NEIMME Transactions
Volume 6
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
TRANSACTIONS VOL. VI. 1857-8.
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE: ANDREW REID, 40 & 65, PILGRIM STREET.
1858.
ADVERTISEMENT.
The Institution is not, as a body, responsible for tbe facts and opinions
advanced in tbe following Papers read, and in the Abstracts of the
Conversations which occurred at the Meetings during the Session.
INDEX TO VOL. VI.
A
Analysis of Coal, New South Wales *....................... 37
Atkinson, Mr. J. J., on Ventilating Furnaces.................. 135
on the Lemielle System..................234
Austrian Iron............................................ 96
Anthracite Coal, French................................ 75 77
American Coal Fields.................................... 67
Australian ditto.................................... 67
B
Bewick, Joseph, on the Eosedale Ironstone................ 15 189
British Produce of Coal compared with Foreign............ 65 67
Belgian Coal—Import to France........................... 66
y Belmont, Ventilation at.............,...................... 167
Belgian Coal Field........................................ 67
C
Coal of the Loire ........................................ 87
Coal Field of France..................................71 73
Consumption of Coal, French ........................ 85 93 97
Cleveland Ironstone, J. Bewick, on.......................... 19
Castle Eden, Ventilation at ................................ 167
Coal Mines, Distribution of Air in .......................... 163
Coal of Creusot and Blany ................................ 88
Calamites, New South Wales.............................. 34
D
Distribution of Air in Mines................................ 163
Departmental use of Coal in France......................85 89
(iv)
Dyke, Rosedale Ironstone.................................. 19
Division of Air Currents .................................. 182
Dormoy, M., on Lemielle Ventilation........................ 133
E
Export of French Coal.................................... 83
English Coal preferred in France............................ 107
F
France, Coal produced in.................................. 51
French Importation of Coal .....................52 57 60 64
France, "Wages of Colliers in ....,,......................... 81
Fuel, French, in general ................. ................ 56
Fossil Flora, New South Wales ............................ 33
G
Great Britain, Coal produced by, in 1852 .................... 66'
H
Hunter River Coal .................................... 31 38
Hall, T. Y., Mr., on French Coal............................ 50
Hopton, Mr., his Mode of Ventilation........................ 153
Hainault Coal .......................................... 68
Hard Coal, French ...................................... 80
I
Illawarra District, Coal of.................................. 29
Ironstone, New South Wales.............................. 48
Importation of Coal, French................................ 52
Iron produce of France.................................... 95
Iron, Prussian ........................................... 96
K
Knowles, Mr., Safety Cage................................. 235
L
Lundhill, Accident at .................................... 110
Lundhill, Mode of Working at.............................. 120
Lignite, French.......................................*.... 79
Loire, Coal of the........................................ 87
(v)
Lemielle System of Ventilation.......................... 130 234
Loire District, Coal of the.................................. 37
Localities, Coal in New South Wales ........................ 37
M
Mines, Distribution of Air in ............................. 163
Mine Inspection, French.................................... 54
Machine Ventilation..................................... 145
Marley, Mr. J., on the Rosedale Ironstone ................ 188 190
Moorsley, Ventilation at .................................. 167
Native Yield of Coal in FrancJr...................... 65 67 69
Navigation of the Seine for (pal, Attempted .................. 107
O
Oxygen in the Coal of New South Wales .................... 37
P
Prussian Coal Field ...................................... 67
Plews, Mr. H. T., on the New South Wales Coal.............. 27
Phillips, Professor, on Ventilation .......................... 167
Prices of Coal in France............................ 98 100 105
Prussian Coal, Import of.................................. 66
R
Rosedale Ironstone, Paper on ............................. 15
Rosedale, Section of Boring at.............................. 193
Rouen the Collier Draught of.............................. 107
S
Sydney Sandstone........................................ 28
Seine, Navigation of the .................................. 107
Strata Bored, New South Wales ............................ 40
Saxonian Coal Field ...................................... 67
Section of Borings at Rosedale.............................. 198
Sulphur in the Coal of New South Wales .................... 48
Smithy Coal, French...................................... 78
(vi)
T
Transit of Coal .......................................... 107
V
Valenciennes Department, Coal used in ...................... 88
Value of Coal produced in France .................... 77 80 81
Ventilating by Machinery............................,..... 145
W
Wales, New South, Fossil Flora of....................4.___ 34
Wages of French Colliers................,. ,............... 81
Wood, N., Esq., on the Lundhill Accident................... 110
Wales, W. J., on Ventilation .............................. 205
<§UjJ0lt
In conveying to the members of the Institute, generally, a review of the
proceedings of the year just closed, which it now becomes their duty to do,
the Council have to Eeport, that the progress made by the Institute has been
satisfactory.
The papers read during the year just passed are fewer than in some of the
preceding years, but they are equally important, and some of them of a
peculiar practical nature ; and the discussions at some of the meetings have
been highly interesting and instructive.
In November last a paper was read, by Mr. Joseph Bewick, on the Ironstone
Deposits of Eosedale, a paper, which, combined with that of Mr. John Marley,
on the Cleveland Ironstone generally, has aided in elucidating the great
ironstone formation of Cleveland, which has so powerfully attracted the
attention both of the scientific and commercial world. And the special
discussion which took place at the July meeting, especially on the Rosedale
ironstone, has tended to throw additional light upon that peculiar and
important deposit.
A valuable paper was also read by Mr. Henry J. Plews, of Bedale, on the
Coal-field of New South Wales, accompanied by elaborate maps and figures of
the several fossil remains found in that important coalfield. Specimens of
several of the fossils of this formation, nearly agreeing with those of the
British coal measures, were exhibited by Mr. Plews, and presented to the
Society.
(viii)
The Institute has also this year been favored by Mr. T. Y. Hall with
extensive statistical calculations and statements of the Production and
Consumption of Coal in France, with map.
At the May meeting- a short but instructive paper was read by M. Laurent,
and a model exhibited, illustrative of a plan of machinery for Ventilating
Mines, invented by M. Lemielle, and now in operation in some of the coal
mines in France. And, at the June meeting, Mr. J. J. Atkinson, Inspector of
Coal Mines, favored the meeting with some elaborative calculations and
investigations on the efficacy and economy of such machine, as compared with
the furnace and some other modes of ventilating coal mines.
The discussion on the Lundhill Accident, and on the Ventilation of Coal
Mines generally, has occupied the meetings of the Institute, a subject
peculiarly applicable to the Society. And, at the May meeting, and
subsequently, papers were read by Mr. Atkinson, illustrative of the
Distribution of Air in Coal Mines, and, more especially, on the subject of
Splitting Air, and the advantages derived therefrom, and, likewise, on the
laws which govern currents of air passing through, and distributed
throughout mines in different states of atmospheric influences.
At the August meeting, a paper on the Ventilation of Mines, as connected
with the system in use at Lundhill colliery at the time of the accident, and
on the system of working and ventilating the coal mines of that district,
illustrated by drawings, was read by Mr. John Wales, who also exhibited
diagrams of the different modes of ventilation, and which led to a most
important practical discussion of the ventilation of the coal mines above
alluded to, and of coal mines generally.
These papers, and such of the discussions as could be embodied in the
proceedings of the Institute, will constitute important additions to the
earlier volumes of the " Transactions " of the Society.
The Council are glad, also, to report an increase of members, the number
added during 1857-8 having been twenty-eight. The Society has, however, to
lament the loss of three members by death, viz., Mr. Ralph Dixon, of Durham,
Mr. E. Southern, of Kibblesworth, and
(ix)
Mr. George Heckles, of Shincliffe. The Council have, also, to lament the
loss of one of the honorary members of the Society, Mr. Herbert Mackworth,
Inspector of Coal Mines, who died on the 13th July, at the premature age of
thirty-four. Thus, therefore, the nett increase of ordinary members in
1857-8 is twenty-five.
On the question of finance, the Council, as usual, refer to the Report of
the Treasurer and Finance Committee. On this subject it may be stated that
the Council have had under their consideration the expence of printing the
papers of the Society, and will have to lay before the meeting, a
communication which, if adopted, it is expected may reduce the cost of
publication of their " Transactions."
On the subject of the Proposed College of Mining and Manufacturing •
Science, the Council are glad to inform the meeting that they have had
communications with the authorities of the Durham University, from which
they augur favorable results. Without at present going further into the
subject, they may state, that it is their anxious wish; and the meeting may
rest assured that all the efforts which they can employ will be devoted to
the accomplishment of so desirable an object. And they venture to hope, that
they will, shortly, be enabled to lay before the members of the Institute,
some practical proposition for their consideration. They, at the same time,
beg to recommend that a renewed application be made to the Coal Trade of the
district for their assistance in enabling them to overcome the financial
difficulties with which the scheme is at present environed.
The Council hardly know whether it falls, strictly speaking, within their
province to advert to the interesting series of experiments still in
progress, and now proceeding under the supervision of Commissioners
appointed by the Board of Admiralty, on the consumption of the smoke of
coalj and on the relative evaporative values and powers of different British
coals. As, however, the original experiments instituted by the
Northumberland Steam Collieries' Association, and the reports of the results
of that series from which the present investigation has arisen, were
conducted by three scientific gentlemen, all ordinary members of this
Institute, the Council feel it not improper briefly to refer to them. That
the final results of the elaborate enquiry now making, under the auspices of
the Board of Admiralty, will prove of high interest, not only to the
coal-owners of these districts, but to all owners of coal mines, and to all
interested in the use of coal for marine and manufacturing purposes, they
cannot doubt, and they, accordingly, congratulate the meeting on the
position in which this important question is now placed.
Your Finance Committee have examined the Treasurer's Accounts for the last
year, and beg to submit the same for your inspection.
The balance in hand has decreased from £725 Is. Od., in August, 1857, to
£638 19s. Od., in August, 1858, arising from the purchase of Lindley and
Hutton's fossils chiefly, together with the additional expense of
publications requiring costly illustrations.
With reference to the Library, the Committee beg to recommend a continuance
of outlay on this head, in accordance with the resolutions already passed.
Your Committee are sorry to say they cannot meet the members with the same
satisfaction as last year, in consequence of the suspension of the
Northumberland and Durham District Bank, where you have £600 deposited;
however, it is expected that the money will, ultimately, be recovered, with
interest, in time to meet the requirements of the Society.
At the commencement of the Institute tenders were received for printing the
papers of the Institution. They now submit for consideration the propriety
of receiving tenders again for printing and lithographing the Society's
works.
The Committee further take leave to suggest that a catalogue of all books,
plans, sections, geological, and other specimens, and models, be made out to
accompany the Transactions, and that the additions be recorded in succeeding
years in the Annual Volumes.
(xif) THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH NORTH OP
For the Year from August, 1857,1858.
JBr.
£ s. d.
July 31.—To Balance in Hand from Fifth. Year................,.......
725 1 0
" Subscriptions collected since Balancing1 at July 31, 1857, for
that and former years ............................
10 10 0
" Interest on Deposit Receipt in District Bank for 1 year up to
August, 1858.—£600 at 4 per cent.................
24 0 0
" Subscriptions from 198 Members........................
415 16 0
" Subscriptions from Colliery-owners to this date, viz:—
Stella................................
£2 0 0
Lambton..............................
10 10 0
Grange.......... .....................
2 20
Kepier Grange ......................... 2
2 0
Haswell ..............................
8 8 0
Black Boy ..........................>,. 4
4 0
Leasingthorne.......................... 2
2 0
Westerton ..................»......... 2
2 0
Hetton ,...............................
10 10 0
North Hetton..........................
6 6 0
South Hetton and Murton................ 8
8 0
East Holywell.......................... 2
2 0
Holywell Main ........................ 2
2 0
Barrington.....................-----...
2 2 0
Seghill................................
5 0 0
Cowpen ..............,...............
5 0 0
------------
75 0 0
" Sales of Publications, per A. Reid, from July to
December, 1857...................... 65
6 11
Ditto from December, 1857, to July 31, 1858.. 20
3 8
-----------
85 10 7
£1335 17 7
(xiii)
ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
to and with August, 1858.
1858. €r.
£ s. d.
July 31.—By paid A. Reid, Printing from July to December,
1857 ..................................
£213 8 6
" Do. Do. December to July, 1858..
201 13 0
------------ 415
1 G
" Paid Postage, Secretary...................... 9
15 5
Do. Treasurer......................
5 10 6
Do. A. Reid ......................
25 9 8
------------ 40 15 7
" Paid Circulars, Account Books, &c........................ 13
6 6
" Paid Secretary's Salary, One Year, due August, 1858 ......
25 0 0
" Paid Reporter's Salary, One Year, due August, 1858........
12 12 0
" Paid for Advertising ..................................
9 0 6
" Paid Laws and Glynn for Fossils........................
150 0 0
" Paid Dr. Richardson : Analysis of Turkish Coal ..........
6 6 0
" Paid Insurance on Property to Norwich Insurance Company.
0 16 6
" Interest on Deposit of £600 in District Bank, not received ..
24 0 0
By Balance in Hands of Treasurer.........................«
638 19 0
£1,335 17 7
PATRONS
His Grace the Duke of Northumberland.
The Right Honourable the Earl of Lonsdale.
The Right Honourable the Earl Grey.
The Right Honourable the Earl of Durham.
The Right Honourable Lord Wharncliffe.
The Right Honourable Lord Ravensworth.
The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Durham.
The Very Reverend the Dean and Chapter of Durham.
The Venerable Archdeacon Thorpe, the Warden of Durham
University. Wentworth B. Beaumont, Esq., M.P.
OFFICERS, 1858-9.
NICHOLAS WOOD, Hetton Hall, Fence Houses.
WILLIAM ANDERSON, Dene House, South Shields. THOMAS JOHN TAYLOR, Earsdon,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. ROBT. STEPHENSON, M.P., 24, Great George St.,
Westminster, S.W. EDWARD POTTER, Cramlington, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
entrant
WILLIAM BARKTTS, Low Fell, Gateshead.
CUTH. BERKLEY, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead.
CHARLES CARR, Seghill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
G. B. FORSTER, Cramlington, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
G. C. GREEN WELL, Radstock, Bath, Somersetshire.
T. W. JOBBING, Point Pleasant, Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
J. R. LIDDELL, Killingworth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
MATTHEW LIDDELL, Benton Grange, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
JOHN MARLEY, Mining Offices, Darlington.
JOHN MIDDLETON, Davison's Hartley Office, Quay, Newcastle.
P. S. REID, Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street, Fence Houses.
ED WD. SINCLAIR, Morpeth, Northumberland.
€mmm.
EDWARD BOYD, Moor House, Durham.
$tmkx\
THOMAS DOUBLEDAY, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
John Alexander, Esq., Mining Inspector, Glasgow. John J. Atkinson, Esq.,
Mining Inspector, Bowburn, Durham. Lionel Brough, Esq., Mining Inspector.
Joseph Dickinson, Esq., Mining Inspector, Manchester, Lancashire. Matthias
Dunn, Esq., Mining Inspector, 5, St. Thomas' Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Thomas Evans, Esq., Mining Inspector, South Wales. Goldsworthy Gurney, Esq.,
Bude Castle, Cornwall. John Hedley, Esq., Mining Inspector, Derby,
Derbyshire. Peter Higson, Esq., Mining Inspector, Ridgefield, Lancashire. H.
G. Longridge, Esq., Mining Inspector. Charles Morton, Esq., Mining
Inspector, Wakefield, Yorkshire. Edward Shipperdson, Esq., South Bailey,
Durham. Robert Williams, Esq., Mining Inspector, 37, Queen's Street,
Edinburgh. Thomas Wynne, Esq., Mining Inspector, Longton, North
Staffordshire. De Von Decken, Berghauphnan, Bonn, Prussia. Mons. de
Boureialle, Paris, France. Geheimerbergrath Von Carnell, Berlin. Baron Von
Humboldt, Potsdam, Prussia. Mons. Gonot, Mons, Belgium. Mons. de Vaux,
Inspector-General of Mines, Brussels.
tmt of 3fHflnto-
MEMBERS
1 Adams, W., Ebw Vale Works, Newport, Monmouthshire.
2 Anderson, W., Dene House, South Shields, County of Durham.
3 Anderson, C. W., St. Hilda's Colliery, South Shields, County of Durham.
4 Arkless, B., Tantoby, Gateshead, County of Durham.
5 Arkley, G. W.. Harton Colliery, South Shields, County of Durham.
6 Armstrong, Jun., W., Wingate Grange, Ferry Hill, County of Durham.
7 Ashworth, Thomas, Poynton, Cheshire.
8 Atkinson, J., Coleford, Gloucestershire.
9 Attwood, Charles, Towlaw, Darlington, County of Durham.
10 Bailey, W. W., Kilburn, near Derby, Derbyshire.
11 Barkus, W.; Low Fell, Gateshead, County of Durham.
12 Barkus, Jun., Wm., Eighton Lodge, Gateshead, County of Durham.
13 Barrass, T., Great Burdon, Darlington, County of Durham.
14 Bartholomew, C, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
15 Bassett, A., Tredegar Mineral Estate Office, Cardiff, Glamorganshire.
16 Beacher, E., Thorncliffe and Chapeltown Collieries, Sheffield,
Yorkshire.
17 Bell, John, INormanby Mines, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
18 Bell, I. L., Washington, Gateshead, County of Durham.
19 Bell, T., Shincliffe Colliery, Ferry Hill, County of Durham.
20 Berkley, C, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead, County of Durham.
21 Bewick, J., Grosmont, Whitby, Yorkshire.
22 Bigland, J., Bowdon Close Colliery, Bishop Auckland, County of Durham.
(xix)
23 Binns, C, Clay cross, Derbyshire.
24 Bolckow, H. W. F., Middlesbro'-on-Tees, Yorkshire.
25 Bourne, P., Whitehaven, Cumberland.
26 Bourne, S., Shelton Colliery and Iron Works, Stoke-on-Trent,
Staffordshire.
27 Boyd, E. F., Moor House, Durham.
28 Braithwaite, Thos., Eglinton Iron Works, Kilwinning-, Ayrshire.
29 Brown, J., Bank Top, Darlington, County of Durham.
30 Brown, J., Barnsley, Yorkshire.
31 Brown, J., Whitwell Colliery, County of Durham.
32 Burn, D., Busy Cottage Iron Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
33 Byram, B. Wentworth, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
34 Cadwallader, R., Ruabon Colliery, Wrexham, Denbighshire.
35 Carr, Chas., Seg'hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Northumberland.
36 Carr, Wm. Cochrane, Blaydon, Newcastle.
37 Chapman, G., West Auckland Colliery, Bishop Auckland, County of Durham.
38 Charlton, G. Little Town Colliery, County of Durham.
39 Clark, W. S., Aberdare, Glamorganshire.
40 Cochrane, A. B., 42, Leazes Terrace, Newcastle.
41 Cochrane, C, Ormsby Iron Works, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
42 Cockburn, Wm., Hutton Mines, Guisbro', Yorkshire.
43 Cole, W. R., Bebside Colliery, Morpeth, Northumberland.
44 Cooper, Phillip, Grange, Durham.-------
45 Cope, J., King Swinford, Dudley, Worcestershire.
46 Cordner, R., Crawley Side, Stanhope, Weardale.
47 Cossham, R., Shortwood Lodge, Bristol, Somersetshire.
48 Coulson, W., Crossgate Foundry, Durham.
49 Cowen, Jos., Blaydon Burn, Newcastle.
50 Coxon, F., Shelton Colliery Iron Works, Stoke, Staffordshire.
51 Coxon, S. B., Usworth Colliery, Gateshead.
52 Crawford, T., South Road, Durham.
53 Crawford, Jun., T., Little Town Colliery, Durham.
54 Crawhall, E. G., Weldon Bridge, Morpeth.
55 Creswick, Theophilus Merthyr Tydvil, South Wales.
56 Crone, S. C, Pontop Colliery, Gateshead.
57 Croudace, J., Washington Colliery, Gateshead.
58 Curry, Thomas, Cassop Colliery, Ferry Hill.
(XX)
59 Daglish, J., Seaton Colliery, Fence Houses.
60 Davidson, A., Hastings House, Seaton Delaval, Newcastle.
61 Day, J. W., Pelaw House, Chester-le-Street, Fence Houses.
62 Deane, John, Tranent, North Britain.
63 Dees, J. Whitehaven, Cumberland.
64 Dixon, Geo., Whitehaven, Cumberland.
65 Dixon, G. Cockfield, Staindrop, County of Durham.
66 Dobson, S. Treforest, Pontypool, Glamorganshire.
67 Dodd, Benj. Blaenaron, Newport, Monmouthshire.
68 Douglas, T., Pease's West Collieries, Darlington.
69 Dumolo, J., Danton House, Coleshill, Warwickshire.
70 Dunn, T., Eichmond Hill, Sheffield, Yorkshire.
71 Easton, J., Hebburn Colliery, Gateshead.
72 Elliot, G., Houghton-le-Spring, Fence Houses.
73 Elliott, W., Etherley Colliery, Darlington.
74 Embleton, T. W., Middleton Hall, Leeds, Yorkshire.
75 Errington,------, C.E., Westminster, London, S.W.
76 Evans, J., Dowlais Iron Works, Merthyr Tydvil, South Wales.
77 Fletcher, Jos., C.E., Dawson Place, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
78 Foord, J. B., General Mining Association Secretary, 52, Broad Street,
London.
79 Forster, J. H., Old Elvet, Durham.
80 Forster, G. B., Cramlington Hall, Newcastle.
81 Gilroy, G., Orrell Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire.
82 Gooch, G., Lintz Colliery, Gateshead.
83 Green, G., Eainton Colliery, Fence Houses.
84 Greene, Jun., Wm., Framwellgate Colliery, Durham.
85 Greener, W., Pendleton, Wigan, Lancashire.
86 Greenwell, G. C, Radstock Colliery, Bath, Somersetshire,
87 Haggie, P., West Street, Gateshead.
88 Hall, T. Y., Eldon Square, Newcastle.
89 Hall, William, Page Bank Colliery, Crook, Darlington.
90 Hann, W., Hetton, Fence Houses.
91 Hardy, Benj., Woodhouse Close Colliery, Durham.
92 Harker, Francis G., South Durham Iron Works, Darlington.
(xxi)
93 Harris, Jno., C.E., Woodside, Darlington.
94 Harrison, C.E., T. E., Central Station, Newcastle.
95 Hawthorn, R., Engineer, Newcastle.
96 Hawthorn, W., Engineer, Newcastle.
97 Heckels, R., Bunker's Hill, Fence Houses.
98 Hodgson, R., Engineer, Whitburn, Monkwearmouth, Sunderland.
99 Holdsworth, Joseph, Edinburgh.
100 Holt, J., Derby, Derbyshire.
101 Hopper, A. F., West Auckland Colliery, Darlington.
102 Horsley, Jun., W., Seaton Cottage, Hartley, Newcastle.
103 Hunter, S., Tredegar Iron Works, Newport, Wales.
104 Hunter, Wm., Spital Tongues, Newcastle.
105 Hurst, T. G., Backworth Colliery, Newcastle.
106 James, Christopher, Llwynellyn Colliery, Meythyr Tydvil,
Glamorganshire.
107 Jeffcock, P., 3, Stuart Terrace, Green Hill, Derby, Derbyshire.
108 Jobling, T. W., Point Pleasant, Wallsend, Newcastle.
109 Johnson, G., Laffack Colliery, St. Helen's, Lancashire.
110 Johnson, J., Willington, Newcastle.
111 Johnson, R. S., West Hetton, Ferry Hill.
112 Joicey, James, Quay, Newcastle.
113 Joicey, John, Tanfield Lea, Gateshead.
114 Jones, E., Lilleshall Iron Works, Sheffnall, Salop.
115 Kimpster, W., Quay, Newcastle.
116 Knowles, A., Crescent, Salford, Manchester, Lancashire.
117 Knowles, J., Pendlebury, Manchester, Lancashire.
118 Laurent, Francois, 19, Eldon Square, Newcastle.
119 Laws, J., Blyth, Northumberland.
120 Ledward, William J., South Bank Iron Works, Eston Junction,
Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
121 Levick, Jun., F., Cwm Celyn, Blaina and Colebrook Dale Iron Works,
Newport, Monmouthshire.
122 Lewes, T. Wm., Plymouth Iron Works, Merthyr Tydvil, Glamorganshire.
123 Liddell, J. R., Killingworth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
124 Liddell, M., Benton Grange, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
(xxii)
125 Lishman, Wm., Etherley Colliery, Darlington.
126 Llewellin, Wm., Glanwern, Pontypool, Glamorganshire.
127 Locke, C, Rothwell Haigh, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
128 Locke, M.P., Jos., Westminster, London, S.W.
129 Longridge, J., 18, Abingdon Street, Westminster, London, S.W.
130 Love, Joseph, Brancepeth Colliery, Durham.
131 Low, Wm., Vron Colliery, Wrexham, Denbighshire.
132 Marley, John, Mining Offices, Darlington.
133 Marshall, Robt., Wylam Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
134 Matthews, Richd., South Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
135 Mc'Ghie, Thos., British Iron Works, Ruabon, Denbighshire.
136 Mercer, J., St. Helen's, Lancashire.
13? Middleton, J., Davison's Hartley Office, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
138 Morton, H., Lambton, Fence Houses.
139 Morton, H. J., 2, Basinghall, Leeds, Yorkshire.
140 Morton, H. T., Lambton, Fence Houses.
141 Mulcaster, H., Blackley Hurst Colliery, St. Helen's, Lancashire.
142 Mulvany, Wm. Thos., 1335, Carls Thor, Dusseldorf on the Rhine;Prussia.
143 Mundle, W., Ryton, Gateshead.
144 Murray, T., Chester-le-Street, Fence Houses.
145 Palmer, A. S., Westminster Colliery, Wrexham, Denbighshire.
146 Palmer, C. M., Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
147 Palmer, J. B., Jarrow, South Shields.
148 Paton, Wm., Alloa Colliery, Alloa, North Britain.
149 Peace, Wm., Hague Cottage, Wigan, Lancashire.
150 Pearce, F. H., Bowling Iron Works, Bradford, Yorkshire.
151 Pease, J. Wm., Woodlands, Darlington.
152 Pilkington, Wm., St. Helens, Lancashire.
153 Plews, H. T., Bedale, Yorkshire.
154 Plummer, B., 5, Elswick Villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
155 Plummer, Jun., R., Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
156 Potter, E., Cramlington, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
157 Potter, W. A., Mount Osborne Collieries, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
158 Powell, T., Newport, Monmouthshire.
159 Ramsay, J., Walbottle Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
(xxiii)
160 Ravenshaw, J. H., Seaham Harbour, Fence Houses.
161 Reed, R. G., Cowpen Colliery, Blyth, Northumberland.
162 Reed, Wm., Cowpen, Bedlington, Morpeth.
163 Reid, P. S., Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street, Fence Houses.
164 Richardson, Dr., Portland Place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
165 Robinson, R., Stanley Colliery, Pease's West, Darlington.
166 Robson, J. G., Old Park Hall, Ferry Hill.
167 Robson, G., Tondu Iron Works, Bridge-end, Glamorganshire.
168 Robson, M. B., Field House, Borough Road, Sunderland.
169 Rogers, E., Abercarne Colliery, Newport, Monmouthshire.
170 Ross, A., Shipcote Colliery, Gateshead.
171 Rosser, Wm., Mineral Surveyor, Llanelly, Carmarthenshire, Wales.
172 Routledge, Jun., Wm., Shincliffe Colliery, Durham.
173 Rutherford, J., South Tyne Colliery, Haltwhistle, Northumberland.
174 Sanderson, Jun., R. B., West Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
175 Sawyers, W. G., Whitehaven, Cumberland.
176 Seymour, A., Farnacres Colliery, Gateshead.
177 Shortreed, T., Newbottle Colliery, Fence Houses.
178 Simpson, L., Medomsley Colliery, Durham.
179 Simpson, R., 7, Quay, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
180 Sinclair, E., Morpeth, Northumberland.
181 Smith, C. F. S., Derby, Derbyshire.
182 Smith, F., Bridgewater Canal Office, Manchester, Lancashire.
183 Smith, Jun., J., Monkwearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
184 Sbpwith, T., Allenheads, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
185 Southern, G. W., Springwell Colliery Gateshead.
186 Southern, J. M., Whickham Grange, Gateshead.
187 Spark, H. K., Darlington, County of Durham.
188 Spencer, Jun., W., Corporation Road, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
189 Steavenson, A. L., Woodifield Colliery, Crook, Darlington.
190 Stenson, W., Whitwick Colliery, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire.
191 Stenson, Jun., W.; Whitwick Colliery, Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
Leicestershire.
192 Stephenson, M.P., Robt., 24, Great George Street, Westminster, London,
S.W.
193 Stobart, H. S., Etherley, Darlington.
194 Stobart, Wm., Roker, Monkwearmouth, Sunderland.
(xxiv)
195 Storey, T., St. Helen's Auckland, Bishop Auckland.
196 Stott, R., Ferry Hill, County of Durham.
197 Taylor, H., Earsdon, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
198 Taylor, H., Backworth Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
199 Taylor, J., Haswell Colliery, Durham.
200 Taylor, T. J., Earsdon, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
201 Telford, W., Cramlington, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
202 Thomas, H. W., Pinchinthorpe, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
203 Thomas, J. T., Coleford, Gloucestershire.
204 Thomas, W., Bogilt, Holywell, Flintshire.
205 Thompson, John, Marley Hill Colliery, Gateshead.
206 Thompson, T. C, Kirkhouse, Brampton, Cumberland.
207 Thorpe, R. C, Bebside Colliery, Morpeth.
208 Tone, C.E., John F., Market Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
209 Trotter, J., Newnham, Gloucestershire.
210 Vaughan, J., Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
211 Vaughan, Thos., Middleshro'-on-Tees.
212 Vaughan, William, Middlesbro'-on-Tees.
213 Wales, J., Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
214 Wales, T. E., Abersychan Iron Works, Pontypool, Monmouthshire.
215 Walker, J. Lakelock, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
216 Walker, Jun., T., High Street, Maryport, Cumberland.
217 Ware, W. H., The Ashes, Stanhope, Weardale.
218 Watson, W., High Bridge, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
219 Webster, R. C, Hoyland Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
220 Willis, Jas., West Auckland Colliery, Bishop Auckland.
221 Wilmer, F., Pensher Colliery, Fence Houses.
222 Wilson, J. B., Hay dock Rope Works, Warrington, Lancashire.
223 Wilson, R., Flimby Colliery, Maryport, Cumberland.
224 Wood, C. L., Black Boy Colliery, Bishop Auckland.
225 Wood, Lindsay, Hetton Colliery, Fence Houses.
226 Wood, N., Hetton Hall, Fence Houses, County of Durham.
227 Wood, W. H., 2, Bentinck Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
228 Woodhouse, J. T., Midland Road, Derby, Derbyshire.
RULES
1.—That the Members of this Society shall consist of Ordinary Members, Life
Members, and Honorary Members.
2.—That the Annual Subscription of each Ordinary Member shall be £2 2s. 0d.,
payable in advance, and that the same shall be considered as due and payable
on the first Saturday of August in each year.
3.—That all persons who shall at one time make a Donation of £20 or upwards,
shall be Life Members.
4.—Honorary Members shall be persons who shall have distinguished themselves
by their Literary or Scientific attainments, or made important
communications to the Society.
5.—That a General Meeting of the Society shall be held on the first Thursday
of every Month, at twelve o'clock noon, and the General Meeting in the month
of August shall be the Annual Meeting, at which a report of the proceedings,
and an abstract of the accounts of the previous year shall be presented by
the Council. A Special Meeting of the Society may be called whenever the
Council shall think fit, and also on a requisition to the Council signed by
ten or more Members.
6.—No alteration shall be made in any of the Laws, Rules, or Regulations of
the Society, except at the Annual General Meeting, or at a Special Meeting;
and the particulars of every alteration to be then proposed shall be
announced at a previous General Meeting, and inserted in its minutes, and
shall be exhibited in the Society's meeting-room fourteen days previously to
such General Annual or Special Meeting.
7.—Every question which shall come before any Meeting of the Society shall
be decided by the votes of the majority of the Ordinary and Life Members
then present and voting.
8.—Persons desirous of being admitted into the Society as Ordinary or Life
Members, shall be proposed by three Ordinary or Life Members, or both, at a
General Meeting. The proposition shall be in writing, and signed by the
proposers, and shall state the name and residence of the individual
proposed, whose election shall be ballotted for at the next following
General Meeting, and during the interval notice of the proposition shall be
exhibited in the Society's-room. Every person proposed as an Honorary Member
must be recommended by at least five Members
(xxvi)
of the Society, and elected by ballot at the General Meeting next
succeeding. A majority of votes shall determine every election.
9.—The Officers of the Society shall consist of a President, four
Vice-Presidents, and twelve Members who shall constitute a Council for the
direction and management of the affairs of the Society; and of a Treasurer
and a Secretary; all of whom shall be elected at the Annual Meeting, and
shall be re-eligible, with the exception of Three Councillors whose
attendances have been fewest. Lists containing the names of all the persons
eligible having been sent by the Secretary to the respective Members, at
least a month previously to the Annual Meeting;—the election shall take
place by written lists, to be delivered by each voter in person to the
Chairman, who shall appoint scrutineers of the lists ; and the scrutiny
shall commence on the conclusion of the other business of the meeting. At
meetings of the Council, five shall be a quorum, and the record of the
Council's proceedings shall be at all times open to the inspection of the
members of the Society.
10.—The Funds of the Society shall be deposited in the hands of the
Treasurer, and shall be disbursed by him according to the direction of the
Council.
11.—The Council shall have power to decide on the propriety of communicating
to the Society any papers which may be received, and they shall be at
liberty, when they think it desirable to do so, to direct that any paper
read before the Society shall be printed. Intimation shall be given at the
close of each General Meeting on the subject of the paper or papers to be
read, and of the questions for discussion at the next meeting, and notice
thereof shall be affixed in the Society's-room ten days previously. The
reading of papers shall not be delayed beyond 3 o'clock, and if the election
of members or other business should not be sooner despatched, the President
may adjourn such business until after the discussion of the subject for the
day.
12.—That the Copyright of all papers communicated to and accepted by the
Institute, becomes vested in the Institute; and that such communications
shall not be published for sale, or otherwise, without the permission of the
Council.
It was resolved at the Annual Meeting, 6th August, I857, that an alteration
of Rule 5 should be tried for the twelve months next ensuing; during which
there shall be General Meetings only on the first Thursday, respectively, of
the months of October, December, February, April, June, and August; an
arrangement which was left unaltered by the Annual Meeting in August, 1858.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, OCTOBER 1, 1857, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
Nicholas Wood, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
The minutes of the Council having been read,
The President, after briefly referring to the minutes read, adverted
especially to two topics in them, viz., one with reference to the sale of
papers belonging the Institute, and the other to the necessity of altering
the time of the General Meetings. He ultimately concluded by moving the
following Resolutions, which were carried unanimously :—-
First,—" That no separate papers should be sold, or duplicate papers
delivered to the members except by special leave of the Council, such leave
to be granted only after consideration of each particular case."
Second,—" That in future the General Meetings of the Institute be held at
Noon instead of 1 o'clock, and that the Council, preparatory to such
Meeting, shall meet at 11 o'clock instead of 12 o'clock, as heretofore."
The meeting next proceeded with the election of gentlemen proposed at the
last meeting, as members, when the following were elected :—Mr. James,
Llwyncelyn Colliery, Merthyr Tydvil, South Wales; Mr. Francis G. Ilarker,
South Durham Iron-works, Darlington; Mr. Lindsay Wood, Hetton Colliery; Mr.
F. H. Pearce, Bowling Iron-works, near Bradford; Mr. Thomas McGee, British
Iron-works ; Mr. A. Eoss, Shipcote Colliery; Mr. W. R. Cole, Bebside
Colliery, Northumberland; Mr. John Bell, Normanby Mines, Middlesbro'; Mr. W.
Cockburn, Hutton Mines, Guis-bro'; Mr. Benjamin Dodd, Blaenavon, Newport,
Monmouth. Vol. VI.—October, 1857.
2
The President then called attention to the papers which stood for
discussion. The first was his own, on " the Underground Conveyance of
Coals/' and, as it was a subject of much importance, he would be glad to
hear any observations from gentlemen present. They would perceive that in
his paper he had given some experiments, illustrating the power and
capabilities of the several modes of conveyance described by him; but,
notwithstanding, he knew there were a great variety of modes adopted at
other collieries, and he hoped that gentlemen were prepared to give the
meeting 'some information respecting them. The subject of the paper was
worthy of discussion, as nothing was of such great importance as the
economical conveyance of coals underground in working coal mines
advantageously.
Mr. Greenwell begged to remark that in the practice in Somersetshire the
great object they sought to obtain was, to bring up the pits as great a
quantity of large coal as possible. They, however, found, from the peculiar
make of the tubs used in the Newcastle district, they could not do so
satisfactorily, as the effect of using deep tubs was to increase the
quantity of small coal, by the pressure of the large coals on the top. The
workmen found it their interest to heap the large coal upon the top of the
tub, and the deeper the tub the greater quantity of small coals produced.
For instance, if the tub was two feet deep, they would, perhaps, obtain
about 30 per cent, small coals; but, if it were only one foot deep, the
small would only be about half that quantity.
Mr. T. J. Taylor thought such a difference very great, as it appeared double
in one case to that of the other. The matter might be thus tested. They sent
the coals in chaldron waggons from the pits in the north to the ships; they
were then deposited in the hold of the ship, and afterwards sent to the
London market, and then lifted out of the ship into the barges by baskets,
and yet they found they did not make more than 10 per cent, of small coals.
Mr. Barkus was of opinion that the size of the shaft determined the length
and size of the tub. A tub a foot deep would occupy a large superficial
area.
Mr. Greenwell—If they looked at the quantity of small coals they obtained by
a deep tub, they would find it very considerable; and, on the other hand,
when the tub was shallow they were sure to obtain a greater proportion of
large coal.
Mr. Taylor—The men put more small coal in deep than in shallow tubs; but was
that the only reason why there was such an additional quantity ?
3
Mr. Greenwell—Yes: probably so.
Mr. Marley thought, in low seams, that the quantity of small coal produced
depended much upon the height of the tub, as compared with, the height of
the seam. .If the tub was reduced in height, so as to increase the space
between the top of the tub and the roof of the coal, he was of opinion that
they would get better weight and a lnrger class of coal. If, for instance,
they reduced the tub from two feet six inches to two feet, they would get
more space from the top of the tub to the roof, and so prevent the breakage
of coals to get them into the tubs.
Mr. Longridge said, to carry 10 cwt. of coal it required a tub six feet by
four feet. He would, however, like to know the size of the tubs used in Mr.
Greenwell's district.
Mr. Greenwell—They were four feet eleven inches by two feet four inches, and
one foot eight inches in height, and by them they raised 10 cwts. of coal.
Mr. Atkinson, referring to the subject of the paper under consideration, and
to the number of horses employed underground, asked what would be the fewest
number of horses, which would justify the adoption of a steam-engine
underground, under ordinary circumstances?
The President thought that a difficult question to answer, as it depended so
much on the situation where the engine was to be placed but, in favourable
situations, he had arrived at the conclusion that where a saving of three or
four horses could be effected, it would be desirable
to erect a steam-engine.
Mr. Atkinson—Had they to understand by this, that four horses were the
lowest number. If that were so, they would find that, with the yearly cost
of a horse—say, £60—and with drivers and other expenses, wear and tear of
horses, &c, the four horses might be estimated at £300 per annum. Would it
not, however, be a difficult thing to get an engine to do the work of four
horses for a less sum.
The President replied that, supposing the horses to cost, with keep, wear
and tear, drivers, &c, £300 per annum, yet still he thought an engine would
be cheaper, and would not cost more than about £200 capital, and would do
more work than five horses.
Mr. Barkus—But a good deal would depend upon the duration of the district,
with reference to the capital employed.
The President—The engines are now constructed in so little bulk that they
could be removed at the end of the week, when the pits are off
4
work; and, as to the duration of the coal of any district, the capital
employed was the only question for consideration, and five horses would cost
more than one engine.
Mr. Barkus—But they could sell the horses after they were done with them, at
the same price.
The President—His experience showed him otherwise. He could never sell a
horse for the same money he gave for him, after he had been at work in a
pit. The engine was comparatively less reduced in value by use.
After some further discussion on the subject,The President said, as it
appeared to be the wish of the meeting-that the discussion should be
adjourned, he would not trouble the meeting further. He had not, in his
paper, given the cost of working, but if they were prepared to discuss that
point, or any other matter, it would be more advisable to adjourn the
discussion, and the members would then come prepared with estimates. The
question was an extremely important one. Before closing the discussion, as
he understood that Mr. Reid had an engine at work at the Pelton Colliery,
different from any he had described, he would take the liberty of asking Mr.
Reid what description of engine it was ?
Mr. Reid—The mode they adopted at Pelton was similar to that at Marley Hill
Colliery, which he thought was taken from that of Pelton, and added that,
with reference to the substitution of engine power for horses, a great deal
depended on the description of horses. For his part, he was more favourable
to ponies than large cart horses.
The President stated that the Marley Hill engine was similar in principle to
one erected on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, by the late Mr. George
Stephenson.
Mr. T. J. Taylor thought unless they went closely into the subject of cost
in underground conveyance, they had better defer the discussion, as there
were many circumstances to be taken into consideration.
The President thought so, certainly, but begged to observe that there was
one feature in the experiments given in his paper which was worthy of
observation, and that was the quantity of steam used compared with the
quantity of water evaporated. The experiments, on the., ordinary engines
drawing coals, gave not more than 30 per cent, of effective service. That
was important, as the conclusion resulting from the experiments was, that by
raising the steam to a high pressure in the first instance, and working it
expansively, there would result a saving of
5
fuel and a much greater useful effect. Low pressure steam held in suspension
a much greater quantity of water, comparatively, than high pressure steam.
The experiments showed that not more than 30 per cent, of the water
evaporated passed through the cylinders as steam, of the pressure indicated
by the elasticity of the steam in the boilers.
Mr. Atkinson stated, that if the experiments showed that only thirty per
cent, of the water, heated in the boiler, operated in the engine, as
effective steam, and, consequently, that the remaining seventy per cent, of
such water was lost to that purpose, while it would certainly indicate that
a considerable saving of fuel might be effected by increasing the quantity
of effective steam, and thereby reducing the quantity of water so lost, by
adopting any precautionary measures to effect that object. Yet it should be
borne in mind, that the saving in fuel would fall far short of the same
proportion, or seventy per cent., because, if we take a case for example,
when the working pressure on the safety valves is is about 30Ibs. per square
inch, (above the pressure of the atmosphere), then if the water supplied to
the boiler be at a temperature of 50°, the heat to be imparted to the water,
to convert it into operative steam, would be about (276° - 50° =) 226° +
972° = 1198°; while the heat imparted to the water, which is not actually
converted into operative steam, would only be about (276° — 50°) = 226°; and
the fuel required to effect the latter would be less than one-fifth of the
fuel required to convert the water into operative steam, taking equal
quantities of water in the two cases, there being about 972° absorbed as
latent heat by that part of the water which is converted into operative
steam, over and above the 226°, which is all that is required to raise the
temperature of that part of the water which is lost by priming and by
condensation, from its original temperature of 50° to 276°. In the case of
seventy per cent, of the water not operating as steam, if we take the fuel
consumed as 1198 x 30 + 226 x 70 = 51,760, then, if the whole of the water
could be rendered operative as steam, the fuel would be reduced to 1198 x 30
= 35,940, being a saving of
(51,760 - 35,940) x 100 QA _ + , •-. , .
