which, after building a
Bull's patent kiln, capable of turning out 250,000 bricks per week, at a
price of 30s. to 40s. per thousand, has, unfortunately, proved a failure.
The Green Island colliery is on the main line, under which the coal has been
partially worked, and the workings are reached by an engine-plane. Formerly,
a shaft formed the means of approach, but, in 1880, a spontaneous fire
occurred, and the shaft was closed and flooded ; shortly after which, the
company went into liquidation. The lease is of 200 acres for twenty-one
years, and the freehold is in private hands. The mine was started in 1873,
and the first coal raised in July, 1874; the output for 1884, for 17 men,
was 8,809 tons, and the total 80,992 tons.
The Fernhill colliery is situated to the west of the basin, and is
approached by a private railway. No machinery for hauling or winding-is
required, as the coal comes out of a level drive ; furnace ventilation is
used. The colliery office is connected with Dunedin, a distance of about 7
miles, by telephone. The output for 1884 was 13,985 tons, and the total
34,997 tons; 16 men are employed. Very excellent sand for building purposes
is obtained here, as also at other mines.
204 COAL MINING TNT NEW ZEALAND.
The Abboteroyd colliery is connected with the railway by a private tram
line. A dip drive, with engine power, serves to bring the coals to daylight.
The output for 1884 was 11,946 tons, and the total 74,651
tons.
In addition to these there are four landsale mines, the total annual output
from which is between 6,000 and 7,000 tons. (17) Plate XXV.
The ordinary wages in the field are 4s. to 4s. 4d. per ton, which includes
sometimes a considerable amount of trucking ; 10s. for underground and 7s.
to 8s. for overground labour per day. The coal when first got has a lustrous
appearance and a brown colour, but dessicates on exposure to the air. It
burns freely, with a slightly unpleasant smell, and leaves a bulky,
incandescent ash. As a locomotive fuel it does well, and the slack is
largely used for stationary engines. When used in the former capacity the
sparks are a source of danger to crops, etc.
The freight to Dunedin is 2s. per ton, and the coal is delivered retail
from 12s. 6d. to 18s.
The mines are entirely free from explosive gas, and accidents are rare.
The analysis gives :—
CLUTHA COAL-FIELD.
This field, which is estimated to contain more available coal than any other
in New Zealand, extends from north of the Clutha River in Otago to 9 miles
north of the river Tokomairiro, a distance of about 20 miles, and covers
altogether an area of about 40 square miles. (18) Plate XXY.
The formation consists of conglomerates, sandstones, clays, and shales, with
coal-seams, forming ranges of hills 700 feet high in the neighbourhood of
Kaitangata, and of less altitude to the north, where they rise again on the
flanks of Mount Misery, which is upper schistose rock. Very good sections
would be exposed on the coast at Coal Point, were it not that faults have
somewhat obscured the section. In the shales above the main seam are
fragmentary vegetable fossils. {Hector, Oeol. Rep., 1871-72, p. 165 ;
1876-77, p. 19.)
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 205
The first mine was opened in 1858, on the sea shore, in an 18 feet seam, the
coal being carried on a tramway for three-quarters of a mile to the mouth of
the Clutha or Molyneux River ; but the undertaking was not a success, and in
1864 another was opened on the west side of the Kaitangata range, and close
to the river, where the seam dips in an opposite direction, indicating that
the hill is an anticlinal arch.
There are at present six mines open in the field, only one of which is of
any importance. This is the Kaitangata Railway and Coal Company's mine,
where a seam 24 feet to 35 feet in thickness, but very much dislocated and
broken, is worked. At one part it dips at an angle of 45 degs., and is at
its maximum thickness, in this particular much resembling some of the
Bohemian seams. The roof is a hard coarse conglomerate, 70 feet in
thickness, and auriferous, but not sufficiently rich to be remunerative ;
the floor is also hard. The capital of the company is £25,000, fully
paid-up, and the reserve fund is £10,602. The average dividend for the last
five years has been lfy per cent, per annum. The output is sold in Dunedin
at 26s. per ton delivered, and is a great favourite with the public. It
is also used extensively for locomotives and other engines.
There are in this locality three workable seams—the topmost 3 feet 6 inches
in thickness, and the lowest, which is the main seam, and lies 500 feet
below, upwards of 35 feet in thickness. About intermediate, between the two,
is a 9 feet seam, which has not been worked. In 1876-77 about 7,000 tons
were taken from the top seam, but the workings are now abandoned. A
considerable quantity was also extracted from this seam in a mine by the
river, but of this the writer has no record.
Originally there were two companies working adjoining leases, but in 1880
the whole property passed into the hands of the Kaitangata Railway and Coal
Company, Limited, whose first mine was driven through the conglomerate and
into the coal, which at that point has a moderate inclination. As the
property now exists, the coal is raised chiefly from an engine plane, 1,076
feet in length and 9 feet in widtk by 6 feet 6 inches in height. This dips 1
in 5, and was driven through the conglomerate for the purpose of opening out
a field supposed to exist beyond a 150 feet fault. Although the driving was
in places very hard, and a considerable amount of water was met with, coal
was reached in six months, and the enterprise of the company was rewarded by
finding the seam of full thickness and excellent quality, dipping 1 in h\.
In driving the engine plane a rock-drill was used, actuated by one of Ford's
air-compressors. Dynamite was employed for blasting.
The rails on the main road are 28 lbs. steel; in the working places
VOL. XXXV.-1886,
B B
206 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
12 lbs. The hauling rope is steel, and 3 inches in circumference. The mine
tubs are wooden, fitted mostly with iron wheels ; but a few which have
Hadfield's patent steel wheels give great satisfaction. Ventilation is
produced by a furnace, situated at the bottom of a shaft, 6 feet 3 inches in
diameter, 238 feet in depth, and bricked throughout.
At present the set is hauled up the plane by a double cylinder 9 inch by 12
inch engine, geared to a 12 feet drum ; but the plant has been laid out for
the adoption of the endless rope system. Electric signals are used. In
addition to the engine plane, there is a rectangular shaft measuring 11 feet
9 inches by 4 feet 6 inches, which was sunk for the purpose of working the
dip area. In sinking, the measures were found to have taken a sudden
plunge to the west, so at 386 feet a level was driven 330 feet in length,
and the coal found of excellent quality and 30 feet in thickness, but lying
at an angle of 45 degs., which appeared to increase to the dip. The method
of working this seam was by driving inclines to the full rise and levels on
the strike. The boards were driven back over until the roof cut them
off. These workings were somewhat fiery. The pit winding engine has a
pair of cylinders 9 inches by 14 inches, and the rope is round and of steel
wire. From the level at the shaft bottom a dip drive is being put down to
explore the field in that direction. The hauling engine comprises a pair
of 12 inch by 24 inch cylinders, and is worked by compressed air, which is
supplied by a single 20 inch by 44^ inch steam cylinder, attached direct to
a 13 inch air cylinder. The air pipes are 6 inches in diameter and 800
feet in length. In the mine level is a 30 feet by 6 feet boiler, which is
used as a receiver. This was originally put down in 1884 for a steam
boiler, but, unfortunately, the coal caught fire, and that portion of the
mine was closed for six weeks. In the original mine, which is now closed,
the seam lay at an angle of 1 in 7, and on approaching the heavy inclination
to the dip, inclines were driven on the full angle, and levels driven at
right angles close to the roof. The boards in this case were driven
towards the rise until they reached the floor. Subsequently, some of the
head coal was worked, but the heavy dip prevented any pillars being
extracted, as had been done to a large extent in the flatter portion.
Eventually, a weight came on over about 9 acres, and the district was
compelled to be
abandoned.
The steam for all the engines is supplied by two 30 feet by 6 feet Cornish
boilers. The chimney is 100 feet high from the pit. The water
is raised in tanks.
The dirt tip is about 50 feet above the pit mouth, the tubs being raised by
a drum on the pit winding engine. The screens, which are
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 207
entirely covered in, are fitted with three returning tipplers, and the main
coal passes over 1 inch spaces, the nuts over f inch.
The principal market for the output is Dunedin, 50 miles distant, the first
4^ miles of this distance consists of the company's private line, which cost
£26,000 ; the freight on the Government line is 5s. lid. per ton, and the
coal is sold retail in Dunedin at 26s. per ton. It is a glossy, black fuel,
clean to the touch, and having a conchoidal fracture; it burns freely,
forming a very cheerful fire, and, like that from Green Island, leaves a
bulky incandescent ash. This is one of its most popular qualities, for it
becomes a matter of great ease to damp down the household fire at night,
which is a point of some moment, where domestic assistance is neither the
best nor the cheapest in the world.
The slack is exceedingly prone to spontaneous combustion, and a small amount
of explosive gas is given off.
Since the year 1879, the working of the Kaitangata mines has been remarkably
free from accidents; but in that year an event occurred which even in a
great coal mining country would have caused a very considerable shock. Owing
to the greatest want of care on the part of the manager (who paid the
penalty with his life), and in spite of warning, an accumulation of gas was
allowed to take place, naked lights were used, and there was only one
available outlet. There could be only one result —an explosion occurred,
which killed three persons, all the rest of the workmen, 31 in number,
perished from the after-damp. It is creditable to the Colony to state that,
in a very few weeks, the sum of £16,000 was raised for the relief of the
widows and orphans, who have been maintained out of the interest; the
capital remaining (like the Hartley accident fund surplus) for the relief of
future sufferers.
The total output from these mines, to the end of 1884, was 242,103 tons, and
the output for that year, during which 110 men were employed, was 43,821
tons. The lease consists of 1,169 acres, of which 69 acres are leased from
the Crown.
In addition to the Kaitangata property, the company owns a coal-bearing
freehold of 2,200 acres, about four miles from the main line of railway and
41 from Dunedin. The analysis is :—
208 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
In addition to the above, there are near the coast two small mines, putting
out together about 220 tons per annum, and near Milton are three mines
giving an annual yield of 2,500 tons.
Adjoining the Kaitangata Railway and Coal Company's property is the
Kaitangata Lake Coal Company, on which nothing has yet been done towards
development. A railway 7| miles in length will be required to tap the
Government railway and bring in coal, which appears
to be plentiful on the ground and easily worked.
»
SOUTHLAND COAL-FIELD.
The coal-field of this Province may be divided into four areas ( Button,
Geol Rep., 1871-72, p. 91), viz.:—
1.—The Hokanui district.
2.—The Mount Hamilton district. (19) Plate XXY. 3.—The Wairaki district.
4.—The Orepuke district. (21) Plate XXY. The two first contain seams of
bituminous coal, the latter of pitch coal ; the former, unfortunately, have
never furnished a seam sufficiently thick to be of any value, and therefore
they are not of present interest. The Wairaki district, on the other hand,
though containing coal of inferior quality, has very large deposits, and
only requires population to induce a considerable output. At present
there are two mines at work, namely, the Nightcaps Coal Company, (20) Plate
XXV., and the Wairio Mine. The former property belongs to a private
company, who have in reality three mines at work ; firstly, the old dip
drive in the thin seam, which measures only 2 feet 4 inches; secondly, a
large open work area, where a great quantity of coal has been stripped by
hydraulicing; and, thirdly, a drive in the same thick seam, and situated
between the two. The dip drive furnishes a very small quantity of coal,
which is raised by a small hauling engine, with a single 6 inch by 10 inch
cylinder. To the dip is a shaft 135 feet deep, which is used for pumping ;
a water-wheel, 16 feet in diameter, is the motive power, and water is
brought in a race five miles long, from which a supply is also taken fo.
sluicing the open
work.
The screens are situated by the side of a private railway, and 19 chains
from the mine, also at a considerable vertical height; a small hauling
engine is therefore required. The coal, which is clean looking and glossy,
contains retinite, and makes a good engine and household fuel. The field has
an area of about 21 square miles, and the Nightcaps Coal Company work their
own freehold. The freight is, to Invercargill, 5s. 5d. per ton.
The Wairio coal mine is on a small scale, putting out about 350 tons per
year.
The Orepuke district comprises a small coal-field about 18 miles west of
Eiverton, and connected therewith by a Government railway, and a short
private branch. It has only recently been opened up, and no coal was put out
in 1884. The seam, which dips S.S.W., is 9 feet in thickness, and is worked
by a shaft measuring 10 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, and 202 feet in depth. No
doubt, when population increases, this colliery will do well, as the coal
like that from the Nightcaps, is fit only for local consumption, being too
bulky for shipment.
In addition to the coal is a seam of bituminous shale, of which great things
are hoped. Its analysis is :—
In the Southland district, as in Central Otago, are many lignite deposits,
which are of great local value, but not of sufficient interest to merit a
detailed description.
At Preservation Inlet, on the extreme south-west of the Middle Island of New
Zealand, is a small coal-field, containing a good variety of pitch-coal.
Nothing more than prospecting has ever been done. (22) Plate XXV.
System of Working. The almost universal system of working is by board and
pillar, and in ;he majority of cases the pillars are left very much too
small, by which creeps are caused. Longwall has been tried in a few
cases. At Colling-wood it has always been the mode ; but usually it has
been abandoned on account, principally, of the very bad roofs, the
intermittent demand, and want of experience in that particular method.
Through bad working and insufficient pillars, very large quantities of coal
have been lost. Owing, in a great measure, to the small scale on which
operations are carried on in this Colony, it has been unusual for that
minute subdivision of labour to be adopted which tends so much to cheapen
and render perfect the system of coal-getting pursued in the old country.
Hence, extra expense attendant upon skilled labour employed in hewing,
filling, and trucking, where, under more favourable circumstances, smaller
wages would have sufficed. Another drawback has been the short tenure on
which the small mines have been held. The writer has been informed of one
mine which was leased by the month, and in even the best leases there is no
provision made for exacting payment in the case of coal left in the mine.
The usual terms are a minimum rent and a fixed royalty per ton for all coal
raised; no notice being taken of coal lost. There is generally the usual
proviso for working to the satisfaction of an inspector or viewer appointed
by the Crown or other lessor, but this is a poor substitute for a definite
price per acre (or per foot thick per acre) got
or spoiled.
Number of Mines.
There were in New Zealand, in 1884, 94 mines on the official list,
which have been classified. (J. McKerroes, Secretary for Mines, Report
on Control and Inspection of Mines, New Zealand, 1885, p. 2.)
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 211
The following table gives the various methods of working for the Year 1884
:—
From which it will be seen that the majority of the mines are worked without
shafts, and that only 18 mines altogether employ steam-power for raising the
output.
Machinery. As will have been observed in the more detailed descriptions of
the mines, there is some machinery in use which is of a really first-class
description ; on the other hand, in some places the appliances are of the
rudest possible kind. Ventilation has, in few cases, received much
attention ; four fans are erected, one driven by hand-power ; eleven mines
are returned as ventilated by furnaces, but these are often hardly worthy of
the name, and two are indebted to exhaust steam for their air. In many
cases the workings are, owing to geological causes, of a very temporary
nature, hence proprietors hesitate before putting down a ventilating plant,
which may shortly become useless. Tangye's " Special" pumps are the usual
favourite, though spear-rods are not unknown, and pulsometers have been
used. Some of the hauling engines have been made, and well-made, in the
colony; the extreme delay which so frequently accompanies an order to Europe
deterring many owners from importing. Ropes, of course, are always
imported, and so far there have been no accidents due to defective
appliances of this nature. Steel tubs are being introduced, and
Hadfield's steel wheels give great satisfaction. The same material is
also used for boilers. Brattice cloth has only in one instance been
introduced, the usual substitute being canvas, or even calico, both of which
212 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
are expensive, and of comparatively little use. "Wooden head-gear would seem
likely to be universally employed where timber is so plentiful, but the
Westport Coal Company have purchased wrought iron lattice headgear for their
G-reymouth shaft. Safety hooks are used in at least two cases. No safety
cages, at least in the colliery shafts.
Compressed air has been introduced at only one coal mine, though in the
quartz mines it is very usual. ¦ There are, the writer regrets to state, no
hydraulic pumps or hauling engines, though, in many cases, every inducement
exists to adopt them.
Legislation. The mines of New Zealand, both metalliferous and coal, are
regulated by " The Regulation of Mines Act, 1874," which, bears some
resemblance to the Imperial Act of 1872, without, however, compelling the
manager to be certificated. This Act was passed in the year 1874, but its
enforcement being optional with the superintendents of the (late) Provinces,
it was allowed to remain inoperative. In October, 1878, the then Minister
of Public Works stated in Parliament that it should be brought into general
use in all, except one important mining district, which was very much averse
to it. {New Zealand "Hansard" 1878, p. 568.) Nothing was done until
the terrible explosion at Kaitangata, in February, 1879, aroused the Colony
to the fact that something must be done. The existing Act was therefore
proclaimed, and inspectors were appointed.
Accidents.
Since the enforcement of the above-mentioned Act to the end of 1884, 82
persons have been injured in and about the coal mines of the Colony, of whom
11 were killed.
The following table gives the percentage of causes of accident:—
The total output for this period is 2,149,270 tons, and the total number of
men employed 6,895, giving a death rate of 195,361 tons, and 626'86 men
employed, per life lost, or at the rate of 1*765 per thousand tons.
In making these calculations no account is taken of several accidents which
occurred in and about mines, to persons who were not coal-getters, or in any
way employed. In this the writer has followed the general example of H.M.
Inspectors of Mines for Great Britain.
Total Consumption, Output, Imports, and Exports.
The following tables give the various quantities of coal under the above
divisions, and in Fig. 1, Plate XXVL, a graphic representation is given. It
will be observed that the total consumption shows a steady increase, also
that the exports for 1884 show a considerable falling off.
The following table gives the percentage proportion of imported coal, total
consumption, and indicates how the use of imported coal is decreasing,
notwithstanding all the advantages possessed by the trade.
The following tables give the output of coal and percentage increase or
decrease for each Island :—
and the following table indicates more clearly how the ratio of increase in
the South Island, where the true coal exists, exceeds that in the North,
where there is only brown coal:—
Railway Rates and Means of Communication and Transport.
In the year 1884 there were 1,477 miles of railway open for traffic, having
cost £11,810,194, and, in addition, £1,046,433 spent on railways not yet
opened. The lines are constructed on the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, and originally
with light iron rails. The freights are as follows:—
Benefit Societies, Strikes, Condition of the Miners, etc.
At almost all the collieries of any importance benefit clubs exist, where
members obtain assistance in illness or accident, as well as co-operative
societies, where they obtain stores at a moderate rate. In several
localities are good reading rooms and libraries, in others fishing and
shooting are indulged in. Notwithstanding these advantages, and the high
wages earned, the writer thinks that the lot of the miners in the old
country compares, when trade is moderately good, favourably with that
216 COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
of their brethren in this Colony. The general class of house is not good,
many men living in tents or sod huts for considerable periods. Work is very
irregular ; on the West Coast, where the harbours are sometimes shut for
many days, the miners' time is very broken.
Unfortunately, strikes are not unknown in New Zealand, and, although usually
they are short lived, yet, in one instance, a dispute of this nature lasted
for seven months, and culminated in scenes of violence, which everybody will
regret to see introduced into a new country.
General Remarks.
In looking at the quantities of coal in New Zealand, it will be observed
that they are, comparatively speaking, small; also that the fields are much
broken, having partaken in the geological disturbances of the country to
some extent. But what strikes anyone accustomed to the English coal-fields
is the inconstancy and unreliability of the deposits. In addition to the
ordinary dislocations, the seams vary in thickness and in quality, so much
and so capriciously, as to seriously retard the ordinary operations of
mining. The high price of labour, and the variable demand —which is not
dependent, as in older countries, on extensive manufactures—are also
inimical to success. Thus it is, that although carried on for a good many
years, coal-mining has not so far become an attractive investment for New
Zealand colonists. There are, certainly, instances of successful working and
large profits, but these are, unfortunately, very few, in comparison with
those cases where hope deferred has rendered the heart of the investor sick
; and, in the past, many and disastrous failures have been chronicled in the
history of the coal industry of the Colony. One great cause of this want of
success is the keen competition maintained by the collieries of Newcastle,
New South Wales, which has been already referred to. Until the ports of the
West Coast are much improved, there can be no hope of driving the foreign
article from these markets.
Before concluding this paper the writer desires to thank all the coal-owners
and colliery managers who have assisted him with information and
suggestions; to mention names would be to give a list of nearly all of the
colliery men in the Colony.
Conclusion.
The writer is aware that in a paper of this nature, dealing somewhat in
detail with a large area, there must be some mistakes and many imperfections
; he can only regret the former, and claim the generous indulgence of Home
engineers for the latter.
COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 217
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS ACCOMPANYING PAPER ON "COAL IN NEW ZEALAND."
A.-Westport Coal Co.'s Works, upper incline and middle break, in
course of construction. B.—Westport, from the Buller Biver. C— „
coal staiths.
D.—Westport Coal Co.'s works, foot of upper incline. '" "
" private line, incline in distance.
summit of upper incline looking seawards (South West). H'~ "
" Comi's Creek bridge, lower incline.
" » viaduct and entrance to mine.
' " " surface endless chain.
" " uPPer incline, truck on point of
departure.
•~ " „.. " Conn's Creek bridge, lower incline.
M.—Brunner Bridge, from north side of river.
N.—Westport Coal Co.'s new works at Greymouth 0.—
" » 55
P.—
" » »
Q.—Walton Park Colliery, Green Island. R.—Nightcaps Coal Co.'s Works,
Southland.
LIST OP SPECIMENS ACCOMPANYING PAPER.
Coal—Shag Point Colliery, Main Seam.
" „ Lower Seam.
Koranui
Coal-pit Heath „
Earnscleugh „ Interior Otago.
Hartley „ Canterbury (altered coal).
" " » (brown coal).
Brockley
Springfield „
Real Mackay „ Clutha Coal-field. Kaitangata Reefton Coal-field.
Mount Hamilton, Otago.
218 DISCUSSION—COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
Walton Park Colliery, Green Island.
Ngapara „ Oamaru.
Wharekuri „ „
West Wanganui „
Clyde „ Interior Otago.
Ida Valley „ ,,
Taupiri „ Waikato.
Acheron „ Canterbury.
Homebush „ „
Alexandra „ Interior Otago.
Collingwood „
Mokihinui „ West Coast, South Island.
Picton Coal-field.
Brunner Colliery, Greymouth.
Benhar „ Otago. Orepuki „ Southland.
Firebricks.—Springfield (gannister).
Greymouth. Fir e-c lay.—Grey mouth. Coke.—Brunner, Greymouth.
Oilshale.—Orepuki. Retinite.—Pukerau.
Fossil-ivood, from lignite beds.—Mataura. Auriferous quarts.
GOLD-MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.-PHOTOGRAPHS PRESENTED BY G. J. BINNS, F.G.S.
Q.—Hydraulicing, Westland, New Zealand.
R and T.—Fluming on water-races at Kumar a, New Zealand.
S.—Battery house and Wheel, Reefton, New Zealand.
Professor Lebour, with regard to the geological features of New Zealand,
said that, in New Zealand there was a large series containing no less than
nine sub-divisions, each consisting of well-defined formations, and they
were obliged to coin the name " Cretaceo-Tertiary" for the whole, because
the beds have the characteristics of the Tertiary series,
DISCUSSION—COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND. 219
and also of the Upper Cretaceous, for there was there no hard and fast line
to be drawn between the Cretaceous rocks and the Tertiary rocks. The
point in regard to the presence of the coals in the Cretaceous series was
that they invariably occurred at the base of marine deposits. One could
not help remarking, on hearing this, that, although New Zealand was about as
far as could be from here, being right at the antipodes, yet, nevertheless,
there was an extraordinary similarity in the way the coals, although of
different ages, had been deposited in England and New Zealand. He could
not help comparing these occurrences of coal immediately beneath the marine
deposits in New Zealand with the deposits of coal which occurred in
England, which were below, or nearly always below, estuarine deposits.
The shells which were found in the estuarine deposits
represented a condition of brackish water at the mouths of some very large
rivers. If that be so, the surfaces, both in New Zealand in the
Cretaceous times, and in England in the Coal-measure times, were probably
preserved by an almost immediate sinking of the land area under the sea
water. He used the word "immediate" in its proper sense, and not in the
ordinary sense. The character of the coal needed little description on
his part. By the samples sent over they would at once see the great
difference which existed between what was called bituminous and anhydrous
coal, which was found in the Cretaceous series, and the very pitchy coal
found in other seams. There were also a few specimens of fire-clays and
gannister found in the district. He would especially call attention to the
peat coal, resembling very much the turbite of Brazil, and the similar
substance used for fuel in Iceland, —just peat bogs dried up, but peat more
consolidated than is found in England. He concluded by proposing a vote
of thanks to Mr. Binns for his excellent paper, and he did so with the more
pleasure because Mr. Binns was one of his old students, and one of the best
geological students they ever had in the College of Science. Mr.
Binns' success in a new country could not fail to be a pleasure to them
all, and a credit to the College of Science.
The President seconded the vote of thanks, and said they were extremely
indebted to Mr. Binns for such a valuable paper upon a subject of which much
was comparatively new, and which brought the subject up to the present date.
It was very gratifying to know that Mr. Binns, who occupied such a prominent
official position as that of Inspector of Mines in New Zealand, had received
his education at the College of Science in Newcastle. He might also venture
to say how very much they were indebted to Professor Lebour, not only for
the remarks he had made that
220 DISCUSSION—COAL MINING IN NEW ZEALAND.
day, but for his attendance on all other occasions. The value of the
discussions were greatly enhanced when the Professors of the College of
Science were good enough to take part in them.
Mr. GrEORGE Baker Forster said, he had much pleasure in supporting the vote
of thanks. He thought Mr. Binns' paper an extremely interesting one, and it
was rendered more interesting by the fact that the author was originally one
of themselves.
The motion was agreed to, and the meeting concluded.
PROCEEDINGS. 221
PROCEEDINGS.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, SATURDAY, AUGUST 7th, 1886, IN THE WOOD MEMORIAL
HALL, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
JOHN DAGLISH, Esq., President, in the Chaie.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting and reported the
proceedings of the Council.
The Secretary read the Annual Report of the Council.
The President appointed Messrs. A. Potter, H. Bramwell, F. Gosman, and W. E.
Nicholson to act as scrutineers for the election of officers for the ensuing
year.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously nominated:—
Ordinary Member—
Mr. George J. Binns, F.G.S., Government Inspector of Mines, Dunedin New
Zealand.
The following gentlemen were nominated for election : —
Associate Membees—
Mr. F. B. Du Pre, 13. Old Elvet, Durham.
Mr. William Nichol, Boldon Colliery, Ncwcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. J. McKinless, 1, Gore Street, Greenheys, Manchester.
Student— Mr. Westgarth Brown, Marsden Colliery, South Shields.
The President delivered the following Address:—
VOL. XXXV.-1886.
^ -°
president's address. 223
PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
Gentlemen,—I have to express my regret at having so long delayed the usual
Presidential Address; hut about the time that I proposed to deliver it last
year there seemed to be a probability that an Exhibition of mining
appliances would be held this year in Newcastle, and such an Exhibition
would have afforded much interesting matter for an address. As the
Exhibition has, however, been now deferred until next year, I propose, for a
short time, to draw your attention to the recent improvements and appliances
connected with Mining and Mechanical Engineering, especially those which
have been the subject of papers published in the Transactions of this
Institute during the past three years, and those which no doubt will be
represented in the Newcastle Industrial Exhibition of 1887.
Geology.—On the subject of geology, which is of primary importance in
mining, the following papers have been published in your Transactions,
during the past three years, on foreign Mining, viz.:—
"On the Bilbao Iron Ore District," by B. J. Forrest. "On the Gold-fields of
Nova Scotia," by Edwin Gilpin, Jun. "On the Coal-fields in North Formosa,"
by David Tyzack. " On the Manganese Deposits of San Pietro," by E. Halse. "
On Transylvanian Gold Mining," by E. H. Liveing.
Together with several other interesting geological papers, chiefly relating
to the coal and iron fields in England, especially several by Mr. Kendall.
Several of these papers are specially valuable and interesting as dealing
with deposits in different parts of the world, of which little, if any,
previous information has been published; and, as the writers are practical
mining engineers, such papers have great economic value.
I will only further mention, on this subject, the discovery and rapid
development of petroleum at Baku, on the western shore of the Caspian Sea,
from wells in limestone of the Miocene period. At the great well at Baku,
when first pierced, the oil rose over 300 feet high out of a tube 10 inches
in diameter. In 1865, the production of crude oil in this district from
wells not exceeding 50 feet deep was only 8,900 tons, but twenty years
after, at the end of 1884, 600 bore-holes were in operation, the deepest
being 714 feet, and the production was 1\ million tons.
224 president's address.
It may be interesting to compare with this the production of petroleum in
the United States, which has been as follows :—
1859 ............... 759 tons.
1869 ............ 2,999,732 „
1885 ............ 3.278,571 „
This latter quantity, however, is less than the production in 1882, which
was the maximum.
Endeavours are being made to introduce this material as fuel for the use of
engines, especially for steam ships, and although this probably may be in
some places an economy, especially where coal is not found on the spot, it
is to be hoped that the British Government will not spend funds (as has been
reported) in experiments for the purpose of introducing a raw material from
other countries to supplant that produced by our own country; and that it
will be left for the governments of these other countries, who will receive
the benefit, to expend their national funds for such a purpose.
Boring.—The first operation in mining is that of boring in search of
minerals. I am not awrare that any new inventions in this branch have been
introduced recently, but the use of the diamond drill has been greatly
extended.
In the neighbourhood of Middlesbro' a large number of bore-holes have been
recently completed, chiefly by the diamond drill, for the purpose of working
the great salt beds which were discovered there in 1859. This deposit was
described for the first time in a valuable paper by Mr. John Marley, in
Volume XIII. of your Transactions; and a new and most important industry is
rapidly developing. There are now fourteen boreholes completed by four
distinct companies; the depth of the overlying strata varying from 1,000
feet at Haverton Hill (Haverton Hill Salt Company) to 1,500 feet at Eston
(Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan, & Companyj.
The general system in operation, up to this date, at all of these salt
works, is that of placing in the bore-hole (which is cased throughout with
iron tubing) an inner iron tube. A stream of fresh water is passed downwards
between the tube and casing, which flows into the salt bed through apertures
in the outer casing. It there becomes saturated with salt from the salt bed,
and the brine rises up the centre tube to a distance of 200 feet below the
surface, the height of the inner column of brine counterpoising the outer
column of fresh wTater. The brine is then pumped up to the surface from this
depth to large reservoirs, and is conveyed thence by pipes to the pans where
the water is evaporated. The practical yield of each of these brine wells,
when in proper working order, may be taken
president's address. 225
at 300 tons of salt per well per week; the total output of the district at
present is from 2,000 to 3,000 tons per week.
Considerable difficulty has, however, been met with in carrying on these
brine wells, from the fact of the falling in of the marls overlying the salt
bed, which block up and sometimes break the lower portion of the tubes.
Three wells out of fourteen have already been damaged from this cause.
Negotiations are now in progress to introduce the system of boring in
operation in the petroleum district in the United States, and it is
anticipated that a very considerable economy in the first cost of the
bore-holes will be effected.*
One of the deepest bore-holes yet executed in this district was that at St.
Bees, in Cumberland, for the Earl of Lonsdale, under the direction of the
late T. E. Forster, president of your Institute in 186G, which successfully
proved the "Main Band" Coal Seam at a depth of 1,438 feet, after passing
through a thickness of 810 feet of new red sandstone and 315 feet of gypsum
deposits, the magnesian limestone being only slightly, if at all,
represented.
The bore-hole at Widdrington, in Northumberland, completed to a depth of
1,564 feet by the diamond drill, was entirely in the coal-measure strata.
The deepest bore-hole in the world, until recently, was that at
Schlade-bach, near Leipzig, the depth being 4,515 feet. The Schladebach hole
was bored by the Prussian Government with the diamond drill in search
* Since delivering this address the American boring system has been
introduced, and has proved exceedingly satisfactory, and the progress has
been remarkably rapid. An average rate of progress of 63 feet per day has
been attained, with a maximum of 5 feet per hour, viz.:—¦
The well was completed and ready for tubing on September 23rd.