-i—i——-^t^ft^----------= 30'6 per cent, only, in fuel.
The Chairman—With regard to the water which passed through the cylinders in
suspension with low pressure steam, the latent heat required to raise the
whole of the water into steam was not, of course, wasted, as the water
passed through the cylinders without being raised into steam, but the fuel
required to raise that water from 50° to 276° was wasted.
6
Mr. Thos. J. Taylor—That was another reason showing* how neees^ sary it was
for some experiments to be tried.
The President stated, he did not think the entire economy of using-high
pressure steam expansively, in low pressure condensing- engines had been
fully developed. He was of opinion that, if properly arranged,, there would
be a great saving by raising the steam to a high pressure first, and
allowing it to expand to the required pressure, either in the cylinder or in
a reservoir. The old haystack boilers were better adapted for the complete
separation of the water from the steam, than the cylindrical boilers, from
their great capacity, as a reservoir for steam, and from the steam passing
out of the top of the large dome of the boiler, and being-almost in a
comparative state of rest on the surface of the water, little water is
carried off with the steam; whereas, in the ordinary cylindrical boilers
without domes, the steam passes out of the boiler, or in contact with the
water at a high velocity, and, consequently, a larger quantity of water is
carried off.
Mr. Greenwell stated they formerly used the haystack boilers, but they had
substituted the cylindrical; in the haystack boilers they never had a case
of priming.
Mr. Atkinson would be sorry to see the old haystack boilers introduced
again, as they might attain what was required in the cylindrical by placing
upon them high domes, or even elevated steam jugs.
The President had done so both in colliery and in marine boilers,, he had
placed domes at the top of the boiler and found they used a less-quantity of
coals. The matter, therefore, was worth some attention.
Mr. Barkus knew a case, which was by putting a small cup upon the boiler, by
which the steam was made to go in side-ways, and since then they never had
any symptom of priming.
The President thought it ought not to be called simply priming*, it was, in
fact, carrying off the water out of the boiler, if they diminished the
velocity they would partially cure the evil. But, independently of that, it
was quite clear that low pressure steam held in suspension, mechanically, a
much greater proportion of water than high pressure steam, the only
economical cure for which was to use high pressure steam expansively in
condensing engines.
Mr. Barkus—With respect to the high pressure, he thought that after raising
the steam to a certain degree of pressure, a certain quantity of heat passed
off into the atmosphere. But, if they raised the steam to a very high
pressure, a less comparative quantity of heat passed off,
Mr. Thos. J. Taylor—If Mr. Barkus meant there was more latent
7
heat retained, that was an argument in favour of high pressure steam. The
subject here dropped, after which the following discussion took place on Mr.
Marley's paper " On the Cleveland Ironstone."
The President opened the discussion by observing that the subject was one of
great importance, comprising, as it did, an investigation of the mineral
resources of a district which, until comparatively very recently, had been
almost entirely unexplored; and a district which had effected a, complete
revolution in the commercial features of the north-eastern part of Yorkshire
and southern part of the county of Durham, and which would materially
interfere with the other iron producing districts of the kingdom; he would,
therefore, be glad to hear any observations on Mr. Marley's paper.
Mr. Marley begged to say that in the information already given he detected a
clerical error in page 183, at the fourth line from the bottom, where he had
used the words " this main bed" instead of " the top bed."
Mr. Thos. J. Taylor felt great interest regarding Mr. Marley's paper. He for
one thought it was not only of local but of national importance, as, if the
discovery of the ironstone in Cleveland had not been made, the country would
have fallen into the back-ground as regarded the production of iron. The
entire produce last year was seven millions of tons, and the demand was at
present greater than the supply. It,was, therefore, clear the market would
have to be supplied from some other quarter than home unless they had made
the discovery. He, however, wished to ask a question of Mr. Marley, although
not strictly within his province to answer, because it was a commercial
question, though one of great importance. The question was this:—Was iron
made from the Cleveland stone at a lower cost of production than that from
clay ironstone under similar circumstances ?
Mr. Marley said, certainly the iron made from Cleveland stone was cheaper
than that made from clay ironstone • but he did not feel himself at liberty
to express an opinion as to whether it was made best and cheapest at
Middlesbro', or in what other part of the ClevelaW district, as the question
was a disputed one, and, at the same time, one in which a great many
interests were involved in the answer.
Mr. Potter—It was undoubtedly a comparative question; and, perhaps, Mr.
Marley could say whether it was made cheaper at Middlesbro' than at other
places 1 Mr. T. J. Taylor said that he did not refer to any particular
place. The President to Mr. Taylor — You referred generally to the
8
comparison of the Cleveland stone, with the clay ironstone. The strongest
case for comparison, as regarded cheapness of production, was in the Consett
Iron-works. These works were placed on the Lanchester Common where the
ordinarj clay ironstone abounded, and which was as cheaply worked as at any
place, as it was worked within twenty fathoms of the surface, and, he
believed, worked for from 8s. to 9s. per ton, which he thought was below the
average price for working clay ironstone. Before the discovery of :he
Cleveland stone these works were entirely supplied with clay ironstone,
worked in the vicinity of the works, but at present they did not use any
clay ironstone, but brought the Cleveland stone from a distance of about
fifty miles. This he considered a strong case.
Mr. Thos. J. Taylor—But not a satisfactory one, because they could not
obtain the quantity of clay ironstone they wanted. It was well known that
clay ironstone made better iron than the Cleveland ironstone.
The President—The want of clay ironstone was not the difficulty, as they
could work what quantity they required, and there was a supply for a great
number of years. It was entirely a question of cost. They mixed some
hematite ore with the Cleveland stone, and made, he believed, a very good
quality of iron. It appeared, however, that a mixture of clay ironstone with
the ironstone of Cleveland greatly improved the quality of the iron.
Mr. Barkus understood that the clay ironstone yielded from twenty to thirty
per cent., while that described by Mr. Marley yielded about thirty-five per
cent.
Mr. Marley—Undoubtedly he stated the yield of the Cleveland stone to be 35
per cent., but, still, in general the yield was not more than 33 J per cent.
With reference to what the President said respecting Consett clay ironstone
being worked at 8s. per ton, he had not seen any account of it, but, from
his experience of working ironstone, when it was debited with everything, it
would not cost less than 10s. per ton. Taking, therefore, the railway
carriage into account, the Cleveland stone would be the cheapest; the
ordinary clay ironstone did not yield more than from 28 to 33 per cent.,
except in particular instances.
The President—-When he said 8s. per ton, he was aware that it was below the
average, and that generally the clay ironstone would cost more, but its
quality was, no doubt, generally superior.
Mr. Longridge thought it was stated that the clay ironstone was three per
cent, better than the Cleveland stone in the yield ?
9
Mr. Thos. J. Taylor stated that some nodules realized from 38 to 40 per
cent.
The President here presented for examination a specimen of ironstone, formed
(as he said), of globules of iron cemented by silicious matter, and which
was highly magnetic, from the Rosedale beds; after which he proceeded to
observe, that according to Mr. Marley's paper the general features of the
district were a top and a main bed, with a great mass of shale intervening,
from 150 to 250 feet in thickness, and this might be deemed the general
geological characteristic of the entire district.
Mr. Marley begged to say that the so-called top seam was in some places
divided, and about four feet in thickness, and consisted of thin bands and
nodules, interstratified with shale.
Mr. Forster—The main bed occurred throughout the whole district, but was
most extensively worked at Eston.
The President—But, looking at the general featui'es of the district, there
were two beds, with a very thick mass of shale intervening, and, it appeared
to him, that the upper bed increased in thickness southward, and was also
richer. It did not occur at Eston, but at Staiths it did, and the quality
there was superior to the main bed at Eston. With regard to the quality of
the main bed he believed the reverse was the fact, viz., that the quality
was superior in the north, and that it was divided, and inferior towards the
south. Mr. Marley also stated there was a third regular bed at Ingleby, of
less thickness than the top and main bands, and not so valuable, owing to
its being divided by bands of shale. He had had occasion to go through the
Rosedale district recently, and had examined the ironstone there, especially
the quarry alluded to in Mr. Marley's paper, in which an analysis is given
of what is called the top stone. At this place there is exhibited a sort of
deposit of very rich magnetic ironstone in connection with the top bed of
the Cleveland district. The top bed occurs all arOund the valley of
Rosedale, cropping out to the surface all around the crest of the valley.
But in some parts of the yalley, in addition to this bed, and distinct from
it, was this other bed or mass of ironstone, which, as yet, had not been
fully developed, and it was not yet clearly ascertained whether it was a
regular bed or a casual deposit. It was, certainly, neither the top nor main
bands, nor yet the third bed, alluded to by Mr. Marley. Its general
character was nodular, and it was destitute of shells, and was highly
magnetic, which was not the case with either the main or the top bands. An
inspection of the quarry alluded Vol. VI.—October, 1857.
10
to by Mr. Marley showed that it differed from the other stones in this'
respect, that while the top and main seams were connected or interspersed
with layers of shale, this bed was devoid of shale, and was one uniform mass
of ironstone, nodular, and forty to fifty feet in thickness, and magnetic.
The position was distinct from that of the top bed, which, as previously
stated, occurred all around the crest of the valley. The drift was set in to
ascertain whether it was a continuous bed or a casual deposit, and, so far
as the drift had proceeded, and which was about 100 yards, the character was
the same as in the quarry, and about the same thickness. This drift had
passed through a slip dyke, which, he thought, ran parallel with the valley;
and, he believed, that the occurrence of the outcrop of this deposit in the
quarry was the result of that slip throwing the stone out to the surface.
There, also, was another locality, about two miles up the valley, where a
deposit of a similar description of stone was found, but it had not yet been
fully explored, though an exploring drift was at present being made. At the
quarry a drift had been driven about 100 yards, and it was intended to drive
it 100 yards further, with the view of ascertaining whether it was
continuous or not, and, if it extended to a distance, or was a casual
deposit. It was, certainly, an extraordinary mass of ironstone, was much
more rich in yield than either of the three beds in the district, and, as I
have before stated, was devoid of shells, and was highly magnetic.
Mr. Makley replied, that the top seam was at Eston, but divided. As to
quality, he apprehended the President's remarks applied to per centages, or
quantity, more than to quality. And, as regards the Rose-dale Abbey
ironstone, was it a bed or a vein ?
The President—It was certainly not a vein, and occurring in localities two
miles apart, and having been found to exist 100 yards in extent, and above
50 feet in thickness, in one locality it appertained more towards a bed than
a vein. It was possible that it might partake of the nature of the hematic
ironstone formation of Cumberland, which, though not always continuous, was
of great extent. It was certainly entirely distinct from the other beds of
the district.
Mr. Marley wished to ask the President if he considered that what he (Mr.
M.) termed magnetic ironstone, was distinct from the top seam, which he (Mr.
M.) held the ironstone, two miles up the valley, to be 1 And, if so, whether
it was below or above the main bed ? The President—It was above the main
bed.
Mr. Marley—The next question he asked was whether the stone in Rosedale was
ascertained to be a bed or a casual deposit ?
The President—That had not yet been ascertained. Professor Phillips and
himself had examined it at the same tMe? and hadj given directions for
certain explorings to be made to ascertain this fact, but they had not yet
been sufficiently advanced to speak with certainty on this subject. All that
had yet been ascertained was that it occurred in two localities two miles
apart, and that at one of those it was 150 yards in width, and from forty to
fifty feet in thickness.
Mr. Marley thought they would perceive a difference between the per centage
of the stone in the drift, and that of the quarry, as, also, of that two
miles up the valley.
The President replied that there was no doubt a variety in the analyses
which depended much upon what specimens they employed in the analyses, but
so far as Professor Phillips's inquiries and his own went, they did not
discover any difference. The great test of the superior quality of the
ironstone was in the produce of iron in the smelting, and as some thousand
tons of it had been smelted, there was no doubt of its superior yield over
that of other beds.
Mr. Marley was inclined to believe that this mass of stone was a casual
deposit, and that it still remained to be proved that it was a bed.
The President would take the liberty of alluding to another point in Mr.
Marley's paper, further north. Mr. Marley had given a section of the coal
measures at Castle Eden, and had extended them towards the Tees, shewing the
coal measures in situ underneath the red sandstone in that locality, and as
it appeared from the sections not more than 100 fathoms underneath. Now, he
thought the coal measures lay at a greater angle than shown on the section,
and cropped out into the magnesian limestone before reaching the Tees, and
if so, coal would not be found on the South of the Tees.
Mr. Marley—It was a continuation of the coal strata from Castle Eden, and
the accuracy depended upon the inclination of the beds southward towards the
Tees, which has never yet been proved.
The President thought the inclination of the coal measures more rapid
southward than shown on the section, especially towards the crop, and that
the southern edge of the great coal basin of Durham crppped out into the
magnesian limestone, and did not pass underneath it. If he had drawn the
section he would have shown the coal measures passing into the magnesian
limestone and red sandstone between Castle Eden and the Tees.
Mr. Marley—If he looked at the diagram referred to, on page 219, he would
observe that the Oughton boring, which is 87^ fathoms deep,
12
is shown as not through the sandstone. He had it upon good authority, that
the five-four seam, supposing it went up to the lower red sandstone, Was not
distinct, whether it did so as an outcrop or a dip dyke.
The President—-His idea was this, that there was a " swally," or depression
in the coal measures running from the Auckland district through Rushyford
eastward. On the south side of that " swally" the coal measures rose
rapidly to the surface, as at Shildon and Cockfield Fell. Further east the
magnesian limestone deposit occurred, and there the coal measures cropped
out into the magnesian limestone, as at Trimdon and Wingate Grange district,
and that they did not pass underneath the Tees near the sea. Further
west, into Yorkshire, the magnesian limestone rested on the millstone grit,
showing the coal measures wanting. Mr. Reid—This might he the case except at
Boroughbridge. The President—The magnesian limestone was found, at
Knares-borough, resting on the millstone grit; the shale beds of the
latter forming the strata in which the mineral waters of Harrogate were
found. No coal measures, however, existed in that locality; whereas, further
north in Durham, the coal measures cropped out to the surface on the western
margin of the coal-field, and into the magnesian limestone eastwards. Mr.
Marley—The first was between Cockfield and Shildon. Mr. Barkus had examined
one place at Wensleydale, in the mountain limestone, and following these
beds down to Bedale, there it was found that the magnesian limestone rested
on the grit rocks.
The President—Magnesian limestone, being a subsequent and independent
deposit, rested upon almost all the older rocks in some localities or other;
and he believed that if the borings were continued sufficiently deep on the
south of the Tees at Redcar, they would meet with the millstone grit, and
not that part of the coal measures which contained the known beds of
workable coal. He could not, therefore, adopt Mr. Marley's views of the
subject, as shewn by his sections.
Mr. Marley pointed out that his paper merely went to show that the matter
"is, until proved, ideal, and only a possible fact;" and that, as yet, no
geological fact has been proved, which rendered the continuation of the coal
measures impossible.
At this stage of the proceedings Mr. T. Y. Hall's paper " Notes on the Coal
Production of France" was read, and the discussion was adjourned until the
meeting in December.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, DECEMBER 3, 1857, IN THE ROOMS OP THE INSTITUTE,
WE3TGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
Wi lliam Barkus, Esq., in the Chair.
The Chairman, on taking his seat, briefly apologized for the absence of the
President of the Institute, who was prevented from attending from
indisposition. No one regretted his absence more than himself, as his
presence and general usefulness always had great influence upon all their
meetings. He, therefore, hoped they would soon see their excellent President
speedily restored to health, and once more amongst them.
The Secretary having read the minutes of the Council, the following
gentlemen were elected members of the Institute:—Mr. George Dixon,
Whitehaven; Mr. Wm. J. Ledwood, South Bank Iron-works, Eston Junction,
Middlesbro'; Mr. John Thompson, sen., Marley Hill Colliery; Mr. John Dean,
Colliery Owner, Tranent, N.B.; Mr. Wm. Cochrane Carr, Blaydon; Mr. Wm.
Thomas Mulvany, 1335 Carls Thor, Dussel-dorf, Rhine, Prussia; Mr. P. Cooper,
Grange Colliery, Durham.
The Chairman then referred to the papers standing for discussion, but
observed that, in consequence of the absence of the President, Mr. Thos. J.
Taylor, and some other members, he thought it better to postpone them until
next meeting. In the meantime, Mr. J, Bewick, of Grosmont, would read a
paper.
Mr. Bewick, before proceeding with the paper, begged to observe that, before
writing his paper, he had not had an opportunity of reading the one read
some time ago by Mr. Marley on the Cleveland ironstone. Vol. VI.—December,
1857. o
14
The paper with the discussion only reached him on Saturday, and, in
consequence, he had no opportunity of referring to the paper of Mr. Marley
as he proceeded. However, after carefully reading- it along- with the
discussion, his conviction with regard to the original deposit of iron ore
was as unshaken as hefore the document was produced. He then read the paper
on the " Ore and Ironstone of Rosedale Abbey."
The Chairman said the meeting was much obliged to Mr. Bewick for his
interesting and valuable paper, but, in accordance with their rules, the
discussion of it must be brought on at some other meeting.
The meeting then broke up.
THE PRESIDENT'S PAPER ON THE CONVEYANCE OF COALS UNDERGROUND.
In this paper which was read before the Institute on February 5,1857, at
page 66, 6th line from bottom, for " And as the 4th is no doubt the
cheapest," &c, read " And as the 3rd."
REMARKS
on the
ORE A. N D IRONSTONE
OF
KOSEDALE ABBEY.
By MR. JOS. BEWICK.
After having had so recently brought before you, by Mr. Marley, an able and
full account of the ironstone of North Yorkshire, it may, perhaps, b,e
considered that any additional contribution on this subject is superfluous
and uncalled-for.* I, however, have thought that a further, though brief,
account of the ore and ironstone of Rosedale, at a, time when it is engaging
so much of the attention of the mining and iron manufacturing community,
might not be unacceptable to the members of this society. I have, therefore,
been induced, after bestowing much pains in personally examining that
singularly interesting deposit, the magnetic iron ore, as well as the
ironstone of the district, to lay before you the result of my
investigations.
I have been more particularly urged to do this from the circumstance of Mr.
Marley, in his paper, making the following remarks in reference to this ore,
that " the most feasible solution being that it is a disjointed patch of the
regular seam, known as the top seam, and not a vein, as has been said,"
feeling quite sure that if that gentleman had had time to make a more
careful examination of it, he would have arrived at a different conclusion.
This iron ore, which has of late created so great a sensation amongst
* I maY Just mention that when this paper was written the discussion on
Mr. Marley's paper had not reached me, which will account for its not being
referred to here.
Our geologists, ironmasters, and mining engineers, is found in one of those
beautiful and secluded dales for which the moorland districts of Korth
Yorkshire;are so celebrated, known by the name of Rosedale, being near to
the village of Rosedale Abbey, situated about ten miles to the north-east of
the town of Pickering, and about sixteen miles to the south-west of the port
of Whitby. The extraordinary excitement which the discovery of this iron ore
created arose not only from its great thickness and rich quality, but also
from a large portion of it being in its natural sta;e easily attracted by
the magnet. Although I had long heard this peculiar deposit much talked
about, and wonderful accounts from time to time reached me as to its amazing
thickness, extent, &c, it was not till June last that I was induced to visit
it. This apparent indifference on my part may be accounted for from the fact
of my having previously examined the most of the dales where the lias
formation is fully developed, and had arrived at the conclusion that out of
the two chief ironstone deposits which it contains, only one was of any real
commercial value, viz., that found in what is locally termed the marlstone
series, identical with the thick bed of Cleveland; the other, which I
thought was the one they had discovered in Rosedale, found intervening the
alum-shale and sandstone rock, being, in my opinion* too coarse and
silicious to be used alone advantageously in the manufacture of iron. On
visiting the quarry where the ore is at present worked, near to the village
of Rosedale Abbey, I was immediately impressed with the striking analogy it
bore in its aspect to our basaltic dykes, and a further examination at once
led me to the conclusion that it was of igneous origin—in fact, that it was
neither more nor less than, as I firmly believe, an extensive volcanic dyke
of iron ore. This opinion, I know, is at variance with that of many
gentlemen possessing great practical experience, as well as scientific
acquirements. It was not, however, till I had possessed myself of proof
sufficiently convincing and conclusive, as I thought, that I arrived at this
opinion. The proofs afforded me are, first, its vertical or unstratified
formation; secondly, from its containing no organic remains whatever; and,
thirdly, from its being highly susceptible to magnetic influence, as well as
exhibiting the appearance of its having been in a state of incandescence.
With evidence such as this to guide you, I cannot see how any other
conclusion can be come to than that this iron ore has been produced by
volcanic action. The extent of this vein—whether of considerable extent or
otherwise—cannot at present be ascertained. This can only be revealed to us
by actual experiment. By the side of the valley where it is exposed
17
to view, it is traceable, apparently, for a distance of 300 or 400 yards,
but as it is nothing but a confused mass, thrown together without either
order or regularity—-just, apparently, as it has been ejected from the
interior of the earth—it is impossible even to guess at its breadth. The
probability is that the mass, on reaching the surface of the earth, spread
itself over the ground on both sides of the vein, and present appearances
further the supposition that the vein becomes narrower in the downward
direction, as, in excavating the quarry which is opened out on the north
side of the dyke, the shale against which the ore rests forms an angle or
slope, something like that represented in diagram No. 2. The valley, too, as
far as we can judge, apparently intersects the vein in a diagonal direction,
which, of course, will expose a much more extensive face than if it had been
intersected at right angles.
I again visited Rosedale on the second and ninth of last month (November)
for the purpose of seeing what progress had been made with tbe experiments
now going on, and also to inspect some ironstone which has lately been
opened out there; and in order that I might ascertain accurately what had
been done in their subterraneous explorings in the vein, I took with me my
circumferentor, and, with the sanction of the overlooker, made a survey of
the workings, a sketch of which is represented in diagram No. 1. I found
they were driving the drift in the heart of the vein, and apparently in a
direction parallel to it. It had then reached the distance of 193 yards, and
I was told they were about to commence at the face of the present two other
drifts running at right angles from it, with a view of ascertaining its
breadth, and until those trials be completed nothing further in the shape of
information can be obtained beyond what is already known. The drift is six
feet high and seven feet wide, and is let at 30s. per yard, one yard
producing about nine tons of ore. This information was of some importance to
me, as I gathered from it this fact, that whilst a portion of this ore is
much heavier than the ordinary ironstone of the Grosmont district, yet in
bulk it is somewhat lighter than the stone I am at present working in the
mines under my charge, for it will be seen from the product just given that
it takes 14 cubic feet to each ton of ore, whereas it only takes 13 feet to
produce a ton of our stone, thus shewing that there must be a large portion
of extraneous matter mixed with this ore of very little value. I was also
anxious to ascertain whether there was any visible magnetical disturbance
produced by this vein on the needle of the circumferentor, and in proceeding
with my survey I soon found this to be the case, for on taking the angle
between A and B, a distance of only
18
25 feet (previous to this there was no variation), I found the direction ,
to be *North 87° West, and on removing- my instrument to B, and taking the
back sight to A, I found instead of the needle indicating- North 87° "West,
it stood at North 6° East, shewing- a variation of 9° in an
easterly-direction. It then became necessary for me, incompleting- my
survey, to fix the needle and read off the angles by the vernier. This dyke
appears to be traversing- the district in a westerly direction, trending- a
little to the north, and it is a singular fact that it has never yet been
traced beyond the locality where it is found, that I am aware of. It is more
than probable, however, that a closer examination will discover it in
the-districts both East and West of Rosedale.
Judging from what has been advanced with reference to this vein, especially
as regards this locality, we are naturally led to infer that^any
considerable quantity of ore is not likely to be obtainable from a field so
limited in its extent as this appears to be—I mean, of course, its daily
produce—from the great difficulty there would be of placing a large number
of workmen in a mine so limited in its area. The working too of this ore,
which is of a very hard and compact character, must be costly when compared
with the ironstones of Cleveland, Grosmont, and other districts-and I cannot
avoid expressing my belief that the commercial value of this mineral has
been overated. Diagram No. 2 gives you some idea of the position in which
this ore is found, though its shape, of course, is partly ideal.
On the other side of the Vale, and a little to the north of the dyke, is
seen, high up in the hill, and skirting the side of the valley, a thick seam
of ironstone, the features of which much resemble those of the ore, and many
are impressed with the belief that they are one and the same deposit. This,
however, it is clear to me, is the same bed which I have ^aken the liberty
of designating the top seam of the lias formation, and which, as I have
already stated, intervenes the alum shale and sandstone rock, and a single
glance of the experienced eye will at once detect the difference between
them. This bed is very irregularly diffused throughout the whole of the lias
district of North Yorkshire, varying very much both in quantity and quality.
In some places you find it only a few feet thick j next you meet with it
swollen out to the enormous thickness of fifteen or twenty feet; then,
again, entirely wanting. In some places portions of it are of an average
quality, but, generally speaking, it is too strongly impregnated with sand
to be used, as I before stated, extensively in iron making. Diagram No. 3 is
a section of the thickness of this seam of iron-* The direction of the back
sight being, of course, South 87° East.
19
stone, as seen in " Northdale," about two miles to the north of Rosedale
Abbey, the property of Capt. Vardon, where it is no less than twenty feet
thick. Four feet of the top part of it appears rich in iron, and six feet of
the bottom part of middling quality, and the middle portion very coarse
indeed, samples of which I now produce. It is again met with in " Hartoft
Vale," about two miles to the south-east of Rosedale Abbey, where i* has
been lately opened out, and although there is a great thickness of it there
also, only about three feet of it appears to be of average quality. This
stone is at present worked by Messrs. Palmer & Co., Messrs. Seymour & Co.,
and the Eskdale Ironstone Co., on the beach north of Whitby, and by the
Whitby Iron Co. and the Murkeyside Mining Co.,* in Goathland, about eight
miles from Whitby, joining the Whitby and Pickering Railway, and is at
present engaging the attention of various other parties.!
Mr. Marley appears to have an objection to this being called the " top
seam," and as I think it of some importance that a correct understanding
should be come to as regards the nomenclature of the ironstone series, in a
district so important as that of North Yorkshire, I may just state that my
reason for designating it the " top seam " of the lias formation is simply
from the fact of that rock containing only two workable deposits of
ironstone, and that the strata immediately above it comprises another and
distinct class of rocks, the one being a marine, and the other a terreous
deposit, as their organic remains abundantly testify. The latter, in fact,
being those which may be termed the carboniferous series of the moorland
districts of North Yorkshire. This being the case I think it is much better,
for the sake of avoiding confusion, that the ironstones found in these
strata should be classed according to the respective situations they occupy
in the series they belong to.
My object in thus troubling the members of this Institution with the
foregoing remarks is twofold. First, to shew that the iron ore of Rosedale,
instead of being a large mineral field, as was first asserted, and still
believed to be so by many, is nothing more than a volcanic dyke; and,
secondly, that the ironstone lately opened out in this locality is not, as
it is reported to be, the main seam now being worked in Cleveland and
Grosmont districts, but is in my opinion, if Mr. Marley will permit me to
say so, the top seam.
Public attention having been so much drawn to this district, and that
* This company have closed their working's since this was written.
An analysis of this stone, as well as the ore, with a map of the district,
having* already been given by Mr. Marley, it ia only necessary for me to
refer those who may wish for this information to his paper.
20
to a much greater extent than any other since the Cleveland discoveries, it
may not be amiss, in conclusion, to glance at the prospect it holds out to
speculators in iron mining, and the advantages to be derived from it
generally. There is nothing so likely to attract as that which has something
of the wonderful to recommend it, and this, I think, may very properly be
applied to Rosedale.
The announcement that inexhaustible quantities of iron ore had been -found
in this valley, a large portion of which was not only richer than any yet
discovered, but was also termed highly magnetic, was so startling an
occurrence, as to stamp the locality, in the eyes of a portion of the mining
and iron manufacturing public, as the one of all others that would, in all
probability, yield the cheapest and best mineral. It was, therefore, not to
be wondered at that people from all quarters should flock to it, in order to
examine what may be considered little less than a geological phenomenon.
Since, however, it has been found that this ore is restricted within much
narrower limits than was at first expected, its aspect has become very much
changed for the worse, and it now remains to be seen whether the extent of
it is sufficient to warrant the making of a railway, without which it could
never be profitably worked, failing which, I am of opinion the ironstone of
this district must remain some time longer undisturbed, without other
markets than those of the north can be found for it. I understand,
nevertheless, a survey of a proposed line of railway has already been made,
which, it is intended, shall form a junction with the North Yorkshire and
Cleveland Railway, the construction of which, however, will, no doubt, as I
have already said, depend upon the extent of the dyke. This once
ascertained, the quantity it contains will be a mere question of
calculation. It is true they have enormous quantities of the top seam in
this district, a large portion of which appears to be of fair average
quality, but it must be remembered that in the event of this railway being
made, which Mr. Marley tells us will be about fourteen miles in length, it
will, in all probability, open out in its route other fields of this stone,
quite as well situated for working as that in Rosedale, and, being so much
nearer a market, will, of course, be disposed of at a lower figure. This
district being the point furthest south where the lias ironstone has yet
been discovered, viz., within ten miles of the Whitby and Pickering Railway,
at the town of Pickering, the idea naturally suggests itself that the iron
districts of the West Riding of Yorkshire would afford the best market for
this mineral, at any rate, it must be apparent to every one who knows
anything of the neighbourhood, that it is not very favourably situated for
competing successfully with some other districts in supplying the markets of
the north.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 4, 1858, IN THE ROOMS OP THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
Edwd, Potter, Esq., One of the Vice-Presidents, in the Chair.
Mr. Gordon, of Gateshead, exhibited a model of a pump fitted up with
Perreaux's patent India-rubber valve, and several experiments were made by
members present with a view to test its efficiency.
Monsieur Francois Laurent, of Paris, was introduced by Thomas Bell, Esq.,
and exhibited a tracing illustrating a scheme for the ventilation of mines,
which he had patented. Mr. Bell gave a brief outline of the -scheme,
pointing- out its principal features, and it was understood that M. Laurent
had prepared a short paper upon the subject, but as the rules of the Society
confine the reading of papers to members, it was decided that beyond
accepting lithographed drawings of the scheme, the Institute could not move
in the matter. M. Laurent then intimated his wish to be enrolled as a
member, and was proposed accordingly.
The Chairman, on taking his seat, expressed regret that the meeting-was not
honored by the presence of the President of the Institute. It was, however,
satisfactory to know that his absence was occasioned not by illness, but by
a pressure of business, which obliged him to leave home. The first business
before the meeting was the election of new members.
The minutes of the last meeting having been read and duly confirmed,
The Secretary read the names of the following gentlemen, who were thereupon
unanimously elected members of the Society, viz.:—Messrs. A. Davison,
Hastings House, Seaton Delaval; and James- and William Vaughan,
Middlesborough.
Vol. VI.— Febex-thy, 1858.
d
22
Mr. H. T. Plews then read his paper " On the Coal Field of New-South Wales;
" after which,
Mr. H. Longridge asked Mr. Plews if he found any limestone in the locality
which he had visited?
Mr. Plews said a carbonaceous limestone was found up the Williams river
which might ultimately he found to have a connection with the fossiliferous
sandstone. At present, however, that was not proved.
Mr. Plews said, in reply to another question from Mr. H. Longridge, he found
no sandstone comparing with our millstone grit.
Mr. M. Dunn—Did you meet with any magnesian limestone?
Mr. Plews—None whatever.
Mr. Dunn—Is there any cannel coal ?
Mr. Plews said some was found and worked at Stoney Creek. He thought it was
the coal changed by dykes. The whole country was very much disturbed and
broken up by dykes.
Mr. Dunn—Did you see any blind coal?
Mr. Plews—None.
The Chairman—-The basaltic dykes seem to be all vertical?
Mr. Plews—Yes, they are, or nearly so.
Mr. T. Y. Hall—Is the coal generally bituminous? Does it produce more ash
than ours ?
Mr. Plews—Yes, a little more ash. It is the same coal in appearance as
ours—a sound, bright, free-looking coal, but of course it does not contain
the same constituent parts.
Mr. Plews said, in answer to a question from Mr. Dunn, competition , was
very much needed in the colony.
The Chairman said the seams appeared to be very thin.
Mr. Plews—They were so, generally.
Mr. Plews said, in reply to further questions, the Australian Agricultural
Company for a long time had a monopoly of the trade in the colony. The cost
to them of working the coal was something like 10s. to lis. per ton, but a
new company which had been started, called the Newcastle Coal and Copper
Company, could work it for 9s. or 9s. 6d. per ton.
Mr. Boyd—Labourers' wages are high in the colony, I suppose? Mr. PLews—Yes,
the men gel? from 4s. to 5s. 6d. per ton, and a good workman can now make
his 18s. to £1 per day. When I first went out there, some of them, good
workmen, were making as much as £2 a day, and they seemed as if they did not
know what to do with their money. They used to spend it in the most absurd
way. Some, working at Four Mile Creek Pits, had just been paid, and so
utterly at a loss were they
23
for fresh means of spending their money that they actually bought a dozen of
champagne and washed their feet in it. (Laughter.)
The Chairman remarked that the aggregate yield of coal did not appear to
have increased very rapidly.
Mr. Plews, said it increased rather suddenly at the period of the gold
discovery. As soon as gold was discovered in California, vessels were sent
to Australia for coal, and this caused an augmentation in the yield. But
there were no appliances for assisting them in getting a further vend, and
they were obliged to set to work to get railways laid down.
The Chairman asked if coals were used in the ocean steam-boats there?
Mr. Plews said they were, in the colonial steam-boats. The European Royal
Mail Company used Welsh coal, but they had found that it did not answer so
well as they expected, from having fallen to dust so much in the passage.
Mr. Dunn—What is the date of the grant to the Agricultural Company?
Mr. Plews—About 1825. It has been a badly managed company throughout.
Mr. Dunn asked if a Mr. Henderson had not the management of the Company's
mines ?
Mr. Anderson—He was sent out by Mr. Thomas Eastom
Mr. Plews said, as long as Mr. Henderson was at the head of affairs the pits
were opened out in a proper manner and the trade prospered, but he died a
few years after he went out, and since his death everything had been badly
conducted.
Mr. Dunn—What is the name of the present manager?
Mi'. Plews—A gentleman has just gone out to take charge of the mines. The
late General Superintendent of the Company was a Captain Brownrigg.
Mr. Boyd—Had you any reason to suppose, from meeting with these fossils in ¦
the argillaceous sandstone, that you were approaching the old red sandstone
?
Mr. Plews—It is the opinion of several eminent geologists that the coal may
belong partly to the Devonian, but, with the exception of one or two
fossils, common both to the lower carboniferous and to the upper old red
sandstone, there is nothing to justify this opinion.
Mr. Hall—What is the largest quantity of coal produced in one year?
24
Mr. Plews—The last returns were published in 1855, when the production was
about 200,000 tons. Last year the vend was about 5000 tons per week, giving
a total yield of 250,000 tons from the whole of the collieries. That is
the vend at the shipping shoots.
Mr. Dunn—I suppose they don't screen the coals?
Mr. Plews—They have screens but they are very often dumb. The trade has not
been much fostered.
The Chairman—By the " shoot" you mean the shoot into the ship?
Mr. Plews—It is the loading place.
The Chairman—There are no harbour charges, are there ?
Mr. Plews—No ; no charges or dues whatever.
The Chairman—Is the competition considerable ?
Mr. Plewts—No, not sufficiently so.
Mr. Dunn—Is the royalty rent-free ?
Mr. Plews—The rent at the Newcastle Coal and Copper Company's Mines was 2s.
per ton, but the Company having amalgamated with private parties holding
royalties under the same lessor, the lessor himself became a partner in the
concern, with the arrangement that he gets one quarter of the profits, with
a certain rent of £3000 per annum.
Mr. Plews said, in answer to Mr. Dunn, the above-mentioned land was
originally granted to a person named Scott, who was obliged to sell it. The
usual terms of lease were Is. to 2s. per ton on the workings, and a lease of
ten to twenty-one years.
Mr. Hall—Do they expect they will get it cheaper in that way ?
Mr. Plews—I don't know what their idea was, but it was a most extraordinary
one.
Mr. Hall—Did the lessees force the lessor to take one-quarter, or did the
lessor force the lessees to give it to him ?
Mr. Plews—I cannot tell, of course, the arrangement, but I believe the
lessor forced the lessees.
Mr. Berkley asked if the government were not working the coal for their own
use ?
Mr. Plews—No, and have not for many years.
The Chairman said, he was sure there could be but one opinion upon the paper
that had just been read. It was a very interesting paper indeed, and
relating to so remote a part of the world, could not fail to prove a
valuable addition to their published proceedings. The talent displayed in it
entitled Mr. Plews to the highest credit, and he thought the thanks
25
of the Institute were justly due to him. He begged to move that the Society
tender Mr. Plews its thanks for his interesting paper.
The motion was unanimously agreed to.
Mr. Plews, in acknowledging the compliment, said, he had to apologise for
having been a member of the society so long without having contributed to
its literature, but the fact was that when he was in Australia, probably
owing to defective postal communication, he received no tidings of the
society and never saw its published Transactions. The various parts were
sent to his friends, by whom they were regularly transmitted to Australia,
but by some mishap they never reached him, and he merely knew that the
society was still existing.
The Chairman—How long were you away ?
Mr. Plews—I have been absent above four years.
The Secretary said the parts had been regularly sent to Mr. Plews'
relatives.
The meeting then broke up.
ON THE
COALFIELD OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
By MR. HENRY T. PLEWS.
When the pioneers of Australian emigration arrived within sig'ht of their "
promised land/' the first object which met their eyes was a range of high
land, apparently like a continuous chain of mountains, looming, blue and
indistinct, in the distance. This range they named, not inaptly, the " Blue
Mountains." On their arrival in the magnificent harbour of Port Jackson,
these hills were found to be at a distance of about thirty-five miles inland
from the coast at that point.
In the course of a few years, when their flocks and herds had increased, and
they found that it would be necessary to penetrate further into the country
in search of more extended pasturage, these hills formed an obstacle to
their further progress, that, for a period of twenty-five years, i.e. till
1813, could not be overcome.
This range of hills, rising in several places to 5,000 feet, and in one
part—Mount Kosckiusko—to 6,500 feet above the sea level, is the great
Australian Alps or Cordillera, and extends not only along the whole line of
the east coast of New South Wales, but is found continuous in Van Diemen's
Land, or Tasmania, to the south, and in New Guinea to the north.
It is principally on the western slopes of this range, and of its advanced
spurs, that the gold is found which has given this " Land of Ophir" such a
prominent place in the annals of the world's history.
This chain has an axis of granite, passing into syenite and diorite, with
greenstone and porphyritic, and amygdaloidal basalt and quartz.
28
These, with the metamorphic rocks, compose the great extent of the chain;
but at that portion of the chain near Sydney, called the Blue Mountains, the
sandstone, which has received among geologists the distinctive name of the
"Sydney sandstone," and which flanks both sides of the chain, is elevated
(the granite and other igneous rocks not bursting through), and forms a
large plateau or table land, about forty miles across. At the foot of the
abrupt and precipitous escarpment, near Penrith, formed by this upheaval,
where its height is from 1,200 to 1,400 feet, the argillaceous coal shales,
which have been elevated coincident with the sandstone, may be seen cropping
out.
Flanking this Cordillera, on both its eastern and western sides, are the
thick beds of the Sydney sandstone, superimposed upon the coal measures.
THE SYDNEY SANDSTONE.
This sandstone is the prevailing characteristic feature of Australian
geology, and covers, according to Sir Thomas Mitchell, 6-7ths of the whole
surface of nineteen counties, from Yass Plains on the south to the Liverpool
range (the name given to the Cordillera in the Hunter River district and the
north,) on the north, and has been, since his exploration, found to extend
still further. The description of this sandstone is thus given by Dana:—It
is a soft friable rock, of fine texture and light sandy colour. It consists
of minute grains of quartz, with particles of decomposed feldspar of an
opaque white colour, and scales of light-coloured mica; the quartz usually
predominates. The colours of the layers are white, grayish white, and
yellowish like ordinary sand, also varying to light blue, and grayish blue
at Parramatta: there are also reddish shades. The colours are very often
arranged in curved parallel bands or waving lines, and concentric oval
figures. Iron ore, in the form of sand, is common, and it also occurs in
seams. The disseminated iron is so abundant that exposure to the air and
moisture soon rusts or reddens the surface, staining the rock to a depth of
some feet. Magnetic iron sand is met with along the road sides and on the
sea beaches.
Wherever this sandstone prevails, most of the water—north, south, east, and
west—is brackish. The prevalence of salt springs is a predominant character
of the inland waters of Australia, more than half the wells sunk being
brackish.
Many of the northern tributaries of the Hunter, and of the Darling, west of
the Blue Mountains, are brackish.
29
There are some accredited instances of the discovery of mineral salt in the
sandstone. Some of the salt lakes in the interior have their waters denser
than the ocean, and their shores are covered with plants peculiar to salt
regions.
There are occasional beds of conglomerate in this sandstone, and at
"Woolongong (Illawarra district), and Newcastle (Hunter River district),
where the coal measures appear, the superincumbent stratum, which,
apparently, is composed of the lower beds of this sandstone, is almost
entirely a conglomerate of quartzose pebbles, of various colours, with
pieces of lignite, coal, and ironstone, cemented together with sand and the
oxide of iron.
To the west of Sydney, and between it and the Blue mountains, this sandstone
is depressed, and forms a small basin, through the centre of which flows the
South Creek; this basin is filled in with a mass of shales and calcareous
grits and sandstones, the lower beds intercalated with thin streaky layers
of coal, as at Camden, George's river, &c, and these attain a thickness of
about 800 feet. Stigmaria, sigillaria, coniferous wood, and various species
of pecopteris have been found in these shales, and at Wirionil, near
Campbeltown, the Rev. W. B. Clarke discovered, in blue shale immediately
over the Sydney sandstone, casts of heterocer-cal ganoidal fish, and casts
of the intestines of sauroidal and other fish.
Induced by the appearance of these shales, the Australian Agricultural
Company, more than twenty-five years ago, put down a bore-hole near
Parramatta, on the banks of the Parramatta river, a depth of 300 feet, in
the expectation of finding a workable seam, which would have been extremely
valuable within so short a distance of Sydney, this they did not succeed in
finding, and it is evident that no workable seam exists above the Sydney
sandstone.
ILLA.WARRA DISTRICT.
Proceeding down the coast to the south a distance of about thirty-seven
miles we find at Bullai (vide Plan No. \) the underlying coal measures just
appearing- at high water mark, and, rising at an angle of four degrees, they
stretch obliquely into the country and end at Mount Keera, near Woolongong,
in an abrupt escarpment, about 1200 feet in height above the sea. The
section attached to Plan No. 1, and the Section No. 1 Plan No. 2 (from
George's river to Woolongong), show this escarpment.
There are here seven seams exposed to the day, the highest seam at Vol.
VI.—February, 1858.
e
30
about 300 feet above sea level, overlying these are alternations of shale
and sandstone, conglomerate and the Sydney sandstone. Immediately under the
coal, and forming the foot of the hill, is a very argillaceous and
concretionary sandstone of a light greyish blue, or greenish tint, this
forms a gently undulating country about the town of Woolongong, and further
to the south, near Kiama, is overlaid by the intruding basalt. Its plane of
dip here is N.N.W. or N.W. This sandstone is comparatively rich in fossils,
a list of which will be given hereafter.
The basalt overlying this bed has evidently been ejected while it was under
the water and while the enclosed fossils were in a living state, as
immediately under and in close conjunction with the basalt they are highly
silicified, and they continue to be so for a considerable distance up the
coast, gradually, however, losing that appearance as they recede from the
basalt.
The coal of Illawarra is very inferior and far behind the Hunter River coal
in appearance and quality. The following analysis is given by Professor
Silliman, jun.—
Coke, or fixed carbon................. 65*125
Volatile carbon ...................... 15*850
Ashes .............................. 19-025
100-000
Specific gravity........ 1-439
There are three of the seams wrought by means of day drifts, to a very
limited extent; the vend, with the exception of an occasional small shipment
to Sydney, is entirely landsale, as the natural facilities for shipping the
coal are very small indeed, there being no river nearer than the Shoalhaven,
and the coast for a number of miles both to the north and south presenting
no inlets which might be converted into safe and commodious harbours; the
boat harbour of Woolongong, the principal sea-entrance and outlet to this
district is only accessible to vessels of less than fifty tons, and is
extremely small.
NEWCASTLE ON THE HUNTER BIVER. Returning to Sydney, and proceeding from
there up the coast, to the North, the Sydney sandstone presenting abrupt
bluffs and headlands seaward all the way, we find the coal measures
appearing some distance to the south of Reid's Mistake, as the South
Headland of Lake Macquarie is named ; the coal dips under the entrance to
the lake, under
31
sea level, and under the North headland, which is composed of low sandy
hills, and continuing-, for about four miles further north, to run under
these hills, it rises again at Redhead a high sandstone bluff abruptly
thrown above the sandhills.
From here the coal seams continue exposed in the face of the cliffs, a
distance of six miles further, i.e., to the mouth of the river Hunter, but
are much broken up and disturbed by faults and lateral pressures and
upheaval, causing* a series of undulations, the splitting" of seams, and the
running" tog-ether of two or more.
At the highest point, Khanterin or South Shepherd's Hill, about half way,
there are five seams exposed. ( Vide Plan No. 2, Section No. 3.)
Standing out some distance from the mainland or Signal Hill, is Nobby
Island, and between this and the Sig-nal Hill, used formerly to be an
entrance to the river, but the water being shallow and only admitting
vessels drawing little water, a breakwater has been thrown across, thus
allowing the whole volume of the river to pour through, and scour out the
present entrance, between Nobby's and Stockton, or the North Mainland.
Two small seams (the 2 ft. and 4 ft. seams) are found on Nobby Island, and a
trap (greenstone) dyke, throwing down these seams to the east three inches,
passes through the middle of it in a S. E. and N. W. direction, coking the
coal for some yards on each side of it.
The top stratum of Nobby Island (vide Plan No. 2, Section No. SJ is the
quartzose conglomerate mentioned before, as forming the lower beds of the
Sydney sandstone, the two-feet coal lies next, and immediately under it is a
very peculiar fine white stone, ribbed or layered almost like a ribbon
agate, having a conchoidal fracture, with translucent edges; this, from its
great resemblance to "chert," has received that distinctive name, but it is
only an argillaceous shale, containing about 2 per cent, of silica, and has
probably received its peculiar appearance from having been under water when
the latter was highly heated by the eruption of the above and other dykes.
This appears to me the most likely and the most feasible way of accounting
for it, and the probability of it is strengthened by the fact, that this
chert, which for several miles down the coast to the south, as well as for
several miles inland to the west, continues to overlie the coal, and to hold
the same position immediately inferior to the conglomerate, loses its cherty
appearance g-radually as it recedes from this dyke.
32
Crossing- now the Hunter river from Nobby Island; we proceed along" a coast
line of low sandy dunes and ridges, until we reach the south headland of
Port Stephen, and here we find the carboniferous beds thrown off to the
south by porphyry.
Turning now to the west and proceeding inland towards Raymond Terrace, on
the Hunter river, we traverse what we may presume to be the east line of
outcrop of the Hunter river coal-field; as at Raymond Terrace we find a
sandstone overlying silicious breccia, cropping out from under the bed of
the river, presenting the same appearance and nature, and containing many of
the same fossils as the sandstone which underlies the coal at Woolongong.
( Vide Section No. 2, Plan No. 2.)
Further west again, and beyond West Maitland, the same sandstone is found at
Harper's Hill, and the coal and it continue to be found at intervals, in the
same relative position, all the way up to and on the flanks of the Liverpool
Range, or Cordillera.
Most of the faults which dislocate and break up the seams between Nobby
Island and Lake Macquarie, and all the greenstone and trachytic dykes from
Nobby Island down the coast to Broken Bay, have a general direction of from
nearly south-east to north-west, and in this direction the coal measures
are, by upheaval, contraction, and lateral pressure together, folded up and
down, in long or short undulations, so that the coal beds are alternately
elevated and depressed, and the underlying rocks made to partake in similar
changes, becoming prominent at points where the strata fold anticlinally, by
which the lower beds seem to occupy an apparent position not actually
belonging to them j the consequence of this is, that every few yards has its
own peculiar dip, and it, therefore, becomes a matter of great difficulty,
and, in most cases, with the few data, there exists, at present, from the
scarcity of bore-holes, shafts, and wells, of almost utter impossibility to
pronounce, with any certainty, the relative position which a seam found
inland may hold with the rest in the coal measures. A.s, for instance, in
the section from the coast inland (Plan No. 7), there are at that particular
point of the coast three seams, the top one overlaid by grey post and
conglomerate j three-quarters of a mile, in a direct line inland (the
section takes it obliquely and makes it a mile,) from the coast, however,
all these three seams die out, and when we reach the D, or bore-hole pit, we
find a seam totally unlike any of the above three, yet overlaid- by the grey
post and conglomerate, and no seam below it for a depth of 294 feet; it is,'
therefore, little more than
33
a mere guess to say that this seam consists of the two lowest seams, the
yard seam and the lowest seam in the F pit run tog-ether j this seam dips in
almost every direction from the shaft, thus :—
At shaft............................dips 4° S.W.
At the northermost part of the workings.. „ 4? N. W.
At the south-west side.........___... ,, 12° S. E.
And at the north-east side............. „ 7° S.E.
Then, again, at a further distance of about a quarter of a mile, or at
bore-hole No. 2, this seam thins out to half its thickness; and at borehole
No. 1, this and every other seam has totally disappeared. Still, when we
reach the banks of the Hunter, we find a seam cropping out, nearly at the
level of the river, of the same thickness exactly as this seam at bore-hole
No. 2.
There can be no doubt that, after the undulatory movement above-mentioned
had taken place, the valleys formed by the synclinal curves became large
inland lakes, and extensive denudation and future silting up consequently
followed. This is the only way in which I can account for the disappearance
of the coal on both sides of the D and E Pits, and at other similar places.
This denudation and washing 'away of the synclinal curve of these
undulations will, I am persuaded, be found to be pretty general, especially
as we approach the river and the coast, and the most coal will continue to
be found in the ridges formed by the anticlinal angle of undulation. This
has hitherto been the case, as at Burwood, &c.} &c.
FOSSIL FLORA OF THE COAL (vide Plan No. 3).
From the contrarieties which nature in Australia seems to delight in— in its
existent botany as well as in almost everything else, its trees and plants
being so totally different from those of any other portion of the globe that
some of them shed their bark instead of their leaves—one would naturally be
led to expect that the Fossil Botany as well would be completely dissimilar
to that of other countries. This is, however, so far as the discoveries up
to the present time have proved, only the case to the extent of some of the
species being different; and although there is an extraordinary paucity of
genera, species, and individuals^ the sequence with which they appear in the
geological formations discovers laws similar to those which regulated the
succession of genera and species in other parts of the world.
The <l glossopteris browniana" is, of the filices, the one most prevalent
34
in the coal. It is very abundant, and, I believe, it is characteristic of
all the coal found in Australasia. The lanceolate leaf or frond of this fern
is, at the first glance, so similar to the leaf of the " eucalyptus" or gum
tree, that by many it has been taken to be the same, but on closer
examination it will be found that the eucalyptus leaf has an intramarginal
veinlet running- up each side, which the " glossopteris" has not.
Count Strzelecki, in his " Physical Description of New South Wales," in
comparing- the New South Wales coal fossils to those found in the Burd-wan
coal field of India, states that the Australian coal fields are entirely
deficient in the genera Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, Calamites and Coniferse.
This is certainly not the case, particularly as regards the two latter
genera, which are comparatively common. The two former, it is true, are
exceedingly rare, and I have not myself been able to find any specimens in
the coal measures in the immediate neighbourhood of Newcastle that I could
pronounce, with any confidence, to belong to those genera j but the Rev. W.
B. Clarke states that he has discovered species of sigillaria and
lepidodendron on the Paterson river, at Muswellbrook, and at Woolongong, and
he further gives the following list of fossil flora :— Pecopteris,
neuropteris, odontopteris, cyclopteris, sphenopteris, glossopteris, genus
intermediate between tseniopteris and glossopteris, halonia, reed-like
stems, calamites, phyllotheca, zeugophyllites, equisetum, lyco-podites, new
genus of plants with wedge-formed stems, lepidodendron, sometimes
lepidostrobi, ulodendron, sigillaria and stigmaria, coniferse : in all about
sixty species.
With respect to coniferse, there is at Redhead, six miles from Newcastle,
the remains of a fossil forest on a broad bed of shale, uncovered at low
water—the roots and trunks of the trees, some of them three feet in
diameter, evidently in the situation -Avhere grown—completely converted into
rich ironstone, partially hydrated)by the action of the air and water. Three
miles nearer Newcastle, there are a few more trunks j and at eight miles
north-west from Singleton are the remains of another fossil forest, imbedded
in the same description of rock as those at Redhead.
THE FOSSIL FAUNAE {vide Plan No. 4).
The fossil zoology of the coal measures of New South Wales is also not very
striking in the number of its genera and species. The following have been
found in the argillaceous concretionary sandstone underlying the coal:—
At Harper's Hill.—Bellerophon, platyschisma, pleurotomaria, conu-
35
laria, spirifer, solecurtus, mceonia, nucula, eurydesma, cypricardia, pecten
pachydomus, choetites, hemetrypa.
At Illawarra.—Pleurotomaria, natica, platy schism a, theca, lingula,
terebratula, productus, spirifer, solecurtus, cardium, pholadomya or
allo-risma, astarte, astartila, cardinia, nucula, cypricardia, moeonia,
eurydesma, avicula, pecten, pterinea, chcetetes, pentadia (crinoidal),
conularia, bel-lerophon, pachydomus, orthenota, notomya, inoceramus,
stepopora crinita.
At Glendon.—Conularia, spirifer, astarte, pholadomya, cypricardia,
fenestella, nucula, avicula, and encrinital remains of one or two species.
In a grey post, about seventy feet below sea level, at Newcastle, a
heterocercal ganoidal fish, similar to the one found at Campbelltown, was
discovered.
.l^.'7//
EXTENT OP COAL FIELD.
- / The plane of dip of the coal measures in the Hunter River district
is, as
I stated before, exceedingly variable, from one degree to sixteen degrees
and more, to nearly every point of the compass, caused by the local
dislocations, and the undulations mentioned above; but there can be little
doubt, after a due examination, that the general and mean dip of the coal
field is to the south, or perhaps a little to the east of souths The dip at
Raymond Terrace and at Nobby Island being to the south; the dip on the coast
between Sydney and Broken Bay being westward, and the dip of the seams at
Illawarra being north west, the longitudinal axis of this basin is,
therefore, most probably in a direction nearly north east and south west,
that is, nearly pai'allel with the escarpment of the overlying Sydney
sandstone, at the back of Woolongong; the Illawarra beds being on its
eastern and the Newcastle beds on its western side.
The transverse axis in this case will run, as it ought according to all the
physical conditions of the country, nearly through the middle of the County
of Cumberland, and the trough or depression filled by the upper shales and
sandstones that is between the Hawkesbury river and the Port Jackson
estuary, the former occupying a line of faults continued also up the course
of the Colo. The Hunter river also occupies a similar line of faults
parallel to this axis.
The strike being thus north east, it is evident that there must be a
considerable tract of coal measures washed away to the eastward of
Newcastle, or sunk by a downcast fault below the ocean.
The seams at Illawarra, dipping four degrees, must be the anticlinal
36
curve of one of the before-named undulations, as if we take a dip of only
one degree from Newcastle to the south, and from Illawarra to the north, the
synclinal curve will meet at Broken Bay, which is exactly half way, at a
depth of about 5000 feet, the depth of the seams if continuous at that
angle. Now, as the coal shales, as stated before, are discovered cropping"
out in the deep valleys at the foot of the immense escarpment caused by the
upheaval of the Blue Mountains, near Penrith, and as coal apparently
identical has been discovered at the foot of Mount York, in the vale of
Clwydd, 2100 feet above the sea, and as the computed greatest thickness of
the Sydney sandstone, (which is, so far as has been yet discovered,
immediately superimposed on and conformable with the coal measures,)
measured at right angles to its dip, is 1200 to 1400 feet, it is apparent
that a fault of great magnitude must exist, throwing the seams up to within
1500 or 1600 feet of the surface at Broken Bay.
Further discoveries of course may very much modify this view, or indeed
prove it to be altogether erroneous, but in the meanwhile taking it to be
correct, the full area of this coal-field lying to the east of the dividing
range or Cordillera, will be about 15,000 or 16,000 square miles, i.e., the
whole of this area, except where the igneous rocks have burst through, is,
in my opinion, occupied by the one contemporaneous series of carboniferous
formation, the whole of it of course not being available.
Up to the present time, although boreholes have been put down to a depth of
four hundred and fifty feet below high water mark at Newcastle, the number
of consecutive seams found there at any one place has never exceeded six,
giving an aggregate of about 19 feet, thus the depth of the coal measures is
by no means great. At Mount Wingan, near Murrur-rundi, on the eastern flank
of the Liverpool range, where the coal cropping out, has at sometime
spontaneously taken fire and is still burning-, the fossiliferous sandstone
of Harper's Hill, Raymond Terrace, and Woo-longong, interpolate seams of
coal, so that it is not improbable that seams may be found throughout the
coal-field intercalated with or overlaid by this sandstone, and if this
coal-field belongs to the same era as the independent coal measures of this
country, which, in my opinion, there exists no sufficient reason to doubt,
these lower seams will be identical with the seams of our mountain
limestone.
If the depth of the Hunter river coal-field, however, is so slight in
comparison with the coal-fields of other countries, the extent of country
lying between the several extreme points where coal has been discovered,
37
north, south', east, and west, and where the Sydney sandstone, existing as
the surface stratum, it is not improbable the coal seams may be also
persistent throughout, is so enormous as to be second, I believe, only to
the coal-fields of North America.
I will enumerate a few of the localities where coal has been found; first,
in the Hunter river district • some distance south of Lake Macquarie, at
Lake Macquarie, Morpeth, Four Mile Creek, Hexham, Sugar Loaf Ranges,
Wallis's Creek, Stoney Creek, Anvil Creek, Black Creek, Pur-rendurfa,
Glendon Brook, Tolga Creek, on the Paterson, Wollombi Brook, Leamington,
Wollon, Jerry's Plains, Sadleir's Creek, Junction of Poybrook and Falbrook,
Ravensworth, Maidwater Creek, Muswellbrook (where the old slate rocks burst
through the coal), Edenglassie, Pierce-field, Bengala, Page's River,
Murrurrundi, Kingdon Ponds, Mount Wingan Wailand's Range, Scone, junction of
Goulburn and Hunter Rivers, and in many other localities.
Prom Newcastle to the north, as far as the Mackenzie river, in 23° south
latitude (where coal, identical in its features with the Hunter river coal
was found by Dr. Leickhardt), the coal has been found at many intermediate
points, as at Port Macquaz*ie, and on the banks of the Brisbane river,
Moreton Bay, (vide Plan, No. 8,) where it is worked to a limited extent, and
as a sandstone similar to the Sydney sandstone exists at the Gulf of
Carpentaria, in Torres' Straits, it is not improbable that the measures
continue further north still.
To the south, four seams are also said to occur near Cape Paterson, and at
Western Port, in the Colony of Victoria. Coal has also been found in Western
Australia, Kergueien's Land, and in New Zealand, the latter bearing the same
distinctive features, and apparently holding the same geological position as
the coal of New South Wales. In Van Diemen's Land, now called Tasmania, the
coal which is found and worked is known to be of the same age as the Hunter
river coal. The following is an analysis of coal from the Jerusalem basin,
Van Diemen's Land :—
Carbon........................ 6818
Hydrogen .................... 3-99
Ash......................... 19-20
Sulphur ...................... 1-12
Nitrogen...................... 1-62
Oxygen ...................... 5*89
10000 Vol, VI.—February, 1858.
v
38
AGE OF THE COAL.
I have now arrived at that portion of my subject which I approach with the
greatest diffidence, as, among far more experienced geologists than myself,
the geological age of the Australian coal-fields is still a " vexata
qusestio."
The extreme paucity of fossil specimens in the Sydney sandstone make it a
matter of much hesitation to pronounce its particular place in the
geological series.
The ganoidal fish, witli their heterocercal tails,* discovered in the
sandstone, and immediately above and below it, being evidently per-mian in
their type, and the existence of mineral salt inland, where the upper
saliferous marls may exist, with the great prevalence of salt springs,
certainly would lead us to infer that it belonged to the lower new red
sandstone series. It is in its connection, however, with the coal measures,
in conjunction with the above—the coal measures containing, as they do, so
many of the fossils prevalent in the carboniferous epoch— that we first
begin to feel more certain that this may be the case.
Little doubt can exist, after a careful examination of the fossil botany of
the coal measures, in my opinion, as to the position which they hold in the
geological scale, and as to the epoch they belong to.
The Woolongong, Raymond Terrace, Harper's Hill, Glendon, and Mount Wingan,
fossiliferous sandstone, contains such a comparative abundance of
carboniferous limestone fossils, that it remains only for us, with the
present scarcity of data having reference to the underlying strata, in the
meantime to suppose it to be the equivalent of, in New South Wales, and to
hold the position of the mountain limestone of our own coal measures here.
COLLIERIES OF THE HUNTER RIVER DISTRICT.
In the former days of the colony, and while it was a penal settlement,
a prison stockade was formed at Newcastle, and many of the convicts
were employed in working the two lower beach seams (the Dirty seam
and the Yard seam), by means of shallow pits and day levels, to supply
* One of these fish, found at Parramatta, is evidently a species of "
palceoniscus," "while another, found at Cockatoo Island, Port Jackson, I
believe to belong to the genus " platysomus;" and another, found also at
Cockatoo, has been named a " pygoptems." In consequence of the only specimen
of the colony having been sent to the Paris Exhibition, and not having
returned when I left, I am, unfortunately, unable to give a drawing of it.
39
fuel for the prison, and barracks, &c, at Newcastle, and the different
Government offices, men of war, &c, at Sydney, and elsewhere in the colony.
In 1825, however, a London Company, which took the name of the Australian
Agricultural Company, and which had received, on subscribing a capital of
£1,000,000, a grant of the same number of acres, in New South Wales, on
certain conditions, entered into negociation with the Home Government for
the lease of the coal mines at Newcastle. In July, 1828, an agreement, by
letter, was concluded, granting them, in lieu of the lease, 2,000 acres of
land, containing coal, and immediately surrounding the city of Newcastle,
with the understanding that the Government should receive the coals they
required, which should not exceed one-quarter of the average annual produce
at cost price, and, at the same time, gave them what was equivalent to a
monopoly, by instructing* the Colonial Government to retain all the coals,
in any grants issued for the next thirty-one }rears. This monopoly, I may
state, was annulled by the Legislative Council, in 1847, the Company having
before had to complain of other parties working coal.
The Company first commenced to work the yard seam in the A Pit (vide Plans
JSfos. 5 $¦ 6J-, this has been long closed.
The following is the section of the strata in the B Pit, which was next
worked:—
Ft. In.
Reddish yellow sandstone ............................ 17 0
Blueish grey post (soft) .............................. 15 2
Coal and shale mixed................................ 5 0
Blueish grey post (soft) .............................. 10 0
Coal (Dirty Seam)........Bad coal................ 2 6
Sagger clay band........ 0 7
Bad coal................ 1 0
Good coal .............. 1 8
------ 5 9
Blueish grey post (soft) ...............4..............24 0
Do. do. (hard).............................. 6 0
Do. do. (soft) .............................. 0 6
Do. do. (hard, with impressions of glossopteris).. 20 0
Coal (Yard Seam) ........ Bad coal................ 1 0
Good coal.............. 1 6
Band .................. 0 1£
Good coal .............. 1 6
------- 4 l-j
107 4£ Thill, hard blueish grey post.
After having wrought the Yard seam (the Dirty seam was here not worth.' '
working) to the extent which, with their appliances, they could in this
40
pit, they then sunk the CPit, reaching the Dirty seam at 190 feet, and the
yard seam at 212 feet; both these seams they worked, but having encroached
upon the shaft pillars in the Dirty seam, the creep came on and this pit was
also laid in. The following are the sections of these seams in this pit:—
DIRTY SEAM.
Ft. In.
Top coal (not worked)................................ 1 0
Good coal.......................................... 0 6
Sand, grey metal.................................... 0 2
Good coal J......................................... 0 10
Sagger clay band.................................... 0 6
Good coal.......................................... 0 4
Band, black clay.........-........................... 0 8
Good coal.......................................... 1 6
Thill, blue metal. 5 6
YARD SEAM.
Ft. In.
Top coal, good...................................... 0 4
Band black metal.................................... 0 4
Coal, good........................................ 1 1
Black metal band.................................... 0 1
Coal, good.......................................... 1 &i
3 1|
The reason, by-the-bye, why one of the above seams is called the " Dirty
Seam," is in consequence of the soft sagger clay band making the coals very
dirty when wet.
Another pit has lately been sunk further south, (the P Pit), to work the
Yard seam, to the south of the downcast faults, the following is the
section:—
Ft. In.
Soil........................................ 3 6
Reddish clay................................ 4 0
Sandstone, soft reddish........................ 11 0
Blue meta!, with ironstone nodules.............. 7 6
Coal and shale mixed.......................... 4 0
Greyish post ................................ 15 0
Grey metal.................................. 4 0
Coal........................................ 1 6
Grey metal.................................. 0 6
Blue metal, with numerous impressions of glossop-
teris and equisetuin and beds of ironstone......27 0
Hard white post.............................. 8 9
Blue metal.................................. 0 3
Coal (YardSeam)..........,..................... 3 0
---------90 0
Bored from here. Hard grey post.................... 30 0
Grey metal.................................. 1 6
Coal ....................................... 2 0
---------33 6
123 6
41
This pit is still working, they are not drawing more, however, than about
100 tons per day from it.
The D and E Pits, (vide Plan No. 7,) are sunk on a ridge (the anticlinal
curve), about two miles direct west from the F Pit. These two miles consist
of a low level sandy plain, with a swamp in its centre. A short distance to
the west of the F Pit, and under this plain, the yard seam comes very close
to the surface, and thins out j the whole of the seams will, therefore, in
my opinion, be found to be denuded, or, at least, so much deteriorated as to
be worthless underneath, forming one instance of the synclinal denudation.
There is a quicksand at a depth of about sixteen feet under this plain,
which seems to have deterred them from sinking pits or putting down
boreholes on it. It is probable that, from the strata above and below the
seam worked in the D and E Pits, this seam has been formed by the Yard seam
and the lowest one, run together here.
The following is the section of the strata sunk through in the D and E Pits
:—
JJ OR BOREHOLE PIT.
Ft. In.
Clay................................................ 3 0
Conglomerate, very coarse ............................ 36 0
Blue metal, strong.................................... 7 0
Grey post, running into conglomerate.................... 91 0
Bluemetal.......................................... 3 0
Coal—
Coal, good.................................... 2 2
Grey metal, with coal.......................... 2 0
Coal, good.................................... 1 3
Blue metal, with coal.......................... 1 O
Coal,good.„.................................. 2 10
------ 9 3
149 3
Sump, grey post. ¦ ¦
JB PIT.
Ft, In.
Soil, light clay and stiff blue clay........................ 9 0
"White sand (dry) and red sand, with pieces of water-worn coal 3 0
Metal, with coal pipes ................................ 0 6
Bluemetal.......................................... 25 0
Grey post, hard...................................... 17 0
Ditto, seamy, in 1 in. beds .....................«.. 3 6
Ditto, changing into conglomerate..................23 0
Conglomerate, with holes full of sand..............,.....14 0
Blue metal, with ironstone bands and nodules ............ 24 0
Coal—
Coal, good ................................... 3 0
Grey metal, with coal.......................... 2 8
Coal, good.................................... 0 10
Blue metal and coal............................ 0 8
Coal, good..,.,.,.,.....,.......,.......j..... 2 8
------ 9 10
128 10
Sump, grey post. ---------
42
A borehole has lately been put down at the bottom of the D Pit, and at 294
feet 9| inches from the working seam, reached the following seam:—
Ft. In.
Good brig-lit coal.................................... 2 6
Band of coal and metal................................ 0 3
Good bright coal...................................... 0 2£
Metal band.......................................... 0 7
Good bright coal................................ .,,. 0 7
4 n
Thill metal. .-------
gave off salt water not containing 2 per cent., and gas burning with a blue
flame, tinged with red.
These two pits are at present working-, and the daily workings are from 200
to 300 tons drawn to bank.
Proceeding further west we find, at borehole No. 2, the same seam thinned
out to half its depth. Section of the strata bored through in borehole No.
2:—
Ft. In. Ft. In.
¦g £ C Surface soil.................................. 1 0
«S "§< Ferruginous marley clay........................ 2 8
° "8 v. Sandstone, soft................................ 0 3
Chertey sandstone, beds dipping S. 5°............ 1 9
Conglomerate .......................•........ 93 4
Mild grey post, with water...................... 0 8
Conglomerate ................................ 25 5
Grey post................................... 6 2
Blue metal, with coal pipes ..................... 8 9
Coal, good and clean .......................... 2 8
------ 142 8
Grey metal .................................. 0 3
Grey post.....>............................. • 60 1
Blue metal, mixed with post .................... 6 10
Grey post, very soft............................ 2 0
Blue metal, mixed with post, left off in this........ 12 11
------ 82 1
224 9
The country to the west from here again becomes low, flat, and swampy for
about one mile in that direction j and, therefore, at borehole No. 1, about
three-quarters of a mile to the west of No. 2, the seams have entirely
disappeared again. The following is the section of strata bored through:—
Pt. In.
•g m |^ rl. Soil, black....................................... 2 0
Slug1} 2. Clay, strong blue, with sand ...................... 6 0
"S^ls 2 j 3. Sand, dark brown and hard........................ 6 0
|§«H^ Quicksand, with water 80 gallons per hour (brackish).. 4 0
5. Clay, very strong blue............................ 16 0
43
Ft. In.
6. Clay, very strong yellow.......................... 4 0
7. Ditto, ditto white .......................... 2 0
8. Sandstone, soft yellow............................ 10 3
9. Grey post, strong................................ 36 0
10. Ditto, seamy................................ 7 9
11. Ditto, very strong............................ 2 0
12. Ditto, seamy, very soft........................ 2 9
13. Blue metal, mixed with post, and three ironstone girdles
at 61 feet (two of 2\ and one of 3i).............. 69 0
14. Ironstone girdles, with post—four of them .......... 1 6
15. Blue metal, mixed with post ...................... 10 10
16. Ironstone girdle.................................. 0 2
17. Grey seamy post, with blue metal.................. 6 10
18. Black slatey stone, with coal ...................... 0 8
19. Grey post, with blue metal partings.........^.... 4 6
20. Black stone, with coal............................ 0 4
21. Grey post, seamy, mixed with black metal ........... 5 3
22. Black metal, with coal............................ 0 4
23. Brown post, girdle very strong .................... 0 8
24. Grey post, mixed with blue metal .................. 7 5
25. Black slatey stone, with coal...................... 0 3
26. Bluemetal...................................... 0 7
27. Grey post girdle ................................. 1 2
28. Blue metal, with coal pipes........................ 6 6
29. Brownish grey post girdle ........................ 0 6
30. Blue metal...................................... 0 2
31. Brownish grey post girdle....................... 0 2
32. Blue metal, mixed with post ...................... 2 10
33. Blue metal................................. .... 1 9
34. Brown post girdle............................... 0 8
35. Blue metal...................................... 1 2
36. Black slatey stone, with coal ...................... 0 3
37. Blue metal...................................... 1 0
38. Brown post girdle, very hard...................... 0 8
39. Blue metal parting .............................. 0 1
40. Brown post girdle................................ 0 3
41. Blue metal, mixed with post ...................... 5 11
42. White post girdle................................. 0 11
43. Dark brown metal, with coal pipes.................. 3 9
44. Post, very mild.................................. 2 6
45. Grey metal...................................... 5 8
46. White fire-clay (chert?) .......................... 0 8£
47. Blue metal, dark and hard........................ 0 3
48. Black slatey stone, mixed with coal ................ 3 0
49. Grey post, with coal pipes ........................ 1 11
50. Grey metal...................................... 2 2
51. White clay (chert?).............................. 5 5|
52. Blue metal, with coal pipes........................ 1 6
53. Bluemetal..................................... 2 10
54. Brownish grey post, seamy................,....... 3 7
55. Bluemetal.......... :.................,....'.... 2 0
56. Black shale, mixed with coal...................... 0 10
57. Grey metal...................................... 4 2
58. Grey post, with coal pipes the last 8 inches, hard, and
running into ................................ 6 1
59. Conglomerate, very hard.......................... 0 8
Parting of coal pipe.............................. 0 1^
60. Conglomerate, very hard.......................... 1 0
61. Blue and grey metal, mixed ...................... 5 6
62. Grey post girdle ................................. 0 9
63. Blue metal, with coal pipe ........................ 0 5£
64. Grey post (with a few coal pipes and two metal partings) 10 9
44
Ft. In.
65. Blue metal and grey post, mixed .................. 1 0
66. Grey post, changing into conglomerate, very coarse to-
wards bottom................................ 5 8
67. Blue metal, with coal pipe.......................... 0 11
68. Grey post and conglomerate........................ 2 1
69. Blue metal...................................... 5 0
70. Post girdle (hard)................................ 0 3
71. Blue metal...................................... 2 6
72. Post girdle (hard)................................ 0 6
73. Blue metal parting .............................. 0 1
74. Post girdle (hard)................................ 0 9
75. Blue metal...................................... 0 4
76. Post girdle (hard)................................ 1 11
77. Bluemetal...................................... 0 2
78. Post girdle..................................... 0 2
79. Blue metal, with post............................ 4 9
80. Black slatey stone with coal........................ 0 4
81. Blue metal, with post ... *........................ 4 6
82. Post girdle (hard)..................-............. 0 3
83. Blue metal parting .................,............ 0 1
84. Post girdle (hard)................................ 0 2
85. Blue metal...................................... 0 4
86. Post girdle...................................... 0 3£
87. Blue metal...................................... 0 6
88. Post girdle...................................... 0 3£
89. Blue metal...................................... 10 1
90. Coal, good and bright............................ 0 6
91. Blue metal, mixed with post ...................... 5 5
92. Grey metal...................................... 0 4
93. White clayey shale .............................. 1 3
94. Bastard whin.................................... 1 0
95. Blue metal...................................... 1 2
96. Post girdle....................,................. 0 6
97. Blue metal...................................... 1 4
98. Post girdle___-----.............................. 0 5
99. Blue metal, mixed with post........... .......... 14 8
100. Blue metal, very strong.......................... 24 1
101. Soapy shale, greenish, like steatite.................. 0 7
102. Blue metal..........................i........... 1 5
103. Post girdle...................................... 0 2
104. Bluemetal....................................... 8 7
105. Soapy shale, "cherty" .......................... 1 2
106. Blue metal...................................... 35 0
107. " Cherty" shale ................................ 0 2
108. Blue metal, left off in ............................ 2 9
Total feet.................... 439 9
Traversing the line of section (Plan No. 7), we arrive at a borehole that
was put down many years ago by the Australian Agricultural Company, the
account of which, if any was made, appears to have been lost, and I have not
been able to obtain any information about it, further than after passing
through a seam two feet eight inches in thickness, at a depth of twenty
feet, they continued to bore, without finding any other, to a depth of 443
feet three inches, in alternations of metals and posts.
Crossing over the river we reach a borehole on Ash Island, of which the
following is the section :—
45
M. In.
/ 1. Alluvial soil..................................... 3 0
2. Blue clay........................................ 3 0
3. Dark sandy soil -with clay.....,.................... 6 0
4. Quicksand, containing the following marine shells, "mac-
tia" semi fossil, "cardium," " cerithiam," "ostrea,"
g " natica," " trochus," ........................
5 0
.g 5. Sand (pure)...................................... 1 0
6. Do., with coal pipes and small pebbles of various colors,
and shells .................................. 1 0
3 7. Sand(pure)...................................... 2 0
S 8. Ditto, white...................................... 7 0
"S 9. Sand, rather darker............................... 2 0
¦3 10. Ditto, with lumps of clay.......................... 0 6
"is 11, Clay, dark and stiff................................ 1
0
a 12. Ditto, stiff blue.................................. 0 6
!? 13. Ditto, yellow .................................... 0 6
14. Sandstone...................................... 3 6
¦3 15. Ditto, with metal girdles and coal pipes .............. 11
0
1 16. Coal................ Coal ................0 3
J4 Band, clayey..........
0 2
* Coal ................
0 6
Band, clayey.......... 0 3
Coal ................2 0
I
------ 3 2
\ 17. Shale, dark brown.................«.............. 4 7
18. Greypost......................................... 1 0
19. Blue metal, with coal pipes........................ 4 7
20. Hard, grey, seamy post, with blue metal partings...... 38 8
21. Blue metal...................................... 0 9
22. Grey metal ...................................... 0 7
23. Blue metal...................................... 6 5
24. Grey metal ...................................... 1 2
25. Greypost........................................ 2 5
26. Blue metal, with many coal pipes.................... 0 2
27. Greypost........................................ 1 11
28. Blue metal, with coal pipes........................ 0 2
29. Grey post, strong, with coal pipes.................... 7 3
30. Grey metal parting, with coal...................... 0 9
31. Grey post, strong................................ 11 6
32. Black metal, mixed with coal...................... 2 10
33. Grey metal ...................................... 2 5
34. Blue metal ...................................... 4 7
35. Strong ironstone girdle............................ 0 3
36. Blue metal...................................... 8 10
37. Strong grey post girdle............................ 0 8
38. Blue metal ...................................... 7 4
39. Grey post girdle.................................. 0 6
40. Blue metal ...................................... 1 7
41. Grey post girdle .. ~............................... 1 10
42. Blue metal ...................................... 0 10
43. Dark grey seamy post, very mild.................... 6 0
44. Blue metal'...................................... 6 10
45. White post, very hard and seamy.................... 4 0
46. White post, mixed with grey metal.................. 3 8
47. Blue metal, with coal.............................. 1 0
48. Post girdle...................................... 0 3
49. Post, with grey metal.............................. 4 10
50. Blue metal (hard) ................................ 10 5
51. Grey metal, with coal................,............. 1 0
52. White post...................................... 14 0
53. An exceedingly hard stone, apparently metamorphic,
might be a pebble, from conglomerate (?) left off in
this........................................ 0 3
216 0 Vol. VI.—February, 1858. g
46
Across the north channel of the river a pit has been sunk at Tornago, and a
good seam found at about 320 feet down, and is now, I perceive by the
newspapers, being wrought.
At Hexham, on the south side of the river, is another extensive level plain,
called Hexham Swamp, crossing this by a line of railway at present making,
we come to a ridge again at the distance of 5 J miles, and to another
sinking called Minimi. A seam, the section of which I give, is got here at a
depth of 50 feet.
Ft. In. Ft. In. Eoof, blue metal................................
10 0
(• Coal.......................................... 0 6
Not ) Band ........................................ 0 0£
worked) Coal.......................................... 0 10
(. Band ........................................ 0 0J
---------1 4|
Coal, good .................................... 1 10
Metal band.................................... 0 0£
Coal, good .............•...................... 4 0
Bottom coal, not worked........................ 0 10
---------6 8}
Thill, grey post. ---------
Dips S. 5°, not regular. 8 \\
Coal has been worked to a very small extent at several different points
between here and East Maitland, but, with the exception of two pits at
Four-mile Creek, all are now closed ( Vide Plan No. Q). At Four-mile Creek,
at thirty-four feet, the following seam is found:—
Ft. In. Ft. In. Roof mixed metal................ 1 7
f Coal, coarse...................... 0 6
Not worked J Band .......................... ° 5
not wornea. .< Coa]> coarge and splinty .......... 2 2\
CBand .......................... 0 1
------ 3 2£
Coal, good ...................... 3 7
Band, clayey.................... 0 2
Bottom coal, good................ 1 2
------ 4 11
Dipping south-west 2° & l\
At Stoney Creek, two miles bejond West Maitland, a cannel coal has been
found, of pretty fair quality, and is now wrought for landsale.
The Four-mile Creek coals are shipped at Morpeth, at the head of the
navigation of the Hunter, about thirty-five miles by river and eighteen by
road from Newcastle. Most of them, however, are used by the steamers plying
between there, Newcastle, and Sydney.
Within three miles of Newcastle, to the south, a high ridge or range of high
land runs inland from the coast, and joins the ranges which trend from Lake
Macquarie. Here the Newcastle Coal and Copper (smelting) Company have their
collieries. A thick seam, formed by one of the
47
undulations and the running together of two of the top seams, crops out on
both sides of the ridge, and is worked by five day levels. One is driven
quite through the hill, the full height of the seam, and forms a tunnel,
through which the road to the smelting works passes.
SECTION OF THE BURWOOD SEAM.
ROOF POST.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
Not < Top coal ...................................... 3 0
worked \ Fire-clay, good................................... 2 2
------ 5 2
Coal, good...................................... 2 1J
Fire-clay band.................................. 0 2|*
Coal, good...........................-.......... 0 4J
Danty band .................................... 0 2J*
Coal, good...................................... 2 4
------ 5 3
Thill, sagar clay, good. ------
Dip west 4°. 10 5
The same company formerly worked the " Dirty seam" on the coast for smelting
purposes, and now work it a little to convert into coke. Between 400 and 500
tons are brought to day at these drifts per day, and drawn in two-ton
waggons, down a railway, by horses, to the shoots at Newcastle. Locomotives
have lately been ordered from England for this railway, which is being
relaid with heavier rails.
The Australian Agricultural Company have just received two locomotives to
run on their lines up to the D, E, and F Pits.
At Lake Macquarie, coal was formerly worked at the Ebenezer colliery, but
the coal, although it burns well, yet has such a dull appearance, that the
pit has long been closed.
SECTION OF SEAM.
Ft. In.
Top coal, bright...................................... 0 6
Band clay ........................................... 0 0£
Black slate.......................................... 0 4
Cannel, coarse........................................ 2 6
3 4£
This seam is just above high water mark, and haa the conglomerate
immediately superimposed on it.
The entrance to Lake Macquarie is very shallow, being obstructed by a
sand-bar, which has only about four feet of water on it at high water.
This lake is most probably the synclinical curve of an undulation, not
silted up.
* These bands are not regular, thinning out in some places, and in others
disappearing altogether.
48 I give below the analysis of the coals I have mentioned:—
Coke: Gas. Ash. Sulphur.
The Burwood coal sp. g. 1-293 .. 67-60 .. 32-40 .. 4-16
.. 7-03
„ Ebenezer, Lake Macquarie coal 69-10 .. 30-90 .. 5.64 ..
7*13
„ Four Mile Creek coal........ 71-90 .. 28-10 .. 4-00 ..
7-20f
„ Minimi coal................ 75-50 .. 24-50 .. 6-60 ..
7-21
" A'S^nAf^,12riS9m"l64-88 •• 36'22 '• 6'52 •' 7-60 pany
s JJ. & jo. pit coal .. 5
To show the increase of the coal trade of New South Wales, I give
the vend of the following years :— Tons.
In 1825, Government convicts working.................. 2,789
„ 1832, Australian Agricultural Company's monopoly .... 7,143 „ 1833, Ditto
ditto .... 6,812 „ 1834, Ditto ditto .... 8,491 „
1855,............................................137,076
At the present time the vend is about and not exceeding 5,000 tons per week,
and the price at the shoot is fifteen shillings per ton at present.
The trade is, at present, with a very small exception, a coasting one, and
to the neighbouring colonies of Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, and New
Zealand. A very fine foreign trade, particularly with California, might by
this time have been obtained, but, during the excitement caused by the gold,
when the harbours were filled with foreign vessels waiting for coal, the
trade was anything but fostered.
IRONSTONE. There is an abundance of ironstone, but it is much disseminated
throughout the different strata, in the foim of nodules or beds, extending
for a very short distance. The following is the section of a bed of no great
extent, about four miles down the coast south of Newcastle, and lying
immediately under a seam of coal of 14 feet 9 inches in thickness, and which
is formed of two seams having here run together—
Ft. In.
Ironstone beds ...................................... 5 6
Soft clayey metal..................................... 1 0
Ironstone, apparently rich............................. 2 6
Soft grey metal ¦¦..................................... 2 0
Coal................................................ 0 9
Ironstone, a species of black band....................... 0 6
Ironstone, light coloured .............................. 0 6
12 9 Fireclay is also very abundant; it is generally rather aluminous, but
by mixing the different qualities together with sand, I have obtained very
excellent fire-bricks.
t Although the New South "Wales coal contains, I think, a larger proportion
of sulphur than the coal here, yet the proportion stated in the above
analysis is probably too great. The analysis was made in Sydney, and a
mistake may have been made. I find the following analysis in the Sydney (New
South Wales) Parliamentary Blue Book:—
82-39 carbon. 5-32 hydrogen. 1-23 nitrogen. 1-70 sulphur. 8-32
oxygen. 2-04 ash.
The per centage of sulphur here is slightly greater than in the most of our
coals here.
EXPLANATION OF THE MAP OF FEANCE.