Arrangements have now been made to bore at once seven more wells upon this
method.
226 president's address.
for coal. The temperature of the bottom of the bore-hole is stated to have
been 48° centigrade, or 118° F. It is stated, however, that there is now a
bore-hole in Pennsylvania which has reached over 6,000 feet in depth.
The deepest shaft in England is that of Ashton Moss Colliery, in Lancashire,
2,880 feet; and elsewhere, that of the Adalbert Lead Mine, at Prizibriam,
3,672 feet. The depth of the celebrated consolidated Virginia Mine is 3,100
feet, and here the temperature was found to be 115° F., so that the workmen
could only work for twenty minutes at a time, and then returned to a chamber
filled with ice, thus working 2| hours out of 8. This seems, therefore, to
approach the limit at which any mine can be worked. The Virginia Mine,
however, yielded over 12 million pounds sterling worth of gold and silver in
six years.
Shaft Sinking.—The next important operation in mining is that of shaft
sinking ; the chief object of improved systems being to facilitate the
sinking through large beds of water-bearing strata, especially in soft
running sand.
The only sinkings which have been completed in England by the Chaudron
process are those at Cannock (Huntington), and at Marsden, in Durham. The
latter was fully described in a paper read by the writer before the
Institution of Civil Engineers, and published in their Transactions (Volume
LXXI., Part 1, 1882-83.) No account of the former sinking has yet been
published. The most recent examples of this process abroad are the
completion of the two pits at G-hlin, near Mons, finished in 1885. Great
difficulty was met with in this undertaking, not only from the occurrence of
solid beds of flint 30 feet in thickness, but also a bed of running sand 115
feet thick, at a depth of 92-1 feet. The total depth is 1,072 feet, tubbed
off, which is the greatest depth to which tubbing has been taken. A short
description of the sinking of these shafts will be found in the
above-mentioned memoir (Institute Civil Engineers, Volume LXXI.) At that
time, however, these pits had not been completed. Other recent examples of
this process are—a pit at Maurage, in Belgium, 924 feet deep ; and two pits
at Dortmund, in Germany, 808 feet deep. These latter present the novelty of
having been "bored out" and "tubbed off" in the usual manner by the Kind and
Chaudron process to a depth of 264 feet, then sunk and walled in the
ordinary way 231 feet further, through solid chalk without water; and then
the Chaudron process again introduced, and the pits sunk and tubbed off to a
further depth of 316 feet; the whole of which was successfully accomplished.
A new process of sinking (System Pcetsch) has been recently introduced
abroad, apparently with some success, viz., that of artificially
president's address. 227
freezing the whole of the soft strata, and sinking through it whilst in this
indurated condition. This system seems to have been also successfully used
in driving a tunnel throueii soft strata at Stockholm.
Several shafts have been recently sunk in South Wales of very large
diameter, and of great depth, with remarkable rapidity. The particulars
of the sinking of the Ynysybul Pit for the Ocean Company (which Mr. Beith,
the contractor, has kindly furnished) will doubtless be of interest to the
members of this Institute.—No. 1 Pit. 19 feet diameter. Begun June
16th, 1884; completed to the "Nine-feet Seam," a depth of 601 yards, on
November 12th, 1885. Time, 73^- weeks, at an average rate of 8£ yards per
week, including walling the full depth.—No. 2 Pit. 17 feet diameter.
Begun October 13th, 1884; completed to "Yard Seam," 626 yards, on June 23rd,
1886. Time, 67 weeks. Average rate, 9^ yards per week, including
walling the full depth. The maximum depth sunk in any one week of six
days was 18^- yards, without walling, in the No. 2 Pit. On several
occasions 25 yards were completed in a fortnight, including walling. Some
of the stone sunk through was exceedingly hard (Penant Eock). All water
met with (which did not exceed 40 gallons per minute in the two pits) was
raised in the sinking tubs. All the blasting was done by dynamite, in ^
lb. charges (1 lb. sump shot), and about 30 to 40 lbs. were used per yard
sunk on an average. The shots were fired by fuse, ignited by red hot
wire. The shot-holes were drilled by hand in No. 1 Pit; and chiefly by
Beaumont's percussion drill in No. 2 Pit. Twenty-three sinkers and one
chargeman were in the pit at once. The stones were raised by single tubs.
Time in raising from 600 yards, 60 seconds, and in lowering, 35 seconds.
An interesting sinking is at present being proceeded with at Wombwell
Colliery, near Barnsley, from the Barnsley Seam (which is there at a depth
of 224 yards from the surface) down to the Silkstone Seam, a further depth
of 400 yards. This sinking being several miles from any previous winning of
the Silkstone Seam, will prove many miles of coal-field.*
Tunnelling.—Closely connected with shaft sinking is the driving of drifts or
tunnels. Several large works of this character have been recently
successfully completed, viz.:—
That connecting Liverpool and Birkenhead beneath the Mersey; the width of
the river here being 1,320 yards, and the distance driven being one mile
from shaft to shaft; the least cover overlying the tunnel being
* Since writing the above, the Silkstone Seam has been proved at a depth of
360 yards below the Barnsley Seam.
228 president's address.
30 feet below the bed of the river, and the depth of water overhead at high
tide being 100 feet. The principal difficulty met with in this undertaking
was the considerable quantity of water which had to be pumped. The capacity
of the pumping appliances was 18,800 gallons per minute, and the quantity of
water to be dealt with permanently is from 7,000 to 8,000 gallons per
minute, the depth of the shaft being 170 feet. The Beaumont boring machine
was extensively used, boring out a circle 7 feet diameter. The maximum speed
attained was 65 yards per week, as compared with 13 yards by hand, with an
area of 9* feet by 8 feet. The works were commenced in May, 1881, and
completed in January, 1886.
The Severn Tunnel underneath the estuary of the Severn has also been
recently completed by the Great Western Railway Company for the passage of
their trains. The Severn is here 2\ miles wide. The works were begun in
March, 1878, and completed in December, 1885. The total length of the tunnel
is 7,664 yards (4£ miles) with a minimum cover of 30 feet below the bed of
the river, which is here 55 feet deep at low water, with a rise of tide 40
feet. Much difficulty was also encountered here from the influx of water,
and interesting accounts have been published of the measures used to
overcome this. The total pumping power on both sides of the river reached
46,074 gallons per minute, the actual quantity pumped at the Sudbrook
station alone being 19,000 gallons per minute, out of an available power
equal to nearly 27,000 gallons per minute, the depth of the shaft being 226
feet.
The proposed Sound Tunnel, between Denmark and Sweden, is an undertaking
exceeding the Severn Tunnel in magnitude, and approaching in character to
the Channel Tunnel Scheme. The rock to be pierced is chalk with flint, and
it is estimated that the work can be accomplished in three years.
Probably the most difficult undertaking of this kind has been the tunnel
below the Hudson River, at New York, the width being here 5,500 yards, and
the thickness of cover below the bed of the river being only in some places
20 feet. The work has, therefore, been carried out by a system of working
under compressed air. It was commenced in 1879.
The Arlberg Tunnel through the Alps, which has also been lately completed,
is the most recent of the great Alpine tunnels. It was commenced in June,
1880, and completed in August, 1884, the length being 6^ miles.
The following table of the comparative lengths of these great tunnels, and
of some other gigantic undertakings, may be interesting:—
230 president's address.
The improvements which have been made in boring machinery, and the use of
dynamite have increased the rate of progress in recent tunnels in a very
marked degree. In the construction of the Mont Cenis Tunnel, 13,432 yards
were executed in fourteen years, i.e., a progress of about 1 yard in 7|
hours. At St. Gothard, 16,241 yards were executed in eight years, i.e., 1
yard in 8| hours ; whilst at Arlberg, 11,194 yards were completed in four
years, i.e., 1 yard in 2| hours.
As being connected with the subject of tunnelling and blasting, mention may
be made of the blast on a scale never before approached, recently made for
the purpose of removing the "Flood" or "Hell's Gate" Kock at New York. The
charge consisted of 145 tons of various explosives, chiefly " rack-a-rock,"
a material composed of chlorate of potash impregnated with heavy mineral
oils.
These tunnels have been greatly expedited by the use of mechanical drills,
which were first used on an extensive scale by Monsieur Somelier in the Mont
Cenis Tunnel, while the Ferroux (percussion) and the Brandt' (rotary) drills
were successfully used in the recent Arlberg Tunnel. The magnitude of these
undertakings, the necessity for rapid completion, and the advantage of
possessing on the spot enormous water power, has led to the extensive use of
mechanical drills worked by compressed air ; and many valuable researches
have been made, in connection with these great works, on the action of
compressed air as a motive power. A mechanical drill of ingenious
construction has been recently introduced extensively and successfully in
the Cleveland ironstone mines by Mr. Walker, a member of your Institute. The
Cranston drill is also extensively used in quarries in this district. No
doubt there will be interesting exhibits, both of rock drills and air
compressing machinery, in the Exhibition next year.
Compressed air, as a motive power, is so cheaply and easily obtained, in the
first instance, and is so easy of conveyance, and its application so free
from any danger or annoyance as compared with exhaust steam, and possibly
electricity, that its extensive introduction into coal mining operations
must only be a question of time. Some years since the writer erected at
Kimblesworth Colliery, and recently at Marsden Colliery, air compressing
plant, to which the Oolodon principle of a jet or spray of water was
applied. The water is injected, not in the direction of the motion of the
piston, as was formerly the case, but in the opposite direction, against the
piston as it returns. This application is perfectly successful, not only in
keeping down the temperature due to the compression of the air, which was
formerly a fertile
president's address. 231
source of injury and loss, but the curve of compression is reduced, and,
therefore, also the power required. This application formed the subject of
an interesting discussion, published at page 21 in Vol. XXII. of your
Transactions. This discussion has the greater value and interest from the
fact of Professor He.rschel having taken part in it, and he subsequently
contributed a further explanatory paper, published at page 30 of the same
volume.
It may be here mentioned that this Institute is much indebted to the
Professors of the Durham College of Science for the great interest they take
in it, both in contributing papers of great value and in taking part in the
discussions. The presence of these gentlemen, who occupy so high a standing
as scientific specialists, adds greatly to the value of the discussions.
It has been suggested that a committee of this Institute might properly
apply attention and consideration to a complete comparison of the six motive
powers in operation for underground haulage in mining, viz. :—
Steam;
Compressed air ;
Water (used in several ways);
Ropes (also used in various ways);
Electricity ;
Gas engines.
Bridges.—Closely connected with the question of tunnelling below rivers is
that of bridges over them ; but as this is a branch of engineering hardly
within the scope of this Institute, I will only refer to the great works of
this character now being executed across the Forth and Tay. The Forth Bridge
is not only remarkable for its unique construction, but for the enormous
width of the spans, two of these being 1,700 feet, and the clear height
above high water to the roadway 150 feet. The total length is 1\ miles. It
was commenced in 1883, and is not yet finished. The length of the new Tay
Bridge is 3,600 yards, with a clear height of 77 feet above high water
level. It was commenced in 1882, and is not yet finished.
A bridge of large size and novel design is now in course of construction
across the river Thames, near the Tower. The main, or lower roadway of this
bridge is a bascult, or double drawbridge, between the two centre piers,
with a high level roadway, also between these piers, at a sufficient level
to allow of ships passing beneath, whilst the lower bridge is open for ships
to pass through. Passengers will be raised by elevators in the piers up to
the higher level permanent bridge.
232 president's address.
Canals.—Closely allied with these large engineering works, under and over
rivers, are canals, connecting seas, as at Suez, Panama, and Corinth, or
connecting inland towns with the sea, as at Amsterdam, St. Petersburg, and
Manchester.
The Suez Canal, the earliest of these, was opened in 1869. Its length is 100
miles; the width at the top is 328 feet, and at the bottom 72 feet; the
depth being 26 feet.
The Panama Canal, commenced in 1881, will be—in length, 46 miles; in width,
164 feet at the water line j and in depth, 27 feet 10 inches.
The Amsterdam Canal was opened in 1876. Its length is lh\ miles ; the width
at the top, 187 feet, and at the bottom, 88 feet j and the depth, 23 feet.
The St. Petersburg Canal was opened in 1885. Its length is 18| miles; its
width is 207 feet at the bottom ; and its depth is 22 feet.
The proposed Manchester Canal will be—in length, 21 miles; in width, at the
top, 208 feet, and at the bottom, 120 feet; and in depth, 26 feet.
All these works, which have been thus briefly referred to, have been
executed at considerable distances from us. But another great work of
this class has been for some years in course of execution with marked
success in this district, viz., the Eiver Tyne Improvement. Here a canal
of great magnitude has been dredged in the bottom of the river. Forty years
ago, the depth of water at low spring tides on the Bar was only 6 feet; it
is now between 20 and 30 feet. A channel, or sub-aqueous canal of a width
varying from 400 to 900 feet has been dredged to a depth of 20 feet at low
water, from the sea to a distance of over three miles above Newcastle,
making a total distance from the Bar of about 15 miles. 77,064,234 tons
of material have been dredged up by powerful dredgers of the most improved
construction, and sent out to sea, and there deposited at a distance of two
to three miles from land. Owing to the extensive scale of these
operations, and the admirable arrangements of the engineer, Mr. Messent, the
cost of dredging and conveying this material has been reduced to about
threepence per ton. These operations, apart from their deepening the
channel for commercial purposes, have produced interesting and important
results, and the height of high water at Newcastle has been raised 8
inches, and that of low water reduced 33 inches, and the time of high water
expedited about one hour.
it is not necessary to dwell on the other works of great magnitude executed
by the Kiver Tyne Commissioners, viz.:—The noble piers, which
president's address. 233
have already converted a most dangerous port into a safe harbour of refuge;
and the magnificent Swing Bridge, the largest of its kind, as these would in
themselves form subjects for several addresses.
Iron and Steel.—Intimately connected, not only with all engineering works,
but also with the question of fuel in relation to its consumption, is the
rapid introduction of steel in place of iron. However much engineering
science and mechanical construction in general throughout the world may have
benefited by this change, which has taken place with such unprecedented
rapidity, it is very questionable whether England itself reaps benefits
equally with other countries. The great advantage possessed by England was
in its numerous coal-fields, situated not only as they are in immediate
vicinity to the ironstone, but also to the sea-board. This advantage enabled
England to produce iron cheaper than any other part of the world; but
England is now not only dependent, to a certain extent, for the manufacture
of steel on the importation of foreign Hematite ores, but it imports ores
which can, with equal economy, be exported from the same mines to ironworks
elsewhere abroad. The greatly reduced quantity of fuel used in the
manufacture of steel also gives a further advantage to foreign competition,
where the cost of fuel is higher. Mr. Colquehoun, who is an authority on
this subject, in his recent presidential address to the South Wales
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, said, that in the production
of steel rails in comparison with iron rails, the saving in fuel is about 67
per cent., and on labour, about 60 per cent. It is true, that by the
valuable inventions of Messrs. Thomas Gilchrist and others, the inferior
ores (for this purpose) of Cleveland, etc., can now be utilized for the
manufacture of steel; but this is more than counterbalanced by the fact that
the same advantage can be taken by foreign competitors in so using their
ores of a similar character.
As bearing on the consumption of raw materials in this district, that is, of
coal, limestone, and salt, mention may be made of the substitution of the
ammonia for the Leblanc process in the manufacture of soda, the former using
less than one-half the quantity of fuel, no limestone, and salt chiefly in
the condition of brine.
I am not aware of any very recent marked improvement in Blast Furnaces;
probably, the most important has been that put into operation in some of the
Scotch furnaces for recovering the ammonia from furnace vapours. The great
fall, however, in the commercial value of this article will, no doubt,
militate against the further present extension of these arrangements.
284 president's address.
Engines.—There does not appear to have been any striking improvements in
connection with the steam engine during the past two years, but there has
been a growing tendency to increase the boiler pressure and the ratio of
expansion; this has been affected, to a large extent, by the introduction of
triple expansion cylinders. The high cost of fuel abroad, and the loss of
cargo from carrying bunker coal, will always lead every endeavour to be
exercised to economise fuel to the greatest possible extent in marine
engines, and it may now be accepted that the expenditure of fuel in the most
recent and best constructed marine engines does not exceed in practice l£
lbs. per horse-power.
There have been erected in this district recently, connected with
collieries, several large winding engines, viz., at Silksworth, Boldon, and
Marsden, all of which are of the same type, and are working very
satisfactorily; they have all in operation the expansion gearing, first
introduced by Mr. Barclay, at Silksworth Colliery, and since improved by the
Grange Iron Company, and to which governors have been added. This mechanism
is thoroughly effective in its action. Some of these engines are also fitted
with scroll drums for equalising the load throughout the winding; they have
been fully described in papers contributed to your Institute, and that of
the Institute of Civil Engineers.
There does not appear to have been any great advance made recently in
portable steam engines. There is no doubt but that this description of
engine, for a time, quite took the lead in improvements over all others in
this class of engineering, both for high finish, efficiency in design, and
economy of fuel, and it is somewhat curious to note that the origin and
development of this high-class engine did not take place (as has been the
case with all other engines) in the great centres of the coal and iron
industries, but in Lincolnshire, a purely agricultural district; and there
can be no doubt that this is, to a great extent, due to the frequent
appearance of these engines in competition at the exhibitions of the Boyal
and other agricultural societies, which may be adduced as one of the
advantages gained by these exhibitions, and the prizes offered for high
perfection by various societies.
Closely connected with this subject is that of gas engines and heat motors.
Gas engines appear now to have attained great perfection, the consumption of
gas being reduced to 25 cubic feet of gas per horse-power per hour in small
engines (^ horse-power), and to 17 cubic feet in large engines (16
horse-power). This does not greatly exceed the cost of steam, with fuel
taken as in London at £1 per ton. These engines are now made up to 16
horse-power nominal, which are capable of working up to 40 horse-power
indicated.
president's address. 235
No doubt gas engines present very many advantages in the absence of a
boiler, in their special applicability for small manufacturers, for driving
electric machines, and especially also for hoists and other intermittent
work. It is by no means improbable that, under certain conditions, this
power may be found to be economical for underground haulage.
Engines of special construction have also been introduced for using
petroleum in place of gas.
Heat motors appear also from their cheapness, portability, and easy
management, to be gaining ground, after having overcome many technical
difficulties.
It is certain that there will be numerous exhibits of all these descriptions
of small engines, both at the exhibition in Newcastle next year, and at the
exhibition of the Royal Agricultural Society, which will be held in
Newcastle during the same time, in July, 1887.
There will also be numerous other important exhibits of agricultural
implements, such as mowing machines, stack elevators, corn crushers, etc.,
which cannot be dwelt on here, although these are of great importance to
managers of mines, who have to deal with the provender for large numbers of
horses.
COLLIERY PRACTICE.
In the underground haulage of coal no great novelty has been recently
introduced. Perhaps the most important feature has been the extension of the
application of compressed air, and of endless rope haulage, a practical
application of which latter will no doubt be shown at the exhibition, as
well as of air compressing machinery.
Working Goal.—In the mode of working coal there has not been, in recent
years, any marked alteration in practice, although, no doubt, the "longwall"
system is gradually increasing in all directions. It is now in extensive use
in the steam coal mines in South Wales, in substitution of the "wide stall"
system. This change is due, probably, to the serious deterioration of the
pillars left after the first working, which are so much crushed by the
weight of the overlying strata that large areas of pillars have been left
nnworked. But the "wide stall" system is still in general operation in the
shallower house coal seams in Wales.
In Yorkshire, the "longwall" system is also increasing as the pits become
deeper and the pressure greater; it is found that in the "wide stalls" the
roof breaks up by the sides of the "gate roads" under the pressure of
increased depths. Up to a depth of 500 or 600 feet no system (especially for
this class of coal) can be more economical than the
286 president's address.
Yorkshire system of "wide stall," where the character of the roof permits
the "wide stall" to be carried up sufficiently far without packs, and the
"pi'lar" brought back by the same roadway. There is no doubt, however, but
that the "wide stall" system of working, where the stalls fall freely and
cannot be ventilated, is attended with considerable danger, if naked lights
are used, or if it is necessary to use gunpowder to blast the coal.
In the North of England, the "longwall" mode of working is also on the
increase, especially in hard and thin seams, many of which could not at
present be worked on any other system. There is no doubt, however, but that
the North of England system of "board and pillar" is specially suited to the
tender gas and coking coals of this district, and no other system is so
economical when a large proportion of round coal is not required; it also
has the advantage of drawing off the gas in advance in districts which give
off a large quantity.
Probably there is no direction in colliery practice to which more attention
has been given of late than in the screening and cleaning of coals. This is,
no doubt, chiefly due to the fact that the coal seams of the highest
character (which could not be improved by washing, crushing, or otherwise
manipulating) are being rapidly exhausted.
Travelling belts have been in operation for a number of years in the North
of England and elsewhere for the purpose of conveying and affording
facilities for the complete cleaning of small coals. This system has
recently been applied very extensively for the purpose of conveying and
cleaning large coals. In the process of screening coals in the ordinary way,
the larger portion of the work done, and time occupied, by the screeners, is
in pushing the coals off the flat at the foot of the screen into the wagon;
whereas, when the coal is conveyed by a belt from the screen into the wagon,
the screencrs are simply employed in picking out the stone, this resulting
in a much more efficient, as well as a more economical, cleaning of the
coals. Screening, separating, and washing coals has been carried on to a
very elaborate extent in the North of France and in Belgium, as was seen by
the members of this Institute on the occasion of their visit to France, in
June, 1878. Recently, very elaborate and costly appliances for this purpose
have been erected at the Dowlais Iron "Works on the Feldspar principle,
fully described in the " Transactions of the South Wales Institute," Vol.
XIV., p. 88, which is stated to give very satisfactory results.
Probably the most simple mode of washing coal is the conical washer
introduced by Mr. Eobinson, a member of this Institute, at the Blackboy
Colliery, which, for economy in first construction, in working, and in
president's address. 237
efficiency, leaves little to be desired. A very simple and effective washing
apparatus has also been designed by Mr. Ramsay, who is also a member, which
is in successful operation at several collieries in Durham.
Coking.—Considerable progress has been made in recent years in the
manufacture of coke. This has been principally in the direction of an
increased yield of coke compared with the coal used, and in the partial or
complete recovery of the bye-products from the vapours evolved during the
process. Several forms of ovens and condensers have been introduced. Among
others may be mentioned the " Simon-Carve " and " Jameson's." The first has
been adopted at several collieries in this district with satisfactory
results. The great fall in the value of the " bye-products " during the past
two years, however, and the depressed condition of the iron trade, have, no
doubt, greatly militated against any rapid or extensive introduction of
these ovens. The use of the " Coppde " oven has also extended considerably
in Wales, especially for the use of coals of a semi-bituminous character.
Gas Producers.—With regard to the utilisation of the inferior qualities of
small and other coal, perhaps the introduction of "gas producers" has been
the most important step of late years in this direction.
Producers for the manufacture of gas for heating purposes have been in
existence since 1839, but the "Siemens Producer," introduced in 1861,
appears to have paved the way to their present extensive application.
The "Wilson Producer," which has been largely adopted in this neighbourhood,
has certainly proved to be an economical means of applying heat, not only to
many descriptions of furnaces, but also to boilers. The only requirement as
to the fuel is that it should be open or free burning. An inferior fuel is
thus equally applicable with that of a superior quality.
Gas Lighting.—Although many valuable inventions and improvements, which are
fully from time to time described in the journals specially devoted to this
subject, are constantly being introduced into the manufacture of gas, there
does not appear to have been recently any marked or striking alteration in
this process. For some time previous, great attention had been given to the
utilisation of the " bye-products," but the rapid and serious fall in the
value of these has, for the time, stopped further development in this
direction, as at blast furnaces and coke ovens.
In treating of the bye-products resulting from the distillation of coal,
mention may be made of the new substance "saccharin," described by Sir Henry
Roscoe at a recent lecture before the Royal Institution as a white
crystalline substance, of an intensely sweet taste, stated to have 280 times
the sweetening power of cane sugar.
VOL. XXXV.-1886.
F $
238 president's address.
Sir Henry Eoscoe also gives the result of the destructive distillation of
one ton of Lancashire coal at-—
1.—Coal gas ... ... ... ... 10,000 cubic
feet.
2.—Coke ... ... ... ... ... 13 cwts.
3.—Ammoniacal liquor (5 per cent.) ... 20 to 23 galls., or 30 lbs.
4.—Coal tar ............ 12 galls., or 139 lbs.
These 12 gallons of coal tar, by further distillation, yield:—
Lbs.
Creosote.................. 17
Heavy oils ... ... ... ... ... 14
Pitch .................. 69-6
Naphtha, yellow ... ... ... ... ... 9-5
Solvent naphtha ... ... ... ... ... 2'4
Naphthalene ............... 6-3
Naphthol.................. 4-75
Alizarin (20 per cent.) ... ... ... ... 2-25
Benzene ... ... ... ... ... ...
1"1
Aniline ... ... ... ... ... ...
l'l
Toluene .................. 0'9
Toluidine ... ............... 0-77
Phenol .................. 1-5
Aurine ... ... ... ... ... ...
1*2
Anthracene ... ... ... ... ...
0-46
Alizarin alone is now manufactured to the value of £2,000,000 annually for
dyeing purposes, and has almost driven the madder plant out of cultivation;
and in one manufacture alone, in Manchester, 500 tons of aniline are used
annually.
In addition to, or rather out of, the above-mentioned substances, not only
are perfumes also largely manufactured, such as " Tonka Bean," "Woodruff,"
"New Mown Hay," etc., but also a febrifuge possessing all the important
qualities of quinine.
There is a matter of interest to those interested in coal mines in
connection with this subject, viz., the steady and continued increase in the
consumption of gas. This, however, is no doubt in part due to its increased
application for cooking purposes, thus to a certain extent being substituted
for raw coal. The amount of gas sold in London, in 1882, was 20,000,000,000
(twenty million thousand) cubic feet. This required the carbonisation of
over two million tons of coal, as each ton of coal yielded 9,417 cubic feet,
the price being 3s. 2d. per 1,000 cubic feet, and the waste five per cent. A
comparison with 1869 shows that in that year the gas sold was only one-half
of the above, or ten million thousand cubic feet, the produce per ton being
8,438 cubic feet, the price 4s. 2d. per cubic foot, and the waste ten per
cent.
The. coal carbonised by all the gas works in England and Wales in
president's address. 239
1881 amounted to 6,365,336 tons, London taking nearly one-third. The gas
sold amounting to fifty-eight million thousand cubic feet, being an average
of 9,092 cubic feet per ton, the London average being 9,497 cubic feet.
The Sheffield gas works take the high rank of producing 18 candle power at
Is. lOd. per 1,000 cubic feet.
Electricity now covers so large a field, and has ramified so widely, that a
brief allusion only will be made to its practical application in connection
with mining and engineering.
As a motive power, its progress seems slow. There is an instance of its
adoption by Messrs. Siemens for a public line of railway, at Portrush, in
Ireland, six miles in length ; and it has been used in one or more cases for
underground haulage in the South of England. It has also been used both for
tram cars, overhead railways, and for underground haulage, abroad.
The obstacles to its extensive adoption for underground haulage are:— The
loss of power by transmission to long distances, and in the
dynamos and motors. The danger from sparking. The cost of the copper
conducting cables.
The latter objection has to some extent been overcome by the use of old wire
ropes for conductors, in place of copper, for signalling at least.
Electricity has also been used to a somewhat limited extent in blasting,
chiefly in shaft sinking.
The chief use for electricity, however, in mines, is for signalling and
lighting. The use of electric signals, both on underground engine planes,
and in shafts, is greatly on the increase ; and the telephone is also being
extensively used, not only on the surface, between various departments, but
also for communicating underground.
The electric light is also being extensively adopted, especially where gas
cannot be obtained. As compared with any other description of lighting large
areas, it effects a great economy; not only is the light much more powerful,
but it gives objects their true colour, and is not affected by wind. It is
specially adapted for use on pit heaps and screens, as with it the important
process of removing small pieces of splint and stone can be effected as well
by night as by day.
There has been a small electric lighting plant in successful operation for
some time at Marsden colliery. The motive power is obtained from the saw
mill engine during the nights. Originally, only 50 of Swan's incandescent 20
candle power lamps were in circuit, but gradually these have been increased
to 100, which light up all the screens, engines, and
240 president's address.
workshops. The engines and lights are attended to by a workman, who is
otherwise employed for one-half of his time; this, together with the price
of the lamps, comprises the whole maintenance cost.
The largest permanent installation of the electric light, from a central
point, as yet completed in this country, is that at the Paddington terminus
of the G.W.R. The lights are equivalent to 30,000 ordinary gas jets. Two
Gordon dynamos are used, giving out sufficient power for 4,115 Swan lamps,
each 25 candle power. Also 98 arc lamps of 3,500 candle power, and two arc
lamps of 12,000 candle power.
Probably the most extensive application of the electric light has been at
the Inventions and Colonial Exhibitions, in London. At the former there were
464 arc lamps and 5,530 incandescent lamps in and about the buildings, and
18,000 incandescent lamps for the illumination of the external grounds.
Steam was supplied for 2,300 horse-power.
At the Exhibition at Newcastle next year, there will be a very extensive
installation of electric lighting on the most improved principles, which
will be worthy of the careful attention of the members of this Institute.
The question of the effect of the extension of electric lighting on the
consumption of fuel, although one which may ultimately become of great
importance, has hardly as yet reached this point. In some special instances
the electric light is by far the most efficient and most economical mode of
lighting. In a number of other cases, especially in the lighting of large
areas or special buildings such as theatres and hotels, it seems to be
making gradual though slow progress; but so far as regards the great bulk of
lighting, viz., dwelling houses and shops, which must be effected by some
system of producing the electric current from a common centre, little, if
any, progress is apparent ; and it may certainly be considered probable that
any great adoption of electric lighting for these purposes, will be first
carried out in other countries, where the cost of fuel for gas making is so
much higher than in England.
A paper of great value was contributed (Vol. XXXV., 1885) to your
Transactions on a Portable Electric Miner's Lamp by Mr. Jos. Swan. In Mr.
Swan's lamp the electric current is obtained from a secondary battery, and
the lamp appeared to possess many of the requirements for a perfect safety
lamp. This lamp has not yet been brought commercially before the public*
* Since this address was read, Mr. Swan has read a second memoir to your
Institute, describing the further improvements in his lamp. Not only has an
indicator for the detection of gas on the Liveing principle been attached to
the lamp, but another extremely accurate indicator, capable of measuring the
proportion of gas present down to TV Per cent., has been also attached to
it. The value of such an indicator cannot be over estimated.
president's address. 241
A practical paper of great value on Electric Lighting was read by Mr.
Walker, and published in your Transactions, Yol. XXXIV., 1884.
Accidents in Mines.—The Prevention of accidents in mines is at all times the
subject, above all others, of the deepest importance to mining engineers.
Safety in mines was the chief object in the original formation of your
Institute, which was established in 1852, immediately after the occurrence
of one of those accidents which direct so much sympathy towards all engaged
in mining operations; and the Royal Charter, by which this Institute is
still governed, was granted in consideration of its "having for its objects
the Prevention of Accidents in Mines, and the advancement of the Sciences of
Mining and Engineering generally." In the admirable address given by your
late president, Mr. G. B. Forster, he alluded to the appointment of the
Royal Commission on Accidents in Mines. This commission was appointed in
1879, under the presidency of Professor Warington Smythe, and issued its
final report in 1886. The evidence of the witnesses in full, and the
reports, together with the account and results of the numerous experiments
on coal dust, safety lamps, and explosives, made by the commission
themselves, filled two large Parliamentary Blue Books, which contain a mass
of most valuable information. The influential position of the
Commissioners, some of whom are scientific gentlemen of the highest
reputation, whilst others are intimately and practically connected with
mining (amongst these latter being two of the past-presidents of this
Institute, viz.:—Sir George Elliot and Mr. Lindsay Wood), under the
presidency of Professor Warington Smythe, himself a mining engineer of much
experience, gave a character to this report, possessed by the report of no
previous similar commission, published either here or abroad.