The basins or fields from which the coal is extracted are indicated by their
names and as nearly as possible by their recognized shape. The quantities
produced are expressed by squares, varying in size according to the extent
of the respective fields; the square of one inch representing a production
in round numbers of 700,000 tons. The number of tons is placed at the bottom
of each square. **>**\ \ T
CONSUMPTION AND DISTRIBUTION. /^'^^l---
The great quantity of coal consumed in each department is expressed by a
circle drawn round the principal town, and, like the squares, varying in
size according to the quantity taken into consumption. The circle enclosing
a square inch represents a similar quantity to that expressed by the
squares—namely, 700,000 tons,—and the precise number of tons sent from
foreign countries, and from different native fields to each department, is
placed round the circle.
The coals supplied by the various foreign countries are distinguished in the
following manner:—
Native Coals.—Lines of circulation Black; horizontallfenes in the circles;
colour, Yellow.
Belgian Coals.—Lines of circulation, indicated by oblique strokes; lines-in
the circles vertical ; colour of lines and circles, Green.
English Coals.—Lines of circulation and circles stippled ; colour, Red. ¦
Prussian Coals.—Lines and circles blank ; colour, Violet.
The means of tracing the French coals to their source is afforded by the
addition of the figures surrounding the circles, if accompanied by initial
letters corresponding to the list of fields or basins in the General
Explanation.
The lines of circulation are alternately coloured in cases where coal of
different countries passes over the same route. Those of the routes who do
not bear any written designation, are imperial or county roads and
boundaries. The lines drawn beyond the coast indicate the Maritime routes.
ERRATA.
Page 68, 18th line from toy, for 2,126 tons read 3,000. „ 105, at Lot and
Garonne,, second column, for 23,600 read 2,360.
NOTES
ON THE
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
OF COAL IN FRANCE.
By Mr. T. Y. HALL.
INTRODUCTION.
In continuation of the series of statistical notes on the origin, progress,
and present state of the coal trade of various countries,—partially
commenced in my papers on " The Great Northern Coal-field" and " The Coal
Measures of Styria," and more fully developed in the paper on America which
I had the honour of reading to the members of the Institute,—I purpose
taking into consideration the resources, production, and trade of Trance in
this staple article of commerce, as the coal consuming country next highest
in rank to Great Britain. I shall continue the comparison between the
individual production and consumption of each separate district and county
and those of our own and other countries, inasmuch as it is of the highest
importance that the relative mineral wealth and capability of production of
great and competing nations should be clearly and accurately defined and
understood.
I have taken care throughout these papers—as well in those which precede as
in the present one—that all calculations should be based upon official
returns, wherever they were procurable ; and in cases where I could not
obtain the statistics from the coalowners' returns themselves, or documents
issued under the authority of the Government, I have furnished liberal
estimates, founded upon specified, and, I believe, accurate data.
Our information relative to the state of the coal trade in France prior to
the year 1832 is, in many respects, unsatisfactory. We know little Vol.
VI.—February, 1858.
50
or nothing of the extent of territory explored, the numher of mines in
operation, or the amount of industry at that period devoted to this now most
important branch of commerce. True, we have certain figures representing the
total yield from as early a period as the year 1787, just as we have now, in
our own country, statistics of agricultural produce; and yet we know that
the latter are so notoriously imperfect as to have excited the attention of
the Legislature, by whom, during a recent session, the subject of a
compulsory enactment which should oblige every farmer, under penalty, to
furnish accurate returns of the production of each acre under his
cultivation, has been freely canvassed and advocated.
It was in the year above-mentioned—1832—that the French Government
instituted the system of commercial inspection which has since enabled them
to estimate their mineral and agricultural produce, and to ascertain their
commercial position with so much certainty and correctness. Every quintal of
coal raised, and of iron, &c, manufactured, together with the exact number
of bushels of grain grown yearly throughout the empire, is now noted down
and preserved in the statistical records of the State, and the Government is
thus enabled to fix with great accuracy the royalty rents, &c, upon minerals
(which appear in every instance to be under the control of Government), and
the duties which they levy upon grain and other produce. At certain periods
these returns are assorted and condensed, and the results are published in a
series of blue books, accessible to all.
Up to the revolutionary period of 1848, the Administration of Public Works
had published these blue books annually; but, in that year, the power to
defray the expenses of their publication was swept away, and the accounts,
in consequence, ceased to appear. A new enactment, in 1850, ordained their
triennial publication, and in this manner they have since been issued.
Whether or not such a system would work in England—where, at present,
commercial statistics consist mainly of estimates prepared by individual
producers—is pretty much a matter of opinion, to be discussed elsewhere.
That the system has been successful in France, Prussia, Austria, and in
Belgium, where it has been in operation for a lengthened period, is beyond
all question.
With this brief introduction, necessary to explain the objects of the paper,
and to show the kind of authority upon which I found my calculations, I
shall at once proceed to the subject matter.
51
CHAPTER I. HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE FRENCH PRODUCTION
OF COAL.
The first account we have of coal being used in France to any noticeable
extent bears date 1700. According to M. Vivien, Secretary of State for the
Department of Public Works during the reign of Louis Philippe, there is
reason to suppose that coal was employed in France before the fourteenth
century, and he affirms it as certain that, in the year 1321, coal was
extracted from the mines of Roche-la-Moliere, in the Loire basin. Two
centuries after—namely, in 1520—coal began to be imported from England into
Paris, and a good deal of excitement as to its effect upon the atmosphere,
and the health of the inhabitants, was created. The Faculty of Medicine were
consulted, and they reported that, with proper precautions to avoid the
inconvenience arising from the smoke, coal would not act in any way
prejudicially to the public health. In the year 1548, one Jean Francois de
la Roque, Sieur or Master of Roberval, obtained from the French King Henry
II. the exclusive privilege of working the coal mines of the kingdom; but,
in 1553, on the occasion of a destructive epidemic, the smiths were
forbidden, under pain of imprisonment and fine, to consume coal in their
shops, when, it may be supposed, the Master of Roberval's license would be
of little profit. Henry IV., in 1601, specially exempted coal from the tithe
due to the sovereign in virtue of his royalty, and the privilege was
continued by his successor; but Louis le Grand, in 1667, imposed upon all
coal imported a tax of 97 centimes per 100 kilogrammes (about 8s. per ton),
and this high duty he raised to If. 21c. (about 10s. per ton), in 1692. This
monarch seems to have been determined to shut out foreign coals as much as
possible, and by that means to develope the coal produce of his own kingdom,
for we find him, six years after the last-named date, issuing an edict which
authorised landowners to explore the coal upon their estates without seeking
permission of the sovereign. Thus encouraged, several landed proprietors
turned their attention to mining operations, and, by the commencement of the
eighteenth century, coal was very actively worked in the basins of the Loire
and Brassac, while its extraction had begun and was rapidly progressing in
the basins of Alais, Roujan, Saint Gervais, Aix, Caunette, Segure, Aubin,
Decize, Ahun, and Lower Loire. The Saint George's mines were opened in 1720,
and, a few years later, those of Litz, in Calvados, Valenciennes,
52
Hardinghen, and Creusot and Blanzy. In 1744, an edict of Louis XV. annulled
the legislation of 1698, and rendered it necessary to obtain the royal
permission to work coal; while another edict, issued about twenty years
after, reduced to If. 10c, and in a few months to 83c. per 100 kilogrammes
(equal to 6s. lid. per ton), the duty upon all coals brought oversea. By
this time the Carmeaux, Littry, and Ronchamp fields had been discovered, and
the home trade had become important; so much so, indeed, that, in 1787, the
native extraction amounted to 215,000 tons, while the foreign importation
was only 217,378 tons. The next year the home yield was 10,000, and the year
following- 15,000 tons more—a very satisfactory increase under the
circumstances. At the commencement of the present century, the home
production was 800,000 tons.
French Importation of Foreign Coal. The foreign importation appears to have
seriously declined at the beginning" of the present century. The returns in
1815 present an extraordinary decrease. They are even far below those of the
year 1788, for in that year the figures were 240,000 tons, whereas, in 1815,
the total supply was only 165,345 tons. At first sight it might be imagined
that the falling-oif was attributable to, and the legitimate consequence of,
an increasing development of native produce; but the supplies in subsequent
years destroy the supposition. We must, therefore, refer to history, which
informs us that, during the war with France, Buonaparte, determined, if
possible, to extinguish our commerce with that country, laid an embargo on
all English goods entering the empire, and the stringent measures he enacted
to effect this object were successful for a time in excluding English coal
from the French market. Had he adopted the more reasonable course, and
reduced the duties instead of raising them, France would by this time, in
all probability, have taken ten times the present quantity of English coals,
or more than Belgium has ever sent, the probable effect of which would have
been to raise France to a high position amongst manufacturing nations. By
and bye we shall see how differently the more liberal policy laid down by
the present Emperor is acting.
Native Yield and Foreign Importation in the Year 1820.
From this date—1815—there was a steady increase in the quantity of native
coal extracted, subject, of course, to those fluctuations in the
53
market which a state of warfare with nearly all Europe might be supposed to
induce, till, in the year 1820, four years after the war, we find the total
yield estimated at 1,093,657 tons, an annual average increase of 71,341
tons. The foreign importation, too, advanced. It amounted to 280,920 tons,
or an increase per year of nearly 20,000 tons. The total supply was
furnished by the undermentioned countries, viz.:—»
Tons.
Belgium................................ 227,212
Prussia and Bavaria ...................... 27,814
Great Britain............................ 25,119
Various countries ......................... 775
Total .................. 280,920
The British production in 1820 I estimate at twenty-two million tons, of
which about one-fourth was extracted in Northumberland and Durham. This,
from the very imperfect data obtainable, appears to me to be a tolerably
accurate calculation. Of this latter extraction probably a third (or
one-eighth of the whole) was shipped from these northern districts.
Produce and Importation in the Year 1825. By the year 1825 an augmentation
in the native extraction, to the extent of 1,491,381 tons, had taken
place—an average increase of 80,000 tons per year. The increase of foreign
importation had also been proportionally large during the quinquennial
period, it having advanced to 508,618 tons (including 1,680 tons of
coke)—about 100,000 tons per year. The total is made up as follows :—
Tons.
Belgium................................ 439,248
Prussia, &c............................... 42,393
England................................ 26,684
Other countries .......................... 293
Total.................. 508,618
The English production at that period I estimate at 26,000,000 tons,
24,000,000 tons more than the whole native and foreign supply of France
added together; while America, just then coming into notice, was furnishing
for local consumption a supply of only 30,000 tons, about half the quantity
consumed, the remainder being imported from England.
54
Native and Foreign Supply in 1830, the Year of Revolution. In 1830 the
production had reached 1,862,665 tons, being- only an increase of
twenty-five per cent, over the year 1825, while the increase of the latter
year over 1820 was fifty per cent. It should, however, be stated that the
returns for 1830 do not fairly represent the case. That was the year of
revolution, and consequent disorganization, when the machinery of commerce
was dislocated, and its operations, as it were, suspended—when civil
disorder reigned unchecked, and the routine of everyday life, the ordinary
business of buying' and selling-, were conducted with fear and reluctance.
The foreign importations in this year was 637,291 tons. The supplies were
from the under-mentioned countries:—
Tons.
Belgium................................ 510,806
Prussia, &c............................... 75,344
England................................ 51,128
Other countries .......................... 13
Total (including about 5,000 tons of coke) ____637,291
Introduction of the System of Mine Inspection and Eeduction of Duties on
Foreign Coal. Passing on to the expiration of the succeeding five years, and
comparing the total supply of the year 1835 with that of 1830, we find a
comparatively large increase of all kinds. The nation had by this time
become tranquil; commerce and industry flourished again. Capital, which
everybody hesitates to invest during times of internal commotion and
disorder, was again gradually put into active circulation in developing the
national resources and trade. Science had brought to its aid improved
mechanical contrivance and skill, and a time of general prosperity had begun
to dawn. The French Legislature, three years before the date to which
these statements extend, had instituted the system of mine inspection by
competent mining engineers, and the result has been most satisfactory. As
has been well remarked elsewhere, " the productiveness of mining industry in
France has increased, in a greatly accelerated ratio, since that time, as
compared with previous periods, which circumstance is, in part at least,
attributable to the suggestions made to the proprietors of mines by the
engineers, a highly educated and intelligent body of men, to whom the task
of inspection is confided." Another wise, and, as the sequel has shown,
profitable action on the part of the French Legislature during this
quinquennial period, was the reduction, in the year 1834, of the import
duties on the seaborne coal
55
(mostly English) to 2s. 6d., 5s., and 8s. 4d. per ton, according to the
respective districts into which it was brought; while the duties on foreign
coal brought by canal or overland—from Belgium, for instance— was reduced
from 2s. 6d. to lOd. and Is. 3d., according to the above rule. The
beneficial results of these measures—imitating the course of action pursued
in this country in 1831—are seen in the large increase of the foreign supply
ever since, though the differential duties in favour of Belgium still
operate unfavourably on the English trader, and allow Belgium to take the
lead of England in supplying coals to France.
Native Extraction and Foreign Supply in the Year 1835.
The production of French coal in the year 1835 was not less than about
2,506,416 tons, an excess over that of 1830 of about 650,000 tons, or 33 per
cent. Perhaps, as the year 1830 was peculiar, it would only be fair to
compute the increase on 1825, when it will be seen that the average annual
increase is about 100,000 tons. The foreign import in this year amounts to
above three quarters of a million tons, (including 9,249 tons of coke and
16,984 tons of coal, which, being entered simply as fuel for government
vessels, is excused duty, in accordance with the provisions of a law which
was passed by the French Legislature about this time), of which there came
from
Tons.
Belgium................................ 615,157
England ................................ 98,159
Prussia, Bavaria, &c....................... 87,783
Other countries .......................... 21
Total .................. 803,120
The aggregate supply of all kinds in 1835 is thus seen to have been, in
round numbers, 3,309,536 tons, about 662,000 tons each year.
The number of mines in operation in the year 1835 is stated to have been
223, namely, of bituminous coal, 157; of lignite, 42; of anthracite, 24. The
amount of labour employed in these 223 mines during this year is estimated
at 19,484 hands (which includes both below and above ground labour),
averaging about eighty-seven men to each mine. Assuming this statement to be
correct, we have an average production from each mine of 112,400
tons—nearlyl26 tons to each workman per year. The English yield in 1835 may
be estimated at 30,000,000 tons, scarcely half the present extraction; that
of Belgium was 2,647,379 tons, raised from 307 mines (8,623 tons per mine);
Prussia, 2,000,000
56
tons, raised from 330 mines by 16,000 workmen, an average of 6,060 tons per
mine, and 127 tons per man; and America, 450,000 tons.
The following is the official table of the consumption of fuel in France
during the year to which these statements refer :—
Consumption of Fuel in France in 1835.
Tons.* Value.* Value Per Ton.
Charcoal ..... 600,000 ... .£1,488,360 .... £2 9 7£
Mineral coal... 206,800 .... 167,800 .... 016 2 Coke........
59,000 .... 63,840 .... 1 1 7J
Stere-t
Wood ...... 8,100 .... 1,560
Turf........ 6,500 .... 400
Total value............£1,718,960
Home Supply during the Year 1836.
During the next year, 1836, 2,841,946 tons were raised by 21,913 workmen,
130 tons to each individual employed. The average extraction per mine was
about 10,000 tons, and the mean value per ton, as set forth in the official
documents, lis. 3|d. Thus the average value of the quantity extracted by
each operative throughout that year would be £73 8s. These figures show a
steady increase.
The value of the principal mineral productions extracted in France during
the year 1836 was £6,169,138; that of all sorts of coal, £1,064,082, about
one-sixth of the whole of the mineral extraction. The increase in value, as
well of coal as of the principal varieties of other mineral produce, seems
to have been in pretty regular proportion to the increase in the supply,
subject to the almost imperceptible cheapening of the article by the
continued introduction of mechanical improvements in subterranean
operations, and by foreign competition. This rule, of course, applies,
without exception, to every mineral producing country in the world. During
the last twenty-five years the cost of production, and, in consequence, the
price to the consumer, in many parts of England, has been reduced by the
same means full 33 per cent., the increase of production going on at the
same ratio.
* Throughout this paper I have reduced the figures from French quintals into
French tons, by cutting off the last figure from the number of quintals ;
and the -value from francs to pounds, by cutting off the last two figures
and multiplying the remainder by four. The French ton is a little less than
the English ton, but the calculations are sufficiently accurate for our
purpose.
t A Stere is equal to 1'31 cubic yards, or 35 cubic feet, 547 cubic inches =
nearly l\ cubic yards.
57
Comparative Productiveness of the French, Belgian, Prussian, and American
Coal Fields in 1838. In the course of the year 1838, 3,113,252 tons of coal
were raised in France by 23,751 workmen, employed in 221 pits, namely, 157
working and 64 sinking pits. In Belgium, in the same year, 480 working and
172 sinking pits were in operation, employing 37,170 miners, producing
nearly 3,300,000 tons. The production of England, at that time, was
estimated at 36,000,000 tons:—that of Prussia at 2,308,368 tons, extracted
from 628 pits by 17,884 workmen:—and, that of America—where labour is very
expensive, costing nearly double the price paid in England, and about three
times more per individual than in other foreign coun^m^*"' -at about
three-quartex's of a million tons. /^^--------
Native and Foreign Supplies in 1840. But to resume our quinquennial
comparisons of French production. In the five years 1835-40, a large and
satisfactory increase, though one apparently less in proportion than that of
the previous five years, is shown. The total extraction in the year 1840
amounted to about 3,000,000 tons, or 800,000 tons over the quantity
extracted in 1835. The foreign supplies in 1840 are classified as below:—
Tons.
From Belgium ................................ 748,600
„ Great Britain ............................. 380,774
„ Prussia, &c............................... 160,779
„ Various.................................. 507
Total (including about 11,000 tons of coke and 8,000 or
9,000 tons of coal entered for government vessels).. 1,290,660
The period embraced by the latter part of the quinquennial term 1835-40, and
the first part of the similar term 1840-45, would seem to have been very
prosperous, not only for the important branch of commerce at present under
our consideration, but also for almost every other kind of trade. Midway
between two great revolutions, those of 1830 and 1848, the French nation
appears to have rested on its oars, as it were, and to have given the
fullest scope to the development of its large resources. Ample time had
elapsed since the unfortunate and calamitous disaster of 1830 for the
kingdom to recover its wonted composure, and the Legislature seems to have
set itself diligently to work to promote, by every means in its power, the
extension of commerce, home and foreign; the growth of the national
industry, and the prosecution or pursuits, from the successful following out
of which they hoped to derive advantages commensurate with those which had
attended a similar course of action in neighbouring countries.
Vol. VI.—February, 1858.
I
58
The number of French mines in operation in the year 1840 is said to have
been 250. Supposing that number to be accurate, we have an average
production per mine of 12,000 tons. The number of labourers employed in
mining operations in that year was 27,830, so that the average number of
tons raised by each workman was 108.
Two departments, those of Moselle and Lot, which had each furnished a small
quantity of coal in the year 1835, had ceased to do so in 1840. Moselle had,
at one time, yielded no inconsiderable quantity, and, indeed, in the
first-named year her production stood at 3,000 tons; but Lot had dwindled
down to 60 tons, and was the lowest of all the departments. It appears,
however, that the Emperor has recently ordered borings to be made in
Moselle, which have been attended with favourable results, and that
operations on an extended scale are contemplated. Both the districts seem to
have been deserted for new and more profitable localities, for we find that,
at the same time they ceased to figure in the market, thirteen other
departments were added to the coal-yielding list.
It will now be interesting to ascertain what has been the ratio of progress
in the native production and importation of foreign coal into France during
the last twenty years, over which our comparisons extend. We have seen that,
in the year 1820, the quantity of native coal extracted was only 1,093,657
tons, and that the foreign supplies amounted to 280,919 tons. We now (1840)
find upwards of 3,000,000 tons placed to the credit of the home production,
and the foreign trade arrived at 1,290,660 tons. To show the relative
increase of one term of years over another is the object of the following
table:—
PROGRESS OF THE FRENCH COAL TRADE DURING TWENTY YEARS.
Quantities Increase* since Increase since Increase since
Increase since YEARS. raised. 1820.
1825. 1830. 1835.
Tons. Tons. Tons: Tons.
Tons. 1820 1,093,000
1825 1,500,000 407,000 .... ___
1830 1,862,000 769,000 362,000 ....
1835 2,500,000 1,407,000 1,000,000 638,000
-----
1840 3,000,000 1,907,000 1,500,000 1,138,000
1,000,000
It is thus shown that the aggregate increase in the twenty years was * These
calculations are made in round numbers.
59
nearly 2,000,000 tons, about 100,000 tons per year. The per centage of
increase over each respective period is as follows:—
Years. Years.
Increase per Cent.
1825 over 1820.......................... 37±
1830 „ 1825.......................... 24*
1835 „ 1830.......................... 34
1840 „ 1835.......................... 20
Computing the increase over the whole twenty years, we have a difference
between 1820 and 1840 of 175 per cent., or, estimating it from the somewhat
early period of 1814, when the home trade was in its infancy, we obtain an
increase of nearly 500 per cent., nearly 90,000 tons per year.
The progress of the French foreign trade in coal during the same period is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement:—
IMPORTS OF FOREIGN COAL INTO FRANCE DURING TWENTY YEARS.
Yttah* Quantities Increase since Increase since
Increase since Increase since
*isAKa. imported. 1820. 1825.
1830. 1835.
1820 280,920
1825 508,600 227,680
1830 637,291 356,371 128,691 ___
___
1835 763,000 512,081 284,400 155,709
___
1840 1,290,660 1,009,740 782,660 653,361
497,652
_____________________
These figures exhibit an aggregate increase over the whole period of nearly
1,020,000 tons, or 455 per cent., an average yearly augmentation of upwards
of 50,000 tons. The per centage of increase of each respective period over
its predecessor may be stated thus :—•
Years. Years.
Increase per Cent.
1825 over 1820.......,.................. 80
1830 „ 1825......................... 25
1835 „ 1830.......................... 25
1840 „ 1835.......................... 64
It is thus shown that, while the native production has increased during the
four periods in the ratio of 3 to 1, the importation of foreign coals has
increased in the ratio of nearly 5 to 1 over the same number of years. This
is a significant fact, and from it we may draw conclusions highly
encouraging to Great Britain, the following having been the import of coals
from that country in the respective septennial periods:—
Tons. Tons.
1825............26,684 11835............ 98,159
1830............51,128 J 1840...........». 380,774
60
Home and Foreign Supplies during the Year 1841.
Very accurate and elaborate statistics are given of the home production and
foreign supply of coals in France during the next year, 1841, which I cannot
forbear making use of. The total extraction of native coal in this year
amounted to 3,410,200 tons, which, distributed amongst 256 mines—the number
in operation—gives an average yield from each mine of 13,321 tons. This, it
will be observed, is a clear increase of 3,500 tons per mine, as compared
with the figures for 1836. The number of workmen employed in raising coal in
1841 was 29,320— 22,595 in the pits and 6,725 aboveground; so that, on an
average, each man produced 116 tons, exactly the same quantity as was raised
per man five years previously, or when the hands were 7,000 less in number.
It is, therefore, obvious that no advancement had been made on each man's
yearly production in working the mineral. But, if no improvements in manual
labour had taken place, it is evident that the French miners had profited by
the example set them by England* in 1832-3, inasmuch as we find the cost of
production in this year (1841) stated to have been 7s. 9|d. per ton, a
reduction on the cost per ton in 1836 of 3s. 6|d., and a striking proof that
improvements of a most substantial and effective nature were required, and
were being carried out. The total value of all kinds of minerals raised in
France in that year was £7,134,243; that of coal being £1,326,361.
The foreign coal (including coke, &c.) entering France in 1841 was supplied
in the following proportions:—
Tons.
Belgium ................................ 992,226
Great Britain ...........................* 429,950
Prussia, Bavaria, &c....................... 196,502
Various .....,......................... 482
Total ....................1,619,160
Home and Foreign Supplies in 1845. Our next quinquennial period terminates
with the year 1845, and the
* I allude here to the improvements introduced by me into the Great Northern
coal-field about this period. They consisted of the adoption of tubs, with
carriages attached, in lieu of corves, and angle iron tram plates, for
drawing- coals from the extremities of tbe workings to the bottom of the
shaft, and slides or guide roda for conducting them thence to the surface.
These led to other improvements, such as a uniformity in the width of
railways underground, by means of edge rails of a much lighter construction,
and the skilful application of powerful steam machinery, especially to
underground operations. Tbe average saving per ton in England by the general
adoption of these improvements, if taken at only Is. 3d. per ton, 2s. Of d.
less than the sum given above, amounts to upwards of four million pounds per
year upon the total produce, or upwards of one million sterling upon the
present annual yield of the Northumberland and Durham coal-fields.
61
returns relating to it are of the most gratifying character. The total
extraction was 4,202,091 tons. Thus we have a clear average yearly increase
of 200,000 tons, or 1,000,000 tons in the aggregate.
Of foreign supplies the number was more than proportionally augmented. Thus
we have a total importation of 2,207,194 tons (including 132,756 tons of
coke and 62,156 tons of coal entered for ships belonging to the state),
furnished as follows :—
Tons.
From Belgium........................... 1,396,167
„ Great Britain...................... 565,748
„ Prussia, &c....................... 240,695
„ Various .......................... 4,584
Total....................2,207,194
Showing that while the home yield has increased 25 per cent., the
importation has been augmented at the rate of 50 per cent. In fact, it had
doubled itself within ten years.
The Effects of the Revolution of 1848.
We now come to a period of so many changes in the political aspect of
France, and of so much interruption to industry and commerce, that it will
be necessary to depart from the classification hitherto pursued, and, in
lieu thereof, to adopt a somewhat irregular system of computation. It will
have been observed, by what I have already stated, that the coal trade
suffered severely by the civil contentions of 1830; how much more severely,
then, must it have felt the more protracted disorganization of 1848 and
subsequent years ? The revolution of 1830 was adjusted within no very
lengthened period, and necessitated no very material change of government;
that of 1848, on the contrary, was a fierce, desperate, and prolonged
struggle.
This cursory remark, unbiassed by any political notions—all of which are,
very properly, excluded from papers read before this Institute—will account
for the extraordinary depression which, as subsequent figures will reveal,
the French coal trade sustained during these exceptional years to which we
refer.
The production had gone on with the usual vigour, increasing in pretty
nearly the same ratio as would have been estimated from reading the
statistical statements preceding, until the end of 1847, when it had arrived
at nearly 5,000,000 tons. This amount, computed on the annual increase of
the term of five years ending 1845, shows a large excess of increase per
year. Then came the revolution, and the native
62
yield sunk at once to 4,000,433 tons, or less than it was in 1844. The
number of workmen engaged in the various operations of the trade in 1847 was
34,791, producing, on an average, 143 tons, or 23 per cent, more per man
than was extracted in 1841 and 1836; but, in 1848, the number of employes
had fallen to 31,966, and the average number of tons extracted by each man
to 123, equal only to the individual production of 1842. The yield in one
department alone, that of Nord, fell off to the extent of 500,000 tons,
while the department of Loire sustained a decrease in its production of
400,000 tons.
The better to show the extent of depression sustained by the different
departments during the revolutionary year, I subjoin the following table. It
contains statistics relating to five of the principal departments, and
affords reliable data for calculating the diminution of the produce and
labour in the remainder.
1847. 1848.
Departments. __ . , Produe-
Prndnc "S Decrease
Workmen employed. y""#c Workmen employed. tiom §
of Pro-
______________ _________________^ _________ ___________"_____
________ o ______
Us 1 § Total. Tons. | g S 9 Total. Tons.
8 Tons.
s 2 j= 2 a ° E °
8
P& _<!_&,_______________p &_ji &______________P_______
Loire.......... 5,415 1,802 7,217 1,722,583 5,161 1,792
6,953 1,326,687 264 395,896
Nord.......... 8,189 1,925 10,124 1,245,651 7,991 1,582
9,573 f>27,311 551 318,340
Saone and Loire. 2,080 788 2,868 525,874 1,759 868
2,627 381,595 241 147,279
Card.......... 1,872 396 2,268 467,332 1,291 231
1,522 358,307 746 109,032
Allier.......... 1,115 689 1,804 228,683 1,085 667
1,752 191,721 52 36,962
_________________________________________________________
The depression estimated from the returns of the five principal coalfields
is as follows :—
Fields. Production in Production in
Decreaget
Tons. Tons. Tons.
Loire ............................. 1,722,581 1,326,687
395,896
Valenciennes (Nord)................ 1,245,651 927,311
318,340
Alais ............................. 457,579 353,160
104,419
Creusot and Blanzy ................ 387,396 284,640
102,756
Aubin............................ 211,744 126,640
85,104
The annexed table shows the decrease, according to the different varieties
of coal:—
r, ".. Production in Production in
„.„,...
Nature of the Coal. 1847 j848>
Decrease.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
Free burning-smithy coal............ 2,623,704 1,871,800
751,904
Uninflammable ditto................ 885,259 675,559
209,700
Smithy coal........................ 480,716 448,297
32,419
Hard coal ......................... 320,473 296,933
23,540
Anthracite........................ 659,029 542,239
116,790
Lignite, stipite, .fee................. 174,930 165,601
9,329
Total.............. 5,144,411 4,000,429 1,143,592
The returns of the consumption for 1848 present a falling-off of upwards of
1,800,000 tons, while the foreign importation sustained a decline of 405,000
tons. A tabular statement of the foreign supplies during both years gives
the following result:—
Country whence supplied. Quantity, 1847. Quantity, 1848.
Decrease.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
Belgium.......................... 1,686,990 1,399,380
287,610
Great Britain...................... 586,520 514,920
71,600
Rhenish Provinces, Prussia, &c....... 272,330 227,090
45,240
Other countries.................... 2,880 2,380
500
Total.............. 2,548,720 2,142,770 404,950
The number of mines in operation exhibited only a very slight decline, it
having been 258 in 1847, and in 1848 it was 256. Much less however, was
yielded by each mine; and the produce of individual labour was in the latter
year very considerably below the average.
Revival of the Trade in 1849.
Thus much for the effects of the Revolution of 1848. We enter now
upon an era of amelioration. In the year 1849 the home trade very
slowly revived. Scarcely as yet, however, had commercial confidence
been restored to owners and speculators, although affairs wore a decidedly
64
better aspect. The total quantity of coal extracted was 4,049,218 tons,
44,875 tons above the yield of the previous year, but 200,000 tons short of
the produce of even 1845. The number of operatives engaged in the different
coal-mining- departments also received a slight augmentation, but was more
than 2,000 less than in 1847, and their individual production per annum
amounted to only 125 tons, about one-third of the average production per man
per annum in the north of England. The foreign importation experienced the
greatest per centage of increase of all the supplies which relate to this
year. It rose from 2,143,770 tons to 2,393,950 tons. The supplies (including
coke, &c, as before) were sent in the under-mentioned proportions from the
customary countries of extraction:—
Tons.
Belgium..............................1,591,320
England .............................. 572,140
Prussia, &c............................. 228,720
Other countries ......................... 1,770
Total.................. 2,393,950
The number of working mines increased in this year to 270, and the
extraction from each pit was, on an average, about 15,000 tons, a trifling
rise on the last year's quotations.
Home Trade and Foreign Supply in 1850. The year 1850 comes next for
consideration, and here I might return to our quinquennial comparison, were
it not obvious that, after the severe and unprecedented blow inflicted by
the misfortunes of 1848, no just comparison could be instituted. The
statistics of this year might, with a small augmentation, do duty for those
of 1846—or, rather, so heavy was the weight of depression which had been
thrown upon the trade two years before, that it had scarcely more than
regained the position it occupied in the year 1846, the same number of years
previous to the disaster. Nevertheless, the increase was not a
disproportionate one for one year; indeed, no previous year's increase, even
in the most prosperous times, had been greater. The average augmentation for
the two years preceding 1847, one of the most prosperous seasons, was
430,000 tons a-year; while for the five years preceding 1845, also a good
season, the annual average increase had been under 300,000 tons; but, in the
year we now refer to, the increase amounted to about 400,000 tons. This was
one of the calmest years of the republican period, and the tranquillity
which characterised it was not unproductive of good results, for we find an
increase going on in every department of the trade whose
65
progress it is the object of this paper to record. Three were added to the
number of mines in operation, making 273, and 571 to the number of workmen;
while the average extraction per mine was raised to 16,240 tons, and the
quantity worked by each individual to 131 tons.
But by far the largest increase took place in the foreign supplies. I have
shown that the home production had not, at this time, recovered the position
which it held in 1847 by some 500,000 tons. The importations of foreign
coal, however, exceeded those of 1847 by 250,000 tons, the total increase on
the year being above 450,000 tons. The principal portion of this encouraging
excess was contributed by Belgium and England, as will be seen by the
subjoined comparisons:—
1849. 1850.
Tons. Tons.
Increase.
Belgium............ 1,591,320 .... 1,953,190 .... 361,870
Great Britain........ 572,140 .... 602,410 ....
30,270
Prussia, &c......... 228,720 .... 277,280 ....
48,560
Various countries .... 1,770 .... 380 ____
1,390
Total......2,393,950 2,833,260
Comparative Productiveness of the French, English, Belgian, and American
Coal Fields in 1850. The English yield by this year had reached considerably
more than 50,000,000 tons, about a fourth of which quantity was contributed
by the Northumberland and Durham fields. The Belgian extraction in 1850 was
5,800,000 tons, raised from 408 working pits by 47,949 operatives, giving an
average extraction from each pit of 14,260 tons, and an individual
production of 122 tons. The American yield in the same year was 3,555,747
tons, and the foreign importation 180,439 tons. Computed from the year 1838,
when I made a similar comparison, the per centage of increase in the French
production was 43 \ ; in the English, 40; and in the Belgian 75 ; while in
America the increase was nearly five-fold.
The Native Yield and Foreign Importation in the Year 1852.
Passing on to the year 1852, we find the French trade in a vigorous and
flourishing condition. It had increased on the two years apparently but
slightly, the augmentation being only some 470,000 tons; but during
1851 the home trade was not so satisfactory as might have been expected,
which circumstance will account for the apparently small increase. The
excess on the single year was 300,000 tons, the production of 1851 and
1852 being respectively 4,500,000 and 4,800,000 tons. The number of Vol.
VI,—-February, 1858.
k
mines in operation increased in this year to '286, the average quantity
extracted from each being 16,433 tons—an increase on the two years of 193
tons. An addition of 711 miners was secured during- the same period, but the
individual extraction was only 107 tons.
The foreign importation, too, had experienced a very considerable
augmentation. The figures which follow speak for themselves :—
Tons.
-Belgium ................7............. 2,119,180
England .............................. 652,390
Prussia, &c............................. 324,260
Divers countries ........................ 1,330
Total.................. 3,095,960
Comparative Productiveness of the French, English,
Belgian, and American Fields in 1852. The production of coal in Great
Britain during the year 1852, I estimate at 55,000,000 tons ; that of
Belgium at 6,250,000 tons j while the total yield of America was 5,327,650
tons, and her importation (entirely from England), 183,015 tons. The per
centage of productive increase in the four countries, computed from 1850,
is, therefore—For France, 10£; England, 10; Belg ium, 8; and America, 50.
Native and Foreign Supplies in 1853.
In the year 1853 we find the French extraction progressing in a very
satisfactory manner. The production in that year was 5,928,877 tons, an
increase of upwards of one million tons over that of its predecessor. I have
not been able to obtain statistics of the number of mines in operation or of
the workmen employed after the year 1852, but presume their increase was
proportionate to that of the extra yield, as in former years.
The foreign importation for 1853 experienced considerable improvement also,
the quantity sent into France by the different countries being 3,530,533
tons, an increase of 14 per cent, over 1852. This importation came, as near
as I can ascertain, in the following proportions, from the undermentioned
places, viz.:—
Tons.
Belgium .............................. 2,456,959
England.............................. 703,704
Prussia, Bavaria, &c..................... 369,734
Other countries .......*............,.... 136
Total..................3,530,533
67
Home Yield and Foreign Importation in 1854.
The yield of French coal in the following year, 1854, exhibits an increase
somewhat less than that of the previous year over 1852. The total quantity
obtained was 6,827,007 tons, an increase of only 900,000 tons.
The supplies from foreign countries increased in this year in pretty nearly
the same ratio as in the year preceding. The total importation reached
4,129,988 tons, an increase of nearly 17 per cent, on the year. The
following table exhibits the relative contributions of the importing
countries:—
Tons.
Belgium ........... ................... 2,856,146
Great Britain .......................... 780,449
Prussia, &c............................. 492,989
Various countries........................ 404
Total.................. 4,129,988
Home and Foreign Supplies in 1855.
By the next year a perceptible improvement in the total quantity of coals
extracted by the native producers may be noted, but again in a descending
ratio of increase. The supply from all the home sources amounted to
7,453,048 tons, an increase of about 600,000 tons only. I regret my
inability to exhibit, from the documents issued by the French Government,
the precise reason for this gradual decline in the augmentation, but it is
attributable in part, no doubt, to the continued increase in the imports of
coal from England, Belgium, and Prussia.
The annexed table of the quantity of coal imported shows an increase in the
foreign supply of about 700,000 tons, or 20 per cent, on the year, the total
quantity exceeding the native production of 1852, only three years before:—
Tons.
Belgium ..............................3,327,333
England .............................. 953,990
Germany, Prussia, &c. .................. 670,045
Other countries......................... 846
Total..................4,952,214
Comparative Productiveness of the French, English, Belgian American,
Prussian, Spanish, Saxonian, and Australian Coal-fields, in the Years 1855
and 1856. The production of coal in Great Britain in 1855 was 66 million
tons,
(about a million tons more than in 1854), of which 16| million tons were
furnished by the Great Northern Field.
68
The United States had nearly overtaken France; their production, exclusive
of the small quantity locally consumed and not accounted for, being"
7,278,572 tons, an increase of 627,939 tons on the year, and their
importation (still entirely from England), 287,408 tons. In this year they
exported 110,586 tons, which figures appear in the official statistics under
the head of "Domestic Exportation." Canada is. rich in coal mines, having*
thick beds of the mineral, which are now beginning to be worked more
extensively than heretofore, and she is shipping part coal to the United
States.
The production of Belgium in 1855 had attained to 8,409,330 tons, and was
obtained from the following sources :—
Hainault...................... 6,458,416 tons.
Liege ........................ 1,720,053 „
Namur ...................... 230,861 „
8,409,330
The production respectively of France, Great Britain, and Belgium, in that
year was as follows:—
France. Great Britain. Belgium.
Per 1,000 inhabitants........173 tons. 2,126 tons. 1,804 tons.
Per 1,000 acres of surface .... 118 „ 1,963 „ 2,817 „
Saxony produced in this year nearly 1,000,000 tons of coal, all of which was
taken into local consumption. The population of Saxony is nearly 2,000,000.
In Australia, where the working of coal is attended with great expense,
owing to the high rents (about 2s. per ton), the great cost of labour, and
of materials, which are imported from England, the shipments of coal were
about 190,000 tons in 1855. Nearly the whole of this quantity was obtained
from twelve pits, which are contained in a circuit of twenty-five miles. In
my paper on the " Great Northern Coal-field," vol. II. of the "Transactions"
of this Society, pages 231-2,1 describe the coal districts of New South
Wales, and estimate the quantity produced in 1840 at 27,000 tons. The mines
were then under the baneful influence of a monopoly, which has since given
way to competition. The average yearly increase in the production since that
period is thus shown to have been 4,000 tons, only 15 per cent, per annum
over the whole period. The selling price of Australian coal is about 15s.
per ton.
The Australian yield of coal in 1856 was somewhat more than 250,000
69
tons. I cannot procure reliable returns of the precise quantity extracted,
but the figures quoted indicate the shipments at the various ports, in
addition to which a small quantity will have been taken into local
consumption. A great deal of wood is consumed in this as well as in all
other foreign countries; and this almost necessarily so, coal being
exceedingly scarce, and, in some parts especially, difficult to obtain. I
observe that Government have offered a large reward for the discovery of a
coal-field in South Australia; and at a place called Kapunda, at a depth of
forty feet, a sample of very good coal has been found.
With 1856 our information respecting the French coal trade is, of course,
brought to an end. The total quantity extracted amounted to 7,740,317 tons,
an increase on the yield of 1855 of only 297,269 tons.
The supplies of coal furnished to French consumers by importers in 1856
amounted to 5,069,999 tons, a slight increase only, as in the home
production, upon the importation of 1855. The tabular statement is as
follows:—
Tons.
Belgium .............................. 3,119,630
England .............................. 1,165,878
Prussia, &c............................. 781,521
Other countries.....................».... 2,970
Total.................. 5,069,999
The exportation of coals and coke from France in 1856 was as follows, coal,
92,104 tons; coke, 7,392 tons.
These statements disclose a remarkable falling-off in the per centage of
native production since the year 1853. In the last-named year the
augmentation of native produce was at the rate of 20 per cent., and that of
foreign only 14 per cent., upon the previous year; but, in 1854, the per
centage of increase in the native yield fell to fifteen on the year, while
that of foreign rose to seventeen on the same period. In the next year, the
per centage of augmentation on the year in the home supply receded to nine;
in the foreign it rose to twenty. Last year (1856), the per centage of
increase upon the year in the native extraction descended as low as four;
and in the foreign still lower, namely, to two and a half only. From the
year 1852 to 1856, the aggregate increase in the quantity of French coal
exceeds two million and three quarter tons, or 571 per cent.; the foreign
importations, estimated in the same manner, exhibit a gross increase of 63
per cent.
For the Belgian yield, I have not been able to procure statistics up to
70
so recent a period as 1856, but supposing* it to have increased in a
slightly-accelerated ratio compared with the augmentation from 1852 to 1855,
the total production will be about, but not more, than 8J million tons.
Indeed, I doubt whether I ought to give Belgium credit for any increase at
all in this year, for, in the principal district, that of Hainault, Mons. J.
Gonot, chief engineer and director of Belgian mines, reports a falling off
in the extraction from 6,458,416 tons in 1855, to 6,219,132 tons in 1856,
and unless JNamur and Liege have shot a-head in a manner which I am hardly
justified in assuming, the production will either have remained stationary
or have increased insignificantly.