The dangerous character of coal dust, and the prominent part it has, without
doubt, played in nearly all recent serious explosions in coal mines, was
again prominently brought before the notice of this Institute by the
translation by your Secretary, Mr, Bunning, of the valuable report on the
experiments made at JSTeunkirchen for the German Government.
The question of the use of explosives in coal mines has received, in recent
years, probably more attention than any other matter connected with mining,
and fortunately so, as the prejudice against the use of gunpowder is very
strong, especially on the part of persons who have little or no knowledge of
the subject, or who have no commercial interests which might suffer from its
arbitrary prohibition. The numerous and careful experiments which have been
recently made, in consequence of the attention given to this subject, both
in England and on the Continent,
242 president's address.
have led to the fortunate discovery that explosives of the dynamite
character, especially if contained in water cartridges, will not only not
ignite coal dust, but not even mixtures of coal gas.
Translations, by Mr. Walton Brown, of the recently issued regulations for
mines issued by the Belgian and Prussian Governments, are valuable additions
to your Transactions, Vols. XXXIV. and XXXV.
No less than seven papers on the important subject of safety lamps have been
contributed to your Transactions during the past two years.
ASSOCIATED INSTITUTES.
A few words bearing on kindred associations. During the past two years the
engineers and others interested in the great local industries of
shipbuilding and marine engineering have founded the North-East Coast
Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders. That Institute already numbers
over 500 members, and has published two volumes of papers of great value and
interest on these special subjects; and I feel sure that I am only
expressing the feelings of the members of this Institute in wishing it every
prosperity. In Mechanical Engineering, especially in relation to the steam
engine and boilers, and on the properties of steam itself, and on other
subjects common to all branches of engineering, such as the strength of
materials, etc., that Institute must of necessity hold a very high place in
this neighbourhood, and the papers on these subjects will have special
interest to the members of this Institute. No doubt, however, the bulk of
the papers contributed will be on shipbuilding and other allied subjects
somewhat foreign to the objects of this Institute; and there is no other
district which can supply such a mass of useful information for research and
discussion on these special subjects.
The College of Physical Science, which was established in 1871, and in which
your Institute has always taken a very lively interest, and whose chair of
Mining was established, and is still supported, by this Institute and the
Coal Trades, is about to take a step in advance of considerable magnitude,
which, it is trusted, will add greatly to its efficiency and usefulness.
After considerable discussion and delay, a site, adjoining the Leazes, has
been bought for the new college buildings, and the drawings for the
structure are almost completed. Whilst the removal of the college from this
building will somewhat sever the close connection that has hitherto existed
between it and this Institute, no doubt great advantage will be derived from
the increased accommodation. At present the teaching staff consists of a
professor in each of the following sciences, viz.:—Mathematics, Physics,
Chemistry, Geology, Natural History, and
president's address. 243
Mining, and lecturers on Mechanical Drawing and the Modern Languages. During
the past year the classes have been attended by 26 matriculated students and
206 occasional students.
I would specially draw the attention of the members of this Institute to the
singularly valuable Library they are gradually accumulating, not only by the
purchase of all standard works, bearing on the special branches of science
connected with mining, as they are published, but also by the exchange of
Transactions with no less than 92 home and foreign kindred and other
scientific societies, by which means there has already been formed a library
of over 4,000 volumes (besides an almost equal number of unbound maps,
pamphlets, tracts, etc.), which is even now considered to be the most
extensive and complete library existing on these subjects.
Amalgamation of Mining Institutes.—A last word on a matter of deep
importance to this and other Mining Institutes. During the past three or
four years several schemes have been mooted for the concentration of the
various Mining Institutes in England. It perhaps may not be within the
cognizance of all the members of this Institute that there are no less than
nine such institutions in England, publishing separate Transactions, with an
aggregate of nearly 3,000 members. When it is considered that the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers only publishes one volume a year, it must
be apparent that it is impossible for seven volumes of papers, up to the
high standard that is to be desired, to be published by the Mining
Engineers, and certainly the strain upon each Institute, and the pressure on
its members to obtain papers is far too great.
Whilst any attempt to amalgamate the various Institutes into one body would
be difficult, if not impossible, it is the opinion of all who have
considered the question, that a federation, confined chiefly to the
publication of the Transactions, could be carried out with great advantage.
This would place the papers read at each Institute in the hands of all
mining engineers, would prevent needless repetition of papers, and duplicate
investigations and experiments by committees on special subjects of
interest. An Institute which represented the whole mining science of Great
Britain would be a source from which the Government might obtain reliable
information of the real practical requirements for necessary legislation,
and would be a power to resist any proposed legislation not calculated truly
to benefit the real interests of both mine owners, managers, and
workmen; and I hope that this matter will receive due consideration from my
successor, and that, with his powerful influence, a successful issue may be
arrived at.
244 president's address.
INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
In reference to the Exhibition which will be held in Newcastle next year.
This Exhibition was initiated by the Institute, and cordially taken up by
the Mayor and Council of the city; the designs are nearly completed, a
guarantee fund of over £20,000 obtained, and a large amount of space already
applied for. The Council of this Institute have applied for 500 square feet
of space, and a special committee has been formed to organize an exhibit
worthy of the high repute which this Institute holds. It is hoped that all
members will heartily assist in this.
Mr. T. J. Bewick said he knew it would be the desire of all the members that
on this occasion they should record their sincere thanks to their friend,
Mr. Daglish, who had for the past two years occupied the President's chair
of the Institute, and especially for the most excellent Address which they
had just had the pleasure of listening to. Mr. Daglish had always, and
particularly during his presidency, devoted his time and his talents to the
promotion of their interests, with good effect and with much benefit to the
Institute ; and this Address was the crowning effort of his presidency. They
were next year to see an exhibition in Newcastle, in the promotion of which
Mr. Daglish had taken much interest and given valuable advice, which could
not but be of great benefit to the community generally, but especially so to
the members of this Institution. That the exhibition would be extremely
interesting, and valuable in bringing together a great variety of inventions
and manufactures, he thought no one could doubt; and it was apparent that it
would be more particularly a benefit to the younger members of the
Institute. He need not say more of their excellent friend the retiring
President, because they were all well acquainted with him. He proposed a
vote of thanks to Mr. Daglish for his services as President during the past
two years, and for the Address which he had delivered that day.
Mr. E. S. Newall said he had very great pleasure in seconding the resolution
proposed by Mr. Bewick. In the Address which had been delivered, Mr. Daglish
had given them a great deal to think about; and when it was published he
hoped they would be able to make good use of it.
The resolution was unanimously agreed to.
PROCEEDINGS. 245
The President said he begged to thank Mr. Bewick for so kindly proposing,
Mr. Newall for seconding, and the members for so cordially receiving the
resolution. He was sure it would be a gratification to them all to know
that Sir Lowthian Bell would succeed him in the chair. Sir Lowthian's
high reputation, not only in Science, but also as being largely interested
in coal mining and iron manufacture, and the high position he held as really
the greatest authority on the theory and practice of blast furnace
management, must add credit to this Institute, the interests of which might
safely be left in his hands; and considering the prominent position which
the President of this Institute would hold next year, when they expected
Newcastle to be visited not only by members of their profession from all
parts of England, but also from abroad, it was important that the post
should be occupied by a man of Sir Lowthian's experience, high standing, and
reputation. The meeting then concluded.
BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER READINGS
FOR 188 5.
By the SECRETARY.
These readings have been obtained from the observations of Kew and Glasgow,
and will give a very fair idea of the variations of temperature and
atmospheric pressure in the intervening country, in which most of the mining
operations in this country are carried on.
The Kew barometer is 34 feet, and the Glasgow barometer 180 feet above the
sea level. The latter readings have been reduced to 32 feet above the sea
level, by the addition of "150 of an inch to each reading, and both readings
are reduced to 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
The fatal accidents have been obtained from the Inspectors' reports, and are
printed across the lines, showing the various readings. The name of the
colliery at which the explosion took place is given first, then the number
of deaths, followed by the district in which it happened.
At the request of the Council the exact readings at both Kew and Glasgow
have been published in figures.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
ABSTRACTS OF FOREIGN PAPERS.
ANALYSES OF FRENCH COAL-MEASURE WATERS.
Analyses ties Eaux Minerales Franqaises exeeutees au Bureau d'Essui de
I'Eeole des Mines. By Ad. Caenot. Annales des Mines, Ser. 8, Tome VII.
(1885), pp. 79-142.
A complete collection of all the analyses of French mineral waters made in
the laboratory of the School of Mines at Paris from 1845 to 1884. The
following are selected as being from coal-bearing rocks, and, all but No.
VII., actually from feeders in collieries:—
2
No. I.—Water from the St. Louis Pit, Aniche Colliery, Department of tlie
North (Douai
District.)
II.—Water from the Fenelon Pit, same colliery.
III.—Water from the Roncourt Pit, at a depth of 165 metres (541 feet), same
colliery.
IV.—Water from the same pit, at a depth of 235 metres (771 feet).
V.—Brine from the "Anzin Torrent," at 69 metres (226 feet), same department
(Valenciennes District).
VI.—Brine from the " Anzin Torrent," at 75 metres (246 feet). Same
district.
VII.—Water from the Spring of St. Amand-les-Eaux, same district.
VIII.—Brine from No. 2 Pit, at a depth of 492 metres (1,614 feet), Ferfay
Colliery,
Department of Pas-de-Calais (Bethune District). G.
A. L.
FRENCH MINERAL STATISTICS, 1884.
Statistique minerale et metallurgique de la France pour Vannee 1884.
Tableaux comparatifs de la production des combustibles mineraux, des Fontes,
Fers, et Aciers, en 1883 et en 1884. Par M. P. Desbief. Bulletin de la
Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, Ser. 2, Tome XIV,, 1885, pp. 461-466.
M. Desbief gives two Tables, viz.: I., the production of coal, anthracite,
and lignite; II., the production of wrought and cast iron and steel, with
details showing the proportion made by each process of manufacture. Table
I. is as follows :—
I.—Combustibles.—Production in each Basin.
Coal and Anthracite. Drawings.
Name and Geographical Position of Goal Basin. 1883.
1884.
Metric Tons. Metric Tons.
(2,204 Lbs.) (2,204 Lbs.)
Nord and Pas-de-Calais (Valenciennes and le
Boulonnais) ...............9,944,868 ... 9,430,504
Loire (Saint EtienneandRive-de-Gier, Sainte-Foy-
l'Argentiere, Communay and le Roannais) ,.. 3,640,777 ...
3,211,509
Gard (Alais, Aubenas, the Viguan) ...... 2,005,473 ...
1,939,675
Bourgogne and Nivernais (the Creusot and Blanzy,
Decize, Epinac, and Aubigny-la-RonceBert, the
Chapelle-Sous-Dun, Sincey) ......... 1,635,580 ... 1,605,631
Tarn and Aveyron (Anbin, Carmaux, Rodez, Saint-
Perdoux)..................1,153,241 ... 1,153:279
Bourbonnais (Commentry and Doyet, Saint-Eloi,
PAumance, and the Queune) ......... 1,035,874 ... 928,890
Auvergne (Brassac, Champagna and Bourg-Las-
tic, Langeac) ............... 345,510 ... 339,571
Herault (Graissessac) ............ 277,898 ...
272,659
Creuse and Correze (Almn, Bourganeuf, Cublac,
Neyinac and Argental)............ 183,446 ... 205,228
Vosges meridionales (Ronchamp) ,.. ... ... 207,455
... 192.017
Ouest (the Maine, Basse-Loire, Vouvant and
Chatonnay) ............... 181,681 ... 177,469
Alpes occidentales (the Drac,Maurienne-Tarentaise
and Briancon, Oisans, Chablay and Fancigny) .. 147,202 ...
167,885
Maures (the Maures, Frejus) ......... 421 ...
401
Pyrenees ... ... ... ... ... ...
— ... —
Total Coal .........20,759,429 19,624,718
3
Lignite.
Provence (Fuveau, Manosque, the Cadiere) ... 520,201 ...
451,937
Comtat (Bagnols, Orange, Banc-Rouge, Barjac
and Celas, Methamis) ,........... 30,764' ... 28,727
Vosges meridionales (Gouhenans, Norroy) ... 10,459 ...
10,101
Sud-Ouest (Millau and Trevezel, Estavar, the Cau-
nette, Simeyrols and the Chapelle-Pechaud) ... 11,065 ...
8,950
Haut-Rhdne (Douvres, The Tour-du-Pin, Haute-
rives, Entrevernes)............. 1,966 ... 2,776
Total Lignite ......... 574,455 502,491
Grand total .........21,333,881 20,127,209
Production by Departments.
Principal Coal-bearing 18U-
1884.
Departments. Tons (2,9fl Lbs.)
Tons (2,204 Lbs.)
Pas-de-Calais ...... ... 6,155,801 ...
6,029,129
Nord ............ 3,789,067 ... 3,401,375
Loire ............ 3,586,426 ... 3,158,989
Gard ............ 1,992,308 ... 1,914,847
Saone-et-Loire......... 1,381,527 ... 1.358,227
Allier ............ 950,484 ... 855,411
Aveyron......... 832,655 ... 785,084
Total ...... 18,688,268 ... 17,502,462
J. H. M.
FORMATION OF MINERAL VEINS.
Oenese des Oitrs metalliferes. By Ernest Chabrand. Le Genie Civil,
Vol. VII., pages 243-245. Untersuchungen iiber Erzgange. By Fridolin
Sandberger.
The formation of mineral veins is succinctly described, without recourse to
subterranean agencies, by assuming that the metalliferous bodies which form
the veins are to be found in the primordial formations and the sedimentary
rocks, which are directly derived from them, and shortly, that these
substances have been extracted from the external crust of the globe.
The elements of the veins exist in the adjacent strata in a state of
infinite dissemination. If there is a current charged with gas or other
bodies favouring the decomposition and dissolution of these elements, then
this current will act as a levigant upon the rocks; it will collect it,
exhaust it, and then be instrumental as the vehicle of the extracted
matters; it will deposit them, after transformation, either in the open
fissures in the rock itself, or in the adjacent rocks. By concentrating
these minerals in the veins nature has powerfully assisted the work of the
miner. This has been called the theory of lateral secretion, or levigation.
M. W. B.
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DAM TO RESIST A PRESSURE OP 285 POUNDS PER SQUARE
INCH.
Note sur la Construction d'un Serrement en maconnerie a la Fosse No. 3 de
Bruay, JEtage de 261 metres. By Auguste Bergatjd. Bulletin de la Societe de
VIndustrie Minerale, Ser. 2, Vol. XIV., pp. 355-363.
The dam is placed between two seams in a drift 200 yards long, having a
section of 11^ by 6^ feet, and rising at an angle of 30°. The dam is erected
in a length where the drift cuts through a bed of sandstone 20 yards thick.
The upper end of the dam is 257 yards from the surface and 219 yards below
the level of the uppermost level of the workings. The pressure being 285
pounds per square inch, the pressure upon the surface of the dam is 11J x 6£
x 285 x 144 = 3,067,740 lbs., or about 1,370 tons.
The dam is built in the form of three trunks of pyramids, with spherical
bases, each about 19 feet long, the contractions being arranged so as to
form a solid plug of masonry nearly 57 feet long, fitted three times into
the sides of the drift. The sides are widened out at the base of each
pyramid to 23 feet, and top and bottom are similarly widened to 13 feet. The
sides were dressed to the proper form by means of the pick as carefully as
possible, and covered with portlaud cement f-inch thick, so as
6
to obtain a hard and proper surface to receive the masonry. The dam is built
of hard and well-burnt common bricks. The mortar was made of equal parts of
hydraulic lime and sifted ashes. The bricks were made wet before being used.
The workmen employed in the dressing of the drift were divided into three
shifts of eight hours, each shift consisting of five miners, paid 3s. ll^d.
per shift, and three labourers 3s. 6d. to 3s. 9d. This work occupied four
months, and cost—
The erection of the walling occupied four months, with only six days
interruption. This work was carried on from 4 a.m. to 4 p.m.; the shift
consisted of an inspector, at 75s. per fortnight, a master-mason, at 5s. 5d.
per nine hours' shift, four masons, at 3s. 4d. per nine hours' shift, a
mason's labourer, at 3s. 4d. per nine hours' shift, four men turning the
windlass, 2s. Id. to 2s. 3jd. per nine hours' shift, and two men at the top
and bottom of the inclined plane, each 2s. 6d. per day.
A drainage tube, 62 feet long and about 6? inches diameter, provided with a
wheel valve at the lower end, and furnished with collars, is built into the
centre of the masonry. A wrought-iron tube f-inch diameter was built into
the top of the masonry and allowed the escape of air. The erection of the
masonry cost—
After the dam was finished, the pressure in the course of two months was
eighteen atmospheres. The effect of the dam is to reduce the quantity of
water pumped from 230 to 130 gallons per minute.
M. W. B.
7 . , -
THE LEADVILLE ORE DEPOSITS.
The Sulphide deposit of South Iron Kill, Leadville, Colorado. By Francis T.
Free-land. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol.
XIV. {May, 1885), 9 pp. Nine woodcuts and ttvo folding plates.
The largest and most extensively developed of the deeper workings of
Leadville (showing refractory ores—sulphides of iron, lead, and zinc
carrying silver—instead of the easily reduced carbonates nearer the surface)
is that of South Iron Hill, on the north side of California Gulch. The main
ore chute is here from 200 to 300 feet wide, and, in places, is more than 60
feet thick. It has been opened for a distance of 1,200 feet without showing
any signs of diminution in strength. The rocks consist, in descending order,
of—1st, a variable thickness of white porphyry; 2nd, 0 to 160 feet of grey
porphyry ; 3rd, the main contact vein of Iron Hill; 4th, 230 to 300 feet of
blue Carboniferous limestone; 5th, 10 feet of quartzite; 6th, 65 to 100 feet
of grey porphyry ; and lastly, 7th, white Silurian limestone. The strike is
nearly north and south, and the dip varies from 10° to 15° to the east.
Analyses of samples of ore from the Mimic Mine working these deposits show
the following results:—
COPPER IN EASTERN LIGURIA.
Sul giacimento cuprifero della Gallinaria {Liguria orientale). By L.
Mazzuoli. Bollettino del R. Comitato Geologico d'ltalia, Ser. 2, Vol. VI.
(1885), pp. 193-202. One plate {Plate III.)
The Gallinaria copper mine, described in this paper, is situated between the
River Acque and the Bargonasco torrent, not far from the national road from
Sestri-Levante to Spezia. The ore occurs in two veins of serpentine running
parallel and close to the line of junction between a large mass of
serpentine and one of euphotide and diabase, but neither of them coinciding
with the actual contact. The serpentine veins are not ore-bearing
throughout, but certain portions of them are marked by concentrations of
ore, whilst others are sterile. In the euphotide and diabase the ore forms
small irregularly distributed lenticular nests. The great serpentinous mass,
in which one of the veins runs, is completely sterile. The percentage of ore
in the gangue varies from 13-25 to 18-50.
G. A. L.
8
COAL AND IRON IN TENNESSEE.
The Geology and Mineral Resources of Sequachee Valley, Tennessee. By W. M.
Boweon. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol.
XIV. {May, 1885), 9 pp. Folding map.
The Sequachce Valley runs parallel to the Great Valley of East Tennessee,
about 75 miles north of the Alabama State boundary. It crosses Marion,
Sequachee, Bledsoe, and Cumberland Counties. Geologically speaking, the
valley is due to the denudation of the axis of a long anticlinal fold. In
ascending order the formations cropping out in the region are, 1st, the Knox
(Potsdam) series, of Cambrian age; 2nd, the Trenton and Nashville beds,
Lower Silurian ; 3rd, the Clinton group, Upper Silurian; 4th, the Black
Shale; 5th, the Siliceous (St. Louis) group; 6th, the Mountain Limestone,
Carboniferous; and 7th, the Coal-measures. Associated with No. 5 are sheets
of iron ore, chiefly known at present about Inman. Analyses of the ores are
given, and show the following percentages:—Of oxide of iron, 43*83 to 66-47;
of silica, 1O04 to 18'60; of phosphoric acid, 0-71 to 2-49; of Alumina, 3v2
to 10'29; and of carbonate of lime, 0 to 35"24. The ore lies conveniently
for mining purposes. Coal in enormous quantities lies at an average distance
of four miles from the iron deposits, in the Coal-measures. Analyses of this
coal show it to be of good quality. In places the seams are so disturbed,
especially along a certain axis, as to be subject to variations in thickness
of from 6 inches to 17 feet within short distances. The coke produced is
of excellent quality.
G. A. L.
MINING INDUSTRY IN GREECE.
Statistique de I'Industrie Minerale de la Grece pour Vannee 1883. By •—
Aegy-eopottlo. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. VII. (1885). pp. 538-540.
The following summary of the mineral produce of Greece during 1883 is
given:—
Tons.
1.—Manganesiferons iron ores ,.. ... ... 56,803
2.—Plumbiferous iron ores ... ... ... 33,938
3.-Calamine ............... 40,121
4.—Blende, iron pyrites, and galena ... ... 3,880
5.—Lead (smelted) ............ 9,612
6.—Manganese ore ... ... ... ... ...
400
7.—Sulphur ... ............ 14,175
8.—Lignite ............... 8,200
9.—Magnesite ............... 3,642
10.—Gypsum ...- ............ 426
11.—Millstones ............... 24,148
12. -Puozzuolana ............... 37,000
13.—Emery.................. 2,222
14.—Sea salt.................. 13,860
The principal mines are those of Seriphos, producing No. 1; Laurium, Nos. 1.
2. 3, 4, and 5; Antiparos, No. 3; Calamata, No. 6; Milos, Nos. 7, 10, and
11; Koumi, No. 8; Oropos, No. 8; Eubsea, No. 9; Scyros, No. 10; Santorin,
No. 12; and Naxos, No, 13.
G. A. L.
9
PETROLEUM AND OZOKERITE IN GALICIA.
'Exposition ITniverselle d'Anvers, 1885. Le Petrole et la Cire niinerale. By
Leon Syeoczynski. Revue Universelle des Mines, etc., Ser. 2, Vol. XVIII.
(1885), pp. 1-19, with folding plate {Plate I.)
In this paper a general account is given of the petroleum and mineral wax or
ozokerite industries of Europe (Roumania excepted), based chiefly upon the
exhibits of Austro-Hungary and Russia in the International Exhibition at
Antwerp of the present year. In Galicia the petroleum and ozokerite winnings
are situated in a belt of country nearly 250 miies in length, varying from 2
to 2-£ miles in breadth, and embracing more than eighty communes. This belt
of oil-producing country runs parallel to the Carpathian Mountains, and the
rocks of which it is formed, though long spoken of as belonging to the
well-known Carpathian sandstone, are now recognised as comprising beds of
Upper Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene age. Petroleum is found in each of
these great divisions, the ozokerite in the Miocene only, but in very large
quantities, especially at Boryslaw and Wolanka. The oil is worked by means
of deep wells, the mineral wax by shafts and levels, more in the manner of
metalliferous deposits.
In 1884 the produce in round numbers of both substances reached nearly half
a million hundredweights, representing from £480,000 to £600,000. The
Russian exhibits at Antwerp were much less complete than those from Galicia,
and the details given respecting them are correspondingly meagre.
G. A. L.
COPPER IN TRANS-CAUCASIA.
L'Industrie du Cuivre en Trans- Caucasie. Rapport adresse a M. le Ministre
des Affaires etrangeres. Par M. de Ful&ence, Vice-Consul de France a Batoum.
Extrait par L. Janet. Annates des Mines, Ser 8, Vol. VII, pp. 535-538.
The development of the copper mines of Trans-Caucasia is of special interest
at the present moment, in view of the gradual working out of those of
the Ural
Mountains.
There are five recognised groups of copper deposits in Trans-Caucasia:—1st,
That of the Tchorok basin; 2nd, that of Zanguezour; 3rd, that of Alaverdy;
4th, that of Elizabethpol; and 5th, that of Kakhetia.
In the 1st group the copper ore occurs close to the Ottoman frontier, in a
zone which is prolonged beyond it. It is chiefly copper pyrites, associated
with iron pyrites, galena, and cerussite, in regular lodes sometimes
traceable for several miles. The absence of roads, the dangerous navigation
of the River Tchorok, and the dearness of fuel prevent this metalliferous
area from being properly opened out yet.
In the 2nd group are found the richest copper ores of the Caucasus, the
percentage of copper often attaining 25. It is situated close to the
Russo-Persian frontier. Here, again, the want of good means of communication
prevents mining industries from prospering, the 300 tons of copper obtained
each year being sold on the spot to Persian artificers.
The 3rd group of deposits was at one time actively worked owing to the
proximity of Tiflis, which is but 44 miles off. Since then, however, the
mines have been closed, chiefly through mismanagement.
In the 4th group are situated the largest metallurgical establishments of
the region, viz., those of Siemens Brothers, at Kedabek and Kalakent.
The ore occurs in this
b
10
locality in a kind of irregular vein, traversing masses of gneiss and
quartzite, and consists chiefly of copper pyrites, with some cuprite and
malachite, and is associated with very large quantities of iron pyrites, and
a little blende and galena. The amount of copper varies from 5 to 20 per
cent., the ore containing less than 5 per cent, being rejected. Wood is the
only fuel employed. Each ton of metal costs about 110 francs (£4 lis.). In
1884, the output of ore was 17,000 tons, producing 1,100 tons of copper. The
number of men employed was 1,800, the maximum pay being one franc (lOd.) a
day.
The 5th group of deposits, though not yet worked, is said to present the
most brilliant prospects. The rocks of the district are principally ancient
schists, through which run a large number of quartz veins of every size.
These veins are often very rich in ore. The latter is, as usual, chiefly
copper pyrites, but it is accompanied by a singular variety of magnetic iron
pyrites containing nickel, cobalt, and molybdenum. Blende and galena also
occur. These deposits are distant only 7| miles from Telav whence a carriage
road about 50 miles in length brings ore to Tiflis. G. A. L.
GOLD DEPOSITS IN MEXICO.
The "¦Centennial" and " Lotta1' Gold properties. Coahuila, Mexico. By De.
Pee-SIPOB, Frazer. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining
Engineers, Vol. XIV. (1885), 9 pp. Three woodcuts in text. The properties
described are in the Panuco Mountain, about thirty miles south-west of
Candela. The mountain consists of a mass of granite piercing through
surrounding limestones, and contains the great copper mine of the same name.
Gold has long been known to occur here in connexion with the copper, and
especially where the granite is decomposed and kaolinized. The limestones
and the intrusive granite are so intermingled and welded together at their
points of contact that it is difficult to map their line of junction. The
" Centennial" and " Lotta" mining properties comprise several proved veins
in the granite, containing gold and auriferous sulphides. The ore from
these localities, carefully averaged and sampled, gave the following
results, according to assays by Mr. It. D. Baker :—
SCALES OP MAPS.
Scales of Maps. By Prop. L. M. Hattpt. Proceedings of the Engineers'
Club of Philadelphia, Vol. V. (1885), pp. 133 147.
After defining scale as " the ratio of the field or object to the plot or
drawing," and giving a few elementary explanations on the subject, the
author prints two tables, the object of which is " to assist in determining
rapidly the equivalent numbers of such variable standards of comparison as
may be represented by a linear unit of the map, or the reciprocal extent of
map covered by a unit of the standard." Of these tables the first, as being
the more generally useful in practise, is subjoined.
N.B. — The column headed "Scale" shows the proportion of the map to the
natural size.
14
NICKEL IN NEW CALEDONIA.
(1) L'Exploitation du Nickel en Nouvelle Caledonie. By H. PoBCHBBGU.
Bulletin
de la Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, Sir. 2, Vol. XIV (1885), pp. 89-125.
(2) Notice Historique sur la decouverte des Minerais de Nickel de la
Nouvelle Cale-
donie. By Jules Gabniee. Same publication, pp. 126-131.
The ores of nickel found in New Caledonia are of three kinds—sulphides,
arsenides, and oxides, including hydrocarhonates, silicates, and
hydrosilicates. The last named Garnierite, after their discoverer, M.
Gamier, may he represented by the formula— (Mg 01 Ni 0) Si 02 + » H20.
They are, therefore, double silicates of oxides of nickel and magnesia, in
which one or the other oxide is more or less prevalent.
The amount of nickel in these ores varies from 2 to 20 per cent., and in
practise the degree of richness can easily be told by means of the colour
both of the ore and its matrix.
The nickeliferous deposits are very irregular, and take the form of true
veins, or occur as reniform nodules in ferruginous clay at or near the
surface. The latter mode of occurrence is due to the waste and decomposition
of the veins.
Generally speaking, the ore lies in close association with the diorites,
gabbros, and more especially with the serpentinous rocks which abound on the
north-east coast of the island. The ground is there very high, and is
furrowed by deep and narrow valleys. The principal mines are situated at
heights seldom below 200 metres (656 feet), and more often about 500 metres
(1,640 feet) above sea-level, in mountains covered with dense brushwood, and
difficult of access. The veins are very numerous, but of no great length or
thickness, and, as a rule, they become increasingly quartzose, poorer in
nickel, and thin at a depth of from 40 to 50 metres (121 to 164 feet) from
the surface.
The author regards the deposits, as a whole, as promising but a limited
duration to profitable nickel mining in the colony.
The second paper is reprinted from the Memoires de la Societe des lngenieurs
Civils, and is devoted to establishing the author's claims as the original
discoverer of "Garnierite."
G. A. L.
MANGANESE IN MORAVIA.
Ein Merkwiirdiges Vorkommen mang anhaltiger Minerale in den alter en
Tertidr-schichten Mahrens. By A. H., after A. RzEHAK. OesterreicMsche
Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hiittenwesen. Jahrgang, XXX1L, pp. 312-313. See
also Tscheemak's " Mittheilungen.'" Bd. VI, p. 87.
An account of the discovery of numerous manganese septaria or nodules in the
Oligocene clay in the Western extension of the Mars Mountains, and more
especially in the neighbourhood of Krzizanowitz, near Austerlitz. The
nodules contain a very large percentage of manganese oxide (as much as 49
per cent, in the outer portions, but much less in the interior). They are
black externally, yellowish or reddish within, and of a homogeneous texture.
A. Rzehak regards them as having been formed by precipitation in the old
Tertiary sea, and not, therefore, as being due to segregations subsequent to
the deposition of the enclosing rock. They are likened to the manganese
nodules found by the " Challenger," in the deep seas of the present day.
G. A. L.
15
PHOSPHORUS IN COAL.
¦ Sur I'origine et la distribution du phospkore dans la houille et In
cannel-coal. By Ad. Caenot. Comptes Eendus de VAcademie des Sciences, Vol.
XCIX.,pp. 154-157.
The author has found the following percentages of phosphorus in the various
coals and coal-plants examined by him.
Calamodendron.................. 0-00195 and 0-00245
Cordaites..................... 0"00282 „ trace.
Lepidodendron .................. trace ,, trace.
Psaronius (fern).................. 0-00271 „ 0-00712
Coal from the great bed of Commentry ...... 0'00163
Coal from Les Ferrieres ... ... ... ... ...
0'01385
Bog anthracite ... ... ... ... ...
... 0*01467
Cannel-coal of Commentry ............ 0-04260 „ 0'03912
Cannel-coal of Lancashire ............ 0'02852
Cannel-coal of Wigan ... ... ... ... ...
002246
Cannel-coal of Newcastle............... trace
Cannel-coal of Glasgow ... ... ... ... ...
0'00572
Cannel-coal of Virginia............... 0'02771
Naphtho-schist of New South Wales ......... 0-01956
Permian bog-head coal of Autun (without fish-scales)... trace
Rhsetic bog-head coal of Erioul (Austria) ...... 0-06275
With the exception of the two last named, all the above coals are of
Carboniferous
age. The author connects the presence of phosphorus in certain
coals with the
abundance of spores in them, as revealed by the microscope.
G. A. L.
COAL IN BAVARIA. Das Kohlenvorkommen und der Kohlenbergbau in Oberbayern.
By E. Heyeowsky. OesterreicMsche Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hiittenwesen,
Jahrgang XXXII, pp. 431-434, 447-449. One folding plate (Plate XI)
The coal-bearing rocks of Upper Bavaria are of Tertiary age, and form part
of the Oligocene Molasse. They occur in long synclinal and anticlinal
folds running east and west, at the foot of and parallel to the Central
Alpine range. The coal is found among the brackish water beds which
overlie the marine Oligocene Molasse. It is brownish-black, with a more
or less bright lustre, has a conchoidal or splintery fracture, is tolerably
compact, unchangeable in dry air, easily kindled, and burns with a
moderately long flame. Analyses give the following as its composition (in
percentages) : — Carbon ... ... ... ...
... 50
Hydrogen ... ... ... ... ... 4
Oxygen and nitrogen ......... 17
Sulphur .. ... ... ... ... 3
Ash ............... 16
Water ... ... ... ... ... jo
The coal is used for factory and household purposes, and also for cement
calcining and lime burning, but its sulphur has so far prevented its being
applied to locomotives. The principal collieries in this coal-field are
those of Miesbach, Hausham, Penzberg, Peissenberg, and Bregenz. Their joint
produce in 1883 was 6i million zollcentner (= 312,500 tons). The seams are
sufficiently numerous and thick, it is stated, to yield a similar annual
amount for six centuries to come.
Q. A. L,
J6
MINERAL STATISTICS OF VICTORIA.
Mineral Statistics of Victoria for the year 1884. Report of the Secretary
for Mines to the Honourable J. F. Levien, M.P., Minister of Mines. Folio, 86
pp. Melbourne, 1885.
Over 28,000 individuals are directly employed in the production of gold in
the colony. The quantity of quartz crushed in the year 1884 was 876,692 tons
4 cwts., the yield from which was 432,996 ozs. 15 dwts. 1.5 grs. of gold.
There are now known 3,768 distinct proved auriferous quartz reefs. The
alluvial mines produced 326,305 ozs. of gold. 7,087 tons 14 cwts. of pyrites
and blanketings were operated on during the year, yielding 15,667 ozs. 10
dwts. 21 grs. of gold, the highest average yield .{10 ozs. 10 dwts. to the
ton) being obtained in the Blackwood division of the Ballarat district, and
the lowest (2 dwts. 2*66 grs. to the ton) in the St. Andrew's division of
the Castle-maine district. The total gold produce exported from Victoria
during 1884 was 189,866 ozs. 4 dwts.
Traces of silver have been found in the neighbourhood of St. Arnaud, and at
a few other places. Copper is found principally in the Bethanga and Granya
districts; very complex ores presenting great difficulties in the way of its
reduction. These difficulties are, it is stated, now at last overcome, and
the new treatment adopted is described by the reporter. No copper ore was
raised in the colony in 18S4, but some has since been worked. Tin has been
found at various spots within the Beechworth and Gippsland mining districts,
but has as yet been little mined. Antimony sulphides and oxides (Stibnite
and Cervantite), often highly auriferous, are worked at Costerfield for the
gold it contains, and also at Ring wood. About 22,000 tons of antimonial
ores were raised in 1884. Lead ore though present in Victoria, and
especially in Gippsland, is not now worked. Iron ores are not rare, but
owing to the absence of neighbouring fuel their profitable working is
doubtful. Persistent efforts have of late years been made to discover good
coal, but with poor results only. In 1884 a seam 4 feet 8 inches thick, and
apparently of good quality, was met with at Mirboo. Two samples gave the
following analyses:—
The Moe Coal Company are opening out their mine on a seam of first-class
coal 2 feet 3 inches to 2 feet 8 inches thick. Altogether only 3,279 tons 7
cwts. of coals were raised in Victoria in 1884, and only 13,067 tons 3 cwt.
altogether to the close of that year. At Lal-Lal is the most important
deposit of lignite. Up to December, 1883, 6,703 tons 11 cwt. had been
worked, only 577 tons 10 cwt. being credited to 1884.
Slate, flags, limestone, marble, manganese, cobalt, bismuth, molybdenum,
gypsum, infusorial earth, and various clays are the other products touched
upon in this report, which concludes with detailed tables.
G. A. L.
MINERALS OP CARINTHIA.
Die Minerale des Ilerzogtliwms Kdrnten. By Prof. August
Bjutnnlechner. 130 pp. ivith map. Klagenfurt, 1884.
A complete guide to the ore deposits and all known localities of the rarer
minerals of Carinthia,
G. A. L.
17
THE GEOLOGY AND DESCRIPTION OP THE DIAMOND MINES OP SOUTH AFRICA.
Memoire sur la Geologie generate et sur les Mines des Diamants de VAfrique
du Sud. By A. Moulie. Annates des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. VII., pp.
193-348. Geology.—The formations may be divided into four divisions:— 1°.
Granitic and Gneissose rocks, metamorphic and Cambrian schists, quartzites
and Silurian limestones.
2°. Marine formations, consisting of Devonian and Carboniferous groups. The
Devonian is represented by schists and sandstones, covered by the
sandstones, limestones, and shales of the Carboniferous system. Above these
are found conglomerates and oolitic beds of Jurassic and Tertiary age.
3°. Lacustrine formations include only one series, known as "Karoo." This is
the characteristic and most interesting formation in South Africa. Its
length from Bok-keveld to the Transvaal is about 800 miles, its breadth is
uniformly about 300 miles, and it covers an area of about 220,000 square
miles. This formation is divided into three groups—Lower series, from 400 to
600 yards thick, comprising the Boulder bed (a mass of trappean cinders or
conglomerate). This passes insensibly into the schists of Pietermaritzburg.
Middle series, about 500 yards thick, comprising the schists and sandstones
of Khnberley. Upper series, at least 1,500 yards thick, containing the
sandstones and upper schists (with coal) of Stormberg, Drakensberg, etc.
This series contains a great abundance of terrestrial fossils. Coal has been
found in the Transvaal, Orange Free State, and in Natal at various points,
from 3,750 to 5,500 feet above the level of the sea.
4°. Eruptive rocks are frequently found, and may be arranged according to
age as follows :—granitic, trappean, dioritic, diamondiferous serpentines,
and porphyritic tufas. The eruptive and diamondiferous rocks are of little
importance compared with other rocks, but they form the celebrated mining
centres of South Africa. The diamondiferous deposits are conical or
cylindrical masses sinking into the surface and forming chimneys in the
adjacent eruptive and sedimentary rocks. As regards diamonds, they may be
more or less rich, more or less sterile, but they7 always afford the same
geological characteristics. There are more than twenty of these deposits,
which are situated in a line, about 120 miles long, running from Hart River
(Griqualand West), and passing through Kimberley to Pauresmith (Orange Free
State). These chimneys are often of uniform section, their diameter varies
from 20 (Newlands Kopff) to 500 yards (Dutoits Pan), but usually from 160 to
330 yards (Kimberley, de Beers, Bultfontein, etc).
The most famous diamondiferous chimney is the Kimberley, which may be
described as follows:—The chimney is elliptic, and at the surface had
originally an area of about \\ acres, its axes being about 220 and 300
yards. The section of the chimney is not uniform, the sides being
inclined at certain points at an angle of 15° towards the centre. The
rocks passed through are— " red soil," about 2 feet, white and yellow
shales, grey and greenish shales, replaced at certain points by overflows of
diorite about 49 feet; "reef" of shales and sandstones, very
pyritose shales, and containing numerous masses of carbonate of iron,
about 225 feet thick; ''Hard rock," being a bed of trap about 230 feet
thick; this should be followed, but it is not directly ascertained, by fine
greyish argillaceous-calcareous sandstones, grey and greenish shales, and
black schists, which may be found resting on granites or diorites. The
sides are always perfectly smooth and finely striated upwards; they are
sometimes covered with a whitish oily matter some inches thick. Explosive
gas has been found. The sides of the reef are found unaltered, but are
tilted upwards from 1 to 3 feet, showing that the diamond ground has passed
upwards and not downwards.
18
The diamondiferous rock filling the chimneys consists of a breccia of
blackish serpentine, containing many minerals and immense quantities of
fragments of rocks. The rock is compact, tender, and slightly greasy to the
touch ; it is cut easily with the knife or scratched with the nail. Its
colour in the interior of the mine is green, inclining to black when exposed
to sun and rain; it wreathers rapidly, and changes colour to bluish,
greyish-blue, and greyish, hence its name of " blue ground." After
washing, the residue is of a clear yellow colour. Similar changes of
colour are found in the mine. Under 20 or 25 yards it forms a friable
yellowish or whitish sand known as "yellow ground/' The change to " blue
ground " is always rapid, varying from 5 to 6 yards in thickness, and known
as " rusty ground." The chief minerals found in the mines are—diamonds,
garnets, mica, sahlite, pyrites, calcite, zircon, titanic iron, ilmenite and
magnetite, and, lastly, enstatite. After washing, these minerals are
collected together as a fine sand, equal to two or three parts per 10,000 of
the original mass. From \ to 5 carats of diamonds are found in a cubic yard
of solid rock, or from three to sixty parts per 100,000,000, but some
portions are sterile.
The diamonds are either crystallised or in fragments, and vary in size from
the smallest dimensions to 350 carats. The colour is of all shades, from
whitish-blue to light yellow. Boort is also found.
Diamond Mines.—The mines were discovered in 1871, and from that time to 1885
it is computed that 31 million carats or about 6 tons of rough diamonds have
been found, the corresponding value being £36,000,000.
Working of the Mines.—The methods of working, up to the present, are the
same in all the different mines. Taking Kimberley as the typical mine, the
working as a whole comprises:—The working and transport of blue ground and
of reef, and treatment of the minerals on the floors.
The mine is an open quarry, in which the blue ground is broken by dynamite.
The shots, always very deep (2 to 3 yards), are prepared during the time
occupied in removing the material. They are placed in groups of six or
seven. The firing of the shots
10
is only allowed when the workmen are out of the mine, either at noon or
after six p.m. The mineral is always broken into large blocks, which are
broken down with the pick and loaded into wagons which are tipped into the
tubs. The wagons run on tramways, easily removable. Where a lai'ge area is
worked at once, tunnels are driven into it, and the mineral is dumped down
staples into tubs standing in the tunnels. White men are in charge of the
operations, and the blacks prepare the shots, do the pick-work, fill and put
the w-agons, and teem them into the tubs. The blue ground is drawn to the
surface by aerial wire-tramways. Four round steel wire ropes (1^ to 2 inches
in diameter) are anchored on the surface and in the mine. Each pair of ropes
forms a tramway, upon which the tubs travel. The tubs consist of a
four-wheeled carriage, moving on two ropes, and carrying a cylindrical iron
vessel, supported upon trunnions, for facility of tipping. They are drawn up
by stationary engines, the hauling ropes being so arranged that one tub
descends as the other tub ascends, and equilibrium of deadweights is
maintained. The tubs are teemed into side tip-wagons, and the blue ground
laid down on the floors. The production per man employed is from 5 to 5£
loads of 16 cubic feet for open quarries, and from 7 to 7£ loads in the
tunnel and staple system.
The removal of reef is made by three systems—by aerial tramways, by pits and
tunnels, and by inclined planes.
The blue ground being a compact rock, the extraction of the diamonds would
be almost impossible if it had not the property of being readily broken by
the weather. When rain is abundant it falls to pieces in about fifteen days,
but in the dry season the process lasts many months. In order to facilitate
disintegration, it is broken by picks, watered, turned over, and watered
again and again. These operations are very costly, and lead to the loss of
the large diamonds.
When the mineral is reduced to a fine gravelly sand, it is passed through
the washers. The blue ground and water are jointly passed over a screen,
with bars 1£ inches apart, which separate the fragments of rock and any
large pieces of blue ground, which are reserved for future treatment. The
matter which has passed through the screen is passed into a revolving
screen, made of perforated iron and wire gauze, which makes a fresh
separation between diamondiferous mud and small fragments of rock, which are
examined by hand and sent to the waste heap. The diamondiferous mud is
conveyed to the -washing machine. This consists of a round basin of
sheet-iron, from 8 to 16 feet in diameter. A series of rakes are revolved
slowly in the basin. The muddy water is run in tangentially at one side, at
the same velocity as the rakes, and escapes, after passing round, by another
opening. During its passage round the basin all the stony matters are
deposited from the mud. The mud is then passed through a fine screen, which
separates it from the muddy water. The mud is taken away to the waste heap,
and the muddy water is used again for washing the stone. The stony matters
are then dressed in an American cradle, which classes the grit according to
size. The different grits are then sorted by hand with an iron scraper, upon
a sheet-iron table; this sorting is repeated three or four times, according
to the fineness of the grit.
The accidents in 1883 were :—
20
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT FROM THE SLAG OF BLAST FURNACES.
, Utilization des Laitiers de haul Fourneau et leur Transformation en
Ciments doses pendant leur Flat de Fusion a leur Sortie des haut Fourneaux.
By E. Chabrand. Le Genie Civil, Vol. VIII, pp. 6-7
The slag of blast furnaces contains all the constituents of cement, they
only differ in the relative proportions of the parts; there is less lime and
much more silica. The addition of 60 to 80 per cent, of its weight of
quicklime, according to its composition, will transform it into a cement.
The addition of the lime requires great precision, as an excess produces at
the time of mixture a complete splitting up of the mass.
The system invented and employed by Mr. Farinaux consists in grinding the
lime and charging into a conical hopper. The slag is run from the blast
furnace into a vessel carried on a small wagon; a wheel with pallets is
placed at the bottom of the cone, upon which, at the same time, the lime and
slag fall in the proper proportions. The rotation of this wheel produces an
intimate mixture of the lime and slag, and the heat of fusion of the slag is
absorbed by the formation of the cement. Under these conditions the block
splits, and is broken in about twelve hours after it has become completely
cold. It produces a cement which, after being set for fifteen days, becomes
as hard and more solid than stone.
From 1 to 1^ per cent, of carbonate of soda should be added to the lime;
this carbonate is decomposed by the heat of the slag, and communicates to
the cement a greater rapidity of setting and increased hardness.
From the experiments of the inventor, the cost of manufacture will be as
follows :—
THE MINING OF NICKEL IN NEW CALEDONIA.
L''Exploitation du Nickel en A'ovvelle Caledonie. By Chakles bit Peloux.
Le Genie Civil, Vol. VIII, pp. 88-91.
Geology.—Garnierite, which is a hydro-silicate of nickel and magnesium, is
found at various places over the whole island, except in the north-eastern
districts, which are schists of Silurian age. Elsewhere, the Island is a
vast accumulation of eruptive rocks, more or less decomposed, of which
serpentine occupies the greatest area. The ore of nickel is always found in
the masses of serpentine adjacent to the surface.
Upon examination the workable area is found in the north-west of the island,
where the ore is found in sufficient quantity and quality to repay the
workers. The three chief districts are—Canala-Mere-Kuana, Thio-Port Bouquet,
and Bourindi. The Canala district was the first one worked, but soon
abandoned, owing to the low percentage of nickel in the ore, and the
difficulties of transport. The Thio district was next explored, and is still
being worked. The Bourindi district is the most valuable in the island, in
both quality and quantity of ore; but it is unworked, being held in reserve.
Mining.—The veins are somewhat regular in both dip and direction. In the
Thio district the dip is almost vertical and the direction usually runs from
N.N.W. to S.S.E. The ore is found very irregularly in strings and pockets;
it is very common for the
21
good ore to deteriorate in a few yards into a silicate of magnesium, with
only traces of nickel. The depth of the veins of nickel rarely exceed 300 to
500 feet, the greater number are about 150 feet, when they run out or are
filled with magnesia. The encasing rock is usually hard, and little
timbering is necessary. Water is seldom encountered, and ventilation is
neglected owing to the small area of the workings. The ore is extracted as
much as possible by open quarries, by level drifts, and pits sunk on the
vein. The merchantable ore contains about 7 per cent, of nickel.
Transport.—The mineral is conveyed in sacks, on horseback, or by shutes, to
the tramways, which are worked by horses; there are three self-acting
inclined planes, which carry it to the river, a total distance of about 5
miles, and a descent of from 1500 to 2000 feet. It is conveyed down the
river in flat-bottomed boats, and placed upon jetties, and is conveyed by
coasting steamers to Noumea.
Workmen.—The only workmen are :—Libei'ated convicts, who are paid 5s. to 7s.
6d. per 8 hours of work ; natives of the New Hebrides, who are hired for 3
or 5 years, under Government supervision, and paid about 2s. 6d, per day;
natives of New Caledonia, who are only named here, they will not work.
Miners are brought from Australia and paid 10s. 6d. per day, and 66s. per
yard in hard rocks. Chinese have been tried but they require incessant
supervision.
Preparation of the Ore.—The ore is concentrated in two furnaces at Noumea
into a metal containing 60 to 70 per cent, of nickel. The metal is then sent
to English refineries for treatment.
Production and Consumption.—The production over the years 1882-3-4- would be
about 2,400 tons of pure nickel. Working during 1885 was suspended on March
1st. The production of nickel in Europe and America may be estimated, for
this period, at 600 tons, making the total production for the three years
about 3,000 tons. The consumption is estimated at 800 tons per annum.
M. W. B.
MACHINERY FOR CUTTING STONE.
Scie helico'idale et perforateur tubulaire, system P. Gay. By G. L.
Pesce. Le
Genie Civil, Vol. VII, pp. 381-383.
This new invention for cutting or dressing stone consists of a small endless
cord, formed of three steel wires, slightly twisted, which, when running at
a high velocity, will cut through any stone with which it is placed in
contact.
Apparatus for Dividing Stone into Slabs.—This is illustrated by three
drawings. It consists of two standards, about 12 feet apart, supporting a
beam. Two pulleys are carried, one on each standard, and are moved
vertically by means of two screws which are driven simultaneously. Suitable
arrangements are attached for the supply of sharp sand and water.
The endless saw is passed over the two pulleys, and is pressed by them upon
the stone which is to be divided.
The endless saw works more rapidly than the ordinary reciprocating method.
The following table shows the progress of the saw upon blocks of 7 to 10
feet in length:—
22
The power required with an endless saw, 100 yards long, cutting stones from
7 to 10 feet long, is about £ horse-power.
By increasing the number of the endless saws, arranged to act
simultaneously, a .block of stone may be rapidly cut up into thin or thick
slabs, as may be required.
Application in Quarries.—The endless saw may be applied to quarrying, as
soon as the rock is bared, cuts may be made by its means whose size is
infinitesimal when compared with the ordinary quarry trenches.
In order to make these cuts, small pits would be sunk to allow the descent
of the guiding pulleys. The standards would be placed in these pits, and the
descent of the pulleys would be regulated, according to the nature of the
stone, by the attendant workman. The ordinary quarry trenches are about 2
feet wide, causing a loss of about 35 to 40 per cent of the stone, and the
£-inch cuts of the endless saw would scarcely amount to h per cent. The
economy of time is also very considerable.
The sinking of the pit is made by a rotary tubular drill, but instead of
being set with diamonds, it is a simple ring of hardened steel. The cylinder
is about 2 feet diameter, and of variable length (according to the depth of
pits required), with a ring of greater thickness as the boring tool. This
cylinder turns with a central axis, centred upon the top of the pit. The
cylinder is driven at a high speed by an endless rope. A column of stone is
formed by this means, which is detached by lateral pressure. The progress of
the tubular drill is about 30 feet per day.
M. W. B.
PETROLEUM AS FUEL.*
De la Combustion des Huiles Minerales et de lew residus. By J. D'Ailest.
Le Oenie Civil, Vol. VIII.. pp 7-10, 19-22, and 36-42.
Combustible.—There are many forms of fluid hydro-carbons which may be used
as fuel, as may also the residue of their distillation, an oil known as
astatkis.
Apparatus for Combustion.—The only apparatus affording good results are
those which convert the petroleum into a spray, by means of a jet of steam,
and throw it into the fire-box. Petroleum burns readily under these
conditions, without smoke or ash.
There are many forms of this apparatus, in some of which there is a central
supply of petroleum, surrounded by a steam jet, and the united streams of
petroleum and air pass through a cone, where it mixes with air; in others
the apparatus is modified by the addition of a central jet of steam.
Experiments.—A small boiler was used, of marine type, about 7 feet long and
2| feet wide.
Water
BOULDERS IN COAL IN AUSTRIA.
Ueber die in Flotzen reiner SteinJcohle enthaltenen Stein-Rundmassen und
Torf-spharosiderite. By D. Stub. (Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen
Oeolog-ischen JReichsanstalt, 1885, Band. XXXV., 613-648.)
The boulders described in this paper have been found in coal seams in the
Ostrau district; they are six in number. The first four were discovered in
the Eugen seam of the H einrichs-Gliicks mine, near Dombrau, and the two
others in the Josefi seam of Graf Wilezck's mine, in Polish Ostrau. The
following table contains the results of the examination of these boulders:—
Feom the Ettgen Seam, Heineichs-Gltjcks Mine. I.—Coarse gneiss, weighing
2,161 "9 grams, or 4'76 lbs.
II.—Brecciated granitic rock, without quartz, weighing 3,122-52 grams, or
6'88 lbs. HI-—Fine-grained gneiss, weighing 1,293'1 grams, or 2"85 lbs.
IV.—Micro-pegmatite.
Feom the Joseei Seam, Polish Osteau.
V.—Coarse porphyritic rock, weighing 836"5 grams, or T84 lbs.
VI.—Quarz-porphyry, weighing 413"8 grams, or -912 lbs.
The author also describes two other classes of stony inclusions of the coal
in the Heinrichs-Gliicks mine, which are concretionary nodules of ironstone.
Some of these are found in the roof of the coal seams and others in the coal
itself; the former containing fossil remains similar to those found in the
surrounding shale, and the latter plant remains. Unable to accept the
reasons which have been hitherto suggested as explaining the presence of
boulders in coal, and from a consideration of the resemblance of the
conditions in which these are found, with those in which these ironstone
concretions occur, the author has been led to regard the boulders as formed
by pseudomorphic replacement of ironstone nodules. The discovery of a nodule
in the coal from Szekul, in the Banate (Hungary), part of which consists of
ironstone, enclosing plant remains, and the remainder of quartz, is regarded
as supporting the above remarkable conclusion.
P. P. B,
24
COAL MEASURES OF ANJOU.
Sur la presence de I'etage houiller moyen en Anjou. By Ed. Bttkeau.
Comptes Rendus de VAcademie des Sciences. Vol. XCIX., pp. 1036-1038.
A short description of the small patches of Coal-Measures at
Rochefort-sur-Loire and l'Ecoule which occur encased in and preserved hy the
long folds of Silurian rocks which form the framework of the country. By
means of the fossil plants collected by him in the Coal-Measure shales at
the former locality, the author determines them to belong to the Middle
Coal-Measures, and adds that the great neighbouring coal-field of the Basse
Loire is the only one in Prance where all three stages of the Coal-Measures
occur simultaneously. Of the fourteen species of plants recorded, eight are
known in the Middle Coal-Measures of Westphalia, seven in the beds of the
same age of the north of France and Belgium, seven in those of Britain,
seven in those of Silesia, six in those of Bohemia, five in those of
Saarbrucken, and, singularly enough, only one in the adjacent deposits on
the same geological horizon in Vendee.
No mention is made of coal in this paper. Some has, however, been found in
the Anjou area.
Q. A. L.
NATIVE ANTIMONY IN NEW BRUNSWICK.
JS'ative Antimony and its Associations at Prince William, York County, New
Brunswick. By Geokge F. Kunz. American Journal of Science. Series 3, Vol.
XXX. (1885), pp. 275-277.
The locality referred to in the title of this paper is on the right bank of
the St. John River, 24 miles from Frederickton, and 96 miles from St. John,
New Brunswick. Here, in a tract of country three miles by five in area, many
veins of Stibnite have been known and to some extent worked since 1860. At
first native antimony was but rarely observed, but within the last two years
that very scarce mineral has been found in some abundance. It occurs at a
depth of from 100 to 150 feet from the surface, in large pockets, some of
which contain fully one ton of the pure mineral. Associated with it are
Stibnite (antimony glance), Valentinite (antimony bloom), and Kermesite
(antimonblende, or oxysulphide of antimony). Two varieties are found, one
coarsegrained resembling the native antimony of Sarawak, Borneo, the other
fine-grained.
The country rock is a black argil! ite, traversed by veins of quartz and
calcite (bearing Stibnite), varying from 1 to 30 feet in width.
G. A. L.
GOLD IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Notes on the Echunga Gold-Fi.eld. By H. Y. Lyell-Brown. 80 pp..
with large Map. Adelaide, 1885.
This gold-field has been known since 1852, but so far has not proved rich
enough to attract steady mining enterprise. Its area is about thirty square
miles, the rocks being chiefly quartzites, grits, conglomerates, clay-slate,
and schists of Silurian age, traversed by irregular masses and dykes of
felspathic igneous rocks (including greenstone and granite) in a highly
decomposed condition. Over these old deposits are patches of Pliocene, Newer
Pliocene, and alluvial clays, sands, gravels, etc. The gold is found in
paying quantities in quartz-reefs associated with the Silurian beds. It also
occurs in the later and more superficial deposits, which are divided by the
author into— 1, Older Gold Drift (Pliocene); 2, Middle Gold Drift (Newer
Pliocene); and 3, Upper Gold Drift (Post Pliocene). Of these the first are
the most important, and are of greatest extent,
G.
A. L.
25
COAL-FIELDS OF NORTH CAROLINA.
(1) Report on the North Carolina Coal-fields to the Department of
Agriculture
{State of North Carolina). By H. M. Chance. Raleigh, U.S., 1885, 66
pp. Three Maps.
The coal-bearing beds reported on are of Triassic age, but in almost every
respect they resemble the Coal-Measures of Carboniferous date. They occur in
two areas, one on Deep River and the other on Dan River, the former being
the more important. For some time no mining operations have been carried on
in these fields, nor in the neighbouring and much richer one of Richmond,
which occupies the same geological horizon. The Deep River coal-region
contains at least five seams, the thickest of which attains about four feet.
Of these seams, however, two only appear to be generally workable, the upper
averaging from 2| to 3 feet, and the lower 2 feet in thickness. The
thicknesses, however, are very variable. The dip is to the S.E., and its
amount from 25° to 30°. The coal is "bituminous," becoming anthracitic near
contact with igneous dykes only, and its average composition, based upon
numerous analyses, is as follows:—
Volatile matter ... ... ... ... ... 30
Fixed carbon ... ... ... ... ... 54
Ash ..................12
Sulphur.................. 3"6
This coal enters into competition with that of Tennessee and West Virginia,
and, considering the cost of working, could only command a market in eastern
North Carolina. The inconstant character of the seams, the presence of
faults, igneous dykes, gas, water, and other causes, combine to render the
Deep River coal-field, and in a still greater degree that of the Dan River,
of small commercial promise.
(2) Article on the above Report. By J. C. Russell. Science, Vol. VI.
(Dec. 18,
1885), pp. 548, 549.
A critical review of Dr. Chance's report, in which the writer, who has
recently examined the Triassic areas south of the Potomac, adds his
testimony as to the limited importance of the coals they contain.
G. A. L.
FOSSIL HYDRO-CARBONS OF SCANDINAVIA.
Die Vorkommen von fossilen Kohlenwasserstoffen in Schwedcn und Norwegen. By
C. Zikckek 0esterreichisclie Zeitschrift fur Berg- und Hiittemvesen,
Jahr-gang XXXIIL, pp. 263, 264.
Petroleum occurs in small quantities in the Upper and Lower Silurian rocks
of Scandinavia, according to Nordenskiold.
Asphalt is found in the magnetite deposits of Dannemora associated with
quartz crystals, at Bispberg, Grasbeig, Uto, Grangesberg, and Norberg; in
pegmatite veins disseminated in coarse-grained felspar or in quartz at
Grangesberg, Broddbo, and Finnbo; in gneiss and micaschist in many
localities. The quantities are nowhere workable.
Bituminous schists are recorded from the Primordial-Gneiss and micaschist of
Nullaberg, Parish of Ostmark, in the Province of Wermland.
Amber is got both on the coast and inland in Schonen, near Skanor-Falsterbo,
in South Gothland near Christiania, and, generally speaking, in the drift
deposits of Norway.
O. A. L.
d
20
GOLD IN QUEENSLAND: THE MOUNT MORGAN MINE.
Notes on Gold. By De. A. Leibius. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales for 1884, Vol. XVIIL, pp. 37-41.
Contains an account of the remarkable occurrence of gold at the Mount Morgan
Mine, discovered about 25 miles from Rockhampton, near the Dee river,
towards the end of 1882. The mine is situated in a ridge, about 800 feet
above the surrounding country, and formed of ferruginous quartz, throughout
which the gold is disseminated in a very finely divided state. This ridge is
regarded as the result of a thermal spring which held quartz, iron, and gold
in solution. The mine is bringing to light numerous caves, from the roof of
which hang stalactitic masses of hydrated oxide of iron and silica in which
the finely disseminated gold is clearly visible to the naked eye. The.
entire hill appears to be uniformly auriferous, and is worked by open
quarrying. About 230 tons of gold-bearing quartz are passed through the
stamps per week; the return being not less than 5 oz. of gold to the ton.
The character of the gold is likewise most unusual; it is quite free from
silver, and assays 99T7<y of gold, the remaining -fa per cent, being copper
and iron. It is therefore worth £4 4s. 8d. per oz., and is, according to the
author (senior assayer to the Sydney branch of the Royal Mint), the richest
native gold hitherto found. It is further stated that not more than half the
amount actually present in the quartz of Mount Morgan can be extracted by
means of the quartz-crushing and amalgamating processes in ordinary use. The
mine was first called the " Dee Gold Mine," but was named the " Mount Morgan
Mine " after its discoverers.
G. A. L.
MINING IN HUNGARY.
Notizen ilber die ungarische Berg- und Bisen-Industrie. By Robeet von
Faekass. Special-Katalog der Vlten Gruppe fiir Bergbau, Silttenwesen und
Geologic (Allgemeine Landes-Austellung zu Budapest, 1885.) Einleitung,
pp. xliii-lx.
Brief descriptions of the chief mining districts of the country are first
given. These are:—
A.—The Schemnitz and Kremnitz District. An interesting trachytic region,
with two chief groups of veins, one (that of Schemnitz) in
greenstone-trachyte, having a general N.E. and S.W. direction and a westerly
hade varying from 45° to 80°; the other (the Hodritsch group) with a less
uniform direction. The ores worked are of gold, silver, copper, and lead,
with much pyrites, and some of the lodes are of the richest description.
Besides the greenstone and trachyte mentioned above, the other rocks
occurring in the district are gneiss, Devonian slates and quartzite, Werfen
slates, and Triassic limestone.
B.—The Upper Hungary District, where granite, crystalline schists, red
sandstone of supposed Permian age, Werfen beds, and Triassic limestone are
the principal older rocks. Above these are strata of Jurassic and Neocomian
age, whilst igneous rocks, especially such as are rich in olivine, are
plentiful. The lodes are chiefly found in the metamorphic schists, more
rarely in the granite and gabbro. It is in the latter, however, that the
rich deposits of cobalt and nickel around Dobschau occur. The veins are
throughout the district very varied in character, fahlerz (antimonial grey
copper ore), copper pyrites, chalybite and other iron ores, stibnite, and
quicksilver, besides the cobalt and nickel above mentioned, being worked in
them. In some cases ore-bearing lodes are found running through masses of
gypsum.
C.—The Nagybdnya District comprises another very remarkable trachytic
region, in some respects analogous to that of District A. The richer veins
occur in greenstone-
27
trachyte, and hold native gold, auriferous pyrites, pyrargyrite, native
silver, galena, grey copper ore, and other silver, copper, antimonial, and
arsenic ores, with, occasionally, compounds of manganese, zinc, etc.