Prussia has increased her production five-fold within twenty-five years, and
during the last few years especially, very considerably, but the precise
quantities have not been ascertained. She has never figured high as an
exporter of coals; indeed, she imports from England about 500,000 tons of
coal and coke yearly. During the last few years the Prussian coal-owners
have found it impossible to supply the increasing local demand, and prices
have gone up several shillings per ton in consequence; and as Prussia
contains some twenty-three ports at which coals can be discharged, it is
found remunerative to import from England. Prussian coal generally is worked
at about half the cost of French coal, and the probability is that, in a few
years, the large capital which is being invested in mining operations, the
high price of iron and coal, and the transit facilities afforded by the
railroads and canals, complete and incomplete, and rivers, upon which,
though they possess slight advantages of tidal water, goods are carried at a
low figure, will enable the producers to overcome the local demand. The
vicinity of the Prussian coal-fields to Prance is exceedingly favourable to
an increased export of coals thither, if a surplus quantity could be
obtained, and the obnoxious impost upon this important article of commerce
entering France were abolished. In the Ruhrort district coals are obtained
at a similar cost to that incurred in the Liege district, Belgium, from
which, indeed, it is only, about eighty miles distant. Already a dozen
collieries are in operation in the Ruhrort field, and two or three others
are underway, while in the Dortmund district, a little to the east of
Ruhrort, no fewer than fifty-eight pits have been opened, and nine others
are being commenced • so that in a little time we may anticipate a largely
increased production, enabling the Prussian proprietors to compete with
Belgium and England, by exporting much more extensively than they have
hitherto. In means of transit Ruhrort is highly
71
favored. It is the centrepoint of railways, which branch off in all
directions to Antwerp, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and ports in Denmark and
through Germany generally. At the present time, although the productive
power of Prussia is something below that of Belgium, she is almost wholly
independent of foreign purchasers, whereas Belgium every year requires an
outlet for about half of her production. The railways and other great works
which are being executed in Prussia and other parts of Germany create an
extensive and increasing demand for the coal and valuable ironstone in which
Prussia abounds, and in these respects renders her almost independent of the
rest of Europe for materiel of that description.
Spain produces coal for her own use, but, having no fewer than one hundred
and six ports* round her coast, almost as easy of access to English vessels,
and vessels trading with England, as are the ports of France and Belgium,
she imports coals and large quantities of coke from England, amounting to
not less than 300,000 tons per annum. In consequence of her richness in
other minerals, such as lead, copper, &c, which are cheaply and easily
worked, she is now the largest importing country in the world for coke (used
chiefly for smelting purposes), which is supplied to her from the North of
England. Ironstone is found in considerable quantities in Spain, but, up to
the present time, its working has not been attended with any noticeable
measure of success. The Company known as the Asturian Company, composed
principally of English capitalists, expended large sums of money in
establishing ironworks in the northern part of the country, but failed to
realise their expectations of a profitable return for their money. Indeed,
the original shareholders lost nearly all they embarked in the concern. The
principal reason of the failure is attributable to the absence of the
different qualities of stone required for the manufacture of good metal. It
has been said that the ingredients necessary for a proper admixture, might
have
* The number of ports accessible for commercial purposes in the
under-mentioned
countries are as follows:—
Ports.
France ..............•.......• • • • 138
Spain............................ 106
Prussia........... ............... 27
Belgium.............•........... 13
Holland.......................... 90
Denmark ..................•..... 209
583 Other countries 74 in number .... 1706
Total ..,..*,... 80..............2289 [See Appendix.)
72
been obtained from England, but it is questionable whether, under any
circumstances, iron could have been manufactured so cheap as it could have
been supplied from England.
Summary of the Trade from 1850 to 1856, both inclusive. The following- table
presents, in a condensed form, the progress of the French coal trade during
the seven years ending 1856 :—
PROGRESS OF THE EXTRACTION OP NATIVE COAL IxN" FRANCE DURING THE LAST SEVEN
YEARS.
J13 $S g-g gS a -g gS g-s* gS? s-4 »3
.j fHi g«
I §1 IS l" §S I? ^S 6? §9 §° §i
g? S» g°
* §£ fl| 2 I 2J 5| 5| £« fij 51 5| 5« 5.1
51
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons.
Tons. Tons.
1850 4,438,570
1851 4,485,033 51,403 11
1852 4,903,925 470,355 10£ 418,892 9
1853 5,928,877 1,495,307 32J 443,844 10 1,024,952 20
1851 6,827,00* 2,393,437 50 2,341,974 52 1,923,032 40 898,130 15
1855 7,453,048 3,019,472 64 2,968,015 63 2,549,123 51 1,524,171 26 626,641
9
1856 7,740,317 3,286,741 75 3,255,284 74 2,836,392 57£ 1,811,440 31
913,310 13 287,269 4
The table annexed exhibits in the same manner the progress of the
importation of foreign coals into France during the same period.
PROGRESS OF THE IMPORTATION OP COALS INTO FRANCE DURING THE LAST SEVEN
YEARS.
g 2| 22 |g S2 || £2 eg 12 =£ gg s* aS ^s tS I* |s 'J| |S ?= |S
31 |§ SJ IS ^S |g «S
w « a, o <° a. o <«fio
-Sao « £ ^ '8 (£ "S
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons.
Tons. Tons.
1850 2,833,262
185) 2,926,535 93,323 3"
1852 3.095,934 262,672 9£ 169,349 5 J
1853 3,530,533 694,271 25 603,948 20£ 434,599 14
1854 4,129,9?81,296,726 41 1,203,403 41J 1,034,054 83J £99,438 17
1855 4,952,214 2,118,952 75 2,025,629 69 1,856,280 60 1,421,681 40
822,226 20
1856 5,069,999 2,236,737 80 2,143,414 72^1,974,065 63 1,539,466 43£
940,011 22* 117,785 2J
These tables and the preceding statements show that France is the largest
coal-importing country in the world, and prove the remark with which I
commenced, that she ranks next to Great Britain as a coal-consuming country.
What she may become in the course of a few years time only can show.
73
CHAPTER II. THE FRENCH COAL FIELD.
The present extent of the French coal field is estimated at 920 square
miles. It stretches over no fewer than forty-five departments—small patches
of coal appearing here and there—and comprises 448 mines. The following
table gives the number of mines in each separate department, together with
the production of each of the latter in the year 1.852 :—
<* « Production in 71*1,1 k™™™ Number of Production in
DEPAETMENTS. <;.= 1852
DEPARTMENTS. Mlnes> lg52>
Tons. Each. Total Tons.
Brought up____ 396 4,685,228
Loire......-....... 70 1,639,183 Vaucluse.......~] .. ..
7,150
Gard.............. 45 386,007 Aude ..........j .. ..
2,020
Aveyron ........... 33 182,825 Creuse..........^ 5
25 4,320
Isere.............. 26 83,368 Cantal.......... ..
.. 580
Herault............ 24 50,362 Vendee ........J ..
.. 12,290
Lower Alps ........ 22 3,183 Lower Loire ....> „
6 15,093
Saone and Loire ____ 22 528,059 Correze ........$
5,399
Nord.............. 20 1,072,845 Tarn ..........*) •• ..
62,192
Mouths of the Rhone.. 19 105,500 Lower Rhine-----| ..
.. 10,210
Upper Alps ........ 17 4,720 Rhone..........>¦ 2
10 17,734
Allier.............. 15 256,467 Drome..........|
Mayenne .......... 10 85.430 finistere........J
Var ............... 10 '469 Calvados........^ ..
.. 24,906
Maine and Loire------ 9 43,877 Nievre.......... ..
.. 73,934
Upper Loire........ 9 43,732 Manche........|
Upper Saone........ 8 56,966 Moselle ........I
Straits of Calais..... 8 37,069 Yonne..........|
PuydeDome ...... 8 29,766 Dordog-ne ......)> 1
11
Ardeche........... 7 15,359 Jura ...........
Sarthe ............ 6 28,038 The Two Sevres......
12,940
Vosges ............ 4 1,245 Doubs..........
Ain ............... 4 457 Landes ........
---------------.-------- Eastern Pyrenees.. J •• ..
200
396 4,685,228
-------------------------------
448 4,934,196
The present number of coal fields in France is sixty-two, but some of them
(as will be seen on a reference to the map, where their size and position
are indicated by black spots) are very unimportant. By far the largest are
those of Loire and Valenciennes, the former situated in the department of
that name, and the latter in the Nord department. These may, not inaptly, be
termed the Durham and Northumberland of France: more than half the annual
production is extracted from thence. They unitedly employ labour to the
extent of 16,000 hands, at an annual outlay of £410,000, or £25 per man,
producing 2,703,980 tons. As a pleasing contrast, it may be mentioned that
the same number of English hands would raise eight million tons, for at the
present time the coal extracted per year in the North of England is
16,500,000 Vol. VI.—February, 1858.
l
74
tons, raised by 34,000 miners. Our men, of course, are more expert and
better paid than the French, which may, to some extent, account for the
difference.
The following table shows the produce of ten of the principal of the French
coal fields for the years 1847, 1848, and 1852 :—
QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF COAL EXTRACTED FROM TEN PRINCIPAL BASINS IN 1847,
1848, AND 1852.
Quantity produced.
., _ Quantity of
_________________________________________
name of Basin. nnai extracted
ooai exuacteu. lg47> lg48i
lg52>
Tons. Tons. Tons.
Loire.................. Bituminous 1,712,330 1,323,030
1,631,130
Valenciennes............ Ditto 1,245,651 927,310
1,072,850
Alais.................. Ditto 457,579
353,160 385,160
Creusot and Blanzy...... Ditto 389,696
284,640 405,730
Aubin ................. Ditto 211,744
126,640 171,030
Commentry ............ Ditto 194,702
160,120 220,970
Epinac................ Ditto 110,886
77,500 104,370
Maine ................ Anthracite 104,481 90,950
101,010
Aix ................... Lignite 98,570
89,400 103,630
Ronchamp ............. Bituminous 90,000 75,010
85,000
4,604,639 3,507,760 4,280,880 The fifty-two remaining")
fields, producing1 on the
average for the six years, J>.......... 548,565 492,673
623,045
not more than 100,000 | tons per annum j
Total----- 5,153,204 4,000,433 4,903,925
Varieties of French Coal. In one of my former papers, I entered at some
length into the different varieties of coal afforded by the Great North of
England fields, and as the subject is both important and interesting, I
purpose to devote some space to the consideration of the various qualities
of the French coal. These are six in number, namely, anthracite, lignite,
and four varieties of bituminous coal, classed as follows : — Free-burning
smithy coal* Qiouille grasse a longue Jlamme), yielding about 70 per cent,
of coke when calcined in a close oven; close-burning coal {houille maigre a
longue Jlamme), yielding about 60 per cent, of coke; common smithy coal
(houille grasse marechale), producing full 70 per cent of coke; and the hard
coal {houille dure a courteJlamme), which gives as much as 75 per cent, of
coke.
* This coal, of all the other French varieties, most nearly resembles the
tender coking or fine bituminous English coal, which, in consequence ot its
freedom from shale and pyrites, and its general purity, is so much in demand
for gas, coking, smithy, and other important purposes.
75
Of these varieties, in no one instance are all six found in one department.
Loire, the principal district, lacks lignite, and Gard yields no anthracite,
although each of these departments contains the other five varieties. Creuse
lacks both lignite and anthracite, but contains every variety of the
bituminous coal; while Sa6ne and Loire, a department which contributes to
the general production 500,000 tons a-year, yields neither anthracite,
lignite, nor the common smithy coal.
The distribution of the different varieties over the whole empire will be
seen in form in the annexed table :—
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE QUALITY OP COAL FOUND IN THE DIFFERENT
COAL-PRODUCING DEPARTMENTS.
Number of
Depart-
Nattjbjj of the Coal, ments in Names of
Departments.
which found.
Pure anthracite ................... 2 Sarthe, Upper Alps.
Anthracite and 1 bituminous variety.. 5 Nord, Lower
Loire, Calvados,
Maine and Loire, Mayenne. Ditto and 2 ditto -.
1 Allier.
Ditto and 3 ditto .. 1 Puy de
Dome.
Ditto and 4 ditto . • 1
Loire.
Ditto and lignite.............. 1 Isere.
Ditto and 2 bituminous varieties.. 1 Herault.
Lignite only...................... 7 Mouths of the Rhone,
Ain, Lower
Alps, Vaucluse, Var, Lower Rhine, Eastern Pyrenees.
Ditto and 1 bituminous variety...... 2 Upper Sa6ne, Aude.
Ditto and 2 ditto ...... 1
Ardeche.
Ditto and 3 ditto ...... 1
Aveyron.
Ditto and 4 ditto ...... 1 Gard.
One bituminous variety only........ 5 The Two Sevres,
Nievre, Rhone,
Tarn, Vosges.
Two ditto ditto ........ 6 Saone and
Loire, Cantal, Correze,
Straits of Calais, Dpper Loire, Vendee. Four ditto ditto
........ 1 Creuse.
Progress of the Extraction of the Free-burning Smithy Coal.
The variety most in demand during the septennial period ending 1852 was the
free-burning smithy coal, of which the average yearly production was
2,200,000 tons. Like the anthracite, it is found in great abundance in the
Loire department, no fewer than 1,065,908 tons— 55 per cent, on the total
yield of the variety, or a fourth part of the whole produce—having been
obtained there in the year referred to.
The subjoined table presents, at one view, the departmental extraction of
the free-burning smithy coal, and its value. I have selected the
76
years annexed, because they exhibit the progress of the production more
fairly than any other; the year 1847 showing the state of the extraction as
it existed before the disturbances of 1848, the next year exhibiting the
depression which the trade sustained, as already largely spoken of, and and
the year 1852 as forming a sort of middle stage between the revolutionary
period and the present time. It is a noticeable fact that the trade in this
variety of coal suffered more severely from internal confusion than any of
the others.
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE EXTRACTION AND VALUE OF THE
FREE-BURNING SMITHY COAL.
1852. 1848:
1847.
Departments.
Production. Value. Production. Value. Production.
Value.
Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons.
£
Loire ..........1,068,708 335,300 920,273 318,053
1,262,951 443,277
Nord ........... 645,825 299,385 590,215 284,920
818,222 506,116
Gard ------,...... 202,569 54,867 134,648 36,282
228,527 61,323
Saone and Loire.. 1S2,284 73,119 3,031 1,189
2,723 1,087
Aveyron........ 176,038 45,640 131,001 32,488
217,484 45,715
Tarn........... 62,192 33,115 34,392 19,933
42,744 22,872
Upper Loire ----- 40,454 15,071 8,522 3,361
Herault ........ 23,012 11,716 8,000 4.472
9,240 5,021
The Two Sevres .. 12,940 5,617 9,340 4,016
9,711 4,035
Mayenne........ 12,456 9,815 ------ ____
11,396 9,254
Ardeche ........ 11,627 3,532 6,431 2,407
6,021 2,323
Straits of Calais .. 9,128 5,701 3,102
1,737 1,963 1,188
Vendee ......... 7,336 2,935
Var............ 7,201 3,025 ------ ....
1,698 678
Allier .......... 2,653 1,074 10,558 5,122
10,735 4,880
Creuse.......... 1,245 561 2,231 947
Calvados........ 870 545
Cantal.......... 480 179 250
150 32 20
2,467,023 902,197 1,871,800 715,171 2,623,794 1,107,789
Mean price per ton .... 7s. 4d. .... 7s.
7d. .... 8s. 5£d.
Progress of the Yield of Close-burning Coal. The next most abundant variety
is the close-burning coal, of which there was raised, in 1852, 914,115 tons,
an increase over the extraction of the previous year of about 400,000 tons,
but 600,000 tons less than the yield of 1850. In 1847 the total produce was
estimated at 885,259 tons, which was reduced in 1848 to 675,559 tons.
Seventeen districts contain beds of this variety in greater or less
proportion. The principal are Sa6ne and Loire, Allier, and Loire, the
first-named alone having furnished, in 1852, 345,775 tons, more than
one-third of the total produce of the kind. The tabular statement of the
production and value of this variety is as follows:—
77
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE HELD AND VALUE OF CLOSE-BURNING SMITHY COAL.
1852. 1848.
1847.
Departments._____________________________________________________________
Production. Value. Production. Value. Production.
Value.
Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons.
£
Saone and Loire.. 345,775 123,880 273,757 971,553
396,172 143,089
Allier .......... 243,996 73,542 176,900 55,890
214,278 65,157
Loire .......... 161,709 55,692 100,220 33,107
132,521 41,480
Nievre.......... 73,934 31,821 50,315 24,457
67,115 36,321
Straits of Calais .. 27,941 13,237 14,572 8,473
17,650 10,681
Rhone.......... 17,734 8,056 16,823 7,735
19,937 7,927
Herault ........ 16,389 4,587 15,141 6,487
14,311 5,937
PuydeDome ... 13,378 3,692 20,877 6,098
16,668 5,584
Vendee ......... 4,955 1,790
Correze ........ 3,344 1,785 1,078
906
Ardeche ........ 2,982 2,173 3,276 2,482
3,385 2,559
Aude .......... 1,002 497 915
543 1,068 t00*4a&—*
Aveyron........ 522 4,488
v ""r
Creuse.......... 402 120 5
2^ /%k >—¦-------
Gard .......... 187 68 773
470 .'549..-' 594
Lower Rhine...... .. 856 84
176 177
Vosg-es.......... .. .. 797
472 1,378 823
914,155 320,740 675,559 244,755 885,259 320,838
Mean price per ton .... 7s. 2|d. ____ 7s. 3d.
.... 7s. 4d.
The Extraction of Anthracite Coal. The French anthracite is principally
raised in the departments of Nord, Mayenne, Calvados, Isere, Maine and
Loire, and Sarthe. The whole production in 1852 was 691,534 tons, 12 per
cent, on the extraction of all kinds. The increase since 1848 has been, on
the average, 39,324 tons a-year, or an aggregate augmentation of 149,295
tons.
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE YIELD AND VALUE OF ANTHRACITE.
1852. 1848. 1847.
Departments. ____________________
______________________________________
Production. Value. Production. Value. Production.
Value.
Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons.
£
Nord ........... 427,020 169,025 337,096 138,816
427,429 182,613
Mayenne........ 72,974 54,807 59,235 52,376
61,610 50,129
Isere .......... 55,084 17,341 40,962 12,477
42,933 13,148
Maine and Loire.. 42,989 30,032 10,353 5,880
4,000 3,250
Sarthe.......... 28,038 24,628 40,099 30,329
42,871 30,693
Calvados..... .. 24,036 13,376 29,261 16,854
41,444 23,933
Lower Loire..... 12,986 7,420 6,699 5,402
11,655 7,650
Loire........... 8,951 2,302 3,662 1,175
10,246 2,412
Allier .......... 5,269 1,559 4,263
1,232 3,668 1,202
PuydeDome.... 4,909 1,867 770 147
2,216 648
Upper Alps...... 4,720 520 4,555 957
5,101 1,101
Herault ........ 4,554 1,520 4,572 1,156
4,543 2,246
Creuse........... .. .. ..
700 406
Var.............. r. 709 302
530 254
691,534 324,807 542,239 267,102 659,029 319,957
Average price per t. .... 9s. 4|d..... 9s. 10£d.....
9s. 8£d.
78
The Extraction of Common Smithy Coal.
Fourth in the order of priority comes the common smithy coal. The production
of this variety was, in 1852, 464,748 tons, at about which figure it had
stood, with the single exception of the year 1850, for the previous seven
years. Only six out of the eighty-six departments into which France is
divided contribute this species of the bituminous coal; and in the
production of this variety, as in that of most of the others, Loire takes
first rank. Not less than three-fourths of the total extraction of the
common smithy coal was furnished by this department. The produce of the
other districts is unimportant, as will be found in the table.
One peculiar feature of this species of coal is the very inflated (pour
souffle) nature of the coke obtained from it. None of the other varieties
possess this quality to any extent; indeed, the free-burning smithy is the
only other kind which exhibits it at all. Subjoined is the tabular
statement:—
TABLE SHOWING THE EXTRACTION AND VALUE OP THE COMMON SMITHY COAL.
1853. 1848.
1847.
Departments. '
~~
Production. Value. Production. Value. Production.
Value.
Tons. £ Ton*. £
Tons. £
Loire .......... 373,683 137,760 302,531 128,204
316,866 124,511
Card .......... 84,913 33,657 76,788 28,003
104,046 32,304
Aveyron........ 2,073 686
Correze ........ 2,055 2,144 1,615 1,850
1,733 1,500
Creuse.......... 1,219 747 1,402 800
3,082 1,572
Puy de Dome____ 804 225 50
26 55 28
Herault.......... .. 4,810 2,790
4,552 2,4 54
Upper Loire...... .. .. ..
5,310 1,8 61
Saone and Loire.. .. .. 2,444
581,178 2,123 21,195
464,748 175,220 448,297 179,920 489,716 185,827
Average price pert..... 7s. 6d. .... 8s. OJd.
.... 7s. 7d.
-------------------------------------------------r---------,----------------
--------------------
Progress of the Production of Lignite, &c.
Next in the list stands the lignite, so called from its semi-decomposed
nature, and the actual presence of the distinct woody fibre, a variety not
very extensively found in this country. With its production is incorporated
that of the stipite, a variety of coal distinguished from the lignite by a
grass-like fibre. The aggregate yearly production of the
79
whole does not exceed 200,000 tons. It is chiefly met with in the department
of the Mouths of the Rhone, where, indeed, almost the whole vend is
procured. Thirteen other departments certainly yield a portion, but so
inconsiderable is it that it scarcely deserves notice. The quantity raised
from all sources in 1852 was only 191,818 tons, and of this the Mouths of
the Rhone department contributed 105,500 tons, or 81| per cent. The trade in
lignite has undergone less variation from revolutionary struggles and
vicissitudes of commerce than that of any other variety, owing, probably, to
the fact of its being chiefly used by the lower classes in lieu of wood.
The tabular statement of the production of lignite, &c, during the period
over which our calculations extend is as follows:—
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE YIELD AND VALUE OF LIGNITE.
1852. 1848. 1847.
Departments. j
Production. Value. Production. Value. Production.
Value.
Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons.
£ Mouths of the
Rhone ...... 105,500 48,152 89,001 43,243
92,189 47,497
Isere ........... 28,302 11,095 23,712 11,382
20,830 9,999
Gard ........c. 12,477 4,152 11,223 4,199
13,187 4,845
Upper Saone ----- 11,503 5,081 9,307 4,272
10,511 5,418
Lower Rhine----- 10,210 3,100 6,498 1,886
8,085 2,858
Vaucluse........ 7,151 1,344 9,660 1,659
10,852 1,233
He'rault ........ 6,405 3,116 6,830
3,530 4,707 2,499
Aveyron........ 4,191 1,494 3,996 1,813
4,457 1,731
Lower Alps...... 3,183 962 3,451 1,055
4,330 1,124
Aude .......... 1,017 621 1,099
623 1,264 677
Ardeche........ 750 162 650
117 554 101
Var............ 469 187 ........
1,780 654
Ain............ 457 99 ____ -----
899 268
Eastern Pyrenees.. 200 100
Aisne.............. ----- 340 33
700 78
Doubs.............. ----- 330 165
80 29
Landes............. ------ .... ....
450 226
Moselle......................... 150 51
191,818 79,667 165,601 73,989 174,930 79,690
Mean price per ton .... 8s. 2Jd..... 8s. ll^d.....
9s. Ifd.
----------------------------------------------,
----_
The Extraction of Hard Coal.
Sixth and last in the order of production stands the hard coal, which is
found in nine departments. A peculiar feature of the trade in this variety
is its gradual declination since the revolutionary year, for which the
Minister of Commerce, in chronicling the circumstance, offers no
80
explanation. Probably the absence of suitable grates, hearths, and other
apparatus for consuming- coal of so hard a nature, joined with ignorance of
a proper mode of firing it, caused the variety to fall into disrepute, and
thus led to its disuse. In the year 1847, a total yield of 320,473 tons is
recorded; in the year 1848 it had fallen to 296,933 tons; and in 1852 there
was a still further decline, the total yield in that year being under
180,000 tons. In 1847, the extraction was greater by 145,543 tons than that
of lignite; in the last-named year it was less by 17,173 tons than the
lignite yield—less, indeed, by nearly 300 tons, than the extraction of the
latter variety in 1847. From the department of Herault, the supply entirely
ceased in 1850; and in the Gard department it dwindled from 120,984 tons in
1847, to 85,859 tons in 1852. Indeed, during the revolutionary period of
1848, and in succeeding years down to 1852, Loire is not credited for one
ounce of hard coal; and Creuse, which, in 1847, furnished 600 tons, produced
none in 1848, and only about 45 tons in 1852.
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE EXTRACTION OF HARD COAL.
1852. 1848.
1847-
Departments.----------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
Production. Value. Production Value. Production.
Value.
Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons.
£
Gard ........... 85,859 25,972 134,874 41,195
120,984 33,674
Upper Saone ----- 45,462 26,821 227,388 13,152
21,824 14,185
Loire .......... 26,130 8,244
PuydeDome____ 10,774 3,720 16,489 6,583
8,125 3,592
Upper Loire .... 3,278 1,293 157,868 6,140
31,654 11,843
Lower Loire ----- 2,106 1,390 4,058
3,456 6,202 5,662
Maine and Loire.. 887 849 43,611 31,175
37,365 34,135
Cantal.......... 100 40
Herault.......... .. 7,000 2,800
5,116 2,073
Saone and Loire .. .. .. 43,707
16,629 72,908 28,580
Vendee .......... .. 8,482 5,225
13,558 7,494
Creuse.......... 46 23 ..
.. 602 289
Aveyron.......... .. 186 125
2,181 868
174,644 68,352 296,933 126,482 320,473 142,398
Mean price per ton' .... 7s. lOd..... 8s. 6£d.....
8s. lljd.
Total Extraction and Value of each Variety. The aggregate proportion of each
variety of coal extracted in France, with the total value of each separate
species, during the years before-mentioned, is presented below :—
81
PRODUCTION, VALUE, AND AVERAGE PRICE PER TON OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS.
1852. 1848.
1847.
Nature of the_____________________________________________________________
Production. Value. Production. Value. Production.
Value.
Tons. £ Tons. £
Tons. £
j f Free - burning
g I smithy coal.. 2,467,023 901,285 1,871,800 717,751
2,623,794 1,008,207 .2 J Close - burning-
|1 ditto...... 914,155 320,740 675,559 244,755
885,259 324,839
.t2 | Common
ffl L smithy coal.. 464,748 175,220 448,297 179,920
489,716 186,627
Hard coal.... 174,644 68,352 296,933 126,482 320,473
142,398
Anthracite----- 691,534 324,807 542,239 267,113 659,029
319,957
Lignite, stipite. 1&1,818 79,667 165,601 73,989
174,930 7,910
Total..........4,903,925 1,870,072 4,000,433 1,810,000 5,153,234 S^RB^n
Average price...... 7s. 7|d. .... 8s. 6d.
,../p^ ^-8a.
Amount of Labour Employed and Wages Paid to Labourers
in the French Coal Mines. In preceding pages, concurrently with the progress
or decline of the French trade, I have given statistics of the amount of
labour employed in mining operations. I now take ten of the principal
coal-yielding departments, and give the number of hands engaged in each of
them during the period to which the preceding tables refer, from which an
accurate idea of the state of labour and its proportion to the total yield
may be gathered.
TABULAR STATEMENT OF LABOUR AND WAGES FOR 1852.
Workmen employed.
_____________________ Estimate Average Total Average
Departments. of
Wages Wages Production. Production
in ine Auove Total. paid. per Man.
per Man. Pit. ground. I
£ £ s. Tons. Tons.
Nord............ 8,580 1,612 10,192 216,601 21 9
1,072,845 105
Loire............ 4,889 1,835 6,724 195,126 29 0
1,639,183 244
Saone and Loire .. 2,322 1,227 3,549 81,113 22 17
528,059 148
Gard............ 1,722 593 2,315 58,182 25 6
386,007 166
Allier ........... 1,396 869 2,265 36,526 16 5
256,467 113
Upper Saone .... 752 216 968 17,810 18 9
56,966 59
Mouths of theRbone 902 57 959 19,000 19 16
105,500 110
Aveyron......... 664 275 939 20,558 22 10
182,825 193
Mayenne........ 719 196 915 19,187 20 17
35,430 38
Nievre.......... 490 135 625 14,927 23 17
73,734 117
Vol. VI.—February, 1858.
M
82
TABULAR STATEMENT OP LABOUR AND WAGES FOR 1848.
Workmen employed.
_________________________ Estimate Average Total
Average
Dbpabthests. of
Wages Wages proa°uction. Production
Pit ground. Tota1' paid" Per Man.
per Man.
£ £ s. Tons. Tons.
Nord............ 7,991 1,582 9,573 196,493 20 10 927,311
97
Loire............ 5,161 1,792 6,953 156,265 22 9
1,326,687 192
Saone and Loire .. 1,759 868 2,627 60,631 23 2
381,595 145
Gard............ 1,291 231 1,522 46,520 30 11
358,307 234
Allier ........... 1,085 667 1,752 27,648 15 15
191,721 109
Upper Saone...... 367 122 489 7,526 15 8
32,046 66
MouthsoftheRhdne 851 851 21,961 25 16
89,001 104
Aveyron ........ 525 233 758 22,019 29 3
135,184 178
Mayenne........ 759 233 992 21,803 21 19
59.235 55
Nievre.......... 360 187 547 12,780 23 8
50,315 90
TABULAR STATEMENT OF LABOUR AND WAGES FOR 1847.
Workmen employed.
________________________ Estimate Average Total
Average
DepaktmE*TS. Total of Wages
Wag* Production. P™d^on
Pit. ground. Workinn. Pald- Per Man.
per Man.
£ £ s. Tons. Tons.
Nord............ 8,199 1,925 10,124 215,491 21 5
1,245,651 123
Loire............ 5,415 1,082 7,217 229,587 31 16
1,722,585 238
Saone and Loire.. 2,080 788 2,868 73,168 25 10
525,874 183
Gard............ 1,872 396 2,268 68,611 30 4
467,339 206
Allier ........... 1,115 689 1,804 30,040 16 13
228,683 126
Upper Sadne..... 379 100 479 7,986 16 9
32,326 67
Mouths of the Rhone 1,037 .... 1,037 21,798 21 0
92,089 89
Aveyron ........ 875 365 1,240 31,653 25 10
224,073 180
Mayenne........ 791 260 1,051 23,799 22 13
73,066 69
Nievre.......... 435 150 585 14,040 24. 0
67,115 114
The French Export Trade in Coal.
Large as is the importation of foreign coal, and extensive as it is likely
to continue for many years to come, there has always been an export coal
trade from France, though, of course, to only a very limited extent. Her
foreign consignments, whether of native coal or of coal originally imported,
have never exceeded 60,000 tons, and, up to the year 1845, they were below
50,000 tons. In the year 1848, the whole export was only 48,921 tons,
distributed amongst the undermentioned countries, namely:—
83
Tons.
Switzerland ....................... 10,491
Sardinia.......................... 6,874
Belgium.......................... 8,244
Algeria.......................... 15,108
Spain............................ 491
French Colonies.................... 1,137
Tuscany.......................... 548
Germany ......................... 444
Turkey .......................... 1,586
Sweden .......................... 3,161
Various Countries.................. 832
Total................48,921
Since that time some increase in the trade has taken place, the total
quantity of coals and coke exported, down to the end of 1856, having been:—
Tons.
1850............................. 41,564
1852............................ 41,366
1853............................ 46,113
1854............................ 100,210
1855........................... 111,576
1856............................ 99,496
These exportation take place chiefly from the coal basins of Loire,
Valenciennes, and Aix. Southern Switzerland is, to a great extent, supplied
with Loire coal, which is also sent in small quantities to Sardinia and
Algeria. The Valenciennes portion is taken into Belg'ium, and that of Aix is
chiefly exported to Sardinia. English coal is reexported to Algeria and
other French colonies, but the quantity so disposed of does not exceed 8,000
tons a-year, most of the English coal consumed in Algeria being sent thither
direct.
Resume of Home and Foreign Supplies.
I conclude this portion of the paper by summarising the facts elucidated in
the foregoing pages. The following abstract shows the native yield and the
foreign importation for nearly a century:—
85
CHAPTER III.
CONSUMPTION OF COAL IN FRANCE FROM 1847 TO 1856 BOTH INCLUSIVE.
Having, in the two preceding chapters, so extensively treated upon the
production of coal in France, I fear it would ,be trenching- too much on the
time and patience of the members of the Institute were I to go to as great a
length in placing before them the history and progress of the consumption of
coal in that country. But, as the subject is of too much importance to be
omitted altogether, and as, probably, many of you may be interested to know
in what proportion English and Belgian and native French coal is consumed in
the principal manufacturing departments, as well as the various cities and
towns of France, a very brief summary of the state of that branch of our
subject is annexed, accompanied by a map, which shows not only the size, and
shape, and amount of the productions of the different coal-fields, but also
the consumption of every kind of coal, and the proportion in which each is
consumed.
I shall commence with 1847, as the figures of consumption from that year to
the present will serve every purpose of exhibiting the quantities consumed,
and the places of disposition. It will also show, by the chief points of
competition between the native variety and the aggregate of foreign coal on
the one hand, and between different exporting countries on the other.
The departments which have consumed the most each year are those of Nord,
Loire, Seine, Straits of Calais, Rhone, Saone and Loire, and Gard. In the
department of Nord there were consumed in 1847,1,567,370 tons, fully
one-fifth of the total production of France. In 1848 Nord fell to 1,368,240
tons, or 32 per cent.; in 1849 still lower, the quantity disposed of being
only 1,261,780 tons. By the end of 1850 it was only a few tons over the
consumption of 1848; in 1851 only a few tons more; while even in 1852 it had
not reached the point from which it fell in 1847.
The consumption in the department of Loire, in the year L847, amounted to
616,870 tons; during the revolutionary period it fell to 592,970 tons. In
1849, like Nord, it descended still lower, the quantity consumed being only
534,490 tons; in 1850 it gained a most important advance, rising suddenly,
as it were, to 643,660 tons; in 1851 the consumption fell off slightly, but
was still greater than it was in 1847;
86
while, in 1852, 702,700 tons were taken into consumption, better than
100,000 tons more than was disposed of in the district in the year
preceding* that of the revolution.
The department next highest in the list, is the Seine, where in 1847,
499,650 tons were used; in 1848 the consumption fell to 344,010 tons • in
1849 it sprung- up to 513,680 tons; in 1850 to 653,960 tons; in 1851 it
descended to 646,870 tons; and in 1852 an augmentation was realized, making*
the total consumption 662,830 tons.
After these three departments, which, as it will be seen, consume upwards of
a third of the total quantity used over the whole empire, come the
departments of the Straits of Calais, Rhone, and Sa6ne and Loire, the
general consumption of which has been better than 350,000 tons per year.
Gard consumed in 1847, 346,640 tons, but in 1849 the returns exhibit a
falling off to 153,080 tons, and in 1852 the consumption was 98,640 tons
less than it was in the first-named year.
Nine other departments have consumed on an average, less than 150,000 tons;
eleven less than 100,000 tons; three not more than 75,000 tons; two less
than 15,000 tons; and twenty-four less than 10,000 tons. " What" asks M.
Magne in his "Resume des Travaux Statistiques de rAdministration des Mines,"
published in 1854, " is the cause of the small consumption of this coal in
these last named departments ? It may, perhaps, be attributed by some to
their richness in bituminous coal; by others, to the absence of all
industry; but for the greater number I do not hesitate to say that the cause
may be found in the lack of means of communication and the high price of
transport ?"
Departmental Consumption of Native Coal in France.
It may not be altogether devoid of interest to give the relative proportions
of the division and dispersion of the French coal throughout the different
departments of the empire, and the subjoined table exhibits this
distribution from the various fields. It shows that the great basin of Loire
furnished coal, in the year 1847, to fifty-one departments; in 1848, to
forty-nine; in 1852, to fifty departments (at the same time supplying
various foreign countries); that the beds of Valenciennes furnished coal, in
1847, to fourteen departments; in 1848, to fifteen; and in 1852, to sixteen
departments, besides exports; that those of Creusot and Blanzy supplied from
eighteen to twenty; those of Commentry from thirteen to fifteen; the Alais
fields, twelve on the average; that of St. Gervais and the Lower Loire,
about six departments.
VALENCIENNES.
Department of Consumption.
Aisne..................
Calvados ..............
Eure..................
Eure and Loire .........
Loiret ................
Manche................
Upper Marne ..........
Meuse ................
Nord..................
Oise ..................
Straits of Calais ........
Lower Rhine............
Seine..................
Seine and Maine.........
Seine and Oise..........
Lower Seine............
Sonime................
Total ............
Foreign Exportation.
Belgium................
Other Countries ........
Total Production of Field
Tons.
116,130
3,310
8,440
3,370
5,890
16,960
5,520
549,840
60,310
139,870
1,780
90,320
840
19,540
2,310
40,500
1,064,930
7,600 320
1,072,850
Tons.
13,970
630
17,730
5,570
580
5,400
26,770 551,710
21,320 130,730
119,510
1,950
17,680
2,500
3,300
919,350
7,940
Tons.
42,300
860
6,130
610
4,000
4,906
20,470
759,080
28,170
147,820
146,380
1,230
11,770
4,900
60,830
1,239,456
10,200
927,290 '1,249,656
CREUSOT AND BLANZY.
Department of Consumption.
Ain ..................
Allier..................
Cote d'Or..............
Doubs ................
Eure and Loire..........
Indre and Loire ........
Jura ..................
Lower Loire............
Loire and Cher..........
Loiret .........*.......
Maine and Loire........
Upper Maine .........
Mayenne • •............
Nievre ................
Upper Rhine............
Rhone ................
Upper Sa6ne............
Saone and Loire ........
Seine............• • • •
Seine and Marne......
Seine and Oise..........
Yienne ..............,.
Total ............
Foreign Exportation. Switzerland...........,
Total Production of Field
1852.
Tons.
4,440
270
14,840
5,740
960 9,160
' 350
1,190
1,760
2,050
220
14,790
24,640
25,300
282,850
13,820
2,810
490
60
405,740
405,740
1848.
Tons. 2,880 1,800 5,170 2,440
670 3,430 1,530
140 1,500
450
450
18,940
10,040
6,120
212,540
13,500
560
1,800
283,960 1,800
285,760
Tons. 3,800
200 6,750 2,416
600
510 5,520 1,360
400 3,250 1,400
550
19,430
31,900
16,800
400
269,200
18,200
3,600
1,130
387,416
387,416
89
Departmental Consumption of Foreign Coal.
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF
FOREIGN COAL DURING THE YEARS 1847, 1848,
AND 1852.
ENGLISH COAL.
Department of Consumption.
Mouths of the Rhone
Calvados ..........
Charente ..........
Lower Charente
Correze............
Oise .............
Coles du Nord......
Dordogne ..........
Eure..............
Eure and Loire......
Finistere ..........
Upper Garonne......
Gers..............
Gironde............
Herault............
Hie and Vilaine .... Indre and Loire
Landes ............
Lower Loire........
Loiret ............
Lot and Garonne Maine and Loire
Manche............
Mayenne..........
Morbihan..........
Nord..............
Oise...............
Straits of Calais .... Lower Pyrenees .... Eastern Pyrenees....
Sarthe ............
Seine..............
Seine and Oise......
Lower Seine........
The Two Sevres ____
Somme............
Var ..............
Vendee ............
Vienne ............
Upper Vienne ......
Total ........
Re-exported.
Sweden............
Tuscany ..........
Algeria............
Belgium ..........
Turkey............
French Colonies .... Other Countries ....
1848.
Tons.
28,150
44,960
11,250
14,120
150
4,780
4,490
7,090
12,850
250
19,400
2,400
72,920 2,230 12,220 24,020 640 49,090
" 3,860 3,580
18,400 1,800 7,370 4,860
14,400
35,600
2,350
800
4,500
1,380
3,220
220,376
250
4,640
4,780
1,800
1,470
1,040
645,480
5,920
100
6,910
652,390
Tons.
14,920
18,310
13,790
14,720
" 1,480
5,150
3,690
11,510
680
33,090
2,070
890
56,800
2,090
10,880
9,980
3,070
38,440
300
500
8,650
15,560
2,200
15,640
3,690
7,880
31,590
670
100
2,070
840
143,930
890
8,160
7,830
1,770
740
830
498,500
3,160
"9,710 10
1,590
1,140
810
16,420
514,920
Tons. 29,190 30,370 4,900 19,580
700
3,760
7,510
37,960
150
15,740
2,000
56,960 1,980 9,320 8,520, 3,120
62,100 1,600 3,600 7,500
26,090 3,500 2,980 3,250 8,000
41,820 630
4,500
200
166,190
1,000
7,190
9,280
2,820
650
860
585,520
390
20
420 170
1,000
586,520
STL
Vol. VI.—February, 1858.
90
BELGIAN COAL:
Department of Consumption. 1852. 1848. 1847.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
Aisne................... 78,400 34,760 7,580
Ardennes................ 84,690 55,150 100,870
Aube.................... 7,830 2,330 ......
Eure.................... 15,000 14,940 2,590
Eure and Loire............ 900 100 2,340
Gironde.............................. 6,600
Indre and Loire ................ 500 ......
Loiret......................... 250 ......
Lower Loire.................... 1,160 1,560
Manche.............................. 12,890
Marne .................. 39,~00 6,620 , ......
Upper Marne ............ 950 ............
Meuse .................. 9,400 2,030 3,200
Morbihan............................ 90
Nord.................... 937,360 812,840 813,640
Oise .................... 81,080 22,180 47,040
Straits of Calais .......... 165,220 170,660 193,310
Mouths of the Rhone.................. 50
Seine.................... 535,580 172,800 270,560
Seine and Maine.......... 10,260 4,460 3,340
Seine and Oise............ 18,610 15,560 12,490
Lower Seine.............. 64,870 61,830 62,680
Somme.............. ... 69,330 20,890 61,950
Total ............2,119,180 1,399,090 1,686,820
Re-exported.
In Belgium ................... 290 180
,2,119,180 1,399,380 1,687,000
______________________'___________
PRUSSIAN AND BAVARIAN COAL.
Department of Consumption. 1852. 1848. 1847.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
Upper Marne ............. 18,640 12,990 15,760
Manche.................. 49,400 43,000 51,120
Meuse .................. 8,330 11,440 11,480
Moselle.................. 213,370 118,910 141,700
Lower Rhine.............. 18,980 24,110 30,770
Upper Rhine.............. 13,250 6,320 10,970
Vosges.................. 2,290 10,190 10,370
Total ............. 324,260 226,960 272,170
Re-exported
Into Germany........••........ 130 150
____________________________ 324,260 227,090 272,320
England, it will be seen, supplies thirty-eight departments; Belgium sends
her bituminous coal into sixteen departments, among which the
91
department of Seine figures at more than 500,000 tons, while Loire, as might
be expected, with its immense native production, takes into consumption only
19,440 tons; and the Rhenish Provinces supply seven departments.
The Mouths of the Rh6ne department received from different foreign
countries, in the year 1847, 2,880 tons; in 1848, 2,380 tons; and in 1852,
130 tons. English coal encounters that of Loire in 16 departments, and
Valenciennes in 9. Belgian coal competes with that of Loire in 8
departments, and that of Valenciennes in 12 departments.
Uses to which the Home and Foreign Supplies are Devoted.
It is interesting to ascertain to what use the coal taken into consumption
by France is appropriated. I find that much the larger portion is consumed
in manufactures (of all kinds), as is the case in every country. A very
considerable quantity is devoted to household purposes; by no means so much,
however, in proportion to the general consumption, as in England, for, added
to the fact of the warm climate of France, French consumers of both
household and manufacturing coal, singular to say, persist in using wood for
fuel, sometimes by way of preference, but oftener, no doubt, because it can
be purchased on the spot, and apparently at a cheaper rate. To steam
purposes on land and sea a very small quantity is at present applied, and
the remainder is used in the different mines and quarries.