D.—The Transyhanian District. Here the oldest rocks are crystalline schists,
upon which lie deposits of Mesozoic limestone and Tertiary sandstone, whilst
through • these pierce eruptive masses of various kinds (chiefly trachyte,
greenstone, dacite, etc.) The veins of this celebrated district are mostly
gold-bearing, the precious metal occurring either native, and often
beautifully crystalline, or in auriferous tellurium ores and sulphides.
The largest gold production is at Vorospatak.
E.—The Banat District is the last of the great Hungarian metalliferous
tracts. The lodes there are principally situated along the margin of the
main mass of the crystalline schists, where they are associated with various
eruptive rocks, of which banatite is one of the most remarkable. Copper,
silver, gold, lead, and chrome-iron ores are those most frequently worked
here, the last-named being found near the Roumanian frontier in connexion
with masses of serpentine.
F.— Coals of Carboniferous Age occur at Eibenthal in Szoreny County, and in
the neighbourhood of Reschitza in Krasso County, where they yield coke of
the best quality.
G.—Coals of Liassic Age occur also at the last-named place, near Oravicza in
Krassd-Szoreny County, in Baranya and Tolna Counties, and in Transylvania.
II.—Brown-Coals of Cretaceous Age occur in Veszprimer, Bihar, and
Krassd-Szoreny Counties.
I,—Brown-Coals of Eocene Age occur in the Gran district and in Veszprimer
County.
J.—Brown-Coals of Oligocene Age occur in the same regions as the last, in
the Counties of Neutra, Hunyad in Transylvania, Agram in Croatia, and Syrmi
in Slavonia.
K.—Brown-Coals and Lignites of Neogene Age occur in the counties of Neograd,
Oedenburg, Barse, Neutra, Bihar, Baranya, Eisenburg, Transylvania, Varasdin
and Pozsega in Croatia, Borsod and Gomor.
G. A. L.
BORING FOR PETROLEUM IN S. FRANCE. Recherches du petrole a Gabian (Serault).
By — Zippeelen. Comptes-Rendus Mensuels des Reunions de la Societe de V
Industrie Minerale, ann. 1885, pp. 5,6. Since 1605 the occurrence of
petroleum oozing out of the ground at Gabian, near the river Tangue, has
been well known. Some pints of mineral oil are collected daily, and it is
expected that there exist large underground reservoirs of it only waiting to
be tapped. In order to test the correctness of this view, the author
commenced a boring at a spot 400 metres (437 yards) below the oil spring.
The rocks bored through are all of Miocene age, and consist of alluvium,
sandy drift, sandstones, marls, limestones, and, lastly, thick
conglomerates, in which the borehole was stopped at a depth of 79-98 metres
(262 feet) On reaching 69 metres (226 feet) the walls of the hole fell in,
and a mass of sand and pebbles were blown out of the hole with great
violence, under the pressure of enormous quantities of accumulated gases.
Since that outburst strong emanations of a naphthous nature and of
increasing intensity have made themselves felt. The writer estimated the
thickness of the conglomerates above-mentioned at 120 or 130 metres (393 and
426 feet), and thinks that the great mass of the petroleum will be found
beneath them. The small amount of oil which finds its way to the surface
being only what the generally impervious conglomerate allows to escape by
cracks and fissures.
A second borehole is being put down.
G. A. L.
28
SPANISH MINES IN 1883.
(1) Mineria de la Provincia de Almeria en 1883. Anon. Eecista Minera
y
MetaUrgica, An. XXXVI. (1885). p. 294.
The mineral produce of the province of Almeria for the year 1883 is given as
' follows:—
Tons. Iron ore ..................83,820
Lead ore.................. 16,888
Argentiferous lead ore ... ... ... ... 21,506
Silver ore.................. 22,100
Copper ore ... ... ... ... ...
170
Zinc ore ... ... ... ... ... ...
1,579
Manganese ore ... ... ... ... ...
372
Sulphur (unrefined) ... ... ... ...
29,815
(2) Mineria de la Provincia de Murcia en 1883. Anon. Same
publication,
An. XXXVL, p. 309.
That of the province of Murcia for the same year is :—
Tons. Iron ore ..................599,203
Lead ore ... ... ... ... ... ...
156,548
Copper ore... ... ... ... ... ...
14
Zinc ore .................. 9.291
Salt .................. 1,500
Alum ............• ...... 4,620
Sulphur ..................23,049
(3) Mineria de la Provincia de Oviedo en 1883. Anon. Same
publication.
An. XXXVI., pp. 317, 318.
Of that of Oviedo :—
Tons. Iron ore ..................42,974
Quicksilver ... ... ... ... ...
6,604
Cobalt ore ... ... ... ... ... ...
19
Manganese ore ... ... ... ... ...
900
Coal .................. 469,620
Lignite ... .... ... ... ... ...
57
Peat .................. 230
(4) Mineria de la Provincia de Santander en 1883. Anon. Same
publication,
An. XXXVI, p. 325. Of that of Santander:—
Tons. Iron ore (haematite) ... ... ... ...
83,256
Iron pyrites ... ... ... ... ...
1,290
Copper ore ... ... ... ... ...
20
Zinc ore .................. 40,236
Lead ore ... ... ... ... ... ...
9
Lignite ... ... ... ... ... ...
1,750
(5) Mineria de la Provincia de Palencia en 1883. Anon. Same
publication,
An. XXXVI, p. 334. Of that of Palencia :—
Tons. Copper ore (copper pyrites) ... ... ...
304
Coal.....................216,443
29
(6) Mineria de la Provincia de Badajoz en 1883. Anon. Same
publication,
An. XXXVI, p. 349.
Of that of Badajoz :—
Tons. Iron ores ... ... ... ... ...
... 700
Lead ore..................12,270
(7) Mineria de la Provincia de Jaen en 1883. Anon. Same
publication,
An. XXXVI, p. 302.
Of that of Jaen:—
Tons.
Lead ore ..................89,391
Salt ......... ......... 23
a. a. l.
POPULAR ERRORS AS TO METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.
Popular Fallacies regarding Precious Metal Ore-deposits. By Albert Williams,
Jttn. Fourth Annual Report of the U.S. Geological Survey for 1882-83,
Washington, 1884 (issued 1885).
Some of the views commonly held by miners, and for which there is little or
no foundation in fact, are discussed by the author under the following
heads:— 1.—Local prejudices against certain formations and in favour of
others. 2.—The supposition that the richness of mineral veins usually
increases with depth. 3.—The prejudice against "specimen" mines (i.e., gold
mines in which the metal occurs in large visible masses, and silver mines
yielding exceptionally high-grade ores). 4.—The prejudice in favour of
certain strikes and against others. 5.—The predilection for " true
fissures." 6.—The block system of underground prospecting. 7.—The prejudice
against bedded deposits and veins of small dip. 8.—That the appearance of
ores is a trustworthy index of their value.
G. A. L.
THE MINERAL RESOURCES OP THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF VIENNE (DEPARTMENT OF ISERE).
Geologle et Rlchesses minerales de Varrondissement de Vienne (Isere). By J.
Ciians-SELLB. Bulletin de la Societe de V Industrie Miner ale, Ser.% Vol.
XIV., pp. 627-795. Seven 8vo Plates and Woodcuts, and four folio Plates
(Plates XXXI-XXXIV.) in atlas. Dated 1885 but really published in 1886.
A very complete and detailed account of the efforts which have up to the
present been made to trace the extension of the St. Etienne coal-field to
the north-east between Communay and Chamagnieu. The Coal-Measures in this
region occur as a long narrow synclinal fold, encased in ancient crystalline
rocks, and are covered unconformably by a considerable thickness of Miocene
Molasse beds. At the base of the latter are valuable beds of iron ore, of
which a full description is also given. In addition to coal and iron, veins
containing lead and other ores in workable quantities have long been known
in the neighbourhood of Vienne, and these are all enumerated and described
by the author. The memoir includes the measured sections of borings at
Simandres, Marennes, Chap-onnay, and Toussien. In an Appendix (pp. 779-793)
further details as to the mines of Communay and the patch of Coal-Measures
at Condrien are given. Information as to Tertiary lignites and peat found in
the district will be found in the earlier pages of the work.
G. A. L.
80
COAL-FIELDS OF GERMANY.
Allemagne, Bsquisse Geologique. By Dk. E. HAira. Annua ire Geologique
Universel, Paris, 1885, pp. 75-91.
A clear and concise sketch of the geology of the German Empire. The
Carboniferous system is described as follows (p. 82):—" The Aix-la-Chapelle
basin is the prolongation of the Carboniferous of Belgium. That of
Westphalia forms a strip skirting the Devonian ranges of the Rhine. Coal is
worked on a large scale in the valley of the Ruhr, the Coal-Measures resting
to the west at Ratlingen on the Carboniferous Limestone, and to the east on
a series of shales and grauwackes known as the Kulm, and characterised by
Goniatites sphaericus and Posidonomya Bechen, as at Herborn. This Kulm
extends towards the south from Stadtberge to beyond Giessen, and forms a
band of varying breadth, separating the Devonian region from the Triassic
plateau of Central Germany.
" The Saarbriick coal-field is separated by faults from the Trias of
Lorraine, and is conformable to the Permian beneath which it dips in the
direction of Kreuznach. The Carboniferous Limestone is wanting here, and the
Coal-Measures have been divided by Weiss into two stages, the Saarbriick
beds (lower, middle, and upper, belonging to the Sigillaria stage), and the
Ottweiler beds (lower = shales with Leaia, and grits without Leaia, and
upper). The Coal-Measures occupy but a small area in the Vosges and Black
Forest, but on the other hand the grauwackes of Thann in the southern Vosges
contain a rich flora of the age of the Kulm. Bleicher has made known from
these same beds indications of a fauna of Vise age [Carboniferous
Limestone].
" Carboniferous deposits of minor importance occur in the Frankenwald and
near Manebach in Thuringia.
"In the north-western Harz the Kulm covers a large extent of country. It is
through these deposits that the rich metalliferous lodes of Clausthal,
Zellerfeld, and S. Ansdreasberg run. At their base are siliceous shales,
then the Posidonomya beds, and the Kulm limestone (at Iberg near Gruud),
followed by the lower grauwacke of Clausthal and the upper grauwacke of
Grund. The most northern Carboniferous outcrop is near Ibbenburen and
Osnabriick in Northern Westphalia.
" In Saxony are several small Coal-Measure basins, those of Zwickau, Lugan,
Hainichen, Epersdorf, and that of Potschappel near Dresden. These are all
actively exploited, as also are those of Silesia."
G. A. L.
COAL-FIELDS OF PORTUGAL
Portugal, Esquisse Geologique. By Pali Cuoffat. Annuaire Geologique
Universel, Paris, 1885, pp. 333-310.
A brief sketch of the geology of the country.
The lower portion of the Carboniferous series, or Kulm, occupies a large
area in Southern Alemtejo. It is composed of shales and grauwackes of gi*eat
thickness, in which very few fossils have so far been found, among them
Posidonomya acuticosta and Calamites communis.
The Coal-Measures only show themselves north of the Kulm region. Three
groups of outcrops are known. Of these the southernmost is near Sado, still
in Alemtejo. The other two are much further north, in the neighbourhood of
Coimbra and Oporto. North of the Tagus the Coal-Measures are overlain by
grits and conglomerates which, by their fossils, seem to be of Permian,
Triassic. and Rhsetic age. G. A. L.
:J.l
THE ALAIS COAL-FIELD.
1/Accident de la Grand 'Combe et le sondage de Ricard. By — Lafitte.
Bulletin de la Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, Ser. 2, Vol. XIV., pp.
541-553. One Plate (Plate XXVIII). Bated 1885 but really published in
1886.
A description of new researches on the lie of the seams in the most
important portion of the Alais coal-field. This coal-field is divided into
two parts by a ridge of micaschist striking N.N.W. and S.S.E, and the
culminating point of which is Mount Rouvergue. The Coal-Measure basin of La
Grand 'Combe and Portes is situated to the west of this ridge, and is
bounded on the west, north, and east by the micaschists; to the south it is
concealed by overlying Triassic rocks, from beneath which it re-emerges at
Rochebelle. A narrow band of Coal-Measures skirts the southern end of the
Rouvergue, and connects the western basin with that of Saint-Ambroix.
The seams worked in the Grand 'Combe concession form two distinct districts,
that of La Grand 'Baume and Champclauson and that of the hill of
Sainte-Barbe. These districts are separated from each other by the valley of
the Grand 'Combe. The first comprises two stages, one (that of Champclauson)
comprising a seam of coal 4 metres (13T2 feet) in thickness, and the other
(that of La Grand 'Baume) with two principal seams, 12 metres and 3'50
metres (39*36 and 11*48 feet) thick respectively. The beds of this group are
remarkable for their low dip and regularity, which is only interrupted by a
few unimportant faults. Nevertheless, on approaching the Grand 'Combe stream
the Grand 'Baume seams are suddenly uplifted and completely reversed. The
direction of the axis of this reversal is north 30° to 35° east.
In the Sainte-Barbe district, which adjoins the last at the line of
disturbance above-mentioned, there are fourteen seams of coal in 250 metres
(820 feet) of Coal-Measure strata. Of these the lowest, named Couche
Sans-Nom, or nameless seam, is known over a large extent of ground. The beds
in this division are much disturbed, especially by abrupt anticlinals, more
or less accompanied by reversals running parallel to that of the Grand
'Combe. The relations of the seams of the two contiguous basins described
have long been matter of doubt. It was supposed that the Sainte-Barbe seams
belonged to a lower horizon than those of La Grand 'Baume, and had been
brought to the same level as the latter by means of a reversed fault, to
which the uplifting and reversal at the Grand 'Combe could also be ascribed.
In order to test this hypothesis a boring, called the "Ricard" bore, was put
down from the floor of the lower Grand 'Baume seam in February, 1881. By
April, 1882, a depth of 400 metres had been reached and nothing but
worthless strings of carbonaceous matter had been met with. The boring was
then stopped and another put down in the Sainte-Barbe basin from the floor
of the Sans-Nom seam. Here again, with the exception of a seam 0*40 metres
(1*312 feet) thick, no coal was met with, and the hole was abandoned in
December, 1882, at a depth of 297 metres (974*16 feet). In the meantime,
explorations in the neighbourhood were found to prove that the Grande 'Combe
trouble had a much greater throw than had .previously been supposed, and in
February, 1884, boring was resumed at the first, or Ricard hole. At a depth
of 731*24 metres the success predicted by Messrs. Zeiller and Grand 'Eury,
the engineers, was attained, and a seam 5*37 metres (17*6 feet) was struck,
which, it is thought probable, is one of the Sainte-Barbe group. If this be
so, the amount of throw of the reversed fault thus proved must be
considerably greater than the depth mentioned.
Full details of the Ricard boring are given, together with an explanatory
map and sections,
G- A. L-
82
COAL-FIELDS OF SWEDEN.
Suede et Norwege, Esquisse Geologique. By De. F. Svedokius. Annuaire
Geologique Universel, Paris, 1885, pp. 353-361.
A sketch of the geology of Scandinavia.
The Rhsotic formation and, in part, the lowest division of the Lias are
represented in the province of Scania by the beds which contain the only
coals in Sweden. These coals are usually accompanied by fire-clays, which
are in many places worked with them. This is especially the case at Hoganiis
since 1797, and at Billesholm, Bjuf, Stabbarp, and Skromberga, where the
beds in question have only been worked of late years. A pit is being sunk
(1884) near Engelholm. The number of seams varies, and in thickness they
are, on an average, from one foot to more than a yard. In 1877 the
production of the Scania coal-field reached a total of 3,998,449 cubic feet.
The best Swedish coals are used for all the purposes for which those of
Britain are suitable. As regards absence of sulphur and phosphorus they are
superior to the latter.
G. A. L.
COAL AND IRON IN CENTRAL AMERICA.
L'Isthme de Tehuantepec. By Felix Laubent. Le Genie Civil, Vol. VIII.
(1886), pp. 193-196. Five Woodcuts in the text.
A canal across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec was first proposed by Mr. Mora, an
American engineer, in 1843. This project was examined by a scientific
commission in 1871, and recognized by it as impracticable; but a canal with
locks from Minatitlan on the Gulf of Mexico to Tehuantepec on the Pacific
shore was, at the same time, pronounced feasible. Both schemes were
abandoned in favour of that now in course of execution at Panama. The
scientific results of the explorations made at the instance of the
above-mentioned commission were, however, valuable, and the present paper is
an account of them. The total breadth of the isthmus is about 200 kilometres
(124£ miles). Its mineral resources are briefly described, and comprise iron
ores in abundance, chiefly magnetite and hamiatite; coal, a brown
cannel-like variety which the Indians are in the habit of using for forge
purposes, and which they kindle with wood; petroleum and asphalt, the former
impregnating the soil and in shales; large salt-deposits at Salina Cruz,
which are worked and find a market in the interior of Mexico; brine springs;
white and coloured marbles, limestones, and clays. The rocks of the isthmus
are mostly igneous, and eleven extinct volcanoes are situated within its
limits.
G. A. L.
COAL IN ILLINOIS.
Statistics of Coal in Illinois, 1885. A Supplementary Report of the State
Bureau of Labour Statistics, containing the Annual Reports of Mine
Inspectors. Edited by John S. Lord. Springfield, III., 1885, 185 pp.
Eight Plates.
This is the fourth annual report of this kind published by the State of
Illinois, and it comprises every sort of information connected with the
working of coal in the country, arranged according to five districts, each
under a special inspector. In the year ending July 1st, 1885, there were in
Illinois 49 counties, producing 9,791,874 tons of coal, worked in 786 mines,
employing 25,446 men. Although this shows an increase in the number of mines
as compared with previous years, the total output has been somewhat less
than in either 1884 or 1883.
G- A. L,
THE FORMATION OF COAL.
Recherches Chimiques sur la Formation de la Houille. By — Ebemv. Societe des
Ingenieurs sortis de I'Ecole provinciale d'Industrie et des mines du
Hainaut. Ser. 2, Vol. XVI, pp. 142 149.
As the result of his experiments, the author concludes that:—
1.—Coal is not an organised body.
2.—The vegetable impressions found in coal are produced in coal as in shales
or other mineral substances : the coal was a bituminous and plastic
material, upon the external parts of which vegetables were readily moulded.
3.— When a piece of coal exposed its surface to vegetable impressions, it
might happen that the parts of the coal underneath were not the result of
the alterations of tissues which were covered by the external membranes
whose form had been preserved.
4.—The principal bodies found in the cellules of vegetables, when subjected
to the influences of heat and pressure, produce substances which are very
similar to coal.
5.—Colouring, resinous, and fatty matters, that may be extracted from
leaves, are converted by the action of heat and pressure into substances
similar to bitumen.
6. —The vegetable producers of coal were subjected at first to peat
fermentation, which destroyed all vegetable organism, and by a secondary
action, produced by heat and pressure, the coal was formed at the expense of
the peat. M. W. B.
POETSCH'S SYSTEM OF PASSING THROUGH WATER-BEARING
STRATA.
Memoire sur la Methode de Congelation de M. Poetsch, pour le Foncage des
Puits des Mines en Terrains aquiferes. By M. F. Lebreton. Annates des Mines,
Ser. 8, Vol. VIII, pp. 111-171, and Plate III.
Descriptions of this system appear on pages 39 and 72 of the Abstracts of
Foreign Papers, in Volume XXXIV.
34
EXPERIMENTS UPON THE EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE UPON THE PRODUCTION OF
FIRE-DAMP IN COAL-MINES.
Tiber Schlagende Wetter. By Pbof. Edwabd Seess. Verhandlungen der K.K.
geologischen Reichsanstalt. 1885, pp. 320-326. The experiments made at the
Archduke Albert's colliery, near Karwin, in Austria, with the object of
proving whether the height of the barometer had any influence upon the
volume of fire-damp in the air of the mine, have given the following
results: —
1.—The quantity of fire-damp in the air usually increases as the pressure of
the atmosphere decreases, and diminishes as the pressure of the atmosphere
increases.
2.—The quantity of fire-damp in the air depends upon the rapidity of the
alteration of the pressure of the atmosphere.
3.—The quantity of fire-damp is not proportionate to the actual pressure of
the air.
4.—Where, after a rapid rise of the barometer, it continues to rise less
rapidly or remains stationary for some time at the maximum point, the volume
of fire-damp in the air, which diminishes during the rapid rise of the
barometer, will gradually increase ; or where, after a sudden fall in the
barometer, it continues to fall less rapidly or remains stationary for some
time at the minimum point, the volume of fire-damp in the air, which
increases during the sudden fall of the barometer, will gradually diminish.
It would, therefore, appear that the maximum or minimum in the height of the
barometer does not coincide respectively with the minimum or maximum volumes
of fire-damp in the air.
M. W. B.
PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF THE BENGAL EARTHQUAKE OF JULY 14th, 1885. By H. B.
Medlincotb. Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XVIII.,
page 157. Suggests that this earthquake may have been a result ensuing from
the change in the course of the river Brahmaputra, about 1800. The
accumulation of 70 years' deposits of this river, which is a greater carrier
of silt than the river Ganges, may have had some influence in producing the
catastrophe.
The crust of the earth is in a state of continual strain, owing, in some
degree, to relative changes in the internal and external volumes due to
secular refrigeration, and to other disturbances of equilibrium, such as the
wholesale removal of matter from one part to another (suggested above)
amounting to enormous quantities in a few years. Re-adjustments of
equilibrium are constantly proceeding, so slowly as to be almost
imperceptible, but sudden collapses must also occur, producing the effects
known as earthquakes.
M. W. B.
SURFACE EARTHQUAKES IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE.
(1) Stir un tremblement de terrepartiel de la surface seule du sol, dans le
departement du Nord. By — Vielet d'Aot/st. Comptes Bendus de VAcademic des
Sciences, Vol. CI, 1885, pp. 189-190.
The Escarpelle collieries are situated at Dorignies-Flers-Douai in the
Department of the Nord. The Coal-Measures at pits 3, 4, and 5 are overlain
by unconformable Cretaceous rocks, consisting of 130 metres (426'4 feet) of
plastic clays in very thick and solid beds (locally dieves), by 100 metres
(328 feet) of solid green sands (boulants). Pit No. 5, which seems to have
been the initial point of the shock described, has a total depth of 344
metres (1,128 3 feet), and by it are worked six coal-seams, of an average
thickness of 0"65 metres (25-3 inches), by means of two levels, respectively
278 and 334 metres deep (912 and 1,195 feet).
35
While earthquake shocks were very distinctly felt at the surface at
Dorignies-Flers-Douai the men in the workings felt and heard nothing, and no
trace of seismic action was detected in the galleries or shafts. The shock
was, in fact, limited altogether to the Cretaceous rocks, and did not extend
to the underlying Coal-Measures. The date of the shock was the 24th June,
1885.
(2) Nouveau tremblement de terre partiel aux environs de Douai {Nord). By
the same. Same publication, p. 487.
A repetition of the superficial earthquake described above is described in
this additional note as having taken place on the 5th August, the
circumstances being in every respect identical in both cases.
G. A. L.
GOLD IN ANDALUSIA.
(1) Sur I'dge des eruptions pyroxeno-amphiboliques {diorites et ophites) de
la Sierra de Peuaflor, la genese de I'or de ces roches et sa dissemination.
By A. F. Nogues. Comptes Bendus de V Academie des Sciences, Vol. CI, 1885,
pp. 80-83. In 1884 the author had called attention to a singular occurrence
of gold in Andalusia where it is found associated with thick dykes of
igneous rock (chiefly diorites, amphibolites, and serpentines). These
come to the surface in the shape of hillocks, along the junction between
limestone and Silurian schists from the Retortillo to the Guadalbacar on
both flanks of the little mountain chain of Peiiaflor and Puebla de los
Infantes. He now gives fuller details on the subject, and arrives at the
following
conclusions:—
1.—The diorites and amphibolites of the Sierra of Pefiaflor were in eruption
for a period beginning in Middle Miocene, and lasting till Pliocene times.
2.—Thermo-mineral springs coincided with these eruptions and filled
preexisting fissures and crevices in the rocks with auriferous ores of
copper, nickel, and iron, and with alkaline salts.
3.—The f erro-aluminous soil of the summits and flanks of the Sierra are due
to the secular decomposition in place and to the superficial disintegration
of the igneous rocks above-mentioned, as well as of the hydro-mineral
ejectamenta. 4.—The gold, native or combined in varying proportions, has
been brought by the Pyroxene amphibole rocks. It is found—1st, in the
metalliferous infillings at the contact between the dykes and the
crystalline limestone or older rocks; 2nd, in the Tertiary limestones and
sandstones, also in connexion with the dykes; 3rd, in the red
ferro-aluminous soils; 4th, in the alluvia of the plain; and 5th, in the
diorites and amphibolites themselves.
G. A. L.
(2) Note sur les Gisements auriferes de VAndalousie. By A. F. Nogtjes. La
Genie Civil, Vol. VIII, pp. 247-249, 279-281. The working of gold in Spain
is of very great antiquity, being meutioued by Strabo the historian; the
mines being worked in turn by Phenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, and finally
by the Moors. The discovery of America was a fatal blow to this and other
mining industries of Spain. A few concessions were granted in the 16th and
17th centuries. In the last five years there has been considerable activity.
In 1880 there were 17 concessions granted, with an area of 931 acres ; in
1881 there were 143 new concessions, with an area of 9,330 acres.
36
The most interesting of the auriferous deposits of Andalusia are situated in
the Sierra de Peiianor and La Puebla de los Infantes. The peculiarity of
these deposits consists in the dissemination of the native and combined gold
in the superficial arable soils rather than in the presence of the precious
metal in the heaps of debris at the junction of the eruptive rocks with
limestone or schists. The diffusion of the gold is very general, with
centres of greater richness, but the boundaries as yet are scarcely
determined.
The deposits are found lying between Peilaflor and La Puebla de los Infantes
on the north bank of the River Guadalquivir. The section shows a number
of small hills which are offshoots of the Sierra Morena. The lowest strata
are : (1) Hypozoic. gneiss and mica schists; (2) Lower Palaezoic, «,
micaceous schists, h, quartzites, and more or less lustrous schists, c,
magnesian limestones, crystalline limestones alternating with schists and
marmorean limestones, d, and there is a cover of Tertiary limestones upon
the hills more than 1,000 feet above the level of the Guadalquivir. A
thick bed of Post-Tertiary alluvium is found on the sides and bottoms of the
valley. A conglomerate, remarkable for the proportion of gold, is found
near the bottom of the Tertiary measures. The Primary rocks are traversed
by thin threads of metalliferous quartz, and intrusive igneous rocks which
are wedged between the limestones and schists, and extend for a distance of
10 miles between the Retortillo and Guadalbacar rivers. These igneous
rocks are found in the bed of the Arroyo at Penaflor and in the cutting of
the railway. The auriferous district extends into the valleys running
into the Guadalquivir.
The greater part of the surface and even the higher hill is covered with a
red soil containing specular iron ore. magnetic, and titaniferous iron,
together with all the elements and debris of the igneous and other adjacent
rocks, and lastly combined and native gold. The presence of considerable
quantities of clay in the red soil cannot be explained by the disintegration
of the igneous rocks, but may have been caused by hot springs. M'hich have
deposited on the surface masses of muddy magnesia-alum.
The gold is found unequally disseminated in this red soil, varying from 2 to
8 feet in thickness, with an area of about 25,000 acres in the neighbourhood
of Penaflor. If the soil averages 3 feet in depth and contains only 48
grains, or 8s. worth of gold per cubic yard, the total value will be about
£400,000,000.
The red soil weighs about 22^- cwt. per cubic yai'd, and when washed loses
about 19 cubic feet of clay, weighing 16£ cwt. The coarse, sandy residue
measures, therefore, about 8 cubic feet, with a weight of 5f cwt. The soil
is washed until the water runs away clear and bright. This sandy l-esidue is
next washed carefully in a cradle, and leaves a finer residue—a black sand,
which is characteristic of the auriferous deposits. This heavy, black, fine
sand consists of crystalline minerals, chiefly magnetic iron, mixed with
specular iron ore, also ilmenite, small crystals of rutilite, zircon,
mullerine, etc., and lastly native and combined gold. The native gold
appears to have the same origin as the black sand, and to be derived from
the igneous rocks, diorites, etc.
Gold is found in varying quantities, but always workable to profit. From
many trials, it appears that the avei-age quantity is 60 to 70 grains, worth
from 10s. to lis. per cubic yard. M. Levy found it to contain 80 to 105
grains, worth from 13s. to 17s 6d. per cubic yard; M. L. Calderon has found
320 grains, worth about 53s. per cubic yard. Speaking generally, about
one-half of the gold is native, and the rest in the combined form.
The methods suitable for the extraction of the gold in this district are
sluices and amalgamation; and means will be required for the extraction of
the combined as well as the native gold.
M. W. B.
38
The most generally employed oven appears to be the common beehive, from 11
to 12 feet in diameter, with an average load of about 3'8 tons of coal, from
2 to 2£ feet deep, burning 48 or 72 hours. Belgian or fiued ovens, of
various descriptions, are in use, such as the Grobiet, Coppee, etc., but
they are chiefly used for coking semi-bituminous coals.
The details are too numerous for insertion in this abstract, and the reader
will find the fullest information by referring to the paper.
M. W. B.
EXTRACTION OF COBALT AND NICKEL FROM MANGANIFEROUS
MINERALS.
De VExtraction du Cobalt ef du Nickel des oninerais manganiferes. By F.
Gatjtieh. Le Genie Civil, Vol. VIII., pp. 246-247.
This new process, invented by Mr. Herren Schmidt, and applied with success
at works in Sydney (Australia), is very economical and simple in its
working.
The mineral is ground to an impalpable powder, and passed through sieves
with 10,000 meshes per square inch; it then passes into metal boilers
containing 5 tons of
40
mineral with sufficient sulphate of iron and water to make a limpid pulp. It
is boiled for two hours by steam, forming sulphates of cobalt and manganese
and peroxide of iron, which is separated by filtration. This residue is
calcined and sold under the name of Indian Red for the painting of ships,
etc. The liquid is treated for its cobalt and nickel, with freshly
precipitated hydrated protoxide of manganese ; this operation is made when
hot and all is passed to the filter press. It produces hydrated protoxides
of cobalt and nickel, which may be dissolved and separated by any of the
well-known methods. Up to the present time, no method has been applied for
the utilization of the sulphate of manganese which is produced by this
process.
M. W. B.
COAL IN NEBRASKA.
The Test-well in the Carboniferous formation at Brownville, Nebraska. By
Phot. L. E. Hicks. American Journal of Science, Series 3, Vol. XXIX., 1885,
p. 159.
The existence of workable coal in Nebraska having been questioned, the
citizens of Brownville, Nemaha County, determined to settle the matter as
regards their own immediate neighbourhood by putting down a bore-hole. The
present paper is an account of this undertaking and of its results. The
boring was started at 919 feet above sea-level, and was stopped at a depth
of 1,000 feet 10 inches from the surface. Brownville is built upon rocks of
Upper Carboniferous age, showing traces of coal. The boring was, therefore,
begun in these beds, and penetrated, but did not pass through the Lower
Coal-Measures, which, in Iowa, and other states further east, are the most
productive division of the Carboniferous series. At 93 feet a seam 8 inches
thick was found, then one 14 inches thick at 242 feet, a third 10 inches
thick at 375 feet, and at 820 feet 8 inches a seam of good bituminous coal
30 inches thick, which, in a country of prairies like Nebraska, where fuel
is scarce, will doubtless prove of commercial value.
Immediately below the 14-inch seam a bed of sandstone was met with, from
which there issued a feeder of water strongly impregnated with common salt
and other substances in solution, which flowed out at the top of the bore.
G. A. L.
METAMORPHIC COAL DEPOSIT IN MASSACHUSETTS.
Note on a Fossil Coal Plant found at the Graphite deposit in mica schist, at
Worcester, Massachusetts. By Joseph H. Pekby. American Journal of Science,
Series 3, Vol. XXIX. 1885, p. 157. One figure in the text.