Taking the years over which all our calculations in this part of the subject
extend, I find that in the year 1847, of the 7,648,860 tons consumed, no
less than 5,225,000 tons, or two-thirds of the whole, were employed in
manufactures; 154,510 tons were applied to domestic purposes; 548,160 tons
were used for steam purposes; and the remainder, 330,590 tons, were consumed
in the mines and quarries.
During the next year, the year of revolution, the consumption fell, as has
been already shown, to 6,095,290 tons. The quantity consumed in the various
methods indicated above, of course fell in due proportion. The industrial
interests, represented by the manufactures, and household consumption, were
the chief sufferers by the disasters of the period; only 4,100,470 tons were
absorbed in the manufactures, and less than 1,225,000 tons in domestic uses,
and only 492,430 tons were employed for genera ting steam, and 278,400 tons
in the mines and quarries.
By the year 1852 an increase of 300,000 tons only over the consumption of
1847 had been attained, proof significant of the injury inflicted
92
upon commerce by political disorder. I find that the quantity of coal
appropriated during that year (1852), to the different manufactures, was
5,353,830 tons, while in the preceding year it was only 4,889,780 tons, and
in 1850 not more than 4,709,540 tons. The household consumption in the same
year was 1,602,100 tons, and in 1851 1,598,610 tons. For steam purposes, and
in the mines and quarries, the figures are respectively 664,820 and 337,770
tons for the former, and 556,920 and 331,520 tons for the latter year.
The annexed table shows the appropriation of the coal in twenty-five of the
principal districts, which twenty-five districts, it will be observed by the
way, employ full two-thirds of the total quantity consumed.
94
Quantities of Coal and other Combustible Material used in the Manufacture of
French Iron.
It may be useful to give here some statistics respecting the manufacture of
iron in France, especially as it is connected most intimately with the
consumption of coal. In the year 1852 there were manufactured in that
country 522,643 tons of pig metal, valued at £2,999,367, or £5 15s. per ton;
of this quantity 263,340 tons were manufactured with 369,473 tons of
charcoal and wood, valued at £871,638, and 259,500 tons with 456,365 tons of
coke and coal, valued at £411,988; the value of the portion made with
charcoal and wood was £1,708,571, equal to £6 10s. per ton, and that of the
portion made with coke and coal £1,290,696, equal to £5 per ton; the average
of the two being £5 15s. per ton, which is double the value of English pig
metal, probably arising from the expensive character of the combustibles and
of the labour employed in preparing the raw material and in its manufacture.
In the same year there were manufactured 301,803 tons of malleable iron, the
value of which is estimated at £3,651,394, or £12 per ton; 64,601 tons of
this quantity employedl47,303 tons of charcoal and wood, valued at£355,546,
in its manufacture, while the remainder was manufactured by coke and coal,
of which it required 677,214 tons, valued at £450,693; the value of the
portion manufactured with charcoal wood was £1,092,046, and that of the
remainder £2,559,307.
The total quantity of pig iron produced in France, from about seventy-five
blast furnaces, in the year 1852, was thus equal to the present production
(1857), of Northumberland, Durham, and Cleveland, where the value of the
coke and coal required was less than half the cost of the fuel employed in
the same operation in France. It must, however, be observed in making these
comparisons, that the cost and value of the produce manufactured with
charcoal is much greater in each process than that resulting from the use of
coke and coal; and, though little of this description of iron is
manufactured in Great Britain, yet large quantities are imported at high
rates.
95
The following table shows, in a condensed, and at the same time
comprehensive, form, the figures given above :—
TABULAR STATEMENT OP THE MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN THE PRODUCTION OF IRON IN
FRANCE DURING THE YEAR 1852.
MANUFACTURE OF PIG IRON.
Aggregate £re«ge No. of Tons Aggregate y^ner
Fuel Employed. Tons. Value of the *~i»e or of
Iron Value of the v aiue per
Fu?I. *ufl per Manufactured. Iron. 10" 0I tne
Ton. Iron.
£ £ s. d. | £ £ s.
d.
Charcoal...... 344,552 859,755 2 10 0 !1 *
Wood ........ 24,921 11,883 0 9 6| I 263>34()
1>708?571 6 ,0 0
369,473 871,638 2 7 2 J
Coke ......... 393,945 388,298 0 19 8|1 t
C™1.......... 62,411 23,690 0 7 7^ m>m ])2q0j69q
5 0 0
j 456,356 411,988 0 18 0i J
Total ...J 825,829 1,283,026_________I 522,643 2,999,267 5
15 0
* The cost of fuel, with charcoal and a little wood, as above, for
manufacturing 263,340 tons of pig1 metal, was £3 6s. 2Jd. per ton.
t The cost of fuel, with coke and a small quantity of coal, for
manufacturing1 259,303 tons of pig- metal, was £1 lis. 9£d. per ton.
MALLEABLE IRON.
Charcoal...... 144,870 354,881 2 8 4* "1 §
Wood........ 2,433 1,065 0 8 9^ Q^m 1)092)046
,g 7 0
147,303 355,946 2 2 4 j
Coal.......... 30,996 27,448 0 17 8* ^ ||
Coke ........ 646,218 423,244 0 13 1 I 237)202
2j559,307 10 11 2
677,214 450,692 0 13 3J J
Total..... 824,517 806,638______________301,803 3,651,353 12 2
0
§ Cost of fuel, with charcoal and a small quantity of wood, for
manufacturing* 64,601 tons of malleable iron, was £5 10s. 0|d. per ton.
|| Cost of fuel, with coke and a small quantity of coal, for manufacturing
237,202 tons of malleable iron, was £1 18s. per ton.
Perhaps it may be as well here to give some figures as to the iron trade of
other countries, and suppose we take England first. The production of iron
in this country, in 1852, was about 3,000,000 tons, and in 1855 it was 3|
million tons; of this quantity 300,000 tons, more or less, were manufactured
in Northumberland, Durham, Cleveland, and Yorkshire.
The production of iron in Prussia is 300,000 tons a year, and, as in
96
France, a large portion is made with charcoal. If the iron masters employed
coal and coke entirely in its manufacture, as much more coal would be
employed in that branch of industry. There is every prospect of Prussia
becoming an iron making country of hig-h rank.. In addition to the various
new iron ore concessions, some of them in operation, which I inspected on a
recent visit to that country, I also found ninety-one ironstone concessions,
extending over several thousand acres in a mountainous country, which have
been granted by the Prussian Government to M. Gonot, chief engineer of
mining under the Belgian Government, who holds them in readiness, and will,
in all probability, commence operations as soon as ever railway transit to
and through the locality is completed.
Austria, which possesses abundance of ironstone, produces about 250,000 tons
of iron yearly, which is almost entirely made with charcoal.
The United States of America, like France, manufactured, in 1852, about
half-a-million tons of iron, and each had increased to 750,000 tons in 1855,
which is accounted for by the fact that the price of English iron in this
year was full thirty-three per cent, higher than in 1852, and its high price
may have stimulated them to develop their own resources.
The iron trade of Belgium, in 1855, influenced, no doubt, by the high price
of English iron, was, like that of Prussia, in a flourishing state. The
quantity of pig iron manufactured in each country increased considerably in
1856, but not so recently.
Other countries manufactured iron in that year in the following proportions
:—
Tons.
Russia.............................. 200,000
Sweden............................ 150,000
Various German States................ 100,000
Other Countries...................... 300,000
The aggregate quantity of iron manufactured by the whole of these countries
falls short of the produce of Great Britain in that year; the total in the
former case being 3,000,000 tons, and in the case of Great Britain 3,250,000
tons. Great Britain is the only country that manufactures iron almost
entirely from coal and coke, in which manufacture upwards of one-fourth of
the coal produced in this country is consumed. A few thousand tons of iron
are manufactured from charcoal, the cost of manufacture and market value of
which is very similar to that of French iron manufactured by the same
process. All the rest is made from coal
97
and coke, and by this—much the cheaper—means, the production of English coal
has increased every year. Whenever the other iron-making countries expend
large sums of money, similar to those invested by the coal-owners and
ironmasters of this country, in extending their operations in the
manufacture of iron and the production of coal, the quantity of coal will,
in like manner, be augmented, and their iron become cheaper j in fact, if
the iron manufactured by them at the present time were made with coal, fully
one-half of the yield of that article would be employed in the process.
The following table is an important addendum to this chapter, as it shows
that France is the best customer for foreign coals, and likely to continue
so. Comparing the below statement for consumption with the statement at page
84 of the French production, it will be seen that in 1856 the consumption
was 12| millions, while the production was only 7§ million tons of coal,
making an opening for upwards of five millions of tons yearly of foreign
coal. The year 1817 only shows the native production to be one million tons,
and that of foreign coal about one quarter of a million tons yearly. The
increase at the present time is shown as above.
The consumption in Great Britain, in 1855, when the population was
twenty-two millions, gives, after deducting foreign coal exported, 2,863
tons to every 1,000 inhabitants. The population since that period has
increased nearly half a million, the production and exportation remaining
almost stationary.
The consumption in Belgium in the same year was 1,194 tons to every 1,000
inhabitants; and in France 276 tons.
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE CONSUMPTION OF COAL
IN FRANCE FROM 1802 TO 1856.
Years. Tons. Years. Tons. Years.
Tons.
1802 935,180 1825 1,994,385 1842 5,203,415
1811 863,694 1826 2,042,262 1843 5,293,508
1812 929,523 1827 2,228,142 1844 5.486,850
1813 858,779 1828 2,352,820 1845 6,343,069
1814 932,599 1829 2,289,877 1846 6,608,884
1815 1,112,194 1830 2,493,944 1847 7,648,870
1816 1,231,958 1831 2,298,211 1848 6,095,210
1817 1,221,909 1832 2,520,159 1849 6,640,548
1818 1,146,162 1833 2,736,662 1850 7,225,270
1819 1,173,817 1834 3,214,405 1851 7,376,830
1820 1,348,122 1835 3,278,218 1852 7,958,520
1821 1,381,839 1836 3,814,955 1853 9,413,297
1822 1,525,261 1839 4,180,753 1854 10,856.785
1823 1,517,362 1840 4,256,711 1855 12,293,686
1824 1,781,509 1841 4,979,892 1856 12,710,820
Vol. VI.—February, 1858.
o
98
CHAPTER IV.
Prices of Coal (Native and Foreign) in France. The price of native coal in
France, like that of England, varies according' to quality, the geological
structure of the district in which it is found, and the consequent ease or
difficulty, as the case may he, of preparing it for the market. In some
departments in France, for instance, the price is upwards of 16s. per ton at
the pit's mouth, while in several others of less importance it is not of
more value than 5s.; the average at the place of production, in 1852, being
about 8s. 6d. per ton.* This sum, of course, includes the cost of working,
rent, materials, and all other incidental charges at the pit top and for
underground operations j while in England the best household coal can be put
on board ship at different ports at the same price, 8s. 6d., and
manufacturing steam coal at 7s., while other sorts, for coke and gas, are as
low as 5s. In one or two varieties of our coal,f such as coking and gas and
coal
* The French mines and quarries (for in several places the French owners
quarry the inferior coal out at the surface) pay two kinds of rent duties to
the Government. The one is fixed at a certain sum per hectare, = 11,760
square yards; the other variable, in accordance with prices or profits, but
never higher than one-tenth or less than one-twentieth of the net produce.
t The low-priced English coal here alluded to as used in our smithies, coke,
gas, and glass works, is of the purest quality, although of a peculiarly
tender nature. The very smallest of it, even the dust, being free from
pyrites, is used without washing, and when pressed by suitable machinery
into the size and shape of bricks, answers all the purposes to which good
household, manufacturing, or steam coal may be applied. As an instance of
this, I may mention that, a few years ago, an engine fired with this
machine-made fuel started with passengers and goods from Darlington Station,
and made the trip to Gateshead without stopping, or requiring extra coal or
firing—in fact, the stoker never interfered at all with the fire—in the
usual time, the distance (via Brockley Whins) was 38J miles, and the
consumption was, on the average, less than 2libs, per mile. The consumption
of coke, made from the same coal, is generally at the rate of 261bs. per
mile with express trains, and the engine using it requires firing six times
in the course of the journey; consequently there is a difference of 20 per
cent, in favour of this compressed fuel, made from small coal, as regards
its consumption. Besides, it is more portable and occupies less space, and
there is little doubt it could be manufactured to sell at as low a price as
good coke, and bring a profit to the maker. I have no doubt that it will
continue to be used by marine engines, and gradually come into use for
locomotive engines, especially in foreign countries, where wood and coke
fuel are dear. Any objection on the ground of smoke might be obviated by
properly constructed fire places and careful firing. In this case, with the
use of the spare steam from the engine let off into the chimney while
working, no smoke was to be seen ; and when a small fire place, with an area
of less than a square yard, only required to be charged with 7 cwts. of fuel
once in 38J miles, with a heavy train, smoke cannot be at all an objection.
Indeed, I have no doubt but the highest authorities, after testing this
fuel, and after making careful experiments and comparing this with the heat
of other fuels, will have to admit that it is more powerful and better than
either the Welsh or what is called the North of England Hartley steam
coal—the former being generally very destructive to the engine fire-bars. To
corroborate the experiment above alluded to, I may mention that this trial
was made in the presence of Mr. R. Fletcher, the engineer for the locomotive
department of the North-Eastern Railway, myself, and Mr. Robert Simpson,
M.E. and manager to the Stella Coal Company, Ry ton, where the small coal
manufactured into the fuel was obtained ; but, if any doubt remain as to the
efficiency of this kind of fuel, I should be happy to superintend another
trial of its properties in any form that may be decided upon.
99
for smithy purposes, the cost of production is only about one-third of the
French average. (See page 195 of the second volume of the "Transactions" of
this Society.) Very few districts in France produce coal at the pit top at
so low a rate as 4s. 6d. per ton, or at 5s. on board ship. One (Vaucluse),
in 1852, was as low as 4s. Id. per ton at the pit top, and there were two or
three others in which the price varied from that to 5s.; but the quantity
produced was trifling, and in nearly every instance it was taken into
consumption on or near these pits. A rather low-priced district is Aveyron,
where the price at the pit top is only 5s. 5d. per ton j but there does not
appear to be any great demand for the produce, although a navigable river
(the Lot) passes the principal basin into the Bay of Biscay, for the total
abstraction is under 200,000 tons a-year. The coal of those departments in
which the price of extraction is above the average, is also taken into local
consumption, and competes, in few instances indeed, with the foreign coal
imported.
The tables which follow exhibit, at one view, the variation in the price of
coal in various departments of France, the native coal at the pit's mouth
and depdt (which dep6t, being frequently at a considerable distance from the
pit, and with the slow mode of transit, increases the expense), and the
price of the foreign coal at the dep6t. ^——
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE COST OF PRODUCTION AND SELLING PRICE OF FRENCH
COALS, AND THE MARKET VALUE OF FOREIGN COALS IMPORTED INTO FRANCE, IN THE
YEAR 1852.
Department of Consumption. Quantity Consumed. Principal Depots.
"Whence Obtained. French Coal. Belgian Coal. English Coal.
Price at Pit. Price at Depots.
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Per Ton. Per
Ton.
Novd ........ 1,376,970 343,050 140,350 267,720 38,340 r
Lille............ 541,500 140,700 18,600 150 51,730 2,100
13,980 827,670 146,970 90,210 66,810 16,420 7,800 36,630 8,610 198,810
7,890 £ s. d. 0 8 5 0 9 6 0 12 11 0 14 6 0 9 6 0 9 6 0 9 6
£ s. d. 0 12 3 0 11 9 0 10 11 114 0 15 11 0 16 9 0 19 4 1 3 5 0
17 5 0 15 9 13 6 1 3 1 1 2 1 15 6 15 6 17 4 17 2
Straits of Calais....
1 ......
o o
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE COST OF PRODUCTION, &c—Continued.
Department of Consumption. Quantity Consumed. Principal Depots.
Whence Obtained. French Coal. Belgian Coal. English Coal.
Price at Pit. Price at Depot.
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Per Ton. Per
Ton.
653,960 7,420 64,720 40,290 32,100 123,080
14,860 12,280 1,770 390 3,690 2,100 27,970 980 690 6,370 200 20,470 1,430
1,080 501,220 1,140 360 490 35,000 33,720 3,120 £ a. d. 0 9
6 0 5 11 0 7 4 0 9 5 0 6 9 0 9 6 0 7 4 0 12
4 0 9 6 0 12 11 0 9 6 0 12 4 0 14 3 0 7 4 0 7 7 £
s. d. 1 5 1 15 1 1 13 5 14 3 1 3 11 14 5 15 2 1
13 7 2 3 5 1 14 7 1 15 6 0 14 4 13 0 13 0 1 4 10 1
0 11 0 16 8 10 7 1 0 6 2 2 2 2 0 11 1 10 4 1
Eure and Loire .... 1 Creusot and Blanzy..
Valenciennes.....
o
TABULAR STATEMENT OP THE COST OF PRODUCTION, &c—Continued.
Department of Consump< tion.
Mayenne
Quantity Consumed;
Ille and Vilaine . Cotesdu Nord...
Finistere.......
Morbihan.......
Lower Loire.....
Maine and Loire.
Tons.
72,980
7,220 3,640
14,550
9,020 61,880
56,230
Principal Depots.
Laval
Rennes.
St. Malo ., St. Brieux
C Brest .. ? Quimper (. Morlaix
Vannes Nantes.
Angers.
"Whence Obtained.
Le Maine..........
St. Pierre Laccour ..
Lower Loire .......
, Loire.............
I Bert..............
Brussae ..........
Creusot and Blanzy..
England.........
St. Pierre Laccour
) England ........
S England........
England
England
$ Lower Loire .. \ England.....
{"Lower Loire ......
I Decize............
I Commentry........
•< Loire ............
Creusot and Blanzy.. J Vouvent&Chantonay ^England..........
French Coal,
61,090 5,490 1,170 950 600 500 450
300
12,260
29,430 2,530 2,460 1,560 1,180 930
Belgian Coal.
Tons.
English Coal.
Tons.
1,950
6,920 3,640
14,550
9,020
49,620
18,140
Price at Pit.
Per Ton.
£ s. d.
0 15 0
0 14 8
0 15 1
0 7 4
0 5 3
0 7 7
0 7 5
0 14 8
0 15 1
0 15 1
0 9 5
0 5 11
0 7 4
0 7 5
0 11 3
Price at Depot.
Per Ton.
£ s. 1 0
0 19
1 7
2 4 1 7 1 15 1 13 1 15
12 2
1 8 5 14 0
1 9 1
1 10 1
10 2 0 19 11
0 15 3 0 8 10
0 18 11
1 1 5
0 18 6
1 0 1 13 6
O
TABULAR STATEMENT OP THE COST OF PRODUCTION, &c—Continued.
Department of Consumption.
Vendee .......
Lower Charente
Charente......
Indre and Loire.
Gironde ......
Dordogne ....
Landes........
Lower Pyrenees
Quantity Consumed.
15,620 17,280
9,580
30,861
57,980 8,010
2,120
Principal Depots.
Napoleon Vendee..
Rochelle........
Rocbefort........
Angouleme......
Tours .........
Bordeaux .....
Perigeux........
Mont de Morson.. Bayonne ........
Pau............
Whence Obtained.
$ Vouvant&Chantonay \ Eng-Jand........
Vouvant England England
Loire ............
Commentry........
Creusot and Blanzy.
< Brassac ...........
I Lower Loire ......
| Decize............
L England..........
England
C Terrasson \ Meimac (. England
J England .... .• v»vf
England
French Coal.
14,450
5,770 3,260 1,260 1,190 1,020 720
Belgian Coal.
Tons.
English Coal.
1,170
14,980 9,580
17,640 57,980
5,580 2,050 2,120
£ s. d. 0 11 1
0 11 1
0 7 4
0 5 10
0 7 5
0 7 7
0 8 4
0 9 4
0 18 4 13 3
Price at Depot.
Per Ton.
£ s. d.
0 14 8 15 5
1 3 9
1 11 0
1 10 6
1 11 11
1 9 10 1113
1 10 7
10 0
1 8 5
1 3 10
1 0 10
0 19 7 15 0
1 4 1
1 8 10
13 6
O
03
TABULAR STATEMENT OP THE COST OP PRODUCTION, &c—Continued.
Department of Consumption. Quantity-Consumed. Principal Depots.
Whence Obtained. French Coal. Belgian Coal. English Coal.
Price at Pit. Price at Depot.
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Per Ton. Per
Ton.
Eastern Pyrenees .. Upper Garonne .... Mouths of the Rhone 4,070 26,390
57,390 179,350 ( Port Vendee .... Durbant Secure .... 1,200 950
880 220 180 11,820 6,600 4,530 1,000 23,030 17,370 6,310 3,890 3,660 500
91,700 49,000 18,980 500 720 2,440 *2,630 19,170 £ g. d. 0 8
3 0 11 4 0 4 2 0 5 5 0 7 3 0 13 9 0 7 3 0 5 5 0 8 2 0 8 2 0 5 5
0 7 10 0 3 1 0 7 3 0 5 1 0 10 0 0 5 5 0 7 3 0 8 1 £ s.
d. 1 11 3 0 14 9 0 4 2 1 9 11 1 12 0 1 13 7 1
6 8 1 11 8 1 8 2 1 5 0 1 8 2 1 5 10 19 7 1 3
11 0 14 0 17 6 14 8 1 8 2 0 16 4 12 4 14 8 1 2
6 1 8 2 1
t. England..........
rAix..............
o
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE COST OF PRODUCTION, &c—Concluded
Department of Consumption.
Quantity Consumed.
Var
Corsica ..........
Lot and Garonne ..
Orne ..,...........
Two Sevres........
Vienne............
Upper Vienne......
42,370
48,700 23,600
14,880 6,900
4,610 3,000
Principal Depots
S Toulon .... \ Dragnignan
Ajaccio ... Flagen ...
Alencon .. Nort......
Poitiers ... Limoges ..
Whence Obtained.
fAlais .....
j Loire .....
1 Aix.......
7 La Cardiere.
I Frejus.....
L England ...
England
Carmeaux v Aubin ... t England .
5 Loire .. ( England
$ Vouvant i England
Vouvant .........
Loire ...........
Lower Loire .....
Creusot and Blanzy. England.........
rilun ......
) Meimac ... "i Commentry
V England ..
17,000
13,000
7,000
1,650
300
1,180 500
2,200 6,120
1,380
930
920
90
1,410 450 360
Belgian Coal.
English Coal. Price at Pit.
2,920
48,700
680 12,680
?80
i,290
730
Per Ton.
£ s. ri
0 5 5
0 7 3
0 10 0
0 10 0
0 8 1
0 13 9 0 5 1
0 7 3
0 11
0 11 1
0 7 3
0 15 1
0 15 9
Price at
Depot.
Per Ton.
£ s. d.
1 5 0
1 6 3
0 12 6
0 12 6
0 13 4
1 6 8
1 9 2
1 13 4 19 2 1 15 10
1 18 4
2 0 1
0 19 8
1 7 11
1 11 6
2 0 10 1 15 11
1 8 9
2 1 8
0 10 1 1 9 0
1 2 9 2 10 0
0 5 10 1 15 0
1 17 2
o
Ox
106
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.
In bringing this paper to a close, I need scarcely mention what will have
been observed in reading these pages, that, whilst France is every year
increasing its consumption (more rapidly than any other country, except
England), and, necessarily, its demand for coal in a larger proportion than
its native supply, its reliance upon foreign coal increases in an equal
ratio. The consumers of fuel in that country are beginning to find that
wood, for which they have heretofore, in a great many instances, exhibited a
preference—partly, no doubt, owing to the difficulty (as is shown in the
preceding tables) of procuring good coal at a reasonable price—is both
expensive and cumbersome, and that coal alone is universal in its
application to their wants and requirements. And they are now beginning to
find, too, that of all coals brought into the market the English are
decidedly the best, and that their employment of it in the various
manufactures and in household consumption is as yet limited only by the
heavy restrictive duties imposed upon it. Once place English coal upon a
footing with that of Belgium, or, rather, which is the only fair course,
remove the restriction altogether, as well from the Belgian and the Prussian
as the English, set them all upon an equality in this respect, and the
figures which indicate the respective exportation into France from those
countries, will soon be altered. England would, doubtless, take the lead,
even if the supplies from Belgium remained in statu quo. That this result
would follow in a few years hardly requires to be formally shown, it would
be difficult, I should imagine, to find any person at all acquainted with
the subject to dispute the fact. For, independent of the superiority of the
article, the freights of vessels from our own shores are getting every year
so low, and the distance between Great Britain and the coast of France is so
short, that we shall always be able to have the advantage over either
Belgian or even French coal in the sea-port towns; besides which the owners
of vessels trading between England and France find that coal answers the
purpose of ballast when other goods cannot be obtained at remunerative
freights. The river Seine, too, which is the key to Paris for the sea-borne
coal trade, has now a depth of eight feet of water at least, and is
navigable for screw steamers of 500 tons burthen, while, only a few years
ago, in some places it was not deeper than three feet. Improvements are
going on which will probably make it still deeper, and it will then be
navigable by vessels of much heavier draught. Then, again, if we take into
considera-
107
tion that the French coal-fields are, generally, very inferior, have
hitherto lacked many of the mechanical and other advantages which we
possess, and, in opening, require a large amount of capital,—the best seams
being thin and deep, and hence doubling the cost of working above the
average of English mines,—we shall easily appreciate the manner in which the
French coal-owners would compete with us in a fair field; nor is it
difficult to imagine how the cheapening of the cost, and acceleration of
speed of transit, added to our easier method of extracting coal of a quality
in every way superior, would affect the other foreign exporters.
If it were not thought too wide a digression, I might here allude to the
various means for facilitating the exportation of English coal to France,
projected and carried out, though in different ways, by various parties
interested. First, may be mentioned the scheme of the Anglo-Gallic Steam
Navigation Company, (composed almost entirely of English capitalists,) who
proposed to construct vessels with light draught of water, to take coals up
the Seine to Paris. It will be in the recollection of all the members
present, that the first vessel set afloat by this Company, stranded, near
Fecamp, on the French coast, in a violent gale of wind j but misfortunes of
that kind cannot always be provided against, and another vessel may be more
successful. Then there are the vessels built on a large scale, by some of
the coal proprietors, among which may be mentioned the Rouen, the property
of Messrs. Hugh Taylor & Co., of London, which has a capacity of 800 tons,
with only eight feet draught, which has been engag'ed in conveying coals
from the Tyne and Wear to the town whose name she bears; whilst another
large vessel, the William Cory, belonging to the same Company, and capable
of carrying 1,700 tons of coal, launched a short time ago, will add
materially to the cheapening of transit. A vessel belonging to this Company
made as many as forty-six voyages from the northern coast to London in one
year. The distance from the Tyne and Wear to the Thames and back is about
equal to that between the same rivers and the Seine and other ports on the
French coast, so that it is easy to see how rapidly, and to what large
extent, English coals can be supplied to France.*
Already those of the French who are acquainted with its properties entertain
a marked preference for English coal, nor would it be difficult to point out
districts in the interior of France in which the owners have employed it in
working the steam engines which bring their coal from
* The following is a table of the comparative number and tonnage of
registered sailing and steam vessels (exclusive of river steamers) of the
United Kingdom, employed
108
these mines to the surface. Seeing-, then, that our coal is so superior to
that of either France or Belgium, and that it would he very largely taken
into consumption were it not for the taxes with which it is burdened, it
will he well worth our while to see what are these duties for the sake of
which the French Government deprive so many of its manufacturers and
domestic consumers of so useful and necessary an article.
As they stand at present, the duties are about 25 per cent, on the first
cost of Belgian coals, and 50 per cent, on the cost, on board of ship, of
English coals. They are, therefore, at present, cent, per cent, in favour of
the Belgian exporters, though several reductions of the monopoly in their
favour have taken place, as already shown. Belgium pays to the Government an
uniform rate of 1 franc 80 cents., (Is. Cd.,) upon every ton of coal
imported into France from that country, whilst English coal pays into the
treasury 3 francs 60 cents., or 3s. per ton on all coals delivered north of
Sables d'Olonne, a town on the west coast of France. Three-fourths of the
most populous territory in that country, therefore, labour under a
disadvantage which is not shared by their more fortunate neighbours in the
south [See 3Iap.) The coals delivered south of this place are charged only
Is. Cd. per ton, the same rate as Belgium. Independent of these duties, an
octroi of 7 francs 20 cents, per French ton of 1,000
in the home and foreign trade, and the number of men therein, exclusive of
captains :—
No. Tons. Men employed.
Steamers in 1850................ 426 .... 104,680 ....
8,700
Dittoinl857.................. 890 .... 381,868 .... 24,953
Increase in steamers.........'..... 473 276,683
16,253
Increase per cent, over the last ten
years........................ i^ 265
187
Sailing vessels in 1850............ 17,460 .... 3,032,532 ....
142,730
Ditto in 1857 ..........•........ 18,429 ....3,880,119 ....
151,434
Increase in sailing vessels ......... 963 797,567
8,704
Increase per eent. in ten years -----5% per cent. 25^ per cent.
6 per cent.
It, however, needs no figures to show that the trade in sailing vessels is
falling off, while steam vessels are increasing rapidly in public favour.
The experience of every member of this society tends to illustrate the fact.
The culminating point of the demand for vessels of this latter class seems
to have been attained by the successful launch of the Great Eastern ; but
this vessel, there is little doubt, will not long remain the wonder of the
world. British skill and enterprise will produce others equal in size and
power, and effect the revolution in the shipping trade which she has
commenced. River steamers of larger dimensions are taking the places of the
old collier brigs and barges everywhere, and are being constructed, in great
numbers, of double the strength and°only half the weight of their
predecessors, to carry heavier loads with less draught of water—an
improvement of the utmost importance to the coal trade, as well as to the
mercantile marine and navy. To further illustrate the improvements that have
taken place in steamers during the last ten years or so, it may be stated
that the steamers crossing the Atlantic go so much quicker that they save
two days' coaling each way, or one-sixth less fuel per trip. Should the
Great Eastern, which has such immense sailing powers, independent of steam,
cross in one-third less time, she would, in all probability, save
twenty-five per cent, in fuel, and it might be still more favourable
according to her tonnage.
109
kilogrammes, or about 6s. per English ton (more than the average selling
price of coal per ton at almost an}r shipping port in England) is levied in
all cases by the municipal authorities, by whom it is applied to purposes of
local improvement. About 25 years ago, the Corporation of of London levied a
similar tax upon all the sea-borne coal entering the Thames; but that impost
having been found for many years to injure the trade, and to be generally
impolitic, was abolished by Government, with the concurrence of the
Corporation and the public at large, in 1831. Since that time the London
coal trade has doubled itself, and, there is no doubt, similar circumstances
would produce a similar result in France.
The monopoly in favour of Belgium during the reign of Louis Philippe
resulted from two paramount causes:—the dynastic alliance of the reigning
powers, and the influence of the monied interest. The former gave Belgium,
by treaty, the preferential position with respect to duties, and the latter
engaged the principal bankers and nearly all the monied men in the French
capital by its investments in the Belgian mines and the privileged canals
communicating with Paris. In the present reign, one of these motives for
unduly fostering a lim4ted^fflarket~ to the prejudice of the general
industry of France has been superseded, and I fail to see any good reason
why an impartial administration should"" not at once bring all sources to a
just level. These taxes surely cannot be imposed for the sake of the paltry
revenue they yield to the national exchequer, for the utmost sum realized
from that source during the last 20 years has not exceeded £70,000 a-year,
and out of this deduct the cost of protection, collection, &a, and probably
not more than £60,000 per annum has found its way into the coffers of the
Government. The amount realized by the imposts on Belgian and Prussian coal
has been about double the sum above-named per year, from which deduct
expenses, and the probable amount actually realized will not exceed £120,000
a-year. In 1856 the sum realized by taxes upon Belgian and Prussian coal
imported was £229,000, and that realized upon English £133,000, so that it
is to obtain so small a contribution to the public treasury as £360,000
sterling, (it will be much less after deducting the expense of collecting
it), that the French manufacturers are crippled, their progress obstructed,
and the great bulk of a population, numbering thirty-six millions, are
denied the comforts and advantages of good and cheap coals. To show that my
figures truly represent the case, I give the exact amount received for
duties on imported coal and coke for each year since 1851:—
110
Year.
Produce of Dulieg.
1851 ..........................£249,223
1852 ........................... 306,902
1853 ........................... 285,256
1854 ........................... 248,171
1855 .......................... 333,550
1856 ......................... 362,878
The amount for 1857 will not materially differ from that for 1856.
If the French Government were to abolish these imposts altogether, and levy
the octroi of 7 francs 20 cents, only, the extra quantities of English coal
alone which would be taken to Paris, &c, would produce more revenue
applicable to the embellishment of that and other cities than ever was
obtained from it under the present or any previons system. The octroi upon
one million tons of coals from this country additional to the quantity we
now send thither (and this quantity would, in all probability, soon be
realized), would produce £300,000—upwards of four times as much as is now
received upon coals entering Paris; and the result, as regards Belgium,
would be beneficial in a still greater proportion j so that, if the local
authorities should offer to pay the Government duty on this extra
importation at half the rate now charged, 3s. per ton, they would have, upon
this assumed quantity, a surplus beyond what they now receive of 4,000,000
francs, or £160,000 clear gain, besides obtaining at a cheap rate (3f., or
2s. 6d. per ton) the best coals for household and manufacturing purposes. It
is strange that, with the example of England, America, and Belgium before
her, (for the importation of coals into Belgium is unrestricted, and many
English coals on that account go through Belgium into France to avoid paying
one-half of the duty imposed upon English coal,) France should still persist
in withholding the benefits of free trade in coal from her manufacturers and
citizens. In this country, the plan was tried for a number of years, duties
being levied both upon the home consumption and the foreign exportation.
Whilst the system existed, our consumption increased in a steady ratio only
; but as soon as it was abolished, many millions sterling of extra capital
was embarked, and a new impulse was given to the trade, insomuch that the
figures representing the annual yield which, in 1830, stood at about
32,000,000 tons, is now 66,500,000 tons—more than double. In the year 1840,
the system was renewed, . so far as it related to coals exported, but it did
not answer, and was quickly abandoned. Since that time, the capital which
has been invested
111
in the trade has more than doubled itself, until the total has reached
£90,000,000 sterling, as may be seen on reference to pages 68 to 72 of the
fourth volume of the " Transactions " of this Society.
Then, again, an additional argument in favour of this course is furnished by
the fact that to America, a country 3,000 miles distant, and containing
upwards of 150,000 square miles of coal district, we send about one-fourth
as much coal as we do to France, only 300 miles away. For a long time coals
have been shipped from ports on the north-east coast to various parts of
America, at 15s. per ton freight, and the same coals have even been sent to
London and re-shipped, in the Thames, for America, at as low freight as 10s.
per ton. What, therefore, has been done in the case of a long voyage, can
surely be done with much greater ease, and at a very much cheaper rate, when
the distance is short. If the duties were less in favour of Belgium, and
competition on fair and equal terms permitted, we could, in all probability,
undersell every other country taking coals to the French market. The
distance is not great, the coaling would require much less time and
expenditure than in the case of a voyage to America, for instance, and the
cost of transit would be much reduced by the steam vessels putting in on the
return voyage, say at Whitby or Redcar, or some other place, and bringing a
cargo of ironstone or other heavy goods at low freights, on to the Tyne,
Wear, Derwent, or Tees, where coal, and limestone, and all things necessary
for the manufacture of iron, &c, can be had on the spot, and where about 100
blast furnaces are in active operation. The vessels before-mentioned could
ship their cargo, make the voyage, and discharge at the port of destination,
with comparative ease, in nine or ten days, and thus supply an enormous
quantity of our superior coals to the French consumer.
And if these facts were not a sufficient inducement, those which appear upon
the face of their own records ought to satisfy them that, in proportion as
obstacles to trade are removed, trade flourishes and becomes great. In the
year 1834, the then Government of France lowered the duties of both English
and Belgian coals, and the importation rose from 772,000 tons in the next
year to 1,290,000 tons; and in 1856, twenty-two years after, fifteen times
as many English and four times as many Belgian coals were taken into
consumption per year. I am sure I need not add another line, except to
repeat the hope that, in no long time, we may congratulate the present
Government of France upon having granted to consumers the privilege of
purchasing the best
112
coals in their respective localities free from destructive and injurious
duties, and upon having- by this means conferred a boon upon all classes of
coal consumers in that large empire.
APPENDIX.
PORTS OF FRANCE AND CORSICA.
Abbeville.
Agde (Mediterranean).
Aiguilion.
Ajaccio (Corsica).
Ambleteuse.
Antibes (Mediterranean).
Andierne.
Auray.
Anthie.
Baudol (Mediterranean).
Barfleur.
Basse Indre.
Bastia (Corsica).
Bayonne.
Beauvoir.
Belle Isle
Blaze.
Bordeaux.
Boulogne.
Bourgdault.
Bourgueuf.
Brest.
Caen.
Calais.
Calve (Corsica).
Cameret.
Cancale.
Cannes (Mediterranean).
Carentan.
Cassis (Mediterranean).
Caudebec.
Cette (Mediterranean).
Charente.
Chateaulin.
Cherbourg.
Crotat, La (Mediterranean)
Concarnean.
Conquet.
Croisie.
Crotoy, La.
D'Aix, Isle.
De Baton, Isle.'
Devise.
Dialette.
Dieppe.
Dinan.
D'Omonville.
Douarnenez.
Dueler.
Dunkirk.
Estaples or Etaples. Eu.
Fecamp.
Flotte, La.
Foz (Mediterranean).
Granville.
Gravelines.
Guildo.
Harfleur. Havre de Grace. Honfleur.
Indredt. Isigny. Isle de Rhe.
La Flotte (Isle de Rhe).
La Hogue.
Landernean.
Lannion.
Larita (Mediterranean).
La Rochelle.
Laune (Portugal).
Le Crotoy.
Le Leque.
Le Havre.
Le Pelleren.
Les Sables.
Lezardieux.
Libourne.
Lillebonne.
Locmariaquer.
L'Orient.
Luc.
Lucon.
Malo, St. Marans. Marseilles. Morlaix.
Nantes. Noirmontiers.
Oleron or Oloron.
Paimboeuf Paimpol. Pelerin, Le.
Perros.
Pont l'Abbe.
Pontrieux.
Pornic.
Porsal.
Port En Bessin.
Port Laune.
Port Louis.
Port Vendres (Mediter.)
Quilleboeuf. Quimper.
Redon.
Regneville.
Rhe, Isle de.
Riberac.
Rochebernard.
Rochelle, La.
Rochefort.
Roscof.
Rouen.
Sables D'Olonne.
St. Brieux-
St. Germain.
St. Gilles.
St. Jean de Luz.
St. Malo.
St. Martin.
St. Michael.
St. Nazaire.
St. Servan.
St. Tropez (Mediterranean).
St. Valery en Caux.
St. Valery sur Somme.
Saintes.
Salins.
Sarzeau.
Saujon.
Teste.
Toulanbery.
Toulon (Mediterranean).
Treguir.
Tremblade, La.
Treport.
Trinite.
Trouville.
Valery or St. Valery. Vannes.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, MAY 13, 1858, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
Nicholas Wood, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
The Secretary having- read the minutes of the Council, the following*
gentlemen were elected members of the ^Institute :—Mr. James Curry, Cassop
Colliery, county of Durham; Mr. William Hall, Page Bank Colliery, county of
Durham; Mr. W. W. Bailey, Kilbourne, near Derby.
The paper of Mons. F. Laurent, on " The Lemielle System of Ventilation," was
read, and ordered to be printed.
The President then called attention to the paper intended for discussion,
viz., " The Lundhill Colliery Explosion." But before proceeding* to the
discussion, he would read the last paragraph in the paper, as it contained
matter which might form the basis of the discussion. The paragraph is as
follows:—
" Having thus, I trust, given in such detail all the circumstances arising
out of this lamentable and distressing acoident, and having given, likewise
in detail, all the means taken to recover the bodies and restore the
ventilation of the mine, and having also given all the data which presented
themselves on the re-opening of the pit which could in any way throw any
light upon the cause or causes which led to the fatal accident, or which
could in any way elicit practical data or experience which may be the means
of preventing the recurrence of such a calamity; I must, therefore, leave to
the discussion of this paper by the members of the Institute, the
development and practical bearing of such facts, towards the elucidation and
discovery of the causes which led to such accident.".
This paragraph, said the President, would, he thought, point out to them the
best course, probably, to pursue in the discussion, with a view Vol. VI
.—May, 1858.
q
114
of arriving- at the cause of such accident. At the inquest he (the
President) expressed an opinion as to what appeared to him to he the cause
of the explosion, and subsequent reflection had not induced him to alter
such opinion, neither could he add much to the observations then made. He
might, in fact, say that it was still his opinion that the causes he then
assigned, and the circumstances therein detailed, were substantially
correct. He might at the inquest have made more detailed observations,
but being then giving evidence before a jury, he was obliged to make as
concise a statement as possible. He had since added to that statement a
few additional particulars, which, together with the original observations,
he would now read, and then afterwards the discussion might proceed. He
thought the discussion might be divided into three heads, viz.:—1st. The
system of working ; 2nd. The system of ventilation ; and 3rd. The
distribution of the air, which would comprise the questions of the doors and
regulators, and other artificial means used in such distribution. He
would now read the observations which he made at the inquest, and the
additional particulars to which he had alluded:— I will now explain the
system which has been pursued at the Lundhill Colliery in working and
ventilating that colliery. First of all, it is necessary to state that
the Barnsley bed of coal, which is the bed they have been working at
Lundhill Colliery, contains a quantity of inflammable gas at the depth from
the surface at which the coal was then worked. Speaking generally of this
district, near the surface, the gas of this seam, as well as of most seams,
escapes to the surface, and it is, consequently, found, that at a certain
depth there is little or no gas evolved. It has been the system in the
Earnsley district to work in a particular manner by what is called "
board-gates and benks," that, I think, is the local term, or " benks and
board-gates." The benks being the part which is excavated, and of a
considerable width, and in this case ultimately sixty yards in width, out of
which the entire coal is excavated, and the roof allowed to fall into the
space excavated. So long as the seam or bed of coal produces no gas, this
may be called a safe mode of working, and of using naked lights ; but if the
coal produces gas, then, the gas being lighter than the atmospheric air,
fills the space above the falls in the benks, and so produces what may be
termed magazines of gas. In this case there was gas produced from the
seam. I presume it is only necessary for me to state so, because all the
evidence has gone to prove this, and therefore, I consider, we must come to
the conclusion
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that there was more or less gas in the whole of the benks in this colliery.