In the eastern part of Worcester County there is situated a coal-mine,
working a deposit of highly debituminized coal or graphite enclosed in mica
slate or schist. This schist surrounds an elevated granite knoll, and has
generally been regarded as being much older than the neighbouring coal
formation of Mansfield and Wrentham. Prof. C. H. Hitchcock indeed believed
it to be of Huronian age. In the present paper the author announces the
discovery of two specimens found by him in the Worcester coalmine which set
the question of the age of these rocks at rest, and prove them to be of
Lower Carboniferous age. These specimens have been referred by Prof.
Lesquereux to Lepidodendron (Sagenaria) acuminatum of Goeppert, a species
new to America, and characteristic of the kulm or Lower Carboniferous shaly
beds of Silesia. The strati-graphical relations of the schists and of a
gneissose series upon which they appear to rest conformably, are briefly
described and illustrated by a section, G. A. L.
41
QUICKSILVER IN LOUISIANA.
On the occurrence of Native Quicksilver in the Alluvium in Louisiana. By
Ernest Wilkinson. American Journal of Science, Vol. XXIX., 1885, p. 280.
A short account of the discovery of small globule^ of quicksilver
disseminated through the alluvial soil at Cedar Grove Plantation, Jefferson
Parish, Louisiana, on the west bank of the Mississippi, 10 miles above New
Orleans. These globules are most abundant within a limited area about a
central spot, and gradually disappear as the distance from this centre
increases. The presence of mercury at this spot has been known locally for
several years but has not been publicly recorded before. In the richest
place, which is in an orange orchard containing a number of fine oaks, the
soil (an alluvium, some 25 feet in depth) contains a mean percentage of
0-002934 of mercury. The circumstances of the case, the author says,
preclude the possibility of the presence of mercury being due to human
agency. G. A, L.
THE GOLD-BEARING GRAVELS OF CALIFORNIA.
Note sur les Graviers auriferes de la Sierra Nevada de California. By Edmond
Fuchs. Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France, Ser. 3, Vol. XIII. 1885,
pp. 486-488.
These gravels in the Sierra Nevada are of Pliocene age, and occupy the
bottoms of ancient valleys, altogether independent of those of the present
day. Both the old and the new valleys are carved out of metamorphic schists
and fine-grained granite, with black mica. But the water-line (Thalweg) of
the older valleys is always at a much greater elevation than that of the
modern valleys, and the latter frequently run at right-angles to the former.
The Pliocene alluvia, or "deep leads," are, moreover, overlain by flows of
lava, generally trachytic, by which they are, more or less, completely
masked.
These drifts consist of two quite distinct deposits : a lower clayey
division, very compact, with fine included rolled fragments of stone,
showing no trace of river-bedding, and an upper one, consisting of clearly
river-bedded gravels and sands. The first, owing to its characteristic
colour, is known as the "blue gravel," the second has the brownish colour
common to all ferruginous gravels.
The author notes that these two sets of drifts correspond in a remarkable
manner with the Krosstensgrus (clay with angular blocks) and the
Rullstengrus (ordinary gravel), which form the two chief divisions of the
ancient alluvia of Scandinavia. He suggests that as the Krosstensgrus or
boulder clay is of glacial origin, so also may the blue gravel of the
Californian " deep leads," although up to the present time ho striated
boulders have been found in them. The manner in which the gold occurs in
these gravels, however, tends to show that they have been deposited under
great pressure. Thus, whereas in the upper gravels gold is generally, but
sparsely, disseminated (it is worked where the percentage is but
one-millionth) it is much more abundant in the blue gravel, where it
sometimes attains a percentage of from one to ten-thousandth. The richest
points in these lower deposits are at the junction between the gravels and
the bed rock, which is almost in every case schistose. The schists are,
therefore, laid bare by the hydraulic gold workings, and it is possible to
study them with ease. It was not long before it was found that they
themselves were, for a depth of some inches, impregnated with gold. The
metal thus situated occurs generally in the form of spangles, but
occasionally also as true nuggets. These " Dutch Flats " are usually worked
by associations of Chinamen,
G. A. L.
/
42
ORIGIN OF CERTAIN MANGANESE ORES.
Origine deformation de certaine minerals de manganese. Leur liaison, au
point de vue de Vorigine avu la haryte qui les accompagne. By — Dieitiafait.
Comptes Rendus de V Academie des Sciences, Vol. CI. (1885), pp. 324-327.
This is an examination of the probable mode of formation of those manganese
ores which occur encased in limestone rocks, to which they are posterior,
and into which they must have been introduced while held in solution by a
liquid to which the corrosion of the rock into cavities now containing the
ore is due. As a type of such ores, the author describes the large manganese
deposits in the communes of Biot, Roquefort, and Villeneuve, in the
Alpes-Maritimes Department.
This region consists of a " cirque," or "cwm," of compact calcareous rocks,
chiefly of Oxfordian and Corallian age. In the centre of this " Cwm" are
Tertiary beds, comprising an enormous mass of sands at the base, then
Nummulitic strata, capped by a considerable thickness of volcanic tuffs. The
manganese ore, which occurs for a distance of more than 10 kilometres (6
miles), is found in two well-marked positions, first (and this is the case
for most of it), at the junction between the compact Jurassic limestones and
the Tertiary rocks, and secondly, in the limestone itself, but never very
far from the Tertiary beds. In both cases the manganese occupies cavities,
pockets, or caverns identical in character, and very similar to those
cavities which, in the "causses" or heaths of the south and south-west of
France, contain phosphorites and siderolitic deposits.
The vast deposits of sand at Biot are obviously the product of the
destruction of the primary crystalline rocks. The latter, the author has
shown, always contain, in a state of absolutely complete dissemination,
barium, strontium, lithium, copper, zinc, and manganese, the last being much
the most abundant. On testing the sands the same rule has been found to
hold. All the specimens yielded barium, strontium, lithium, copper, and
zinc. On examining specimens of the manganese ore of the district on the
other hand, all were found to contain barium, copper, and zinc.
From the above facts, and other details given in the paper, the author
concludes that the manganese deposits of Biot are the result of the action
of water on the sands in contact with which the ore is most usually found.
G. A. L.
COAL IN ARIZONA.
The Deer Creek Coal-field in Arizona. By C. D. Walcott. Senate Documents,
No. 20, 48th Congress, 2nd Session, Washington. See also Abstract in
American Journal of Science, Vol. XXIX., 1885, p. 338.
Although there are Carboniferous rocks in Deer Creek (a valley about 13
miles south of the San Carlos Agency) the coal of the district is not found
in them, but in a series of sandstone shales and clays of Cretaceous age.
Two chief seams are noticed, having each a thickness of about 10 inches of
clear coal. An analysis of the coal by Mr. Whitfield is as follows:—
43
MINERAL PHOSPHATES IN TUNIS.
Sur la decouverte de gisements de phosphate de chaux dans le sud de la
Tunisie. L'y Phil. Thomas. Comptes Eendus de VAcademie des Sciences, Vol.
CI, 1885, pp. 1,184-1,187, with figure in text.
An account of the discovery by the writer of workable deposits of
phosphorite near Chebika, in south-western Tunisia. These deposits are
chiefly coprolitic, and occur in marls belonging to the Ostrea multicostata
zone of the Eocene. With the coprolites are large quantities of bones of
crocodilians and squalidse. The percentage of phosphoric acid is as
follows :—
In the coprolites ... ... ... ... ...
32-00
In large yellow nodules ... ... ... ... 24'00
In black and white nodules ... ... ... 1*52
G. A. L.
MEANS OF MODIFYING THE HYGROMETRIC CONDITION OF THE AIR OF COAL-MINES AS A
PREVENTIVE AGAINST DUST EXPLOSIONS.
Procede et appareils servant a modifier Vetat liygrometrique de Vatmosphere
des mines, en vue de prevenir les accidents diis " coups de poussiere." By
L. Parent. Le Genie Civil, Vol. VIII., pp. 296-298.*
This paper describes an apparatus for saturating air on its entry into the
mine by means of a spray of water under high pressure. The moving air
mechanically carries away the excess of water and deposits it at points more
or less distant from the
apparatus.
The apparatus consists of two nozzles, not more than T^th inch apart, acting
in opposite directions, and along the axis of the pit or drift in which it
is placed. The nozzles are placed in the centre of the pit or drift, and the
water (which may be derived from the tubbing or other source, so as to
obtain a high pressure) from them is broken up into a fine spray which fills
almost entirely the cross section of the pit or drift. There are suitable
attachments for regulating the spray and for the temporary removal of the
apparatus, in order that it may not interfere with the working of the mine.
M. W. B.
* See Abstract of paper " On Dust Explosions in Coal-Mines," by the same
author, in "Volume 34, pages 78-80.
47
ROPE HAULAGE IN MINES.
Documents pour V' Etablissement des Trainages mecaniques par Cables. By E.
Haemant. Publications de la Societe des Ingenieurs sortis I'Ecole
Provinciale d'lndustrie et des Mines du Hainault. Ser. 2, Vol. XVI., pp.
183-320, and Plates XI.-XXIII.
This paper is intended to assist those who are about to erect some system of
rope haulage, and supplies, in a practical form, all the requisite
information, especially as regards general arrangements, cost of erection,
and the results of experiments.
The writer has made his work very complete, by embodying all the necessary
theoretical and practical information required by an engineer in the
erection of plant for rope haulage.
The systems of rope haulage described are:—
A.—Self-acting inclined planes, worked to the rise by a counterpoise.
B.—Inclined planes, worked to the dip by horses and gin. C.—Inclined planes
on the surface, worked by means of a standing engine. D.—Inclined planes in
the mine, worked by means of a standing engine. The Appendix contains
remarks upon the working of various systems of rope haulage worked by steam
or water power. M. W.
B.
PREVENTION OF OVER-WINDING.
Evite-Molettes, etablis a Comberigol (Loire), a Bezenet, a Doyet et aux
Ferrieres (AUier). By M. Bat/re. Bulletin de la Societe de VIndustrie
Minerale, Ser. 2, Vol. XIV, pp. 77-87. Plates VII. and VIII.
Special precautions are taken in France for the prevention of over-winding
of the cages. The most perfect of the apparatus used for this purpose is
that in which the cage puts the safety appliances in action, placed a
certain distance from the pulleys. Three systems are described in this paper
as follows :—
Comberigol Mines.—The winding engine consists of two direct-acting
horizontal cylinders. Two levers are struck by the cage when it ascends too
high, and their motion is communicated to the engine house by a long bar.
The levers are so arranged that the safety-brake may be applied by the
banksmen in case of accidents requiring the instant stopping of the engine,
or in order to replace the levers in position. In the engine house there is
a suitable arrangement of levers and connecting rods by which the steam is
cut off and the brake applied to the winding drum. There is also an
arrangement by which the safety apparatus is disconnected and allows the
engine to be worked in an independent manner. By this means, as soon as the
safety-brake has been applied and the steam has been cut off, the engineman
has immediate control over the engine and can re-admit steam, reverse the
engine, etc.
Bezenet Colliery.—The winding engine is horizontal, with two cylinders, and
a steam-brake cylinder. The cage strikes two levers placed in a suitable
position, and their movement is communicated by a long rod to a horizontal
axis in the engine house. Four levers are keyed upon this axis; one carries
a counterbalance, which brings the apparatus to its normal position after
the cage has been stopped, the second cuts off the steam, the third applies
the brake, and the last opens all the exhaust ports. There are also special
arrangements which allow the engineman to move his engine as soon as the
cage has been stopped. This apparatus has been often tested and given very
satisfactory results. On one occasion the engine had not been reversed,
and the cage went
-18
full speed to the pulleys; the engine was stopped by the safety apparatus,
the cage was bent only a little at the top, the rope fastening was
uninjured, and winding was resumed
in less than one hour.
Doyet Colliery.—The winding engine has a pair of horizontal cylinders, with
a vertical steam-brake. In this case the rod from the guides controls the
automatic parts. It enters the engine house, where it is placed at one side
of the engines, and has three recesses or notches at its inner end, in which
three studs are placed; one is attached to a lever which controls the steam
valve, a second puts the steam-brake into action, and the third opens the
exhaust ports. As soon as the cage is stopped the engineman can restore the
apparatus to its normal position and lower the cage at once. The
apparatus gives every satisfaction in its operations.
JVI. W. B.
UNDERGROUND ENGINES SUPPLIED WITH STEAM FROM BANK.
Note relative aux machines a vapeur souterraines de la houillere de Bezenet.
By M. Battbe. Bulletin de la Soeiete de V Industrie Miner ale, Ser.
2, Vol. XIV., pp. 297-325. Plates XII. and XIII. This paper contains a
full description of two underground engines at the Bezenet
Colliery.
At a depth of about 500 feet, and about 475 feet distance from the shaft,
the first engine is placed, which is used for drawing coals from a lower
level; the cylinder is 9'92 inches diameter, and has a stroke of 39'37
inches. Steam is conveyed from two boilers on the surface by metal pipes,
315 inches in internal diameter. The pipes are covered first with felt,
second with old hemp and aloe ropes, and the exterior is protected by wood
staves, with iron hoops. The felt was replaced in some parts with a mixture
of clay and hemp, and in others with cement about ^ inch thick. The
condensed steam was removed by two receivers, one at the bottom of the pit
and the other near
the engine.
The distance between the surface and the first receiver was 840 feet, and
the condensed steam amounted to 253 lbs. per hour; at the second receiver,
at a further distance of 508 feet, the condensed steam was about 102 lbs.
per hour, or a total loss of about 355 lbs. of water per hour. The
evaporation from the boilers was about 1,367 lbs. of water per hour, giving
a loss of about 26 per cent, for a length of 1,358 feet of
3"15 inch pipe.
The second engine has a 12 inch cylinder, with a stroke of 31-5 inches. It
is placed at a depth of about 800 feet, and is used for winding. The steam
pipes are 3-15 inches in diameter and "69 inches thick, and are covered with
Magnat's non-conducting cement, which is further protected by a sheet-iron
shield, owing to the presence of
water.
For a distance of 206 feet on the surface the pipes are covered with twisted
aloe fibres. A receiver placed at the end, at the top of the pit, collected
112 lbs. of water per hour. After a further passage through 984 feet of
steam pipes there was a second receiver, from which 441 lbs. of water were
extracted per hour, making a total loss of about 553 lbs. of water per hour.
The steam lost and used was equal to an evaporation of about 2,998 lbs. of
water per hour, or a loss for a length of about 1,200 feet of 3"15 inch pipe
of about 18^ per cent.
It therefore appears that the loss by condensation in a great length of
steam pipes is less than ordinarily supposed; and by the adoption of
ordinary precautions may be limited to 15 or 20 per cent, in very wet pits,
and to a much less figure in dry pits.
M. W. B,
49
IRON IN UTAH.
Iron-ore Deposits of Southern Utah. By W. P. Blake. Transactions of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers {Advance sheets, 1886), 3 pp., one
figure in text.
The district in which the deposits described are situated is that of Iron
County, 270 miles south of Salt Lake City, and 10 miles west of Cedar City.
The ores, which appear to be chiefly magnetite, crop out in long escarpments
forming a low range of hills, and seem to be regularly interbedded with
crystalline limestones, of probably Palaeozoic age. The beds of ore are from
10 to 100 feet in thickness, and some of the outcrops continue unbroken for
more than 1,000 feet. They are massive, jet black in colour, and, standing
as they do in bold relief above the surface, are visible from considerable
distances. The region is little known, only because it is as yet difficult
of access. Apatite is the chief mineral found associated with the iron ore.
The nearest coal supply is from near Cedar Creek, where large deposits of a
long-flame Secondary (probably Cretaceous) coal are known to exist.
G. A. L.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF NOVA SCOTIA.
Report of the Department of Mines, Nova Scotia, for the year 1885. By E.
Gilpin and others. 77 pp., Halifax, N.S., 1886.
1.— Coal.—The Nova Scotia coals belong to the Bituminous system of Dana, or
in other words, to the Coal-Measures proper. The Sydney coal-field is the
principal one. It is situated on the eastern shore of Cape Breton County,
has an estimated area of 200 square miles on land, with more lying under the
sea. At least nine good workable seams are known, from 3 to 12 feet thick.
The coals are bituminous, and adapted for gas and coke making, and for steam
purposes.* Other coal tracts in Cape Breton are those on the River
Inhabitants and at Port Hood, Chimney Corner, and Broad Cove, on the western
shore of the island, together about 125 square miles in area, and the coals
of which are said to be of very superior steam raising qualities. In Nova
Scotia proper, coal is known in small quantities at Pomquet and Antigonish ;
and in numerous thick seams, occupying a limited area (141 feet of coal in
16 seams, varying in thickness from 3 to 34 feet, according to Sir W. Logan)
near New Glasgow, in Pictou County. This is also steam coal. Four analyses
of coal from the thickest or Albion seam are given. Oil shales and cannel
coal occur in this district. Small seams of coal are known along the shores
of the Bay of Fundy. The Springhill coal-field lies north of the Cobequid
Mountains, in Cumberland County. Many seams are known here—from 2 feet 4
inches to 13 feet thick, yielding steam, coking, and household coal, of
which analyses are given. The area of this coal-region is estimated
(doubtfully) at 300 square miles.
2.— Petroleum.—Indications have been observed at Cheverie, Hants County, in
Pictou County, and at Lake Ainslie in Cape Breton.
3.—Gold. — The gold region is about 3,000 square miles in area and extends
irregularly along the southern shore of Nova Scotia. Most of the mines are
east of Halifax. The gold occurs in quartz veins, from 1 inch to 6 feet in
width, both in the quartz and in metallic sulphides. Very little alluvial
gold is worked, though the author regards this neglect as a mistake. In 1885
the amount of stuff crushed was 524,813 tons, yielding 389,180 ozs. 4 dwts.
15 grs. of gold.
* For analyses, etc., of these coals see Transactions of the North of
England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, Vol. XXVII,, 1878, p.
213.
<J
50
4.—Iron Ores.—These are very abundant and of excellent quality. Analyses are
given of limonite from Brookfield; of micaceous haematite, limonite, and
spathose ore from Londonderry, on the north side of the Bay of Fundy; of
limonite, clay ironstone, specular ore, red haematite, and spathose ore from
Pictou; and of red haematite from near East Bay, in Cape Breton.
5.—Copper Ores.—These are also abundant and widespread, but are only
beginning to be worked systematically.
6.—Lead Ore.—Only known in the Carboniferous limestone, and not yet worked
systematically.
7-—Antimony.—Known at several localities, but as yet only worked at Rawdon,
Hants County. The produce for 18S5 was 758 tons, valued at 33,095
dollars.
8.—Molybdenum.—Known at Gabarus, in Cape Breton (whence small lots have been
shipped), and at Hammond's Plains and Musquodoboit, in Halifax County.
9.—Nickel and Cobalt occur in small quantities in the minerals associated
with gold in the quartz reefs. They have never yet been worked.
10.—Manganese.—Rich deposits are known at Tenny Cape, Hants County, Ouston,
Colchester County, and Salmon River, Cape Breton County.
11.—Gypsum occurs on an unequalled scale, beds 50 feet thick being traceable
for miles. The annual exports vary from 80,000 to 140,000 tons.
12.—Barytes.—Occurs at Five Islands, Bay of Fundy; River John, Pictou
County; and at Stewiacke, Colchester County, where it is worked.
13.—Building Stones.—Principally granite and carboniferous sandstone.
G. A. L.
THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF BULGARIA.
Apergu sur la Constitution geologique du Sol et les ressources minerales de
la Principaute de Bulgarie. By Leon Thonaed. Revue Universelle des Mines,
etc. Ser. 2, Vol. XIX. (1866), pp. 1-22.
A general account of the geology of the Principality, so far as it is known,
and of the deposits of useful minerals hitherto discovered. Our knowledge of
the latter is, according to the author, at present exceedingly small, and
many parts of the country would well repay prospecting.
1.— Coal, formerly supposed to be of Coal-Measure age, but in 1884
recognised by Toula as Cretaceous, occurs to the south of Travna, on the
northern flanks of the Balkans, and in the neighbourhood of Elena. In the
former locality, three seams, one of which is five feet thick, have been
proved and worked on a small scale. These mines are 150 kilometres from the
Danube (93 miles), and the only means of communication are horses and
ox-carts. Permian coal, of which little is known, occurs not far from
Belogradjik, where some explorations were made in the time of the Turks. The
Servian coal-area, to the south-east of Zajetchar, appears to extend across
the frontier into Bulgaria near Vreska Tchouka.
2.—Lignites of Tertiary age are common. The best-known deposit is that of
Tsirkva not far to the south-west of Sofia. It is about 90 square kilometres
(56 square miles) in extent, and besides smaller seams, comprises one 2
metres (6'5 feet) thick, and of good quality. Deposits of less importance
lie towards the Servian frontier, in the neighbourhood of Radomir and
Kustendil, near Doubnitza, near Samakof, and elsewhere.
51
3.—Iron. Round Samakof alluvial magnetite in grains abounds, and was
formerly worked and smelted on the spot by means of charcoal. The magnetite
is due to the decomposition of the igneous rocks of the locality, and the
produce varies with the snow fall. Iron ore is said to occur near Teteven,
in the Trojan Balkan, near Elena, near Breznik, etc. Of most of these
deposits little is known; and, in almost all cases, communications are very
bad. Iron pyrites are found in the older rocks, but, so far, in no important
quantities.
4.—Manganese in workable masses is said to occur in the Vratsa district.
5.—Lead and silver. There are ancient mines of argentiferous galena near
Tchiprovitsa, on the northern slope of the western Balkans, a little west of
Berko-vitsa. These mines were abandoned, it is said, three or four centuries
ago. The same ore has been observed in the Etropol Balkan, and not far from
Kustendil in the southwestern portion of the Principality.
6.—Zinc-Blende is mentioned as occurring at Mount Vitosch. It is also known
to be associated with the lead ore of Kustendil, near the frontier.
7.— Copper pyrites has been recorded from many localities among the older
schists and igneous rocks, but the deposits are very imperfectly known.
8.—Gold is found in the sands of some of the rivers falling from the Vitosch
and Bilo Mountains and in the Balkans, especially around Samakof,
Doubnitza, Radomir, Kustendil, Breznik, Zlatitsa, Etropol, Berkovitsa, etc.
This gold comes from the same rock as the magnetite, but none has yet been
traced to its parent rock. 9.—Rock-salt has been much sought for, but
without success so far.
10.—Mineral and thermal springs are very numerous. The best known are those
at Sofia, Kniajevo, Youkaribania, and Kustendil.
G. A. L.
MINERALS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY.
The Mineral Resources of the Hudson's Bay Territories. By Robeet Beel.
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers {advance sheets,
1886), 9 pp.
The region referred to is all that part of Canada which lies east of the
Rocky Mountains, and north of the watershed of the St. Lawrence. The
minerals of economic value at present known in this slightly explored
portion of North America are the following :—
1.—Iron.—Magnetite, said to be abundant, near the entrance of Black Bay. on
the north side of Athabasca Lake; on Knee Lake; on the north side of
Hudson's Strait; and in small masses in various parts of the territory.
Ilcematite, on Long Island, Hudson's Bay; on Big Black Island in Lake
Winnipeg; and on the northern side of Great Slave Lake. Clay ironstone on
Melville Island, at the foot of the Grand Rapid of the Mattagaini River, and
in various places to the south-west of James' Bay. Manganiferous
spathic-ironstone on the Nastapoka Islands on the east side of Hudson's Bay
(the largest iron ore deposit in the territories).
2.—Copper.—Native, in large quantities in amygdaloid trap on the Coppermine
River. Pyrites, on Long Island and the Ottawa Islands in the north-eastern
portion of Hudson's Bay; some miles south-west of Lake Mistossini; at the
Bruce and Wellington Mines on Lake Huron. Carbonate staining the quartzites
of Marble Island. An unspecified ore of copper is recorded as occurring near
Agnew River and Lord Lindsay River.
52
3.—Lead.— Galena in dolomite of the Manitounuk series of both sides of
Little Whale Eiver and at Richmond Gulch, and in Huronian rocks at Lake
Mattagani in southern part of the Moose River basin.
4.—Zinc.—Blende in some of the Manitounuk rocks, and north of the Battle
Islands, Lake Superior.
5.—Molybdenite at Great Whale River.
6.—Silver.—In galena as above; in iron pyrites near the month of the Great
Whale River; and near Cape Jones. Native, in nuggets with gold, in the upper
branches of the Peace River. Other ores of copper have also been found near
the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the Rocky Mountains.
7.—Gold.—In small quantities in the last two localities; at Repulse Bay; at
the Huronian Mine, west of Thunder Bay, Lake Superior; at Partridge Lake, a
little way north of last locality; to the west of the lower part of
Mackenzie River; in the upper branches of the Youkon, and western
tributaries of the Liard and Rat Rivers; and in the drift in the bed of the
North Saskatchewan, about Edmonton.
8.— Gypsum.—On both sides of Moose River, between 30 and 40 miles above
Moose Factory ; between the last-named place and fort Albany; among the
igneous rocks of the Ottawa Islands; at North-east Cape; in the Riding
Mountains of Manitoba; on the Peace River at Peace Point, 60 miles from Fort
Chippewyan; and west of the rock-salt beds of Salt River, a small western
tributary of the Slave River.
9.—Salt.—At Salt River as above; at La Saline near the Athabasca River, 35
miles below its junction with the Clearwater River ; as brine issuing from
Devonian rocks at the two western extremities of Lake Winnipcgosis; and,
also as brine, on the banks of the White Mud River, above Westbourne in
Manitoba.
10.—Soapstone.—In abundance at Red Lake, east of Lake Winnipeg ; near Falcon
Island on Lake of the Woods; and ou the Mattagami River, 20 miles belowT
Kena-
gamisse Lake.
11.—Lignite.—In abundance from the United States boundary to the Mackenzie
River. The quality of the lignites seems to improve the nearer they are to
the Rocky Mountains, and also the more disturbed are the strata associated
with them.
12.— Coal.—Of Carboniferous age in workable seams, in Banks' Land and the
Islands of Melville Archipelago.
13.—Anthracite.—A very fine variety is said to occur on Long Island, about
four
miles from its southern extremity.
14.—Petroleum and Asphalt.—In abundance along the Athabasca and Mackenzie
Rivers.
15.—Mica, of good quality and in fair-sized sheets, from the north side of
Hudson's
Strait and Chesterfield Inlet.
16.—Graphite.—Said to be abundant on the north side of Hudson's Strait. Near
Fond du Lac on Lake Athabasca. In schists near the north shore of Lake
Superior.
17.—Asbestos.—Near Little Whale River and on the Ottawa Islands. In
hornblende schists at Rat Portage, where the River Winnipeg issues from Lake
of the Woods. On both sides of Lake Nipigon. Nowhere in very large
quantities.
18.—Iron Pyrites.—Between Chesterfield Inlet and Nevil Bay; on Scottie
Island in Lake of the Woods, and on the Mattagami River. In small
quantities it is common
in hundreds of localities.
19.—Lime.—Abundant wherever the Devonian and Silurian limestones crop out.
Dolomite among the Huronian beds of Lake of the Woods, Red Lake, etc.
20-22.—Hydraulic Cement, Building Stones, Glass Sand.—All abundant.
G. A. L.
53
THE USE OF IRON CURBS OR CRIBS FOR SECURING THE SIDES OF PITS AND
DRIFTS..
JEmploi de cercles en fer et de plateaux de chene pour le revetement du
puits Nord-ouest de la C™ des mines de Montieux, a Saint-Etienne {Loire). By
M. Male. Bulletin de la Societe de Vlndnstrie Minerale. Ser 2, Vol. XIV.,
pp. 555-567. Plate XXLV.
The following examples are given of the use of iron curbs or cribs for
securing the sides of pits.
Cecilia Pit.—This pit is 1,716 feet deep, with a diameter of 14-76 feet, and
is cribbed with iron, excepting 85 feet at the top, which is walled so as to
sustain the foundations of the buildings and engines. The cribs are placed
about 3 feet apart, and the backing deals are of oak, 2>\ feet long and
about 2 inches thick. The cribs are connected by eight iron props to the one
above. The cribs are made of four arcs of a circle, of channel iron (i i),
7'87 inches deep, '59 inch thick, and 2'28 inches wide. The four arcs are
connected by metal fish-plates, placed in the channels of the iron cribs,
and are kept in position by means of four small bolts -94 inch diameter.
Although there is evidently great pressure upon this cribbing it is in
perfect condition The Marie pit, which is 160 feet distant and of the same
depth, is walled thi'oughout; the masonry is contorted at several points
which are now protected with iron cribs.
Montieux Colliery, North-east Pit.—This pit is 1,082 feet deep, with a clear
diameter of 984 feet. The surface water is kept back by about 72 feet of
ashlar walling, set with hydraulic cement. The iron cribs are formed in
three arcs of a circle,
of channel iron (|____|) 7'87 inches high, "39 inch thick, and 2'28 inches
wide, weighing
about 52 lbs. per linear yard. These arcs are connected by metal
fish-plates, each weighing 68 lbs., and filling exactly the channel of the
iron crib. They are held in position by four pins, weighing 2\ lbs. each.
There are six iron props between, and bolted to the iron cribs. In
ordinary stone the props are 31*49 inches long and weigh 31 lbs. each. »
They are made of channel iron (I____I), with a foot at each end. In
more fragile
ground they are made 15'74 or 2362 inches long. The backing deals behind the
cribs are of oak, 1*96 inch thick.
WEIGHT OE AN IEON CRIB, -39 INCH THICK.
3 Arcs of an iron crib ... ... ... ...
... 567 lbs.
6 Iron props, 3P49 inches long ... ... ... ...
189 „
3 Fish-plates..................... 204 „
12 Iron pins..................... 27 „
12 Screw bolts to fasten the props to the cribs ... ...
15 „
Total weight of an iron crib, having a clear diameter
of 9-84 feet ............... 1,002 „
Each crib, complete, at £12 per ton, will cost £5 7s. 4d. The oak
backing cost 2s. 7|d. per square yard. The whole fabric is tightened by
oak spars or wedges against the sides of the pit, which cost 7s. 3d. per
linear yard. If the cribs are placed 3^ feet apart, the total cost will
be £7 7s. 6d., or at the rate of £6 16s. per yard. The advantages of the
system appear to be :— 1.—No temporary timbering is required. 2.—Greater
safety from accidents. 3.—From 20 to 25 per cent, less ground to be removed
on sinking for the same
internal diameter of pit. 4.—Cost of sinking is less than where stone
walling is put in, and the sinking is executed in two-thirds of the time.
54
Use in drifts at the Seraing Collieries.—In this case the cribs or frames
are made of old flat-bottomed rails. They are in three pieces, connected by
iron fish-plates; two of the pieces are curved and sustain the roof and
sides of the drifts; the part resting on the thill is straight. They are
placed usually about 3j feet apart and connected by tie-rods. Oak or
other timber is used for backing deals.
A comparative test was made in 1870, as follows:—21 of the iron frames were
placed Si feet apart, and 50 sets of oak timber, 8'66 inches square, were
placed next them. The cost of the iron frames was 43s. 6d., and that of the
timber 17s. 6d. per yard, when placed 3^ feet apart.
The cost of maintenance over seven years was—for iron frames 6s., and for
timber 20s., per yard per annum. The relative cost for twenty years for a*
length of 100 yards, would be—
Iron frames ............... £817 10 0
Timber.................. 2,087 10 0
or a saving of £1,270 in twenty years, and, in addition, at the end of that
time the iron would still have some little value.
M. W. B.
EXPLOSION OF COAL-DUST BY DYNAMITE.