In such cases I consider it quite improper to use candles, and, in the
particular mode in which this pit has been worked, it is more than
ordinarily dangerous to do so. In the mode of working by benks and
board-gates at some collieries, the entire width of the benk is taken at one
time, all the men being employed at the extreme end or face of the benk; but
in this case the coal has been worked by a system called " following-up
benks," namely, taking away about one-third of the entire width of the benk
at first, and working away the remaining portions of the coal on each side
of such first working, at some distance from the face, and at the same time
that the workmen are taking the coal away at the extreme end or face of the
benk. This involves the use of naked lights, where candles are used on
the sides as well as on the ends or face of the benks, so that there are
three sides of the benks surrounded with lights. In this case the lights
used were candles, so that if any gas, by falls or otherwise, was forced out
of these benks, or out of the goaves of such benks, it was liable to be
ignited by the naked lights, either in the face or on the sides of the
benks. In my opinion this has been the proximate cause of the explosion.
I shall now proceed to explain the system of ventilation of the mine, of
the mode in which such ventilation was conducted through the mine, and then
I shall have some remarks to make upon the practice adopted in the use of
candles and lamps at this colliery, and also with some observations in
reference to the discipline and management of the colliery. I shall
afterwards state the result of the examination of my colleagues and myself
with reference to ascertaining in what part of the pit the explosion
occurred, and so endeavour, if possible, to point out the immediate cause of
the explosion. First of all then, with reference to the ventilation.
There is a downcast shaft and an upcast shaft. The ventilation is
produced by a furnace. We had no opportunity of testing the quantity of
air produced by the furnace, previously to, and at the time of the
explosion, but our enquiries led us to the conclusion that there were
somewhere between 50,000 and 60,000 cubic feet per minute, which, if
judiciously conducted around the workings, was quite sufficient to ventilate
the colliery, and render it safe if properly lighted; that is, if lamps had
been used, the air was sufficient to render the pit quite safe. The air
was split into two divisions, one current traversing or being conveyed round
the southern division of the pit, and the other current round the northern
division, meeting together in the No. 1 board-gate, immediately to the west
of the upcast shaft, as
116
shown by the darts on the plan. I quite approve of this division of the air,
but I do not think that it has been carried sufficiently far, I think more
divisions would have been advisable. Then I think the distribution of the
air into the several board-gates and benks not the most judicious, but in
some degree very objectionable. In the first place, there are, I believe,
about fifty-three doors in the pit,' no distribution of air in a pit of the
extent of this ought to have anything like that number of doors. The number
of doors is very objectionable, being liable to be neglected by the
trappers, or boys who open them. It is usual, likewise, in all the main
roads, that double doors, namely, two doors instead of one, should be used ;
so that when one is open the other remains shut, and the current of air is
consequently kept continuous; and two doors are, of course, less liable to
be neglected than one. There are eight board-gates or main roads in this
pit, in all of which double doors ought to have been used, whereas single
doors only have been used. The effect of one of these doors being open would
be that the current, instead of being carried round the workings beyond,
would pass through the doorway thus left open, and so lay dormant, or
interrupt the ventilation of all the workings beyond such door. Now, the
door nearest to the pit being neglected, would lay dormant on the south
side, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 benks, and the south levels, and Nos. 2, 3, 4,
and 5 board-gates. The neglect of the first door on the northern side would
lay dormant Nos. 2, 3, and 4 benks and Nos, 1, 2, 3, and 4 board-gates, and
the north levels. Then the doors on each side, in the No. 2 board-gates,
would lay dormant the benks beyond them, and so with Nos. 3 and 4 doors,
they would lay dormant the workings beyond those doors. The principle of
making the ventilation dependent on doors is, therefore, exceedingly
objectionable. Then I find that candles or naked lights may be said,
practically, to have been entirely used in the pit, for, although there has
been safety-lamps used, I find the practice has been, that orders have been
given to the packers and some other persons in the pit, to use lamps only
when they considered their use necessary. A discretion was thus given to
those men, only to have the tops on when they thought it was necessary. I
think any system of using naked lights around goaves or benks bad, but more
especially in this case, where they are used on three sides of the benks,
they were extremely dangerous. This is, I believe, the third accident in
this district which I have been called upon to examine into, and all those
three explosions have been caused by the use of naked lights, under very
nearly circumstances to those of the present, and
117
would have been avoided had safety-lamps been used. I stated, on the two
former occasions, that it was extremely dangerous and improper to use naked
lights in the vicinity of such goaves. I stated this also, very strongly, in
my evidence before Committees of both Houses of Parliament, pointing out as
decidedly as I could, the danger of so doing-. I mention these circumstances
on this occasion, because I do hope that these terrible examples, will be
the means of inducing a more safe mode of working the coal, and of lighting
the mines in this district. Then as regards the discipline practised in this
colliery, it seems to have been extremely lax. It is not safe, generally, to
give discretionary powers, where danger is apprehended, to numbers of
people, to use lamps or candles as they may deem it advisable j decided
orders should be given, one way or the other. The boys who open and shut the
doors, which I have previously alluded to, seem likewise to have been
allowed to leave their doors at particular meal times in the day; in the
Northumberland and Durham District we fine the boys if they leave the doors
at any time.
I will now explain the state in which we found the pit on our examination.
We first travelled round the southern division of the pit. We endeavoured to
ascertain in what direction the explosion of gas had passed around this
division of the pit, by the direction in which the doors and stoppings of
the pit were blown. I have marked upon the plan (published in the V. volume
of the " Transactions " of the Institute), the direction wherever that could
be ascertained, and my colleagues and myself were of opinion that the blast
had proceeded from the north and west of the" pit in the direction of and
round the south. The darts shew the direction in which the stoppings and
doors were blown, and consequently the direction in which the blast
proceeded. The blast, it appears, had proceeded towards and around the south
portion of the mine from the northern and western parts of the pit. It had
apparently proceeded up the Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 board-gates. It was
extremely difficult, from the appearances, to ascertain whether any fire
accompanied the blast or not. The bodies when found in the board-gates some
were of opinion had been burnt, and some that they were not. I did not see
the bodies, and could not therefore give an opinion. There were no decisive
appearances in the pit to indicate that there had been fire in that portion
of the pit, viz., the south side. The blast had gone with extreme force
against the faces of the board-gates and levels, where the men were working,
and whether there was any fire along with the blast in those places or
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not we could not ascertain. The after-damp would be almost equally fatal to
life. The men appeared generally to have been struck down and killed upon
the places where they were sitting1. I could not, of course, state that of
my own knowledge. We are obliged to enquire into the various circumstances,
and the effect of the fire, to enable us to give an opinion. I have already
stated that the violence of the explosion was very great at the faces of the
board-gates. That was apparent from the effects which had been occasioned by
the explosion, and by the destruction of the timber and plates, or the rails
in the workings, and I observed a spade driven into a slip of the coal with
very great force, showing clearly in what direction the blast had gone.
Then, as regards the north side of the pit. We made a similar examination of
this portion of the pit, and endeavoured to ascertain in like manner in what
part of the workings the explosion had first taken place. The direction
indicated by the stoppings and doors being blown down was not so decided as
on the south side. In some cases the stoppings were blown towards a benk in
one part of it, and in another part they were blown in a contrary direction.
We examined with particular care the appearances of the dust, and the
appearances of fire upon the sides of the coal, and in some places we found
what we considered were decided marks of fire occasioned by the explosion,
and in some other places there was no doubt upon the subject. We found
pieces of coke or cinders formed by the action of the explosion upon the
dust and coal of the mine. We examined very particularly the extent and
appearances of the standing fire which had been produced by, and at the time
of the explosion, and to extinguish which the water was poured into the
mine. We found that such fire had extended a consid erable distance to the
north and west of the shafts, and partly, but not to so great an extent, to
the south. It was somewhat difficult to judge, or to distinguish between the
effects of the smoke and products arising from the standing fire of the
coal, and the effects produced by the exploded gasses at the time of the
explosion; still, in some places there were decided marks of the effects of
the explosion on the dust of the mine and on the sides of the coal. These
were more particularly observed in the Nos. 1 and 2 north benks, and in the
slits of the No. 1 south benk. It was clear that gas had been fired or
exploded in all those three benks, and I think there had been fire in the
No. 3 north benk, but not to any extent, and not so clear as in the other
cases. I will next endeavour to ascertain or explain how the gas had, in my
opinion, been set on fire generally, or how or in what manner the gas in
these benks was set on fire. In the
119
early part of my evidence, and in this paper, I pointed out that the bed of
coal produced inflammable gas, and that the falls of stone consequent on the
removal of the coal in the benks, would create or cause a magazine of such
gas to accumulate in the goaves or cavities of these benks, and, therefore,
I considered that the goaves of those benks were filled with inflammable
air. We have also the fact that those benks or goaves were surrounded on
three sides with naked lights; if, therefore, a fall of stone had occurred
or taken place, it would force the gas out of those goaves or benks upon the
naked lights, and so produce an explosion. In the Nos. 3 and 4 benks there
were on the north side, falls of stone in the following-up benks, these
falls would obstruct the air-way or the passage of the air up that side of
the benk. This would produce two effects : first of all it would diminish
the quantity of air in the benk itself, and the air by that obstruction
would also be forced across the benk to the opposite side, and it might
carry with it a portion of the gas accumulated in the upper cavities of the
benk, from that side of the benk to the candles of the workmen on the
opposite side, and so ignite it. We found on the opposite side of one of
these benks, of the No. 3 benk, I think, two lamps with the tops off, which
had been used by the men. The tops were screwed off, and had been used by
the two men, who were working at the time of the explosion, in such a state.
This might have caused the explosion. Then there is another mode by which
the gas might have been ignited. It will be observed that the eastern
extremity of No. 1 north, and No. 1 south benk, is about 70 yards from, and
the air passes from these benks, towards the furnace. Now, a sudden fall
of stone in either of these benks might have foz*ced the gas out of these
benks, and it might be ignited at the furnace. There is^only, I think,
one other way of accounting for the explosion, which is, that some of the
doors which I have previously mentioned might have been left open, and the
circulation of the air in consequence thereof might have been stopped or
interrupted, and the air in some of the benks might thus be rendered
inflammable. I am not, however, inclined to think that the accident
occurred in this way. Upon considering those various modes in which the
explosion might have occurred, we found extreme difficulty in assigning it
to any one in particular of these cases. My opinion is, that it did not
occur by igniting at the furnace. I think the probabilities lean towards
its having been set on fire by the occurrence of a sudden fall of stone,
forcing out the gas from the goaves upon the naked lights. It is not an
improbable occurrence, although, from the evidence, it appeared that for
months previously no
120
gas had been seen within the limits in which the workmen, from time to time,
examine the goaves. It might be that at one moment the goaf might be
examined, and might be found perfectly free from gas; and yet, at the next
moment, a fall of stone might take place, and force the gas from the upper
part of the goaf (where it could not have been seen) upon the candles.
And this is the more likely, inasmuch as immediately above the coal there is
a considerable thickness of very loose metal or shale, and above the shale
some thick beds of hard rock or sandstone, and I believe some thin beds of
coal associated with those harder beds. As the excavation of the benks
increased in area, the first operation would be the falling of the loose
shale immediately above the coal, there would then be a space between the
top of these falls and the harder rock above, in which the gas would
accumulate. At some period or other, when the area of the benks
became sufficiently extended, the upper and harder rock would break down;
and in that case, and at such a moment, would force out not only the gas
which would be lodging at the top of the falls, but would probably carry
with it an influx of gas from the thin beds of coal above. I think,
therefore, it is very probable that something of this kind may have taken
place, and have been the immediate cause of the explosion, forcing, as it
would, the gas upon the candles. The mode in which the air was carried
round the benks, operates also to induce the atmospheric air to cross the
benks. This would render the benks or goaves still more dangerous, and
therefore it is, that I consider it extremely dangerous to use any naked
lights in such a mode of working. And I further take the liberty of
stating that indications of having in the pit a large quantity of air, in
which it is felt that the candles require sheltering, is no proof, under the
circumstances which I have stated, to show that the pit is safe. A large
quantity of air, if properly conducted, is essential to safety, but
considering that it is quite impracticable to ventilate the goaves or benks
so as to render them safe, the existence of that air might, if pressed
through the benks, instead of adding to the safety, be, in fact, adding to
the danger. The goaf when^ filled with pure inflammable air, without any
admixture of atmospheric \ air, would be much safer than a goaf partially
ventilated. Having given the subject all the consideration in my power, I
think that the accident or explosion was occasioned, by the gas being forced
upon the candles, in one of the following-up benks of either No. 1 north,
No. 2 north, or No. 3 north, and No. 1 south. It is quite impossible to
say in which of those benks the explosion first occurred. There has, in my
opinion been
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an explosion in all the four. An explosion in one of them by the concussion
of the air would force the gas out of the other benks, and so produce an
explosion in those benks. That was clearly ascertained in the case of the
Darley Main Colliery, where an explosion at the extreme end of the workings,
produced an explosion of a benk at the other end of the workings.
The President, after reading the document, proceeded to remark that, with
respect to the mode of working, they would perceive that it was a
modification of the long wall system, and in order to distribute the air
around the workings, between fifty and sixty doors were used, and thus the
whole safety of the mine depended upon them. Other collieries in the
neighbourhood of Lundhill were worked on the same system, so that it became
an important question for consideration, whether any and what improvement
could be made in such a mode of working and system of ventilation. If, for
instance, the Government Inspector of Mines knew that such a system was in
operation, it might become a question as to what would be^his duty regarding
it, and whether or not it was incumbent upon him to report that such a
system, with naked lights, was dangerous, and was likely to produce
accidents? Adhering to the course of discussion previously recommended, the
system of working would come first under discussion, and he proposed, in the
first instance, therefore, to discuss the mode of working practised at the
Lundhill Colliery.
Mr. Dunn—Was not the general principle of working by benks and board-gates ?
The President—Yes; but it was by a particular mode, viz., by following-up
benks, which consisted of working away the coal at the same moment in the
face of the benks, and also on the two sides; and he asked if, under such
circumstances, it could be safe to work with candles ? It certainly was
competent for the Government Inspector, if he did not consider it safe to
use candles, in such a mode of working, to prohibit the use of candles, by
declaring the pit not safe.
Mr. Dunn thought the whole system objectionable, and he supposed the
Inspector would know his duty.
Mr. Atkinson—It would be the duty of the Inspector to give notice, that he
considered it was a dangerous practice, and if no notice were taken, to act
according to his powers.
The President believed that Mr. Morton (the Government Inspector
of the district), had been of opinion that it was not safe at the Lundhill
Colliery to work with candles under such circumstances, and had given
notice; and he believed that no candles had been used since the accident.
Vol VI.—May, 1858.
r
122
Mr. Boyd—Notice was not issued before the explosion. The President—No, he
believed not. There was no question, in his opinion, as to the danger of
using naked lights in such a mode of working; where, as in the Lundhill Pit,
gas was evolved in the leading board-gates. The system of following-up benks
rendered it peculiarly-dangerous.
Mr, Atkinson thought that if they had worked the entire width of the benks
at one operation, without following-up benks, and there were an accumulation
of gas in the goaves, then even in that case it might come out on the face,
and so be ignited if naked lights were used.
Mr. Dunn considered that the innumerable doors in the pit were very
objectionable.
The President—In some of the collieries in the Midland districts, where they
so worked, they considered the mine safe if they excluded the atmospheric
air from the goaf. It was admitted, that there might be gas in the goaf
behind, but if the atmospheric air was excluded, and if it should be set on
fire accidentally and exploded, the explosion would do no harm, as it would
not explode in the goaf, but merely fly back to the edge of the goaf. There
were, he believed, some collieries at present working under such
circumstances, where there was little gas. As stated at the Darley Main
inquest, at some of the Barnsley collieries, holes were left in the
bearing-up stoppings, for the purpose of ventilating the g*oaf. It was clear
that this mode of partially ventilating the goaf made it more dangerous than
if it was properly ventilated, or not ventilated at all.
Mr. Boyd—There was a similar system practised in this district, but he
believed it had been abandoned from not being considered safe with
candles—safety-lamps being now exclusively used.
Mr. Berkley said he perceived, by the President's paper, that there were
walls or pillars built on the sides of the goaves, which would give, in the
first instance, partial support to the roof, but which would ultimately give
way, and thus, most likely, cause falls in the goaves which would produce
cavities in which gas would accumulate.
The President—That would be the case if the pillars were left standing, but
in bringing up the following-up benks those pillars were taken away, leaving
ultimately only one row of pillars on each side of the board-gate by the
side of the goaf.
Mr. Dunn was of opinion that if the goaves produced a certain amount of
carbonic acid gas, it would, in some degree, render the inflammable air
innocuous.
123
The President stated that, at Monkwearrnouth Colliery, some years ago,
candles were used in working long walls, though the mine emitted gas; but
lamps were now exclusively used. In the Midland districts, some collieries
were still, he believed, worked with candles, under an idea, if an explosion
did take place, the goaf not being ventilated, and there not being
sufficient atmospheric air to render it inflammable, no harm would ensue. At
the time of the Lundhill explosion, the whole of the air of the mine went
over the furnace, and it was suggested that it had thus fired. Since the
accident this had been altered, and at present the furnace was supplied with
fresh air only—'the air of the mine passing- along a drift into the shaft
without passing over the furnace. The management of the pit was now in the
hands of Mr. Brown. That gentleman had made many improvements; the doors had
all been doubled, and other improvements had been made, and the pit is now
worked exclusively with safety-lamps. Mr. Brown had forwarded him a plan of
the ventilation at present in operation (which he now produced to the
meeting), which would show the progress made in the works since the
accident, the alterations made in the ventilation, and some of the further
improvements in the mode of working contemplated.
Mr. Atkinson, referring to the plan, said there were darts crossing the
doors. Did those indicate that there was a scale of air through the doors ?
The President—No, it showed the direction of the pressure of the air only,
he believed when the doors were shut they were quite tight. The number of
splits of the air generally was not altered. There were the two divisions,
one passing round to the south, and the other to the north, as heretofore,
meeting together in the furnace-board; but instead of the air passing over
the furnace, as it did at the time of the accident, it was now conveyed
along a dumb drift into the pit, and did not pass over the furnace at all.
The furnace was worked by air taken direct to it from the downcast shaft.
The mode of distribution of the air around the pit, and into the respective
workings, was the same substantially, as at the time of the accident, except
the double doors instead of single. Mr. Brown informed him they had at
present about 70,000 cubic feet of air passing round the workings. Coming
now to the distribution of air around the workings, the meeting would see
there were only two currents, each of 25,000 cubic feet per minute. No doubt
two currents were better than one, but it was lamentable, notwithstanding
what had been said and written on the increased quantities of air obtained
by splitting the air/
124
that it was not practised to such an extent as it might. Indeed, at Cwmner
Colliery the evidence went to show that there was only one current for the
passage of the air, from the downcast to the upcast in the main air courses;
and in Yorkshire, and some of the other districts in the country, splitting
the air is scarcely, if at all, practised. No person entrusted with the
management of a mine in this country, and exhibiting ordinary research into
the duties of his responsible office, can plead ignorance ot the fact of the
great advantage of splitting the air. We see at the Lundhill Colliery there
are two currents or splits. This is, as before observed, no doubt, better
than one; but the question is, can the splitting of the air in that colliery
be carried any farther to advantage ? There are seven ways—or districts of
workings. Can the air of this mine he divided, with advantage, into seven
splits ? Mr. Brown states there is 70,000 cubic feet of air passing round
the workings. If divided equally into seven splits, that would be 10,000
cubic feet of air for each way. Looking at the quantity of gas evolved in
the mine (which was given in the evidence at the inquest), would 10,000
cubic feet of air passing into each of those districts or ways per minute,
be an adequate amount of ventilation ? These were questions which he should
wish to he discussed. It might be true that, in case of a sudden discharge
of gas or a blower coming off, the ordinary quantity of air might not be
sufficient to immediately dilute it; but this would occur, in all
probability, in the leading headings or drifts, and if safety-lamps were
used, no harm could ensue. The question he proposed for discussion was, if a
splitting of the air to the extent he named was practicable, and would be
desirable ?
Mr. Boyd—Would there be a sufficient number of air courses for a return ?
The President presumed that if not sufficient at present they could be made
so.
Mr. Atkinson said he thought, without altering the dimensions or number of
the air ways, the resistance of the air would be so diminished by such a
splitting of the air, that they would get seven currents of 15,000 cubic
feet each, instead of seven of 10,000 cubic feet.
Some further discussion took place on this subject.
The President then said that, admitting the benefit of splitting the air,
which no one could doubt, the question was, how was this to be accomplished
? He had given as his opinion, both before committees of the House of Lords
and Commons, that it was quite practicable to distribute the air in a mine
along the main air-courses without any doors
125
at all, but by regulators. For instance, if it was thought advisable that
separate currents or splits should be made to pass into the seven districts
or ways at Lundhill Colliery, there would be no difficulty in doing- so by
regulators, and without doors. Some difficulty might, in the case of
Lundhill Colliery, exist in the present mode by which the coal is worked,
where two of the ways or benks, by working away the barrier between them,
are laid into one. They would discuss this hereafter. But there would be no
difficulty in laying out the workings to avoid this objection and to
ventilate these different ways by separate and distinct currents— instead of
two main currents, as at present—by regulators. There would be no
difficulty, admitting that the air in the different ways had greater or less
distances to travel, to so equalise the pressure or resistance by the
different regulators, as that the quantity of air sent into each district
should be equal in quantity, or in any other proportion which might be
deemed advisable.
Mr. Hall was of opinion that it would be advisable to get an uniformity of
air without doors, or by attending daily to regulators, though it might be
found difficult at times to get the same quantity of air at the last
regulator as at the first.
The President—It was only to so close the first regulator, or that which
regulated the shortest current, to produce the same resistance as that of
the last regulator, or that which regulated the longest current.
Mr. Berkley—How could they do away with the smaller doors, or doors in the
workings ?
The President—These were, he supposed, swing doors, which were used at the
board-ends, and which were opened and shut by the trams. It was the main
doors, on which the general ventilation of the mine depended, which would be
superseded by the use of regulators; and he thought it a subject of much
importance, and well worth the consideration of the members of the
Institute, and of discussion, how far the ventilation of mines could be
accomplished by regulators, instead of doors—the former not being liable to
be neglected, as the opening and shutting of a door was, more especially as
boys were almost universally employed for that purpose.
Mr. Atkinson thought it a very desirable measure; but the question was, why
was it not done 1 They put in what was called shaft-doors, to prevent the
air going direct from the downcast to the upcast shaft, and to divert the
current into the pit; but it was not, in his opinion, necessary to have
doors to direct the current into the different ways. Regulators
126
might be used for that purpose, and there would be no difficulty in
equalising- the pressure at each of the regulators so as to produce, or send
into each way the desired quantity of air.
Mr. Hall did not doubt that Mr. Atkinson's theory or opinion might be
correct as to the pressure and uniformity of the air, if the 70,000 cubic
feet per minute was the quantity ; but circumstances might occur to produce
a diminution in the quantity of air passing through the workings. For
instance, if there were 35,000 feet instead of 70,000 feet per minute, that
would reduce the quantity in each way to 5,000 feet per minute. If so, did
Mr. Atkinson still expect the same relative quantity of air to pass through
each regulator, without any alteration of them, as when the quantity was
10,000 feet per minute? And would Mr. Atkinson consider himself as safe from
accident in the extreme way, as in the nearest way of the pits workings,
taking into account that the gases in each way were coming off in equal
quantities ?
Mr. Atkinson replied that he would consider himself as safe at the extremity
of the workings, as in the nearest way, except as to the extra distance he
had to travel in case of an accident. In his opinion the same relative
quantity would pass through each regulator whether the aggregate quantity of
air was 70,000 feet, or 35,000 feet per minute.
Mr. Boyd thought if the regulators required alteration in cases of
irregularity of atmospheric pressure, there was no reason why they should
not be attended to; an irregularity of air in any district would be the
warning to those entrusted with the charg*e of the regulator to attend to
it.
The President said that, as the subject of the relative quantities of air
through regulators in cases of atmospheric irregularities, or other
disturbing causes, was a subject of great practical importance, he suggested
that for the present the discussion be confined to that subject, and, that
they should for simplicity, take only two cases. One way or district with
its regulator where the distance which the air travelled was three or four
times that of another way with its regulator.
Mr. Hall still thought there was some doubt as to the per centage of air
through each regulator being uniform, if the general quantity of air was
altered.
Mr. Atkinson stated that in some cases the regulators were never altered for
years.
Mr. Hall—It would take some men to attend to the regulators. The President
said that undoubtedly the regulators would be placed
127
in the charge of some person or persons to see that they Were performing""'
the desired object. There were other causes, falls of stone, and
interruptions in the air-courses, besides atmospheric influence, which might
require the regulators to be attended to. For his part, he considered
when once the proper comparative resistance to each current of air was
produced by each regulator, that the regulators would not require
alteration, except in unequal disturbances by interruption in the
air-courses. A general diminution, or increase of a quantity of air by
atmospheric influence, would not, except in some particular cases, cause a
comparative irregularity in any district, and such cases being known to the
persons in charge, the regulator would be consequently attended to.
Theoretically, the temperature of each current being the same, an
irregularity in the aggregate quantity, would not effect the several
quantities comparatively ; there were cases where the temperatures, from the
dip or rise of the seam, were unequal; some irregularity might be produced,
but as these would be well known, the regulators in cases of injurious
disturbances would of course be attended to.
Mr. Atkinson—Ordinary attention to regulators would be sufficient to prevent
danger in any length of run of the air.
A long and desultory conversation then took place, both on the subject of
splitting the air, and also on the use of regulators instead of doors, and
on ventilation generally; when it was arranged that the subject should be
adjourned until the next meeting, which would he on the 3rd June, Mr.
Atkinson promising that he would produce a paper on the subject.
The subject of the ventilating fan of M. Lemielle, by Mons. Laurent, was
then brought before the meeting, and was partially discussed, but as Mr.
Atkinson stated he would furnish the Institute with a paper on the relative
power employed and consumption of coal by this machine, compared with some
of the other modes of ventilation, it was thought desirable to postpone the
discussion, until the paper of Mr. Atkinson was before the Institute.
The meeting then adjourned.
ON THE
LEMIELLE SYSTEM
VENTILATION OF MINES.
By Monsieur LAURENT.
Good ventilation is admitted to be the main point in the working of mines;
it neutralizes and removes the causes of accident, which have too often
proved fatal to the miners, and produces an atmosphere favorable to the
health and activity of the workmen.
The constant formation of noxious gas necessitates a powerful and regular
ventilation, capable of dispelling it as soon as formed. These two
conditions in ventilation are indispensable to produce favorable results,
for, if we have a powerful but irregular ventilation, the gas may accumulate
and give rise to serious accidents, but, on the contrary, if the two
conditions of power and regularity be united, the gas would then be carried
off without intermission, and all danger be avoided.
The regularity of the coal seams in England and Scotland, and the ease with
which they are worked, have contributed to the continuation, in these
countries, of the old system of ventilation by the rarefaction of the air in
the shaft by means of furnaces. This mode, without doubt, is the most
simple, but, under certain circumstances, is dangerous, and serious
accidents may and do arise therefrom, even with the greatest attention.
In the first place an explosion might so derange the furnace as to prevent
its being used.
Secondly.—In many mines irregularities in working the furnaces, variations
of the atmospheric temperature, and the distances and difficulties in the
air passages are frequent causes of irregular ventilation. Vol. VI.—May,
1858. s
130
Thirdly.—In shallow pits, and even in deep pits habitually worked at a high
temperature, little increase in the quantity of air in the mine can be made
to meet sudden requirements, and in case of extended workings additional
shafts only produce the requisite supply.
Lastly.—The shaft, when heated to the extreme, say from 360°to 390°,
produces, theoretically, a very small per centage of the effect obtainable
by steam power; thus, 27 fathoms of depth give only 2f per cent., 55 fathoms
4| per cent., 80 fathoms 6| per cent., 110 fathoms 9 per cent, only. If the
shafts are used for drawing coals the heat rarely exceeds 104°, in which
case the results obtained are more favorable, being 5 J, 10§, 16, and 21J
per cent, respectively, and with a pit 325 fathoms may reach as much as 64
per cent. If it be taken into account that the practical results differ
widely from theory, it will easily be conceived that in pits varying from 50
to 125 fathoms in depth, furnace ventilation is not the most economical.
A mechanical ventilation of simple construction, on the contrary, is
regular, and, if sufficiently powerful, produces a uniform current of air,
and gives a pure and invigorating atmosphere, in which the miner can work
with ease. The first erections, it is true, are more expensive, but the
prevention of danger and the greater amount of work of which the men are
capable, more than compensate the first outlay.
Objections may be made to the use of machinery, owing to its liability to
derangement, and the consequent stoppage of the supply of air, whereas, with
furnaces, the shaft being- heated, continues to work for some time after an
accident.
In practice, however, it is found that with machines on the exhausting
principle, the air and gases of the mine being in an expanded condition, on
the sudden stoppage of the machinery, immediately contract in volume, and
for a time the further issue of gas from the coal is arrested.
I now proceed to give the details of a ventilator invented by my friend Mr.
Lemielle, well known both in France and Belgium for the excellent results
obtained, and for which he was awarded a favorable testimonial, and a
first-class medal from the French Government, and a medal from the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Belgium.
The invention consists of a circular chamber of masonry, marked A in the
accompanying sketch, which communicates by air passages with the shaft of
the mine and exterior air. In this revolves a drum B, placed eccentric with
the circumference of the chamber, to which are attached three or moi-e fans
or wings CCC, moveable at their base, whose outer
131
edge by means of the connecting rods DDD, attached to a shaft in the centre
of the chamber, are kept in close proximity to the mason work. Motion is
given to the drum by a horizontal steam cylinder, of simple construction,
and, on reference to the drawings, it will be seen that each revolution of
the machine will expel the air contained in the chamber. The first
application of this apparatus was made in 1853, but, until 1855, it was
little known, being, in the meantime, only under trial experimentally, but
after the Paris exhibition of that year, its adoption became rapid, and, at
present, it is in operation at upwards of ninety establishments in France
and Belgium. The government engineers of both countries have, at different
times, been called upon to test the effect of the apparatus in work, both as
regards the proportion the quantity of air, drawn in or expelled, bears to
its internal capacity, and also to its safety. From the various trials the
loss has been found not to exceed ten to twenty per cent, of the theoretical
volume of the apparatus j the loss depending to a certain extent on the
state of the air passages in the mine. This small waste is accounted for by
the slow speed of the ventilator, which makes only twenty to thirty
revolutions per minute; the expulsion of air between the fans being nearly
complete, and the escape very insignificant. It is well known that the
various ventilators previously used revolve with greater velocity to produce
any great current of air, and from the complicated machinery, are liable to
rapid deterioration, whereas, in the Lemielle apparatus, toothed wheels,
sheaves, belts, and fly-wheels, &c, are dispensed with.
In mines of great depth, where the ventilation is difficult, the Lemielle
apparatus employed to withdraw 25,000 feet per minute, at thirty-five
revolutions, need not exceed twenty horse-power, and for 75,000 feet per
minute, at the same speed, a power of fifty horses would be sufficient, and
so in proportion for a larger quantity; but in determining the power, of
course, the distance to be travelled, and the dimensions of the air passages
must be considered.
Owing to the simplicity of the engines, the repairs are trifling. They
require what is common to all engines to ensure their good working, viz.,
cleaning and greasing. The machinery which has been at work for three or
four years in Northern France and Belgium, has always worked well, and
continues in good order, without having experienced any inconvenience from
stoppage and repairs. A great advantage possessed by steam power over the
former system, in case of accident, is that the speed of the apparatus may
be augmented, and thus a larger quantity of air be
132
thrown into the mine, and considerably diminish the effects of the accident,
whether it proceeds from an explosion or downfall. The machinery being" on
the surface is independent of accidents, and entirely under the eye and
control of the workman. An essential point to be observed is that this
ventilator can work up to a pressure of 4| inches of water, in consequence,
in many mines, where 2| inches could not be exceeded by the old system, the
adoption of this has placed it on a more favorable footing*. In conclusion,
I beg* to observe, that my intimate knowledge of the experience and the
practical results obtained by the numerous establishments where this system
of ventilation has been adopted, have induced me to address you on a subject
of such vital importance in a country possessing the richest coal-fields in
the world, and where, I am fain to believe, a fair trial of the system would
lead to its general adoption, and would greatly conduce to the advantage of
the owners, and to the well-being of the large population of miners who
daily risk their lives in this all-important branch of industry.
APPENDIX. (I.)
Result of trial made by Mr. Dormoy, French Government Mining Engineer, of
the Lemielle Apparatus, in the presence of Mr. Cabany, Engineer and Director
of the Anzin Mining Company, the largest coal company in the North of
France.
On the 28th January, 1856, Messrs. Armand Cabany, Chief Engineer and
Director of the Anzin Mining Company, and Emile Dormoy, de la Garanne,
Government Engineer Of Mines, verified, by means of Combe's anemometre, the
quantity of air extracted by Mr. Lemielle, in the St. Mary's Mine,
concession of Azincourt, (near) Aniche, department of Nord.
The ventilator at first revolved at the rate of twenty-one revolutions per
minute; after that, they increased the velocity to thirty-seven revolutions.
They made eight successive experiments, of which the results were the
following:—
At twenty-one revolutions the ventilator aspired 16,848 cubic feet per
minute, with a pressure of 4-5ths of an inch ; and at the rate of
thirty-seven revolutions it aspired 25,920 cubic feet per minute with a
pressure of two inches.
The theoretical calculations, with the dimensions of the apparatus, gave,
for twenty-one revolutions, 18,576 cubic feet per minute; for thirty-seven
revolutions, 32,724 cubic feet per minute; so. that the loss while revolving
slowly was 10 per cent., and at the increased velocity 21 per cent., giving
a mean of 15 per cent, with an ordinary
velocity.
(Signed) A. CABANY.
E. DORMOY.
(II.) CERTIFICATES. The undersigned Engineer and Manager of the Aniche Coal
Mining Company (Nord), certifies that he has had erected two ventilators on
the Lemielle system—the one in 1856, and the other in 1857 ; that both these
ventilators have worked to Ms complete satisfaction, from their first
establishment up to the present time, and that they still continue to woi-k
in good order.
(Signed) VUILLEMIN.
Aniche (near Douai), the 24th March, 1858.
I, the undersigned Director of the Mines of Azincourt, certify that the
ventilator which Mr. Lemielle furnished us with in 1855, has always worked
well, and that it continues to ventilate our works without being worked to
its full power.
It is to this system that we shall have recourse if we require a ventilator
for our new works.
(Signed) F. BERDOLIN.
Aniche, near Douai (Nord), the 24th March, 1858.
134
I, the undersigned Engineer of the Coal Mines of Escarpelle, near Douai
(Nord% certify that Mr. Lemielle has supplied me with a ventilator for one
of the pits of the above company, and that it produces all the results
stated by its inventor.
(Signed) PENBOISSET, the Engineer of the Company,
L'Escarpelle, the 24th March, 1858.
(III.)
LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL COMPANIES IN FRANCE AND BELGIUM USING THE LEMIELLE
VENTILATOR.
Grande Machine a feu de Dour appartenant a M. le Baron de Mecklenbourg......
I
Societe de l'Esperance a. Seraing..........................................
2
Id. du Nord du Bois de Boussu ........................................
1
Id. de Sclessin (Liege)................................................
9
Id. Cockerill a Seraing................................................
1
Id. des Grands Romarains Kessales a Jemeppe (Liege)......................
2
Id. Marihaye et Female Grande a. Seraing ...............................
4
Id. Saint Martin a, Marchienne-au-pont lez Charlerg
...................... 2
Id. d'Epinac (Saone et Loire) .........................................
1
Compagnie des Mines d'Anzin ............................................
3
M. Desprez a Anzin......................................................
1
Mines d'Azincourt...................................................... 1
J. Cail a, Denain........................................................
1
Societe de Marimont................................................... 1
Id. de Strepy Bracquegnies M. de Laroche ..............................
2
Id. du Bois Jemmapes (Fleunu)........................................
1
Id. des Charbonnages Reums ........*.................................
1
Id. des Produits a, Jemmapes (Fleunu)
..........,....................... 4
Charbonnage de Bonne Esperance et Bonne-Veine appartenant a M. Boulogne ....
2
Societe du Midi de Dour..................................................
1
Haine Sains-Fierre......................................................
I
Societe d'Aniche........................................................
I
Compagnie des mines de Montralais et Mouseil pres Nantes....................
1
Id. Vicoigne ............................................ 1
Et en dernier lieu la Compagnie des mines d'Anzin, qui vient de traiter pour
sea exploitations en general.
ON THE COMPARATIVE
CONSUMPTION Or FUEL
BT
VENTILATING FURNACES AND VENTILATING MACHINES,
WHEN USED TO VENTILATE MINES.
By John J. Atkinson.
Notwithstanding the important advantages attending the use of furnaces for
ventilating mines, compared with the employment of ventilating machines for
that purpose, I am yet inclined to think that the best known descriptions of
ventilating machines, when worked by steam-power, if adopted to replace
furnace-action, would, in almost all cases, effect a saving of fuel, when
producing the same amount of ventilation as that arising from the furnaces
superseded by them; in other words, if a ventilating furnace and its upcast
shaft be considered as a machine, through the medium of which, the power,
due to the fuel consumed, is applied to the work to be done, then, I think,
that it will generally be found to be inferior, as regards the effectual or
useful duty obtained from a given quantity of fuel, to the best descriptions
of ventilating machines worked by steam-power.
The quantity of coals required to be consumed in a ventilating furnace, to
produce a given amount of ventilation in the unit of time, will vary much,
under the differing circumstances of different mines, and depends more or
less on the following conditions, and a few others, generally of minor
importance :—
1st.—The amount of the specific resistance, or "drag" of the mine and
shafts.
2nd.—On the amount of ventilating pressure due to a given excess of average
temperature prevailing in the upcast, over that prevailing in thd downcast
shaft; and this, again, depends upon the depths
136
and relative positions, as to level, of the tops and bottoms of these
shafts, and on the temperature of the atmosphere, as affecting that of the
air in the downcast shaft, and on that of the workings, as affecting the
heat to be imparted by the furnace to the return air, in order to realize a
certain excess of temperature in the upcast, over that prevailing in the
downcast shaft. 3rd.—On the cooling power of the upcast shaft, as affected
by its comparative degree of dryness or moisture, and the heat-con-•
ducting properties of the materials composing its walls. 4th—On the loss of
heat by cooling in the upcast shaft and furnace drift, as affected by the
time during which the air is exposed to them; depending partly upon the area
and length of the furnace drift, the area and depth of the upcast column of
air, the quantity of air circulating per minute, and upon the elevation of
the temperature required for its production. Now, the consumption of fuel to
drive a steam-engine, to produce ventilation through the medium of a
ventilating machine, also depends upon a number of conditions, which will
likewise vary to a great extent with the differing circumstances of
different mines, and depends on the following conditions, and a few others
of less importance:—
1st.—The amount of the specific resistance, or " drag " of the mine
and shafts. 2nd.—On the relative temperatures prevailing in the downcast and
upcast shafts; any excess of temperature in the upcast over that in the
downcast, operating in creating a ventilating pressure in aid of the engine,
and so reducing the quantity of coals to be consumed, on the one hand;
while, at the same time, it increases the volume of the air to be passed
through the machine in a given time, and thus requires a greater speed and
consequent consumption of fuel in the engine, on the other hand. 3rd.—On the
comparative efficiency of the machine employed, the power required to
overcome the friction of its working parts, and particularly upon the
resistance which the machine presents to the passage of the air through it;
the amount of which varies greatly with the form, dimensions, and mode of
operation of the machine employed. Since the amount of coal required to be
consumed for the production of ventilation, depends upon so many conditions,
which vary more or less in different collieries; and since the amount of
duty obtainable from a
137
given quantity of coal consumed, where furnace-action is employed, ;. varies
so rapidly with the depth of the upcast, and also with its cooling power, it
will perhaps be best, for the purpose of this memoir, to make a general
comparison on supposititious conditions, in the first place; and afterwards
to calculate the consumption of fuel which would require to be expended to
produce the same ventilation, by means of the best descriptions of
ventilating machines, were they to be substituted for the furnaces by which
such ventilation is produced, in a few known cases of furnace ventilation,
where we have the requisite data to enable us to do so.
In order to simplify the general formula of comparison, as far as may be
practicable, without seriously affecting the results, there are certain
peculiar sources of resistance in furnaces, and others in ventilating
machines, of small though variable amount; and also certain peculiarities
affecting the ventilating pressure in each case, likewise of small though
variable amount, in different collieries, which will be taken to balance
each other.
For instance, where furnace-action is employed, there is an extra amount of
volume and velocity in the air, in the furnace drift and the lower part of
the upcast shaft, arising from that part of the expansion which is due to
the temperature lost by cooling, and this creates a slightly greater
resistance in these parts, than would exist if a ventilating machine were
employed to produce ventilation.
Again, in furnace ventilation, there is a slight increase of density in the
upcast column, due to the carbonic acid, resulting from the combustion of
the coal in the furnace, operating in reducing the motive column; but this
is only to the extent of 1| parts out of 1,000 when 1 lb. of coal gives
10,000 cubic feet of air.
On the other hand, when ventilation is produced by an exhausting ventilating
machine, the machine has to traverse a greater distance than is due to the
volume of air' exhausted, owing to the expansion of the air arising from the
motive column or ventilating pressure being taken off the atmospheric
pressure in the machine j but this is always of small amount, because, while
the pressure of the atmosphere may, on the average, be represented by 400
inches of water column, if we presume the ventilating pressure to be equal
to two inches of water-guage, the expansion of the air, and consequently the
velocity of the machine, will only be increased about five parts out of
1000, or | per cent; and on the other hand, the upcast column will be
lightened to some extent by bhis expansion, and thus produce a slight
increase in the motive column of air.
There is also a loss of temperature in the upcast column, where a Voi.
VI.—May, 1858.
T
138
ventilating* machine is used, owing- to the expansion of the air in
ascending- from the hottom of the pit to the top, where the harometrical
pressure is less than that prevailing at the hottom of the pit, at the rate
of ahout 1° for 34 fathoms of depth, giving- a loss of temperature in the
upcast shaft (on the average of the entire depth) of 1° for every 68 fathoms
in depth; owing to which, the average upcast temperature, instead of heing
that of the return air, when a ventilating machine is employed, will be 1°
less for every 68 fathoms of depth.
The peculiar sources of discrepancy arising from the mere substitution of a
ventilating machine for furnace action, which have just been noticed, are,
it will be observed, very small in amount, and as some of them operate only
against the use of furnaces, and others only against machines ; they will in
all cases be excluded from the calculations to be given in this memoir.
In like manner, any difference of density in the upcast compared with the
downcast column, arising from changes in the hygrometrical state of the air,
or from gases given off by the mine, will be treated as operating equally in
favour of or against ventilation, whether furnace action or machine
ventilation is used, and, consequently, excluded from our calculations in
comparing the one system with the other; as, any ventilating pressure
arising from, or absorbed by, these sources, will operate equally in favour
of or against furnaces and ventilating machines.