Note sur tin accident survenu le 7 Juin, 1885. a la fosse No. 1 dcs mines de
Noeux. By M. Soubeieas. Annate* des Mines, Ser. 8, Vol. VIII., pp. 620-7,
Plate VIII. This accident occurred on June 7, 1885, at the No. 1 pit of the
Noeux Colliery, and resulted in the loss of three lives. At a depth of 1,293
feet a level was driven to the south, and owing to the undulating and
faulted nature of the strata, the seams were cat several times by it. Thus,
the St. Constance seam, in which the explosion occurred, was cut in the
south drift at 1,800 feet from the shaft, thrown up by a fault it was cut
again at 2,750 feet; it was found in an edge or vertical condition at 3,120
feet, and cut again at 3,480 feet. The accident took place in the workings
in the vertical seam at 3,120 feet from the shaft. At this point the seam is
32 inches thick and contains from 24 to 25 per cent, of volatile matter, and
is dry and dusty. The workings extend 460 feet to the east and about 550
feet to the west of the south drift. The seam is worked to the rise by
longwall, with a stepped face. The coals are conveyed by vertical shoots to
the level of the west drift. The shoots are built in the goaf and have an
area of 27 inches by 40 inches. There is a spout at the bottom, closed by
two small planks. A rope is hung in the shoot which is shaken whenever the
coal fastens itself. In addition to the coal shoot there were three others
used for conveying timber to the face. Safety lamps were used although gas
had never been seen in the St. Constance seam. The air for this portion of
the mine comes direct from the pit by the south drift and passes into the
west side. It then moves upwards and eastwards around the face of the
workings, aud, after descending, it reaches the east level, which forms the
return air-way. The volume of air was about 3,600 cubic feet per minute.
On Sunday morning, June 7, 1885, the overman Patte was advised by the deputy
Veche that the first, or coal shoot, was stopped at about 80 feet above the
drift and about 15 feet below the third level. Veche had been unable to
cause a fall of the coal. Patte and Veche, after examining the upper part of
the workings where they found no cause of danger, went up the third shoot,
used for hoisting timber, and along the second level. At this time there
were three other workmen in this district; a
55
putter named Fievet who was going to take away the coals when dislodged in
the shoot, and who was behind his tub about 35 feet east of the coal shoot,
and two stonemen, Debailleul, father and son, who were engaged in removing
the tramway. There was a small refuge hole in the coal shoot in which Patte
sat down, whilst Veche went upwards and placed a cartridge of 3| ounces of
dynamite between two pieces of the coal where wedged together. He ignited
the fuse and rejoined Patte in the refuge hole about 8"15 a.m. The two
men only felt a shock like that of an ordinary shot and did not see any
flame. As one of them was saying that only a little of the coal had
fallen, they were half suffocated by a cloud of dust and bad air. They
were frightened, and, seizing the rope which was used in the shoot, Veche
followed Patte, and slid with great velocity down to the lowest level.
Patte ran out to the main south drift, Veche was stunned and laid for a
little time upon the spout of the coal shoot. He recovered in a short
time and came out to the south drift, bringing the putter, who was severely
injured, out with him. They were found here by some other workmen who
gave them lamps, and Veche returned with a man named Hannedouche to
rescue the two Debailleuls. They were found dead; the son was found
near the fourth timber shoot, and the father about 100 feet further in-bye,
as if escaping. Both were severely burnt over the whole body, the skin
being quite black and covered with coal-dust. The medical evidence showed
that they had died owing to the inspiration of deleterious and hot air. No
bones were broken.
Fievet was sent to bank alive but soon died from his injuries. Before his
death, he said that the overman had fired a shot in the coal shoot, which
had knocked him over; he felt the heat but saw no flame. Hannedouche, who
went in half-an-hour after the accident, about 8*45 a.m., felt the ground so
hot to his bare feet that he could not stand still but had to move them. The
manager found the heap of coal laying at the bottom of the coal shoot to be
quite warm, especially in the interior, at 10-15 a.m.
Other workmen, at a distance of 1,000 feet from the scene of the explosion,
only felt a slight shock and continued at work. ]
On inspection the following facts were noted:—In the south drift, for a
distance of 50 yards out-bye from these workings, a quantity of fine dusts
floated on the surface of the water-level. The brick flue, which is used as
a return air-way for these workings, was burst open some distance from the
seam. The door upon the east side was broken away, but the frames were left
standing. It was bent in-bye as if struck with some force coming from the
west side. Fievet's tub was overturned and covered with a bed of coal-dust,
at a point about 35 feet out-bye from the coal shoot. The spout at the
bottom of the coal shoot was uninjured and immediately below this was the
small heap of coals already referred to.
Beyond the second chimney, whose lower orifice was almost uninjured, the
west drift (which up to that point only showed coal dust and falls) was most
shattered. The spouts at the foot of the third and fourth shoots were blown
away from the roof. Further in-bye the debris was most abundant, and near
the face a heavy fall was encountered, nearly reaching to the second level;
but here the goaf, being freshly made, had not become firm, and would fall
heavily if any of the timbers were blown away. The sides were covered with a
thick layer of coal-dust, which, in some places, was slightly burnt. Very
little coke was found. There was no damage done above the level of the east
and west drifts.
This accident does not appear to have been caused by fire-damp, as no gas
was ever found in this district even at the highest points; in addition, the
goaf was quite open, and the whole area must have been foul if it had been
ignited at the cartridge in the coal shoot. If fire-damp was the cause
the shoot must have been clean or the gas
56
would have fired in it and the spout would have been destroyed and the two
overmen burnt. There was no gas to the rise or damage would have been found
in these workings. The explosion was not produced by the Debailleuls, as
they were not using explosives and had no shooting gear with them.
The damage done was very slight, excepting the falls from the goaf. On
inspection, it appeared that the centre of the explosion was near the second
or timber shoot, It is probable, therefore, that the dynamite had reduced
the coal in contact with it to dust and ignited it, rather than the
coal-dust in the coal shoot. The ignition in the coal shoot had not been
very intense owing to want of air, and extended without violence until it
reached the west level in a cloud of dust. This, meeting the fresh air,
would become more intense, and, on reaching the third shoot, would be almost
explosive in its violence. The explosion extended in both directions from
this point; that of the west striking the face and dividing into two parts,
the one going a little upwards, and the other returning along the drift and
throwing back the debris, so that evidence was found at all points of
passage in both directions, and that of the east would blow down the
ventilating door.
It appears, therefore, that in special cases, the use of dynamite does not
prevent the ignition of coal-dust in mines.
M. W. B.
THE NANTICOKE MINE DISASTER.
Annual Report of the Susquehanna Coal Company, 1885. Engineering and
Mining Journal, Vol. XL., pp. 429 and 438; Vol XLL, pp. 18 and Z25; and
Plan, Vol. XLL, p. 18. The cause of this disaster, by which 26 men lost
their lives by an inundation, in December, 1885, is stated as follows in the
annual report:—"The nature and cause of the accident have been thoroughly
examined and are now well understood, and reveal a local and peculiar cause
that no human caution or provision could have been expected to foresee or
provide for." The opinion of many distinguished experts who have
examined the subject, is that " above the anticlinal region of the remote
workings of the lower gangway of this opening, about 3,000 feet from the
foot of the slope, the usual overlying rocks of the measures, undisturbed
except by ordinary settlement, lie in place 270 feet in thickness; but in
that particular spot, and within their mass, a local funnel-shaped erosion,
or ' pot-hole,' had occurred, about 300 feet in diameter at the surface and
extending downwards to, or near, the bed of coal. This, at an early
geologic period, probably after emergence, had been filled with sand, the
chemical identity of which has not yet been ascertained; but as no other
sandy deposit is known in the vicinity, we may suppose it to be the result
of wind and ice scrapings on the early rock surface before the development
of soil. This sandy mass was in a semi-liquid condition, due to the
presence of water, without means of escape. Over the whole, conformably
distributed and effectually concealing the peculiarity, lay, to a depth of
about 12 feet, the usual oxydized, weathered, and decomposed rock known as
soil. The external exposure of rock, both detatched and in situ, was
homogeneous, and afforded no indication of so remarkable a phenomenon.
Although more than 200 precautionary boreholes had been sunk in the
vicinity to test the integrity of the measures, none of them had struck this
spot, which had the external appearance of a high dry knoll. When the
underground workings approached the lower debouche of this eroded cavity,
the confining pillars burst, and the rush of the half-liquid mass instantly
occurred."
M. W, B,
57
TIN IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO (BANGKA).
Die Zinninseln im Indischen Oceane. II—Das ZinnerzvorTconimen und die
Zinn-gewinnung in Bangka. By Dit. Theodob, Posewitz. Miltheilumjen aus dent
Jahrhuche der Icon. Ungarischen Geologischen Anstalt, Vol. VIII, pp. 57-106.
With Map and Woodcuts.
A very full and detailed account of the geology, mode of winning, and
production of the tin deposits of the Isle of Bangka. These occur in five
distinct regions, namely, the Djebus, Blinju, Sungei Liat and Merawang,
Pangkal-Pinang and Sungei Slan, Koba, and Toboali district, all in the
north-eastern half of the island. The largest are the first three, the last
two being small and unimportant. The typical mode of occurrence of tinstone
in Bangka is an irregular bed lying upon the denuded edges of granite and
schists, and covered by sands and clays belonging to the drift and alluvium.
The ore is, however, also found as stockwerks, impregnations in granite, and
forming true lodes, in most respects as it is known in Cornwall or in the
Zinnwald.
In the Djebus district the Government work 15 tin mines ; in that of Blinju,
Sungei Liat and Mei^avvang, 54 mines; in Pangkal-Pinang and Sungei Slan, 28
mines; in Koba, 3 mines; and in Toboali, 9 mines. These Government mines
employ 6,009 miners. Besides, there are 131 mines in the hands of private
owners, which are not grouped according to districts, and which employ 1,445
men. Prom 1821 to 1884 the mines yielded 244.752 tons of tin, the highest
annual production being 6,400 tons, in 1856.
G.
A. L.
ABNORMAL STRUCTURE IN COAL.
De la structure helico'idale de certaines Anthracites de Vise. By Max
Lohest. Annates de la Societe Oeologique de Belgique, Vol. XII (1884-85),
Memoires. pp. 242-257. One Plate. (Published 1886.)
A description of certain microscopical structures for the first time
observed in anthracite. This anthracite occurs in geodes and veins in the
Carboniferous limestone on the right bank of the Meuse, about 1,200 yards
south of the bridge of Vise. Associated with the anthracite are such
minerals as dolomite, calcite, copper pyrites, malachite, chessylite,
blende, and iron pyrites. The anthracite sometimes occurs here in small very
slightly conical rods arising obliquely from thin plates of the same
substance. These rods, once common in this locality, have now become
exceedingly rare. According to M. Jorrisen, who analysed some of them, they
burned with difficulty, leaving 7'5 per cent, of ash containing sulphates,
due, in all probability, to the decomposition of metallic sulphides.
Examined microscopically in transverse opaque sections a helicoidal
structure is distinctly observable, some rods exhibiting as many as 16 or 17
spirals. Sometimes in the same rod the spirals run in different directions.
The helicoidal lines are in relief upon the surface of the rods. The author
shows that this singular structure is not of organic origin, and that it is
not akin to perlitic structure. He prefers to regard it of purely mineral
origin, and as a new example of "structural hemihedry," as viewed by
Bombicci, in a remarkable Memoir entitled B'Bmiedria ntrutturale ed il
quarzo plagiedro in aggruppamenti paraboloidi, and published in Vol. II.,
Ser. 2, of the Mem. dell' Ac. dell' Istituto di Bologna.
G. A. L. h
58
GOLD MINING IN TRANSYLVANIA.
Der Goldberfibau Siebenbiirgeus. By Josef PalFFY. Read at the
Mining and Geological Congress at Budapest in 1885. 14 pp. Budapest,
1886.
A concise account of the geological, mining, and commercial facts relating
to gold mining in this region. Useful as an addition to Mr. Liveing's paper
on the same subject, in the Institute Transactions, Vol. XXXV., page 81.
G. A. L.
THE GEOLOGY OF SCHEMNITZ.
GescHchte der Geologie von Schemnitz. By Dr. Josef Szabo. Bead at the
Mining and Geological Congress at Budapest in 1885. 14 pp. Budapest,
1886. A precis of the history of the progress of geological knowledge as
regards the celebrated mining district of Schemnitz. A Table at p. 14
exhibits at a glance the views held by the chief investigators of the region
as to the nature and succession of its rocks. The oldest writer is
Beudant (1822), whose work formed the basis of all further observations,
and, considering its date, was of remarkable accuracy. Pettko followed in
1853, Andrian in 1866, Lipoid in 1867, and lastly the present author in
1885, whose schedule of the formations is given thus :— Alluvium: Calctuff.
Diluvium: (a) Nyirok ( = Laterite).
(6) Gravels. Cainozoic rocks: 1. Basalt.
2. Pyroxene Trachyte.
(a) Normal.
(b) Greenstone type, (e) Rhyolite type.
(d) Conglomerate type.
3. Biotite-Trachyte with Andesin-Labradorite
(a) Normal.
(b) Greenstone type.
(c) Rhyolite type.
(d) Conglomerate type.
4. Biotite-Trachyte with Orthoclase-Andesin.
(a) Normal.
(b) Greenstone type.
(c) Rhyolite type.
(d) Conglomerate type.
5. Eresh-water quartz.
6. Nummulitic beds. Mesozoic rocks: 1. Diorite.
2. Limestone, Dolomite.
3. Trias (Upper and Lower). Palceozoic rocks: 1. Clay-slate.
2. Quartzite.
3. Arkose (Aplite).
4. Micaschist.
5. Gneiss.
(In this classification the numbers do not imply sequence necessarily.)
G. A.L
59
GOLD IN NEW ZEALAND.
Report on the Gold-fields of JSTetv Zealand. By J. McKehrow, H. A. Gordon,
H. Kenrick, J. M. McLaren, W. Gibbs, E. Bird. J. Keddell, J. Giles, D.
Macfarlane, J. Hickson, J. N. Wood, J. S. Hickson, W. H. Revell, H. W.
Robinson, J. P. Maitland, H. McCulloch, J. Gow, D. Doyle, W. Guffie, J. C.
Gavin, H. S. McKellar, W. Seed, and H. J. H. Elliott. Folio, 66 pp.
Wellington, New Zealand, 1885.
A general account of the present condition and probable prospects of the
gold-fields of the Colony, addressed to the Minister of Mines.
The gold-fields have been opened on a large scale since the discoveries of
Gabriel Read at Tuapeka, Otago, in 1861. The total value of the export of
gold from the Colony up to the 31st March, 1885, was £41,634,507. For the
year ending on that date the return is 239,688 ozs., worth £927,433, or
£31,701 less than the year before. This diminution, which has been going on
for some years, is ascribed to the fact that the alluvial deposits are still
the chief source of yield. During the year reported, an auriferous drift
worth working has been proved at Criffel, in Otago, on the high slopes of
Mount Pisa, at a height of about 4,000 feet above the sea.
In the high ground there are no doubt many undiscovered gold-bearing clays,
sands, and gravels, but probably none of very large area. Quartz working is
carried on in the Coromandel, Thames, Te Aroha, Reefton, Lyell, Mikihinui,
Hindon, Collingwood, Queenstown (Skipper and head of Lake), Arrow, Cromwell,
and Lawrence districts. In the year 1884-85, the number of tons of quartz
crushed was 92,872, yielding 91,949 ozs. of gold. This shows a large
increase in the quantity of quartz for the year 1883-84, but the amount of
gold has not increased in proportion. The Thames—the most important
quartz-mining district—shows a large falling off in its returns.
The number of alluvial gold miners has diminished by 269, while that of
quartz miners has increased by 97. The total number of miners employed in
1883-84 was 12,206, whilst in 1884-85 it was 12,034.
G. A. L.
MINES OF GUIPUZCOA.
La Mineria de Guipuzcoa. By Ramon Adan de Yarza. Revista Minera y
Metalnrgica, Ser. C, Vol. IV. (1886), pp. 20, 21.
The mineral resources of Guipuzcoa are described under the following heads
:—
1.—Lead.—Ores of lead occur here chiefly in veins cutting through slates and
quartzites of Palaeozoic age, between Irun and Oyarzun, and skirting the
granitic mass of Aya. Less important lead veins are known in some of the
Cretaceous compact limestones of this region. The lodes, worked by the Real
Compania Asturiana at the San Nicolas, San Narciso, and Arditurri, belong to
the former group, and the ore there is fairly argentiferous.
2.—Zinc.—Blende is worked chiefly at the Arditurri mines already mentioned,
where it occurs associated with galena. Calamine is also found in irregular
pockets in the hard limestones (Cretaceous) of the Aizgorri mountains.
3.—Iron.—The ores of iron are the most abundant in this part of Spain. They
occur (a) as contact veins at the junction of Palaeozoic schists and
granite, at the San Fernando and San Enrique, both situated at the foot of
the Pena de Aya. In the last-named mine, the vein is traversed by a dyke of
diabase, (b) As veins in the Palaeozoic rocks in the Oyarzun and Renteria
districts, but the quantity of ore is small, (c) As irregular masses between
the granite and the Palaeozoic rocks. To this group
GO
belong the haematite deposits of the San Miguel mine, and those (with the
addition of siderite) of the Chacordi, San Fernando, and San Adolfo, all in
the Iriin district. (d) As irregular masses in the Palaeozoic and Triassic
rocks. There are many of these deposits, and some of them feed the newly
established and important steel works of the Petin Gaudet Company at Boucan
(Eayonne). (e) As irregular masses in the Cretaceous limestones of the
Aizgorri mountains. (f) As deposits associated with Serpentines at Elduayen
and elsewhere. They are encased in red sandstones of Triassic age.
4-—Lignite.—At Hernani lignite is worked in shales containing Orbitolina
conoidea and 0. discoidea, and, therefore, of Urg-Aptian or Albian age. The
chief seam has an average thickness of 2"80 metres (9$ feet). Several beds
of lignite also occur in the Cestona district, among limestones and marls,
corresponding to those of the Utrillas basin in the province of Teruel.
Although Carboniferous rocks crop out in Guipuzcoa, they yield no coal.
5.—Salt.—Brine springs are abundant and yield much salt. The most important
locality is in the valley of Leniz, where the salt water issues from
sandstones belonging to the Lower Cretaceous series. Salt springs at Cegama
occupy a similar position, but yield much less salt than those of Leniz.
Gr. A. L.
SPANISH MINES IN 1884.
Estadistica Minera de Espaua correspond iente al a-ito 1884. Revista
Minera y Metalurgica, Ser. C, Vol. IV. (1886), pp. 43-45.
The following Table gives the number of mines (I.), number of men employed
(II.), and amount of mineral produce (III.), for the year 1885 in the whole
of Spain :—
(>1
GOLD MINING IN ANDALUSIA.*
Gisements auriferes de VAndalousie. By A. P. NogtjeS. Bulletin de la Societe
de VIndustrie Minerale, Sir. 2. Vol. XIV., pp. 931-1,032. Plates XII, XLII.,
and sections in the text.
The auriferous deposits of Andalusia require special methods of working,
owing to the circumstances in which they are found. The minerals to be
worked are the red soils of the hills and the alluviums of the plains.
The mass of the auriferous deposits is very irregular and inconstant, and
affords no security or guarantee for the future. The richness of the
deposits has been tested by experts in Paris, etc., but they are imperfect,
because they give the total and do not distinguish the native from the
combined gold. Trials with the batea and consecutive amalgamation have given
very satisfactory results. By the first washing the native gold is obtained
and amalgamated; then the combined gold, which is equal in quantity to the
native gold, may be found by analysis in the ordinary way. The quantity of
the gold found in the red soils and the alluviums of the two slopes of the
Sierra de Peilaflor varies on the average between 60 and 70 grains of free
gold, worth from 10s. to lis., per cubic yard. Rich samples have exceeded
350 grains of gold per ton of soil.
The combined gold is found with antimony, bismuth, nickel, cobalt, copper,
iron, lead, tellurium, etc.; most of the concessions are registered as mines
of auriferous titaniferous-iron, copper, etc.; sometimes the gold is not
even named, so as to reduce the dues payable to the Government, and to avoid
the too great cupidity of the owners of the surface.
The metallurgical treatment of the combined gold is a delicate operation
requiring the attention of specialists, as the combinations are constantly
varying; and it will be probably found to be most economical to send the
black auriferous sand, free of native gold, to metallurgical firms in
England, France, or Germany for treatment.
The auriferous soils and alluviums must be treated as economically as
possible, attention being paid to the dissemination of the gold, its extreme
fineness, and the quantity of water at the disposal of the miner. When the
red soil is highly argillaceous the mineral should be concentrated by
washing. In concessions at the foot of the hills, where water is somewhat
abundant, and in those of the plains, the soil and auriferous sands would be
advantageously worked by sluices. Where water is not abundant the mineral
should be concentrated by some means before amalgamation.
The proper mode of working will, therefore, consist of sluices or
concentration followed by amalgamation. Sands may be amalgamated direct
without sluices. Working by sluices requires a sufficient quantity of water
and a convenient fall; amalgamation requires least water. Upon the higher
hills, where water is rare, the treatment of the calcined and pulverized
auriferous minerals must be made by dry amalgamation.
The working of auriferous sands and soils by sluices is the most economical,
although by this method some of the gold is carried away by the water;
amalgamation, whether preceded or not by concentration of the soils, is more
costly; lastly, dry amalgamation is the most costly of all, and can only be
employed if the auriferous soils are very rich in gold, sufficient to cover
the cost of calcination, pulverization, and extraction.
Water is the most important factor in working these auriferous minerals. In
the event of workings upon a large scale in the alluvium of the plains, the
collection of the water from the different streams, etc., would be very
complex: the cheapest plan would be to take it from the Guadalquivir river,
raising the water by means of turbines on to the lower hills, and thus
obtain sufficient fall for washing or concentration. * See " Gold in
Andalusia," Abstracts, pp. 35 and 36.
62
The value of the land is an important question to the miner. It consists of
three classes:—Waste land, or planted with shrubs, worth from 10s. to 13s.
per acre; land cultivated for cereals and vegetables, worth, according to
position in the hills or plains, from £1 10s. to £3 per acre ; olive
plantations, worth, according to position, from £3 to £6 per acre.
The Andalusian workman, badly fed, does not perform so much work as the
workman of the North of Europe ; but he is sinewy, accustomed to heat, and,
with better food, would produce much more work. The day's wage is about Is.
7d., but in harvest time it rises to 2s. and upwards. These workmen can, in
a day of 10 hours of work, dig from 10 to 12 cubic yards of sand or
superficial soil, and the cost per cubic yard would be from If d. to 2d.
Transport by inclined or other planes upon the surface to the washers,
concentrators, and amalgamators would be costly, but the cost by animals
would be much greater.
A mine treating only 130 cubic yards of the auriferous deposits per day, or
40,000 cubic yards per annum, would probably realize an annual profit of
£13,000. Mining will be profitable, if made with sluices, so long as there
is 6s. worth of gold per cubic yard.
The paper also contains a plan of the gold mining concessions in the
Penaflor district.
M. W. B.
EFFECTS PRODUCED ON THE SURFACE BY MINE WORKINGS.
Note sur les mouvements de terrain provoques par I'exploitation des mines.
By M. Fayol. Bulletin de la Societe de VIndustrie Minerale, Ser. 2, Vol.
XIV., pp. 805-871. Plates XXXV.-XL.
The most contradictory opinions are held as to the movements of the surface
produced by the workings of mines. There is no agreement as to the
amplitude, position, or the direction of these movements. These opinions
may be summarized as follows :—
As to the vertical extension of the movements—
(1) The movements are seen at the surface irrespective of depth.
(2) The surface is unaffected when the workings are more than a certain
depth. As to the amount of the movements—
(1) The effects extend to the surface without apparent diminution.
(2) The effects are gradually diminished in approaching the surface. As to
the position of the effects—
(1) The results upon the surface are vertically above the mine excavations.
(2) The results upon the surface are limited by lines drawn from the
perimeter
of the excavations, and perpendicular to the seams.
(3) The surface affected is bounded by lines making an angle of 45° with
the
horizon, or some other angle. And as to preventive means—
(1) Stowing is an efficacious protection to the surface.
(2) Stowing only diminishes the effects upon the surface.
(3) The damage done to the surface is much greater when the workings are
stowed than when left to fall freely.
Although great divergencies are expressed, the general law would appear to
be: the movements of the strata are limited by a kind of dome whose base
rests upon the excavations, and the amount of the movements diminishes as
the distance from the centre of the excavation increases.
The preceding law agrees with all the results usually observed; it has the
defect of being somewhat vague, but as so many elements are concerned in the
question, known
63
and unknown, such as the nature of the strata, thickness of seams, faults,
effects of water, etc., it is impossible to determine exactly the form,
direction, and relative amplitude of the damage to the surface.
A large number of observations upon this important question are described
under the following divisions :—
I.—Bending of plates tied together at the ends.—By experiments upon
superposed layers of iron, flat aloe ropes, india-rubber, wood, etc., it was
found that when supported at each end, the bars were bent downwards between
the end supports, the lowest one in all cases having the greatest
deflection, varying with the nature of the material. The limits of these
deflections are marked by a dome shaped curve, depending upon the nature of
the material, the dimensions of the plates and the distance apart of the
supports. Similar effects are constantly being seen in mines, in the roof of
drifts, and other small excavations, and in the walls of buildings where the
lintel of a door or window is broken.
Direction of fracture of rocks.—It is generally considered that the line of
fracture is perpendicular to the length of the piece when supported at each
end; but this is an error, the fracture usually occurs in a plane inclined
over the excavation.
Volume of broken rocks.—Rocks generally increase in volume by being broken,
and this increase may be very considerable; thus, coal increased 2-07 times,
sandstone 2-19 times, and shales 2-43 times when reduced to dust.
Settlement.—The amount of settlement depends upon the depth or pressure, and
varies with the volume of rocks when broken, and their resistance to
compression increases as the broken volume is smaller. The broken volume
usually remains greater than the primitive unbroken volume. Stowing will
always prevent a certain amount of breakage of strata. Shale, used as
stowing, with a volume increased by breakage by 60 per cent., appears to be
compressed, for depths from 300 to 1,000 feet, by about 30 per cent.,
retaining a volume 12 per cent, greater than the initial solid rock. It is
evident, therefore, that the spaces and fissures caused by the excavations
always remain, more or less, open. Water plays an important part in the
settlement of the ground.
II.—Experiments upon the movements of the strata.—Experiments were made upon
a small scale to reproduce the effects caused by mine workings. Artificial
and alternate beds of clay, sand, plaster, or other materials were arranged,
of various thicknesses, in a wooden box, with a glass side or window. The
one usually employed in the experiments was 32 inches long, 12 inches wide,
and 20 inches deep. Before forming the artificial beds, small pieces of wood
were laid upon the bottom of the box; these pieces were all of the same
thickness, and their length was equal to the width of the box. On
withdrawing the pieces of wood, excavations and movements of the strata were
produced. One experiment lasted a few hours.
The effects produced by workings upon artificial strata laying, conformably
and unconformably, at various inclinations from horizontal to vertical, are
clearly shown by these experiments. The results of leaving pillars and
barriers, effects of depth, influence of faults, directions of cracks, etc.,
are also fully detailed.
III.— Observations.—Several actual instances of observations of the effects
of mine workings are given, detailing the results seen in the mine, effects
of thickness and depth of seam, of stowing and mode of working, movements of
the surface, effects upon barriers and pillars left as supports, etc.
IV.—Conclusions.—In stratified rocks the zone of movements is usually
limited by a kind of dome, whose base rests upon the excavations. The form
and dimensions of this zone are dependent upon a number of elements, more
especially the inclination of the seams, faults, and other geological
accidents, the nature of the strata and thickness of the beds, the mode of
working, area and depth of the excavations, the amount and description of
stowing, etc.
64
Movements of the surface can be prevented by carefully stowing the
excavations with incompressible materials, but this method is costly and
often impracticable. It is more practicable to protect the surface by
leaving pillars in the midst of the excavations. This system has been
universally adopted as being most efficient.
The knowledge of the laws which govern the directions of the movements of
the strata will greatly facilitate the arrangements of the workings, in
order to protect any point or points upon the surface. The pillars must be
small when the workings are shallow; as the depth increases, the dimensions
of the pillars and excavated areas must be augmented, so as to keep the
affected zones separate and distinct from each other.
This general rule is susceptible of many variations dependent upon the
thickness, inclination, number, and depth of the seams being worked.
• M. W. B.
AUTOMATIC SELF-ACTING INCLINED PLANES.
Des divers nioyens de transport mecanique employes dans les exploitations de
mineral
defer de Bilbao (Espagne). By M. Malissakd-Taza. Bulletin de la Societe
de VIndustrie Minerale, Sir. 2, Vol, XIV., pp. 1065-1072. Plate
ALU'.,
figs. 1, 2. 3, and 4.
Descriptions are given of the various means of transport used at the Bilbao
iron
ore mines, particulars of which have already appeared in the Transactions.*
The Cadegal self-acting inclined plane is distinguished from all similar
installations by the use of a fan-break.
This plane is 1,970 feet long, and has a descent of about 525 feet; it is
laid with double way of metric (3*28 feet) gauge. The machinery consists of
a drum 16-4 feet diameter, which has a spur wheel in the centre driving a
small pinion attached to the same shaft as the fan break.
The fan break consists of four radial blades about 6'5 feet wide and 16"4
feet in external diameter. There are two band breaks on each side of the
drum, worked at a distance of about 200 feet, by rods.
The drum is in the form of two cones, to ensure the rope laying regularly
upon it. The ropes are 1"57 inches diameter, and eight wagons, carrying each
two tons of ore, are run at a time.
,
As soon as the train is set away the fan break works, slowly at first, but
in a few seconds the speed increases, until movement becomes absolutely
uniform owing to the resistance of the air. The dimensions of fan were
calculated for a velocity of 10 feet per second, which is never exceeded;
this produces about 90 revolutions of the fan per minute. The total length
is covered in about 3^ minutes, the -wagons are changed in 6 or 7 minutes,
and train after train is set away every 10 minutes. The leadings per day of
10 hours are about 1,000 tons.
The advantages of the fan break are:—
1.—There is no continuous friction of the break strap, and heating and
wearing away of the cleading. 2—There is perfectly uniform motion. 3.—The
apparatus can be regulated to any speed by the addition or removal of
battens from the blades of the fan. 4.—It requires no attention except on
the arrival of the wagons at the top of the incline. It may be added that
this apparatus has worked from the first with great success, and continues
to give full and perfect satisfaction.
M. YV. B.
* See Vol. XXXIII., pp. 213 to 235.
PETROLEUM IN HUNGARY.
Ueber die bisher erzielten Resultate und die Ausslchten von
Petroleumschurfungen in Ungarn. By J. Notii. Read at the Mining and
Geological Congress at Budapest in 1885. 15 pp. Four Woodcuts in text.
Budapest, 1886.
The discoveries of mineral oil hitherto made in Hungary have been limited to
the great Carpathian sandstone series, which comprises rocks of Neocomian,
Eocene, and Lower Neogene age.
1.—At Arva, Liptau, Komarnik, Mikowa, Luch, Przolina, and Sodsmezo, oil has
been proved in the Teschen shales, the Wernsdorf and Ropianka beds, and the
Lower Hieroglyphic and Fucoid beds, all groups of the Neocomian.
2.—At Konyha and Szacsal, in the Upper Hieroglyphic and Fucoid beds of the
Lower Neocomian group. At Marmaros, Zibo, Udvarhely, and Zodsmezo, in the
Menilite fish shales of Meletta and Smilus {i.e., Middle Eocene).
3.—Over the greater part of Upper Hungary and Transylvania, in connection
with the Magu and Kliwa sandstone, and the Szipot beds (Upper Oligocene).
4.—At Recz, Kovac, Garbonac, Dragomer, and Sodsmerzo, in Neogene deposits.
The geological details of the localities of Dragomer, Boryslaw (in a
neighbouring state), Konyha, and Szacsal, are illustrated by longitudinal
sketch-sections, and described at greater length than those relating to
other places.
The following are the conclusions arrived at by the author :—First, that in
Hungary the same geological horizons are petroleum-bearing as in Galicia;
secondly, that many very likely spots for oil-winning can be pointed out.
G. A. L.
THE GEOLOGY OF SERVIA.
V '
Geologische Uebersicht des Konigreiches Serbien. By J. M. Zujovic.
Jahrbuch der
K.K. Geologischen Reich saint alt, Vol. XXXVI. (1886). pp.
71-126, with
coloured, Geological Map.
A useful resume of all that is known respecting the geology of the kingdom
of Servia, with references to all previous writings on the subject, and very
full lists of fossils. The rocks of the country are grouped as follows
(in ascending order):— 1.—Crystalline schists (Archaean ?). 2.—Paheozoic
schists. 3.—Red sandstone (Permian ?). 4.—Trias. 5.—Cretaceous. 6.—Flysch
(Eocene). 7.—Neogene. 8.—Diluvium and alluvium.
Granitic rocks. j
Plutonic
Trachytic and porphyritic rocks. V and
Serpentine and Euphotide (Gabbro). J igneous.
The localities at which each kind of rock occurs are very fully given.
G. A. L.
i
SOTTIAUX'S COAL-CRUSHER-CLEANER,
Broyeur-Epurateur. By A. Sottiattx. Societe des Ingenieurs sortis I'Ecole,
etc., des Mines du Eainault. Set: 2, Vol. XTIL, pp. 48-51. Plate I. This
machine is designed for the purpose of cleaning coals without the use of
water, for the manufacture of coke or briquettes. In the ordinary crusher
both coal and impurities are crushed together, and afterwards separated.
This machine acts upon coal and impurities, according to their friable
nature, and, when crushing, separates the coal from the foreign bodies
contained in it. These results are obtained by the effect of a powerful
current of air upon the crushed material held in suspension in a limited
space.
Description.—The crusher-cleaner crushes the coal, expels it as it is
crushed, and leaves untouched, or in large pieces, the foreign bodies mixed
with it, so that they can be separated from the crushed coal.
It consists essentially of a cage with flat blades or helical paddles,
rotated (more or less rapidly, according to the nature of the materials
crushed) in the interior of a perforated drum or cylinder. This crusher is
made with two or more bosses, with six arms or spokes, to which the flat
blades or helical paddles are attached. The bosses are placed upon an axle,
which turns with the crusher in the interior of a perforated drum or
cylinder, divided into two parts. The first part next the back is made of
metal, channelled in the inside, and with holes in the depths of the
grooves. The second part is of perforated sheet iron socketted over and
fixed to the first part. A cylindrical screen overlaps the end of the second
part of the perforated drum, round which it rotates independently of the
bearing axles by means of a hollow axle placed over the said axle, and
driven by arms from the hollow axle. The end of the cylindrical screen is
covered by a short screw. The whole is enclosed in an iron case, open at the
bottom, so that the cleaned coal may pass from it to the hopper.
69
There are two openings made behind, the upper one for the entrance of the
material to be treated, and the lower one, covered by a slide, for the
examination of the inside of the drum. The front end is furnished with a
shoot for the removal of the impurities.
The crusher is driven by means of a pulley fixed at the front end of the
machine, and the motion is made more constant by a flywheel fixed upon the
back end of the axle. The cylindrical screen is driven by another pulley
attached to the hollow axle. Its outside dimensions are :—Height, 13 feet;
width, 9 feet; and length, 16 feet.
Operation of the Machine.—After the crusher is started, the coal is
regularly introduced (from the feed hopper) between the fiat blades of the
crusher, whose rapid succession breaks, crushes, and pulverizes the pieces
of coal, and throws them first against the sides of the metal cylinder, and
then against the perforated sheet iron of the fixed cylinder. The draught
produced by the blades or paddles compels the pulverized material to pass
through the holes in the metal and sheet iron plates of the fixed cylinder.
The crushed material is kept within the iron casing and falls by its lower
opening into the hopper.
The excellent performance of this machine is due to the pressure of the air,
which instantly drives out the pulverized material. It has crushed 50 tons
per hour, and a production of 35 tons per hour is a fair average of its
results.
The hard and least crushed materials are carried by the helical paddles into
the rotating screen, where they are sifted, so as to remove all pure
material with which they may be mixed.
In order that the impure material may not be thrown direct out of the
apparatus and carry some of the useful products with them, they are stopped
by the short screw, which covers the end of the screen, and only allows them
to pass out of the apparatus after several revolutions of the rotary screen,
which brings them to the opening in the screw almost completely freed from
useful material, which is passed through the screen into the hopper.
In actual work it has removed live per cent, of stones from coal containing
twelve per cent., with a loss of five pounds per ton of the material
treated. M. W. B.
DUBOIS' MOUCHARD, OR REGISTERING WATER-GAUGE.
Indicateur de depression pour I'aerage des Mines. By L. Desailiy. Societe
des Ingenieurs sortis de VTScole provinciate d'Industrie et des Mines du
Hainaut. Ser. 2, Vol. XVII, pp. 57-61. Plate IV.
This apparatus consists of a metal box divided into two compartments by a
vertical division, leaving about three inches open at the bottom. This box
is partially filled with water, one compartment or branch is open to the
atmosphere, and the other is closed at the top and connected to the mine by
a pipe. A spherical float is placed in each of the compartments, connected
to a parallelogram oscillating about an axis attached to the bottom of the
box. The lower bar of the parallelogram is prolonged and connected by a
vertical rod to a horizontal lever, oscillating about an axis on the top of
the box. -This lever carries a pointer which indicates the depression or
water-gauge upon a graduated arc.
The apparatus records the difference of level existing between the two
floats, and, consequently, the initial level of the water may be varied
within certain limits without effecting the correctness of the readings. The
top lever is prolonged, and records the readings of the water-gauge upon
paper rolled round a cylinder driven by a small clock.
By a very simple electrical arrangement of a circular arc (attached to the
top lever) either end of which may dip into a trough of mercury, the
apparatus will ring one of two electric bells, one when the water-gauge is
too high, and the other when it falls below a certain point.
M. W. B.
70
AERIAL WIRE-ROPE TRAMWAYS.
Note sur les Cables Aeriens etablis entre Vajda-Hunyad et Vadudobri (Comitat
d'Hunyad—Transylvanie). By Messrs. Bociiet and Lebreton. Annales des Mines.
Series 8, Vol. IX., pp. 185-206. Plate IV.
The aerial wire-rope tramways between the Vajda-Hunyad iron works of the
Hungarian Government, Gyalar, the iron ore mining district, and Vadudobri,
the charcoal burning district, is erected upon the system of Th. Obach, of
Vienna. It is remarkable for its length, which is about 19 miles. The line
is divided into the following divisions: —
The inclination is 3*17 per 100, or 1 in 31-5 upon the average; but at
certain points it is as high as 13 or 15 per 100. This circumstance,
together with the requirement of constant working, prevented the adoption of
the Hodgson system. Motive power is required, owing to the local variations
in the fall; and owing to the great length, the line is divided into eight
parts. Engines are placed at Catsenas, Buda, Bunila, and Gruniului so as to
command the adjacent divisions of the line. There are duplicate engines at
Catsenas.
I.—Construction oe the Line.
Ropes.-—A system of this kind requires for single way, two ropes—a tram-rope
to carry the weight of the tubs, and a motor-rope, attached to the tubs. It
is necessary to have a double road, one for the empty and the other for the
full tubs, or four ropes altogether.
The two tram-ropes are fixed by their ends to the extreme stations of each
section, and each carries a heavy weight for the purpose of keeping the rope
taut. The motor-ropes are united in the form of an endless rope. This rope
passes round a pulley at the engine station, driven by the engine, and at
the extreme ends of each section it passes round pulleys attached to movable
carriages, this keeps the rope tight, and compensates for variations due to
changes of temperature.
The tram-ropes are supported at intervals upon brackets, which do not
interfere with the action of the weights at the extremities. The motor-ropes
run upon wooden rollers carried upon the same brackets when the deflection
allows them; but under working conditions, it is carried by the tubs, or
rather by the tram-ropes, which are supported at intervals of 177 feet,
between Gyalar and Vajda-Hunyad, where the ore and charcoal are carried, and
of 440 feet between Gyalar and Vadudobri, where only charcoal is conveyed.
The tram-ropes are T023 inches, and the motor-ropes "708 inches in diameter.
Supports for the ropes.—The supports consist of two vertical posts,
connected by two horizontal ties at the top. and by a second tie about the
middle. Lateral supports
71
are placed where necessary. Two hangers from the upper ties carry the
pulleys for the tram-ropes, and also the guide pieces, by which the wheels
of the tub pass over the pulleys. Each of the lower ties carries two wooden
rollers for the support of the motor-rope. The supports are of various
heights, according to their position, and may reach from 18 to 20 feet.
Stations.—The stations are of two classes. Engine stations, such as Buda,
etc., and exchange stations, such as Pojinitza.
Engine stations. —These are placed upon the direct line of two adjacent
sections of the tramway. At each of these stations the motor-ropes receive
their motion, and the ends of the four tram-ropes are attached. The ends of
the tram-ropes pass over vertical pulleys, and are attached to heavy
weights, consisting of wooden boxes filled with stones. The motor-ropes pass
round the same horizontal pulley with a double groove, whose diameter is
equal to the distance apart of the ropes, or from 6 to 8 feet. The motor
pulley is driven by suitable bevel gearing from the engine. Two workmen are
employed at each station to change the tubs from one section of rope to the
next. There is also an engineman at each station, who also attends to the
boiler.
Exchange stations.—Each of the motor-ropes is provided with separate
pulleys, which are inclined in opposite directions. Guides are arranged for
the changing of the tubs from one section of the rope to the succeeding one.
Points are arranged at all the engine stations for taking off the tubs
carrying water for the boilers. Points are also arranged at Gyalar, by which
the ore tubs are removed from the line, run to the ore boxes, and after
being loaded, are again placed upon the full rope. The charcoal tubs pass
this station. The arrangements at Vadudobri for loading the charcoal tubs is
similar to that at Gyalar. The terminus at Vajda-Hunyad is arranged by means
of points, so that the tubs are shunted into one of two ways, which pass,
after a circular route, to ore or charcoal deposits, where they are emptied,
and returned to the empty line of rope.
Results, etc.
The cost of the line complete was £47,000, or about £2,500 per mile. The
tubs are placed about 59 yards apart, and arrive at the rate of four in
three minutes. The tubs carry 17J cubic feet of charcoal, and 5"86 cwts. of
ore; an empty tub weighing about 4 cwts.
A contractor is paid 1045d. per ton (5 kreutzer per quintal) of ore, and Is.
10-65d. per 100 cubic feet (4 kreutzer per hectolitre) of charcoal. The
price of 10-15d. per ton of ore carried from Gyalar to Vajda-Hunyad, or 6
miles, makes it cost l"69d. per ton per mile. The price of Is. 10-65d. per
100 cubic feet, or 3s. 4'45d. per ton of charcoal (100 cubic feet = -56 ton)
for 19 miles, makes it cost 2-13d. per ton per mile. The general costs per
ton per mile for 360 days and 800 tubs per day are as follows:—
72
REGULATOR FOR CENTRIFUGAL FANS. Begulateur volumelrique pour ventilateur
a force centrifuge. By L. Desailly. Bulletin de la Societe cle V
Industrie Minerale, Ser. 2, Vol. XIV., pp. 1073-1081. Flate XLIII.
Centrifugal fans, which are now so generally employed for ventilation, have
a serious defect: the volume of air exhausted from the mine is not constant.
This is owing to the fact that their only mode of action is to create
depression, which is constant for a constant velocity of the fan. Their
action is different in relation to volume, which, for a certain depression,
will vary according to the resistances of the mine, and as this is very
variable, a constant depression cannot produce a constant1 volume.
Some regulator should, therefore, he attached to centrifugal fans, in order
that a constant volume may be produced, irrespective of the variable
resistances of the mine. The regulator in use at the No. 3 Pit of the Lievin
collieries (Pas de Calais) consists essentially of
(a) An indicator placed in the fan drift;
(6) A governor on the throttle-valve, or other valve gear of the fan engine.
The indicator consists of a flat pendulum (of suitable surface and weight)
placed in the fan drift, and which may be displaced by the velocity of the
current of air. The movement of the pendulum is communicated by means of a
suitable rod to a small lever, to which a small cataract is also attached,
to render the apparatus less sensitive. A needle attached to one end of the
lever moves over a small arc of some non-conducting material, containing
three metallic plates, connected on one side to the battery, and
on the other to two separate electro-magnets, which control the working of
the governor. A metallic brush upon the needle acts as a bridge between the
poles of the battery, and is so arranged that no current passes when it is
in a central position, and it is connected with one or other of the
electro-magnets, according as the brush is above or below the neutral
position.
The governor consists of a ratchet wheel and lever, receiving a
reciprocating motion from the engine. Two pawls are attached to the axis of
the lever, which are so arranged as to remain out of gear until acted upon
by one or other of the electromagnets. The electro-magnets will not work so
long as the needle occupies a central position. As soon as the needle rises
or falls the current is transmitted to one or other of the electro-magnets,
throwing one of the pawls into gear, and the rocking motion of the lever
will drive the ratchet wheel, and screw the throttle valve up or down until
the normal ventilation is restored. There is a simple arrangement by which
the current is cut off as soon as the throttle valve or variable expansion
valve-gear has reached the limit of its travel.
The paper is illustrated with three drawings of the arrangement of the
indicator
and governor.
The apparatus may be applied to all existing centrifugal fans. It is simple
and works very efficiently; the batteries are the only parts requiring
occasional attention and renewal.
M. W. B.
INDEX TO VOL. XXXV.
Abs." signifies Abstracts of Foreign Papers <u end of the Proceedings. "
App." Appendix.
Abnormal structure in coal, abs. 57. Abstracts of Foreign Papers, end of
Proceedings. Accidents : Winding ropes in Dortmund, abs. 5.—Nanticoke mine
disaster, abs. 56.—In the mines at New Zealand, 212. Accidents in mines;
President's remarks
on, 239. Accounts, xii.
Address; President's, 223. Advertisement, xi.
Africa (South); diamond mines of, abs. 17. Alais coal-field, abs. 31.
America: Leadville ore deposits, abs. 7. — Coal and iron in Tennessee, abs.
8.— Antimony in New Brunswick, abs. 24.— Coal-fields of North Carolina, abs.
25. —Coal and iron in Central, abs. 32.— Coal in Illinois, abs.
32.—Manufacture of coke, abs. 37.—Coal in Nebraska, abs. 40.—Metamorphic
coal deposit in Massachusetts, abs. 40.—Quicksilver in Louisiana, abs.
41—Iron in Utah, abs. 49. Analyses : French coal-measures waters, abs.
1.—New Zealand coal, 179 et seg. Andalusia; gold in, abs. 35, 61. Anjou ;
coal-measures of, abs. 24. Antimony in New Brunswick, abs. 24. Arizona; coal
in, abs. 41. Associate members, xxxii. Associated institutes; President's
remarks
on, 242. Atmospheric pressure; effects of, upon
the production of fire-damp, abs. 34. Australia; mineral statistics of, abs.
16.— Gold in, abs. 24.—Gold in Queensland, abs. 26.
Austria; boulders in coal, abs. 22. Automatic self-acting inclined
planes
abs. 64. Awards for papers, x.
Balloting list, lxiii. Barometer readings, 247. Bavaria; coal in, abs. 15.
Bedson, Prof. P. P.; safety lamps, 3. Belgium; coal-mining in, abs.
4.—Statistics of mining, metallurgy, &c, 1881-82, abs. 43.—Metalliferous
mining and metallurgy, 1841-80, abs. 46. Bengal; preliminary notice of
earthquake
of July 14th, 1885, abs. 34. Binns, G. J.; On coal-mining in New
Zealand. (See Coal-mining?) Bird, W. J.; loss of life in coal-mines, 71.
—Burnett's patent roller mining-wedge, supplementary remarks, 97. Blast
furnaces; President's remarks on,
233. Blast furnace slag; cement made from,
abs. 20. Boring; for petroleum in South France,
abs. 27.—President's remarks on, 224. Boulders in coal in Austria, abs. 23.
Bridges; President's remarks on, 229,231. Brown, M. Walton; regulations for
the management of fiery mines in Prussia. (See Regulations, Sfc?) Bulgaria;
mineral resources of, abs. 50. Burnett's wedge, 97. Bye-laws, li.
Caledonia (New) ; nickel in, abs. 14, 20. California; gold-bearing gravels
of, abs. 41.
Canals; President's remarks on, 229, 232.
Carinthia; minerals of, abs. 16.
Carolina (North) ; coal-fields of, abs. 25.
Cement; from slag of blast furnaces, abs. 20.
Charter, copy of, xlv.
Clanny lamp, 32.
Coal; in Tennessee, abs. 8.—Phosphorus in, abs. 15.—Bavarian, abs.
15.-Boulders in, Austria, abs. 23.—Alais, abs. 31. Central America, abs.
32.—Illinois, abs. 32.—Formation of, abs. 33.—Nebraska, abs. 40.—Metamorphic
coal deposit in Massachusetts, abs. 40. — Arizona, abs. 41.—Abnormal
structure in, abs. 57.
Coal-dust; explosion of, by dynamite, abs. 54.
Coal-fields : North Carolina, abs. 25.— Germany.—Portugal, abs. 30.—Sweden,
abs. 32.
Coal-getting; Burnett's wedge, 97.
Coal-measures of Anjou, abs. 24.
Coal-mines; loss of life in, by W. J. Bird,
71.
Coal-mining in Belgium, abs. 4.
Coal-mining in New Zealand, by George J. Binns, 175.—Introduction, geology,
and distribution, 175.—The Auckland coal-fields, Kawa-kawa district, 178.—
Whangerei district, 179.—Waikato district, 181.—Mokau district.—General
remarks, 182. — South island, Picton basin, 182.—The West coal-fields,
Col-lingwood district, 183.—Section of strata at Wallsend Colliery, 184. —
Reef ton coal-field, 186.—Buller coal-field, 187. —Greymouth field,
191.—General remarks, 195.— Canterbury coal-fields, 196.—Otago coal-fields,
200. — Clutha coal-field, 204. — Southland coal-field, 208.—System of
working.—Number of mines, 210.—Machinery, 211.—Legislation.—Accidents,
212.—Consumption, output, imports, and exports, 1877-84, 213.—Railway rates
and means of communication and transport.—Benefit societies, strikes,
condition of the miners,
&c, 215.—General remarks.— Conclusion, 216. — List of photographs and
specimens, 217. — Discussed, 218.— Analyses of coal from the various
districts.
Plates.—24, 25. Maps and sections illustrating the paper.—26. Diagrams, of
consumption, output, exports, and imports. ,
Coal-working; President's remarks on, 235.
Cobalt; extraction of,froinmanganiferous minerals, abs. 39.
Coke; manufacture of, North America, abs. 37.
Coking; President's remarks on, 237.
Compressed air; President's remarks on, 230.
Construction of a dam to resist a pressure of 285 lbs. per square inch, abs.
5.
Contents of volume, v.
Copper : Eastern Liguria, abs. 7.—Trans-Caucasia, abs. 9.
Council report, vii.
Curbs or cribs (iron) for securing sides of pits, abs. 53.
Daglish, John; Presidential address, 223.
Dam; construction of, to resist a pressure of 285 lbs. per square inch, abs.
5.
Diamond mines of South Africa, abs. 17-
" Douglas" patent miners' safety lamp, by John Douglas.—Description of lamp,
65. — Illuminating power, gas tests, particulars of experiments,
66.—Discussed, 67. Plate.—Plan and sections of lamp, 8.
Dust explosions: modifying the hygro-metric condition of the air in
coalmines, abs. 46.
Dynamite; explosion of coal-dust by, abs. 54.
Earthquake; Bengal, July 14,1885, abs. 34. Earthquakes; surface, North of
France, abs. 34.
Effect produced on the surface by mine-workings, abs. 62.
Election of members, 1,49,79,103,173,221.
Electric safety lamp. (See Portable electric safety lamp?)
Electricity ; President's remarks on, 239.
Engines, various; President's remarks on, 234.
English Secondary rocks. (See Iron ores of the)
Errors as to metalliferous deposits, abs. 29.
Exhibition, industrial; President's remarks on, 243.
Experiments : Safety lamps, 3.— " Douglas " safety lamp, 67.—Effects of
atmospheric pressure upon the production of fire-damp in coal-mines, abs.
34.
Explosions : (Dust) Means of modifying the hygromctric condition of the air
in coal-mines as a preventive, abs. 46.— Coal dust by dynamite, abs. 54.
Extraction of cobalt and nickel from manganiferous minerals, abs. 39.
Fans; regulator for, abs. 72.
Finance Committee's report, ix.
Fire-damp; experiments upon the effects of atmospheric pressure upon the
production of, abs. 34.
Foreign papers, abstracts of; end of Proceedings.
Formation of coal, abs. 33.
Formation of mineral veins, abs. 3.
Forms, lviii.
Fossil hydro-carbons of Scandinavia, abs. 25.
France: analyses of coal-measures waters, abs, 1.—Mineral statistics, abs.
2.—Coal-measures of Amjou, abs. 24.—Boring for petroleum in, abs.
27.—Mineral resources of the neighbourhood of Vierme, abs. 29. —Alais
coal-field, abs. 31.—Surface earthquakes, abs. 34.
Fuel; petroleum as, abs. 22.
Galicia; petroleum and ozokerite in, abs. 9. Gas-producers and gas lighting
; President's remarks on, 237.
General statement of accounts, xvi.
Geology : Diamond mines of South Africa, abs. 17.—Of Scheinnitz, abs. 58.
President's remarks on, 223.
Germany; coal-fields in, abs. 30.
Gold : Mexico, abs. 10.—Queensland, abs. 26.—Andalusia, abs. 35, 61.—New
Zealand, abs. 59.
Gold-bearing gravels of California, abs. 41.
Gold mining; Transylvania, 81, abs. 58.
Greece; mining industry, abs. 8.
Guipiizcoa; mines of, abs. 59.
Haulage by rope in mines, abs. 47.
Honorary members, xviii.
Hudson's Bay Territory; mineral resources
of, abs. 51. Hungary; mining in, abs. 26.
Illinois; coal in, abs. 32.
Improved levelling staff for underground work, By R. Linsley, 69.
Inclined planes ; self-acting, abs. 64.
Industrial exhibition; President's remarks on, 243.
Institutes, proposed association of; President's remarks on, 242.
Ikon : In Tennessee, abs. 8.—Central America, abs. 32.- Utah, abs. 49.
Iron and steel; President's remarks on, 233.
Iron curbs or cribs for securing the sides of pits and drifts, abs. 53.
Iron ores of the English Secondary rocks, by J. D. Kendall,
105.—Introductory remarks, 105.—Partial description of the Secondary rocks,
106.—Detailed description of the ores in the Lower Lias, 108.—In the Middle
Lias, 113.—In the Lower Oolite, 124.—In the Middle Oolite, 139.—In the Lower
Cretaceous rocks, 141.—General observations, including remarks on the origin
of the deposits, 145.—Ores of the Inferior Oolite and Middle Lias, 146.
Plates.—Maps, plans, and sections illustrating the paper, 10-22.
Italy ; copper in Eastern Liguria, abs. 7.
Kendall, J. D. ; the iron ores of the English Secondary rocks. (See Iron
ores, etc.) Kreischer, Prof.; safety lamps. 3.
Leach, C. C.; paper on " Shrinkage of
paper " discussed, 44. Leadville ore deposits, abs. 7. Levelling staff for
underground work, 69. Liddell, J. R.; transmission of power by
steam, 159. Life members, xviii. Linsley, R.; levelling staff, 69. Liveing,
E. H.; Transylvanian gold mining.
(See Transylvanian gold mining.) Loss of life in coal-mines, by W. J. Bird,
71.
Machinery for cutting stone, abs. 21. Malay Archipelago; tin in the, abs.
57. Manganese in Moravia, abs. 14.—Origin
of certain ores, abs. 41. Manufacture of cement from the slag of
blast furnaces, abs. 20. Maps; scales of, abs. 10. Massachusetts;
metamorphic coal deposit
in, abs. 40. Means of modifying the hygrometric condition of the air of
coal-mines as a preventive against dust explosions, abs. 46. Members :
Honorary and life, xviii. —Original, xx. — Ordinary, xxx — Associate, xxxii.
— Students, xxxvi. — Subscribing firms, &c, xxxviii. Merivale, Prof. J. H.
; transmission of
power by steam, 159. . Metalliferous deposits ; popular errors as
to, abs. 29. Metamorphic coal deposit in Massachusetts,
abs. 40. Mexico; gold deposits in, abs. 10. Meyer, E. Von; safety lamps, 10.
Mine workings; effect produced on the
surface by, abs. 62. Mineral phosphates in Tunis, abs. 43. Mineral resources
of the neighbourhood of Vienne, abs. 29.—Of Nova Scotia, abs. 49.—Of
Bulgaria, abs. 50. —Of Hudson's Bay Territory, abs. 51.
Mineral statistics; French, abs. 2.—
Victoria, abs. 16. Mineral veins; formation of, abs. 3. Minerals of
Carinthia, abs. 16.—Spain in
1883, abs. 28.—1884, abs. 60. Mines of Guipuzcoa, abs. 59. Mining : Greece,
abs. 8.—Nickel in New Caledonia, abs. 20.—Hungary, abs. 26. —Transylvauian
gold, 81.—In Belgium, 1881-82, abs. 43.—Metalliferous, in Belgium,
1841-80, abs. 46. Mining Exhibition, 2, 243. Mining produce of the district
of Dortmund, abs. 38. Moravia; manganese in, abs. 14.
Nanticoke mine disaster, abs, 56.
Nebraska; coal in, abs. 40.
New Brunswick; antimony in, abs. 24.
New system of coal-getting with Burnett's patent roller mining wedge, &c.;
supplementary remarks by W. J. Bird, 97.
New Zealand; gold in, abs. 59.—Coalmining in. (See Coal-mining in New
Zealand)
Nickel; in New Caledonia, abs. 14, 20.—
Extraction of, from manganiferous
minerals, abs. 39.
Nomination of members; forms for, lviii.
Nova Scotia; mineral resources of, abs. 49.
Officers, xix.
Ordinary members, xxx.
Ore deposits, Leadville, abs. 7.
Ores (iron) of the English Secondary rocks.
(See Iron ores, Sfc.)—Origin of certain
manganese ores, abs. 42. Origin of certain manganese ores, abs. 41. Original
members, xx. Over-winding ; prevention of, abs. 47. Ozokerite in Galicia,
abs. 9.
Paper; shrinkage of, discussed, 44.
Patrons, xvii.
Petroleum and ozokerite in Galicia, abs. 9.
—As fuel, abs. 22.—Boring for, in South
France, abs. 27.
Phosphorus in coal, abs. 15.
Poetsch's system of passing through waterbearing strata, abs. 33.
Popular errors as to metalliferous deposits, abs. 29.
Portable electric safety lamp for mines, by Joseph Wilson Swan.—Description
of lamp and plate, 51.—Discussed, 54. Plate—7. Plan and sections of lamp.
Portugal; coal-fields of, abs. 30.
Power transmitted by steam, 159.
President's address, 223.—Geology, 223.— Boring, 224.—Shaft sinking, 226.—
Tunnelling, 227.—Table showing comparative dimensions, cost, &c, of various
tunnels, bridges, and canals, 229.—Compressed air, 230.—Bridges,
231.—Canals, 232.—Iron and steel.—Blast furnaces, 233.—Engines,
234.—Colliery practice, underground haulage, coal-working, 235.—Screening,
cleaning, and washing coal, 236.—Coking, gas-producers, gas lighting, 237. —
Electricity, 239.— Accidents in mines, 240.—Associated institutes,
242.—Industrial exhibition, 243.
Prevention of over-winding, abs. 47.
Prussia; accidents to winding-ropes in Dortmund, abs. 5.—Mining produce of
the district of Dortmund, abs. 38.— Regulations for the management of fiery
mines in, 167.
Queensland; gold in, abs. 26. Quicksilver in Louisiana, abs. 41.
Eaabe-Wolf lamp, 29.
Regulations for the management of fiery mines in Prussia, by M. Walton
Brown, 167- — General regulations. — Ventilation, 167.—Blasting.—Lighting,
170.— Special regulations.— Remarks by the President, 171.
Regulator for centrifugal fans, abs. 72.
Reports : Council, vii. — Finance Committee, ix.
Rope haulage in mines, abs. 47.
Royal charter, xlv. Rules, li.
Safety Lamps : account of experiments made by Profs. Kreischer and Winkler.
(See Testing, Sfc.)— Swan's, 51. (See Portable electric safety lamp.)—
Douglas's, 65. (See " Douglas " patent miners' safety lamp.
Scales of maps, abs. 10.
Scandinavia; fossil hydro-carbons of, abs. 25.
Schemnitz ; geology of, abs. 58.
Screening coal; President's remarks on, 236.
Sections : strata at Wallsend Colliery, Collingwood district, New Zealand.
Self-acting inclined planes, abs. 64.
Shaft sinking; President's remarks on, • 226.
Shrinkage of paper: C. C. Leach's paper discussed, 44.
Slag; cement made from, abs. 20.
Spain: mines in 1883, abs. 28.—In 1884, abs. 60.
Statistics : French minerals, abs. 2.— Coal-mining in Belgium, abs.
4.—Mining, metallurgy, &c, in Belgium, 1881-82, abs. 43.—Metalliferous
mining and metallurgy in Belgium, 1841-80, abs. 46.—Spanish minerals, abs.
28, 60. —Consumption, output, imports, and exports of coal in New Zealand,
1877-84. 213.
Steam; power transmitted by, 159.—From bank to underground engines, abs. 48.
Stone; machinery for cutting, abs. 20.
Students, xxxvi.
Subscribing collieries, xxxviii.
Subscriptions, xiv.
Surface; effect produced on, by .mine-workings, abs. 62.
Surface earthquakes: North of. France, abs. 34.
Swan, J. W.: safety lamp. (See Portable elect lie safety lamp.)
Sweden; coal-fields of, abs. 32,
Testing of safety lamps: an account of experiments made by Profs. Kreischer
and Winkler, by Prof. P. P. Redson, D.Sc.— Introductory remarks, 3.—The
safety lamp as a light producer, 4.— As safeguard and indicator, 6.—Volumes
of oxygen needed for combustion of different gases.—Investigations by E. Von
Meyer, 10. — Wolf's benzine lamp, 12.—Experiments by Menzel, 13. —Oil
consumption of different lamps, 15.—Experiments with lamps in explosive
mixtures, 18.—With mixtures of air and marsh gas, 21, 25, 29, 32, 35.— With
coal gas, 23, 27.—Air admitted from above, 25. — Rape oil lamps.—•
Raabe-Wolf form, 29. — Air and coal gas, 31, 34, 37.—Clanny form of lamp,
32.—Rape oil and petroleum lamp, 35. —Description of plates, 39. — Tables
showing results of experiments, 41.— Discussed, 43.
Plates.—1. Testing apparatus.—2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Appearance of flames in various
lamps under different circumstances.
Tin in the Malay Archipelago, abs. 57.
Trans-Caucasia; copper in, abs. 9.
Transmission of power by steam, by J. It. Liddell and Prof. J. H. Merivale,
159. —Discussed, 162,
Plate.—Plan showing pumping arrangement at Broomhill Colliery.—23.
Drawings of steam trap, separator, socket pipe, &c. Trausylvania;
gold mining in, abs. 58. Transylvanian gold mining, by Edward H. Liveing. —
Geological structure of the district, 81.—History, 83.—Mining, 84.
—Condition of the miners, 89.—Treatment of the ore, 90.—Discussed, 93.
Plate.—9. Map of the district. _ Treasurer's accounts, xii. Tunis; mineral
phospnates in, abs. 43. Tunnelling ; President's remarks on, 227.
Underground engines supplied with steam
from bank, abs. 48. Undergrou nd haulage; President's remarks
on, 235. Utah; iron in, abs. 49.
Victoria; mineral statistics of, abs. 16.
Washing coal; President's remai'ks on,
236. Water-bearing strata; Poetsch's system
of passing through, abs. 33. Wedge; Burnett's, 97. Winding ropes; accidents
to, abs, 5. Winkler, Prof.; safety lamps, 3. Wolf's beuzine lamp, 12.