Let the following symbols be adopted :—
Q = Volume of air per minute, at the temperature r, in cubic feet.
f = Atmospheric pressure, in inches of mercury reduced to 60°.
r = Temperature of the return air (Fahrenheit's scale).
T = Average prevailing temperature of the upcast shaft.
s = Specific heat of air, taken at '27, water being unity.
q = Calories or units of heat produced by each lb. of coal supplied to the
furnace.
F = lbs. of fuel used per minute.
C = cwts. of fuel used per day of 24 hours.
/ at lbs. of fuel per horse power (exclusive of the power due to natural
ventilation) per hour.
p = Per centage of power lost by cooling in upcast shaft.
p' = Per centage of power lost by resistances in ventilating machines.
d = Depth, vertically, from furnace to top of upcast column, in feet.
H = Horses power due to the quantity Q, including- the power applied by
furnaces or machines, and also that resulting from the temperature of the
mine.
139
h = Horses power due to the artificial ventilating agent, whether it
be a furnace or a machine.
J' = lbs. of coal per horse power per hour, taking the power due to
natural ventilation as if it were due to the artificial ventilating
agent.
Now, when furnace action is employed to produce ventilation, the total
volume of the air to be heated, each minute, by the furnace, is Q, taken
at the temperature of the return r; the weight per cubic foot of air at
1'3244 f this temperature is -r^-z------*; and hence the entire weight in
lbs. of air
1'3244 f to be heated by the furnace, each minute, is-jrq----- Q; and the
degrees
of heat to be imparted to it, over and above those which are lost by cooling
in the furnace drift, and in the lower portion of the upcast shaft, before
it reaches the point where the average temperature of the total
1-3244 f upcast column prevails, is T — r, giving —t-Tq------ Q (T — r) s,
for the
calories or units of heat contained in the air which each minute passes the
point of the upcast where the average temperature T prevails, over and above
the heat contained in the same air, on reaching the furnace, with the
temperature of the return r; and the quantity of coals, in lbs., per minute,
due to the production of this heat is, therefore,
1-3244 fQ(T-r)s
(459 + r)q ............................L J
And since p is the per centage of heat imparted by the furnace to the return
air, which is dissipated and lost by cooling in the furnace drift and the
lower part of the upcast column before the air reaches the point where the
average temperature T of the upcast prevails, it follows that, when furnace
action is employed, the quantity of fuel consumed per minute in lbs. is,
f_ 1-3844 fQ(T-r)s...................
(l-=4)(459+r)q....................
Now, in order to find an expression for the quantity of fuel, required to be
consumed by an engine driving a ventilating machine, in a case where a
furnace has been previously employed to produce the same amount of
ventilation, we have the ventilating pressure required to be
produced by the machine expressed by the excess of d ( -—------ Y the
* See Transactions, "Vol. III., p.104.
actual pressure which prevailed when the furnace was used, over the pressure
which would have resulted from the temperature of the return
air only, in the upcast shaft, viz., d (^ . f) 5 or; hJ d (459 + j> ~
——-----), in motive column of air, at the temperature t; seeing- that
this pressure, on the grounds assumed, would be the only pressure to be
created, either by a furnace or by a machine; as the temperature and
pressure due to the, return air is presumed to be the same in each case.
/1-3244 f\
And as ( ,—-n----- j is the weie-ht, in lbs., per cubic foot, of air at t,
the
\459 + t' ° ' M '
pressure per superficial foot, in lbs., is
1-3244 f /JT--J r - t \ rg-,
and the horses power due to this pressure, when the quantity Q is
circulating- per minute, is, exclusive of all power wasted,
h 1-3244 fQ d f T - t r - t ] ^
~ 33000 (459 + t) (459 + T 459 + r)..........U
and since, if all the power were utilized, we should have h / = 60 F, as
the fuel consumed per hour, it would follow that h = —p~, which, combined
with [4], if there were no power wasted, would give
F= 1-3244 fQd/ JT-t r-t j .....
1,980,000 (459 + 0(459 + T 459 + r* l J
But, since p' is the per centag-e of power wasted, in the application of
the ventilating* machine, (1 — ~r J is the proportion of power and fuel
utilized. And the real consumption of fuel, by the engine driving- the
ventilating machine, thus becomes
P - 1-3244 fQd/ f T-t r-t )
"Ft P' Wn ^ inonnnn/459 +T 459 + rr",|J
\ 100 A + ) 1;980,000C J
Now, as we consider a pit to become deeper and deeper, it will gradually
approximate to a particular depth, where the coals required to be consumed
in a furnace, to produce a given ventilation, other thing-s being-constant,
will be exactly equal to the coals required to produce the same ventilation,
throug-h the medium of a ventilating- machine; and the particular depth at
which this equality in the consumption of coals is reached is evidently that
at which the rig-ht hand members of equations [2] and [7] become equal to
each other, or
141
1-3244 fQ(T-r)s _ 1-3244 fQd/ fT-t r- t )
(l-^)(459 + r)q (l-14)(459+t)l,980,000l459 + T 459+rJ
For the sake of this general comparison, let us now presume the temperature
of the return air to be the same as that of the downcast shaft, seeing that
any eifects produced by its being hotter, operate equally, whether a furnace
or a machine is used, and the equation becomes then
_____-_____ d-/___________ ..............[8J
0 -100) * C1 -105)1'980'000 (m+T)
from whence,
(l-,-£-) 1,980,000(459 + T) s d = -------i^------------------------------
..........[9 J
If we further admit the loss of fuel, in furnaces, by cooling in the upcast;
and in ventilating machines, by the power expended in overcoming all the
useless resistances arising from the use of the ventilating machine,
(including the power required to pass the air through the machine, and also
the friction of the working parts of the machine,) to be equal to each
other; and if we further take the specific heat of the air at -27, to that
of water as unity, (although it will slightly vary with the temperature and
pressure,) we obtain
yq ...................' J
And if we further take the quality of the coal to be such as that each lb.
of coal used shall give out the average quantity of 13,000 calories or units
of heat, we then get
j.^ubcw + t)............................pi]
from which it appears that the depth at which furnace action becomes as
economical in fuel as a ventilating machine, increases directly as the
volume assumed by a given weight of air as due to the average upcast
temperature required for the production of ventilation by furnace action ;
that is to say, inversely as the average density of the heated air in the
upcast. This depth, of course, must decrease in the same proportion that the
fuel per horse power, per hour, required to drive the engine of a
ventilating machine increases, as evinced by the formula [11]. By this
formula [11] the following table has been calculated, showing
142
the depths at which furnaces become equal to ventilating1 machines in point
of economy of fuel, assuming* that the sources of loss are the same in the
two cases, as has been already stated:—
TABLE I.
Consumption of Coal, AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF UPCAST COLUMNS.
by Engine, in
lbs.'_____________________________________________________________
per hour, per horsepower expended i0o° Fan.
150° Fah. 200° Fan.
Depth in Fathoms. Depth in Fathoms. Depth in Fathoms.
8 479 522 .
565
¦ 10 383 417
452
12 319 348
376
It may, however, be supposed by some who have not investigated the matter,
that there is generally less loss of fuel by cooling- in furnace drifts and
upcast shafts than the per centage of fuel lost in passing air through a
ventilating machine, and in overcoming the friction of the working parts of
the machine itself; and if so, they may perhaps conclude that the above
comparison is not made on terms g-enerally so fair towards furnaces as
towards machines.
In order to show that, in general, there is a very considerable loss of heat
by cooling- in upcast shafts, from its amount in a number of cases, the
following table is submitted, showing- the amount of such loss at the places
named in it. The data are selected from Tables B and C in Appendix No. 1 of
the Third Report of the Select Committee on Accidents in Coal Mines, dated
July, 1853, and are, I believe, either all or in part founded upon data
collected by Professor Phillips. The tables were given in evidence by the
President of this Institute, Mr. Wood.
144
upcast shaft where the average upcast temperature prevails, as exhibited in
column 10 6f this table, has been calculated from a formula, arising from
taking [1] to represent the lbs. of coal per minute due to the production of
the temperature which prevails in the upcast column at the
point ol average temperature, viz., >v-------------— and since the
t\*L. L (45J + v <1
C x 112
actual consumption of coals in lbs. per minute is, F = —------— we
24 x 60
obtain for the per centage of the furnace heat conserved at that point
A 0 x 112 . 1-3244 fQ(T-r)s ..
24 x 60 ' (459 + r) q
_ 1-3244 f Q (T - r) s 100 x 24 x 60
' ' ~ (459 + r) q
as exhibited in column 9 of the table, this formula becomes, on taking the
barometrical pressure f = 30 inches of mercury, the specific heat of air s =
'27, to that of water as unity, and the units of heat yielded by that part
of the coal which is actually burnt, to be equivalent to the production of
13,000 calories or units of heat per lb. of coal supplied to the furnace, so
as to allow for the part which is not burnt, but wasted as cinders, &c.
1-061 Q (T - r)
C(459 + r) ..............'............L J
from which, column 9 has been calculated; and column 10 is merely the excess
of 100, over the quantities exhibited in column 9.
Now, in Table I. we have ascertained the depths at which furnaces become as
economical in fuel as machine ventilation, on the presumption that the fuel
due to the temperature lost between the furnace and the point in the upcast
column, where the average temperature prevails, is the same per centage of
the whole fuel, as that which arises from the application of ventilating
machines, driven by engine power, to produce the same ventilation; and now,
since we perceive from Table II. that the average of this loss in eleven
cases of furnace action has been forty per cent., it follows, that if* we
have ventilating machines losing forty, and utilizing sixty per cent, of the
engine power, the depths that are necessary, (supposing, even, that the loss
of temperature did not increase with the increase of depth), to render
furnace ventilation as economical as such ventilating machines in the
consumption of fuel, are those stated in the Table I.
145
That several kinds of ventilating- machines do utilize this per centage of
the engine power, may probably be admitted, from what follows.
In Appendixes Nos. 2 and 3 to the Report of the Select Committee on
Accidents in Mines, dated 30th June, 1853, from certain papers given in
evidence by Mr. Mackworth, we obtain the information conveyed by the
following table, respecting certain ventilating machines :—
(1) J_2)____(«) (*) | (5) (6) (?)
.£5. S
N!s o O" 3
<'S m «•. s °» «a k;
o g g g o * r ~^> & s
P * 1 I ! If If
Cubic feet Inches. ibs.
lbs.
Fabrey's Fan........ 19,758 1-96 10-37 6-22 -60 12-2
21-5
f 20,330 0-88 5-37 281 -52 14'43,27-6 Fabrey's
Pnuematic
21,500 1-6 10-37 5-41 -52 12-10 23-2
Wheels from expmts. J
i 15,817 2-4 8-95 5*97 -G7 11-4 17-2 by M.
Jocham3, En- j
14,776 3-0 11-21 6-97 -62 11-2 18-04 gineer of
Mines.
L 8,912 3-44 8-46 4-82 -57 1128 1982 Struve's
Ventilator f
<; 16,950 1-55 5 85 4-14 -70 159 22 46* at
Eaglesbush I
Average.................... ...... "58
* Steamways of Engine contracted.
From this table it may be seen that, in two of the experiments on Fabrey's
pneumatic wheels, and in that on Struve's ventilating machine, more than 60
per cent, of the engine power was utilized; and I was informed by a French
gentleman, a few days ago, that 69 per cent, of the power had been utilized
in one case by Fabrey's wheels.
Having now made a general comparison, as regards the consumption of fuel,
between the best descriptions of ventilating machines and furnaces for the
production of ventilation, let us proceed to consider what the results would
be, in a few particular cases, if the best kinds of ventilating machines
were substituted for furnaces.
Vol. VI.—May, 1858.
XT
146
If we would separate the power, arising from the heat added to the air by
the furnace, from that which would operate if the mere temperature
of the return air prevailed in the upcast shaft, since d (770-----t ) *s ^ne
total air column at t, due to the combined effect of the furnace and the
heat imparted to the air by the workings of the mine, and d ( ¦¦- j
is the motive column in air at t, due only to the heat given off by the
mine, it follows that the motive column in air at t, due alone to the
furnace action, is the difference,
dj T-t r- t )
U59 +T 459 + r)..............*........L J
so that the pressure per superficial foot, due to the heat conserved from
the furnace, at the point of average temperature in the upcast shaft, is
1-3244 f f T-t r-t )
459 + t 1459 + T 459 + r i................L J
and since this is the only part of the ventilating pressure required to be
produced by the artificial ventilating agent, whether it be a furnace or a
machine, as the remaining part of the ventilating- pressure arises from the
heat imparted to the air by the mine, and operates equally whether a furnace
or a ventilating machine be used to obtain the remainder, it results that
the artificial ventilating power exerted in each case is, h
l-3244fQd ( T-t r-t }
33,000(459 + t) I459 + T 459 + r\...........[ J
and since this is the real power given off by the furnace, and is the same
in amount as would be required in a ventilating machine to produce the same
amount of ventilation in the same mine, it will be proper to divide the fuel
consumed per hour, in the cases of furnace action, by this power, to obtain
the consumption of fuel per horse power per hour, to compare with what would
be required to give the same power and ventilation by a ventilating machine;
and since the consumption of fuel in lbs. per
, . C X 112 ; . .
hour is-----zrr-----, this division gives
24 °
C x 112
/==---------------------J±----------------------...............116]
l'3244fQd j T-t r - t , L
533,000 (459 + t)U59 + T 459 + r)
147
and by taking the barometrical pressure, f = 30 inches of mercury, and
reducing, we obtain
f= 3875-872 C (459 + t)
n?1
y U59 + T 459 + ri From this formula [17], the coals consumed per
horse-power, per hour, contained in column 12 of the following- table, have
been calculated. Column 13, in the same table, shows what would be the
consumption of fuel by an engine consuming- 121bs. of coal per horse-power,
expended per hour, and utilizing sixty per cent, of such power, when applied
to drive a ventilating machine; which is equivalent to a consumption of 12 x
100 ——---- = 201bs. of coal per horse-power utilized, per hour. If the
engine utilized fifty per cent, only of the power, the fuel per horse-power
utilized, per hour, would then become 241bs., in lieu of 201bs. as in the
table.
In constructing this table of comparison, all the cases given in Table II.
will be taken, excepting those where the depth of the pit is not stated, and
those which profess to have got more heat out of the coal than it was
capable of yielding.
An examination of the resulting table will show that in the six cases given,
the depths vary from about 93 up to 300 fathoms; the average upcast
temperatures from 79° to 103°; the downcast temperatures from 41° to 62°;
the temperatures of the return airs from 65° to 75°; the cubic feet of air,
per minute, from 26,574 to 132,895 ; the heat of the furnace, above that of
the return air, conserved at the point of average temperatures in the
upcast, from 15'69 to 78-23 per cent, j and the coals consumed per
horse-power exerted by the furnace, exclusive of the power of natural
ventilation, from 27-2 to 162*41bs. per hour, compared with 201bs. per
horse-power, per hour, due to a ventilating engine consuming 121bs. per
horse-power, per hour, and utilizing sixty per cent, of the power expended.
149
Column 14 in the table just given has been calculated on the principle of
supposing- that the ventilating- power due to the heat given off by the
mine, was part of the power due to the furnace, and that it would not
operate if a ventilating machine were employed, and is rather given as a
matter of curiosity than as being a fair criterion whereby to estimate the
fuel consumed in furnace action in comparison with what would be required in
a ventilating machine to supersede it, as it has mostly, hitherto, been
usual to embrace the effects of this (often important) source of ventilation
in calculations relative to the power of furnaces. The formula by which the
column in question has been calculated, arises
(rp ___ j. -—------\ as the motive column in air at t, the
Xffi 1-3244 f weight, per cubic -feet, of such
air being —-------, and hence the pressure per superficial foot = d (
j^r-----Fp^vJkq-----+); an<* ^e {tynami_
cal units or foot-pounds due to the quantity Q, circulating per minute,
is = Q d (j-r------- V tzt,-----.\ and the horses-power represented by
\4oy + i/\4:oy + t/
this is
H ^ V459 + T/V459 + t) /* V^-
33,000 [&/ ^7^f
and, on this hypothesis, the lbs. of fuel consumed per horse power, per
hour, would be, i«r4fe*.,
/ _ C x 112 j. 1'3244 x 30 x Q d (T - t) * ~" 24 : 33,000 (459
+ T) (459 + t) and by reducing this becomes
3875872 C (459 + t) (459 + T) ' "" Qd(T-t)
from which expression the quantities in column 14 of the table have been
calculated.
Notwithstanding the liability of ventilating machines to get out of repair,
and their consequent unsuitableness for fiery mines, there may be cases of
non-fiery mines, where the saving of tubbing, timber, and ropes, in working
shafts, together with a saving of fuel, in probably every instance, to be
effected by a machine when compared with a furnace, may justify their
adoption as a matter of economy j and in some shallow
150
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, JUNE 3, 1858, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WE8TGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
Nicholas Wood, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
The minutes of the Council having been read, Mr. Thos. Braithwaite,
Eglington Iron Works, Kilwinning, Ayrshire, was elected a member of the
Institute.
The President then said, that at the last meeting they proceeded to a
certain extent with the discussion on the Lundhill Colliery Accident, and on
the Ventilation of mines generally; and that the questions then under
discussion seemed to resolve themselves into two points, viz., The splitting
of air;—And the use of regulators in substitution of the use of doors in the
distribution of the main currents of air. The Lundhill Colliery, (and the
collieries in the Barnsley district generally), were so worked that the air
was not more split than once, viz., two currents passing, generally, on the
north and south sides of the pit j and working- by a system of boards and
benks, where each benk was made to communicate in the face with the others
alongside of it—the one split of air passing around the south workings, and
the other around the north workings, meeting in the centre, and so passing
to the upcast pit; thus admitting an uninterrupted communication along the
faces of the benks on the south and north sides respectively, and, of
course, requiring doors at each of the board-gates to force the main current
to the extreme south and north ends of the workings. There were in the
Lundhill Colliery seven sets of benks, besides the two levels north and
south, requiring a double set of doors in each. When all was right, and
admitting that the mode of distributing the air around the workings was to
have only two main currents in the pit, and that each
152
of these currents should be taken to the extremities of the workings first,
and then passed around the faces of each series of benks to the main furnace
drift; the placing- double doors at each of the board-gates completed the
system. But there were these disadvantages, that the current of air passing
each of the benks in succession, if it was loaded with inflammable air the
last benk got the whole of the contaminated or loaded air. Then the tendency
of the air being towards the shortest distance to the upcast, the scale of
each door in succession would abstract a portion of the air from the extreme
workings, and if any of the doors were left (almost, if not quite) open, the
whole of the air might pass through such door, and thus abstract the entire
current from the in-bye workings. It was well known that, by splitting the
air into several currents, a great diminution of resistance was effected,
and a much larger quantity of air in the aggregate obtained. The discussion
at the previous meeting went to determine if, in such a case as the
Lundhill, it might not be advisable to split the air into as many divisions
as there were sets of benks and board-gates, viz., into seven divisions, or
even more; and supposing, as appeared to be the case at present, 35,000
cubic feet of air was passing around the whole of the benks on the south,
and 35,000 cubic feet passing around the benks on the north side per minute,
they would have 10,000 cubic feet of air per minute in each benk. By taking
the air direct from the main levels up each of the board-gates successively,
and so ventilating each set of benks and board-gates with a separate
current; and this being done by regulators, the doors in each of the
board-gates would be dispensed with, and the tendency or scale of air would
then be towards the workings where it was required, and not, as in the
present system, towards the upcast and so abstracted from the workings where
it was required. Admitting this case to be illustrative of the two systems
of ventilation or modes of distributing the air in general, he proposed that
they should resume the discussion on those two points, viz., The splitting
of the air, and the system of employing regulators instead of doors.
There was one point, however, which they must consider in such discussion,
which was this, and which, indeed, involved, likewise, the system of working
the coal:—He had pointed out, and the plan would show, that the system of
working pursued at Lundhill was, that the benks were worked by the
board-gates on each side. When the air was split, and a separate current
conveyed up each board-gate, the air of two board-gates would meet in the
same benk j it would, therefore, require special
153
arrangements to equalize the relative quantities of air in each b'oard-gate,
as the distances which each current had to travel would be unequal ,• —and
this led him to allude to the discussion that had arisen between Mr. Wales
and Mr. Hopton, which, as it bore directly upon this question, he thought
there was no impropriety in alluding to. Mr. Hopton, it was well known,
had published a Map or Plan showing a mode of ventilating- the Lundhill
Colliery, by splitting the air into as many divisions as there were benks
and board-gates, which he accomplished by regulators; but as it appeared
from his map that the air of two of the board-gates passed into one benk,
and passed through the same, or only one regulator, although the distances
which each current travelled were unequal. Mr. Wales attacked Mr. Hopton,
by contending that it was impracticable to produce an equal amount of
ventilation or quantity of air in each of the two board-gates, if the two
currents terminated in one goaf and were passed through one regulator.
Like many such disputes, the subject branched off in the course of
discussion into several collateral questions, but the main question was, if
it was practicable to work a colliery by benks or long wall, having several
board-gates into such benks or long wall, and to split the air, so that each
board-gate had a separate current; and that the ventilation could be managed
by regulators so as to produce an equal amount of ventilation or current of
air up each board-gate, if two or more of the benks or if the long wall
ventilated by such currents terminated in one goaf—presuming, (as indeed
must be the case practically) that the distances which the air had to travel
up each board-gate were unequal. These were all subjects which it was
desirable should be discussed before the question of the Lundhill Accident,
and the ventilation of mines arising out of such discussion should be
terminated. Then there was the separate question as regarded ventilation
by regulators, started at the last meeting, viz., how far the ventilation
was effected in each way or district ventilated by unequal lengths of
currents, by a variation in the aggregate amount of air passing down the
pit, or through the regulators. Mr. Atkinson, who was present, having gone
into the subject of ventilation in a theoretical • point of view very
minutely, which was published in their "Transactions," he (the President)
asked Mr. Atkinson after the last meeting if he would consider this
question, and give the Institute the benefit of such consideration in
extension, as it were, of his former paper on the subject, which, he was
glad to say, Mr. Atkinson promised to do. That paper, he regretted to Vol.
VI.—June, 1858.
x
154
say, from the short period which had elapsed since the last meeting, was not
finished, and they could not, therefore, have the benefit of it at their
discussion to-day. Still, as the subject was one of great importance, and
involved many practical points, and as there was rather a large meeting, he
thought they might very profitably employ their time in discussing the
question generally. It would, no doubt, be desirable to adjourn the
discussion, as well to have the advantage of the perusal of Mr. Atkinson's
paper as to have Mr. Wales's attendance to discuss the point as regarded the
question of regulators, and who was absent to-day in consequence of the
serious illness of his brother. He, would, however, propose that they should
go on with the discussion at this meeting, and then adjourn the further
discussion to a future meeting.
With regard to the business before the Institute previous to the general
meeting, the members were aware that the two papers by Mr. Marley and Mr.
Bewick, on the Cleveland Ironstone, were in course for discussion, and it
was desirable that they should be discussed, so that the notes of the
discussion should be inserted in the volume of their " Transactions" for
this year. The paper of M. Laurent, on the Lemielle System of Ventilation,
together with Mr. Atkinson's notes thereon, should also be considered; but
as the latter was not yet printed, he feared that the discussion of that
paper could not take place until the August meeting. It would be, therefore,
advisable, in his opinion, that a special meeting should be held in July, to
discuss Messrs. Marley and Bewick's papers, which would leave M. Laurent's
paper and the adjourned discussion on Ventilation for the meeting in August.
Mr. Atkinson's paper on the subject would be printed after the proceedings
of this day's meeting, which would enable it to be placed in the hands of
the members for the meeting in August. With the permission of the meeting he
would, therefore, make those arrangements.
After a short discussion, the above arrangements were agreed to. The
President then called attention to the discussion on the Lund-hill Accident,
and suggested that they should commence with the question of the ventilation
of mines, by abolishing doors and using regulators.
Mr. Dunn asked, suppose there were seven ways, and that over each way there
would have to be seven crossings for the return air, he supposed the
regulators would be placed on those crossings instead of the double doors ?
If so, the question was, how much air could be obtained from 50,000 cubic
feet of air in the aggregate before the splitting, after
155
it was divided into the seven ways, he supposed about 9,000 cubic feet. But
he apprehended that locked lamps would be used, which would be depended upon
for safety, and that no one would contemplate working with naked lights.
The President said the proposition was not that they would have a less
quantity of air in each way if the distribution was performed by regulators
than by doors. If 9,000 feet was not sufficient, they could take into any
particular part of the pit 18,000 cubic feet by taking in two currents
instead of one. It was not therefore meant that a system of ventilation by
regulators implied, taking a less quantity of air into any district or way
than under a system of using doors; the question should be discussed, on the
supposition that the quantity of air to be conveyed into the different ways
should be the same whether doors or regulators were used, the question
being, which of the two modes was the most desirable.
Mr. Dunn—But suppose each district to have the same quantity of air carried
in by means of crossings and regulators, then it might be questionable if
they divided the whole air into seven currents that they would have enough
for working quantities.
The President—That would be determined solely by the duty which each current
had to perform, the evolution of gases, &c. But in the discussion between
the use of regulators and doors, they must assume that, whether the one or
the other mode was adopted, an adequate quantity of air would be taken into
each district or way to sufficiently dilute the gases, and render the pit
safe. And as by each mode, this could be done, the conclusion at which they
might arrive would not depend on that contingency. One point, and that a
material one, however, presented itself, and that was, under which of the
two systems would greater security from casual or accidental interruptions
be experienced—the doors or the regulators.
Mr. Green well said it was questionable whether they would get the same
quantity of air after it had been split into each district. He presumed that
the main current of air of one division of the pit being kept up by doors
and conveyed from one benk to another, as at present, they would have 20,000
to 30,000 feet of air passing around the workings, whereas, when they
divided the air by crossings and regulators, there would be only the
proportion due to each division; and Mr. Dunn seemed to think that there
would not be a sufficient quantity of air in each district to enable the men
to work safely without lamps, whereas they might, if the entire current was
taken round the workings..
156
Mr. Dunn—The question with him, was, whether the whole bulk of air would
allow of the entire number of splits ?
The President—It did not follow, that because the air was split, and that
10,000 cubic feet of air was taken into one of say four ways, that this
rendered such way more unsafe than if 40,000 cubic feet was taken
successively through the four ways, the latter having- four times the
distance to travel, and four times the duty to perform, than each of the
separate currents. In the first place, he considered by splitting- the air,
a much greater aggregate quantity of air would be obtained; and then, if in
any of the benks a blower or feeder of gas was met with, this air would not
be carried into the next benk, but be taken direct to the upcast shaft. He
considered, therefore, as a general proposition, by so splitting the air,
the mine would be both better, and more safely ventilated, than by a single
current only, in each of the two divisions of the pit.
Mr. Barkus thought, the mode of working and ventilating the Lundhill
Colliery, as shewn in the plan, very unsafe. The coal was worked in boards
or benks, by long wall, proceeding west; the rise of seam 1 in 12 in that
direction, and the mothergate, or leading drifts, about 400 yards from the
shafts. Consequently, the seam at that point, was 16| fathoms above the
level of the furnace. The air is split at the bottom of the downcast into
two currents going north and south, and returning by the face of the west
workings amongst the workmen, to the extreme westernmost point of the
furnace-board, and, so conveyed downhill by such furnace-board to the upcast
shaft. It would, no doubt, be the case, that large accumulations of
inflammable gas would collect above the falls in the benks or goaf, which,
on being forced out by further falls as the working progressed, would pass
along the face of the workings where the men were working, until mixed off
in suspension with the atmospheric current, and conveyed downhill to, the
upcast shaft. He would, therefore, recommend a furnace-pit to be sunk to the
rise, in order to obviate the descent of the lighter air mixed with
inflammable gas, to the upcast at the low level, considering that such air
would naturally rise towards a rise upcast. He was aware, that formula and
figures might be adduced, to shew that a deep pit would have a greater power
of upcast than a more shallow one, but, he thought, the question ought to be
considered practically, as well as theoretically. He thought, the President
would agree with him, in stating, that more accidents had occurred in
coal-mines working to the rise, than in any other direction, He had known
the current of air in a pit suspended by attempting to force it up a staple
into an upper seam, where it had to pass ,down another staple in
157
proceeding towards the furnace. Thus, a sudden discharge of carbureTCe°3^"
hydrogen gas from a blower, has been known to partially stop the current
passing through the mine, and even to reverse it for a time, in its
endeavours to reach the higher level, in accordance with the law of
pneumatics. Ventilating by splits into each of the long-wall panels or
benks, appears to be liable to the same objections; the force of the current
of fresh air being, to the extent to which it is split, diminished in force;
and, therefore, less able to resist the effect of a sudden discharge of gas.
Mr. Atkinson said, if they put the pit to the rise, they would, no doubt,
obtain the advantage which the levity of the air would give in the length of
column, between the face of the workings and the upcast at the low level j
but they would lose the advantage which the additional depth of the pit
would give them.
Mr. Barkus said, that the first consideration was of some importance.
Mr. Atkinson—No doubt; but, then, it was only one of the elements of
consideration. The question before them was, the effect of 16| fathoms of
level between the face of the rise workings, and the level of the present
upcast. They had, on the one hand, the effect of 16^ fathoms of
comparatively light air, by its admixture of gas; and, on the other, a
similar height of column of heated air in the shaft. Now, there could be no
question which of the two was the more effective, the levity of the heated
air in the shaft being unquestionably greater than the levity of the air in
the drift.
The President—Suppose they take the Lundhill case, and suppose an upcast pit
sunk to the rise in advance of the furnace-drift, or furnace-pit mothergate.
In both cases, the air after passing around the workings on each side of the
pit, would be conveyed, say, into this mother-gate ; then, the question was,
to which of the upcast pits would the air pass, if at liberty to do so,
whether to the pit to the rise, or to the pit to the dip, supposing the
furnace at each pit to be of precisely the same dimensions, and the same
quantity of coals used per hour ?
Mr. Barkus—The light gas would go to the high shaft. The light gas would
separate from the heavier and go to the rise upcast.
Mr. Atkinson asked Mr. Barkus if he ever saw gases separate one from the
other ?
Mr. Barkus—He had seen the current stopped altogether during the time the
gas was coming off. That had been the cause, he thought, of the accident at
Lundhill Colliery, as he thought it had been a gush of gas which interrupted
the main current of air.
158
The President said, they were aware that in the Monkwearmouth workings,
where the temperature was very great, a current of air was found to pass
into the boards along the bottom of the mine, while a counter current passed
along* the roof; but this was a case where the air was almost stagnant. He
did not think such would occur in the case pointed out by Mr. Barkus.
Mr. Barkus—But the two gases would not be mixed up at once 1 The
President—He spoke of a current of air, travelling, probably, at the rate of
three or four feet per minute/ •
Mr. Barkus meant, that at short distances the gases would not be effectually
mixed.
Mr. Dunn considered they were losing sight of the real question, viz., as to
how they could get the most air into the pit.
Mr. Atkinson then ably illustrated, by diagrams, what he meant by the
ventilating power in the shaft, counterbalancing the disadvantage of the air
being brought from the rise to the deeper shaft; and showed, by such
diagrams, that the air at the extreme face of the workings would press
towards the low level and deeper shaft, rather than towards the rise shaft;
and showed, consequently, that a rise shaft would be of no practical
benefit, and that it was fallacious to suppose that the sinking of a rise
shaft would tend to save life. No doubt, he said, the more shafts there were
the greater would be the facilities of escape in case of explosions, if the
roads to them, and all the drawing apparatus, were kept in order.
Mr. Barkus asked, in reference to the explanation given by Mr. Atkinson, if
there were no reaction or other circumstances in such a case acting against
the ventilating power of the deeper shaft ? He knew it might be correct,
theoretically, but he would rather have a practical illustration.
The President said, that the general practice of the profession would show,
independently of theory, that a deep shaft was better than a shallow one,
for the purpose of ventilation; and that the air of rise workings could,
without any difficulty, be conveyed down a considerable inclination of seam
to a deep shaft, and that such shaft would have a preponderating effect over
a pit sunk to the rise.
Mr. Barkus had no doubt when the seams were nearly level; but, he asked, if
an accident was not more likely to arise from working the pillars towards
the rise than from working them towards the dip ? Mr. Marley said, that
before answering the question as to which of
159
the two shafts the air would press towards, viz., whether to the rise, or to
the deep shaft, the President ought first to inform them that the surface
level of the two were equal.
The President—That, he took for granted would be assumed by every one
present that the surface must be considered as level, and that the increased
depth of the lower pit would be equal to the dip of the seam between the
two. They might assume that the air would be conveyed horizontally along the
face right and left to a centre drift, up which it might be taken to a rise
shaft, or down which it might be taken to the dip shaft, then the question
was, which of the two shafts would best ventilate the colliery ?
Mr. Greenwell—But suppose they were working the pillars to the rise, then it
would be seen they could not clear the goaf of gas with deep shafts, by
having a communication only with the lower side of such goaf. If, however,
they had a drift from the centre of the goaf to the rise, and a shaft at the
end of such drift, they would clear the gas from the goaf.
The President—That could only be done by a drift previously driven to the
rise, so that the goaf air would find its way along such drift to tlie rise
pit. If, however, a communication was made between the end of this drift and
the deep shaft, the probability was, that the deep shaft would clear the
goaf more effectually than the rise shaft.
Mr. Reid thought they had strayed from the subject they were discussing. The
order of the discussion was, as to whether it was better to ventilate with
doors or with regulators. He for one appi'ehended that doors depended upon
every one who passed through them, while the regulators depended upon a
select body of men.
The President—If the regulators were once of the proper area, they would
require, in his opinion, no looking after, except on extraordinary
occasions. He admitted that the discussion was irregular, as the question
was, as to whether or not the air could be conducted through the workings by
regulators in substitution of doors; but he could not always keep the
discussion regular. Reverting to the original question, as to the regulation
of the quantity of air when the aggregate quantity was varied:—Suppose there
were two ways in a pit, one current double or treble the length of the
other, the area of the regulators being apportioned accordingly, and suppose
by some accident or variation of atmospheric influence the quantity of air
was diminished one half; would the regulators, in this case, require any
alteration ? or would the same area in the two regulators produce the same
relative quantities of air
160
in each current, the aggregate quantity of air being diminished one half?
Mr. Atkinson—Suppose, a pit had two ways, one, four-times the length of the
other; then, suppose, the proportion of air twice as much with the long run
as the short one ? Then, say, would the short run get a greater proportion
of the whole, or would the air be reduced in equal proportions, when the
bulk of it was changed ?
Mr. Barkus thought, the quantities would go through the regulators in
proportion to the area of the apertures. The splitting of air might be
carried too far. He, knew of one instance, where the air was entirely
stopped in one of the splits, in consequence of a variation of quantity of
air by a door being left open.
Mr. Atkinson—But, that would only be a cessation of air in the particular
district.
Mr. Barkus—Yes, in one split.
The President—But such an occurrence would be still more fatal, if there
were only two currents. In the paper, Mr. Atkinson was going to favour them
with, in explanation of the effect of regulators, he, understood, he was
prepared to prove, that all- circumstances being the same, except in the
ag'gregate quantity of air, and continuing so, the regulators once adjusted,
would always send the same relative quantities into the different districts,
whatever might be the aggregate quantity of air.
Mr. Atkinson was of opinion, that there were no exceptions, unless the
currents of the rise and dip workings were influenced by changes of their
temperature. Local circumstances, might vary this to some extent,
especially, if the dip and rise of the seam were considerable; but, if they
took the air-courses and coal as being horizontal, then, the proportions
would hold good, as the regulators being once set, might remain so for
ever.
Mr. Green well differed from Mr. Atkinson. Suppose, a case, where there were
50 pillars of winning headways, and the stopping was taken out of the first
stenting; if the ventilating power was so weak that the whole of the air
would pass through the stenting, they would find that very little air would
pass into the face of the headways. But, on the other hand, if the
ventilating power was greater, then the surplus would pass into the face.
If, therefore, a regulator were placed in the first stenting, it would
depend entirely upon the ventilating power, whether any air passed into the
face or not.
Mr. Dunn to Mr. Atkinson. Did you not say, that, when once the regulators
were fixed, they might remain so for ever ?
161
Mr. Atkinson—What he meant, was, that under all the variations of
ventilating pressure, the regulators might remain the same.
Mr. Dunn—Then the regulators would only be altered in proportion as the
works extended ?
Mr. Berkley said that he had made some experiments at Marley Hill Colliery,
and found the air continued precisely in the same proportion. When the
current became sluggish each split was reduced in proportion, keeping the
same relatively, to what it was in the first instance.
Mr. Atkinson—That was a fact in reference to a case when the current became
sluggish, which was the point to which Mr. Greenwell alluded.
The President thought it extremely desirable that the members should, before
this subject came for discussion in August, make as many experiments as they
could, illustrative of the facts in the several cases. There were very few
of them who could not make the requisite experiments. The furnace could be
put out, or damped, so as to reduce the current as much as each case would
allow, and so the question could be submitted to practical experience. These
were facts which would be extremely valuable to the Institute, and he hoped
the members would carry this out as far as they could.
Mr. Marley asked the President if his opinion would not be reversed in the
case of the effect of a dip and rise upcast shaft, if the upcast to the rise
was at a different surface level than the upcast to the dip ?
The President replied, by saying clearly so, surface level might compensate
for the dip or rise of the seam, but the question could not be settled under
such a case. To enable the discussion of the question to be proceeded with,
they must assume the surface to be level at the top of the two shafts.
Mr. Marley thought it ought to be understood that the surface was level.
The meeting was then adjourned.
Vol. VI.—June, 1858.
t
ON THE
PEOPOETIONS
IN WHICH
AIR IN MINES DISTRIBUTES ITSELF
OVER SEVERAL SPLITS OR ROUTES, HAVING DIFFERENT LENGTHS,
AND OFFERING DIFFERENT RESISTANCES TO CURRENTS
OF AIR PASSING THROUGH THEM.
By John J. Atkinson.
_ v\ ^____________
At two recent meeting's of this Institute, some difference of opinion
prevailed as to the proportions in which the air in mines would distribute
itself over routes or splits having different lengths, and offering
different resistances to air currents, before and after some material
alteration in the ventilating pressure, or in the gross quantity of air
circulating in the unit of time ; supposing the air-ways of the different
routes or splits, together with any regulators placed in them, to remain
unaltered, and in the same condition after the change in the gross quantity
of air circulating-, as they were before such change.
The writer had previously expressed an opinion to the effect that, except in
so far as the gravitation of air of different temperatures and densities, in
ascending- and descending parts of the air-ways, forming-the different
splits or routes, mig'ht affect the result, air would divide itself over any
series of splits in the same proportions, whatever might be the general
ventilating pressure employed, and the gross quantity of air circulating in
the unit of time, provided the air-ways-and the regulators of all the splits
remained unaltered, while the general ventilating pressure, or the gross
quantity of air circulating in the unit of time, became altered in amount.
See "Transactions " Vol. III., page 205, and other parts of the same
communication.
164
If one of two routes or splits ventilated workings lying to the dip of the
two ventilating shafts, and the other route or split ventilated workings to
the rise of such shafts, and if the average density of the air in the
intakes was, in each split, greater than that of their own returns, there
would exist, besides the general ventilating pressure, a nearly constant
additional pressure in each of the splits, operating in favour of
ventilation as regards the dip workings, but operating against the general
ventilating pressure as regards the rise workings; and the amounts of the
two latter pressures would bear a continually increasing proportion to the
general ventilating pressure, and thus produce proportionally increased
effects, as the total ventilating pressure and the gross quantity of air
circulating became less and less in amount; so that the dip workings would
obtain an increasing proportion, and the rise workings a decreasing
proportion of the gross quantity of air circulating in the unit of time, as
such gross quantity became itself less and less in amount, owing to a
reduction of the general ventilating pressure; or, what is the same in
effect, to any increasing contraction in the shafts or general airways,
where the gross quantity of air circulates in an undivided state.
If the workings, traversed by the splits were all level, or situated in the
same horizontal plane, changes of density in the air, as it circulated,
would not sensibly affect the proportions in which the air would divide
itself, and they would be the same, whatever was the general ventilating
pressure, and whatever the gross quantity of air circulating in the unit of
time.
If, owing to an admixture of carbonic acid gas the average density of the
returns exceeded that of the intakes, the dip workings would have a pressure
against, and the rise workings would have a pressure in favour of
ventilation, from this source; and consequently the dip workings would
obtain a decreasing, and the rise workings an increasing, proportion of* the
gross quantity of air circulating, as such gross quantity became reduced in
amount, owing- to any decrease in the general ventilating pressure employed,
or owing to any contraction of the shafts or general airways where all the
air circulates in one mass or body.
Of course the opposite effects would, in each of the conditions stated, take
place on increasing, instead of diminishing the gross quantity of air
circulating, while the air-ways forming the splits and the regulators in
them remained unaltered.
Every one familiar with the practice of ventilation in this district, is
also, probably, just as familiar with certain current expressions,
indicating that a short run will take a certain quantity of air, and only
leave
165
the remainder of the gross quantity to divide itself over the other splits,
having longer runs, and offering greater resistances to the passage of a
given quantity of air in a given time j such as, " if the regulator in the
short run were set open the other splits would be laid dead;" "the regulator
in the short run is as full as she can contain;" &c, and these remarks are
made quite irrespective of whether the short run be to the rise or the dip
of the pits. It is not intended to question the well known fact, that the
less the resistance offered by an air-way of a split, the greater will be
the proportion of air that will circulate in that split; but simply to
controvert the common opinion that the short run will either take a certain
constant quantity of air, and only leave the remainder to divide itself over
the longer splits, whatever be the gross quantity of air circulating; or, at
any rate, that if the gross quantity of air circulating be reduced, the
short run will thereby obtain a larger proportion of such gross quantity
than it obtained before such reduction.
The opinion here to be advocated is, that, except in so far as the
difference of density in the air, in different parts of the air-ways of
different splits, where the course followed by the circulating air may dip
or rise, may give rise to discrepancies, air will divide itself in the same
proportions over any number of routes or splits, whatever may be the gross
quantity of air circulating in the unit of time; and that the discrepancies
alluded to may either be such as to increase, or such as to decrease the
proportion of the gross quantity of air following the shortest route; owing
to a decrease in the gross quantity of air circulating in the unit of time,
when such reduction results either from a reduction in the general
ventilating pressure, or from a contraction introduced into the shafts, of
into any part of the air-ways where the gross quantity of air circulates.
In advocating the position laid down, it is proposed, in the first place, to
state one or two general laws of ventilation, and to support their truth by
quoting observations or experiments made for a distinct purpose ; then to
reason from these laws, so established, to the conclusion which it is the
object of this paper to maintain; and, finally, to give the results of
experiments that have been made to test the conclusion here advocated.
If the two following laws of ventilation be admitted to be true, it follows,
by a process of mere reasoning, that air will divide itself over routes or
splits in the same proportions, whatever be the gross quantity of air
circulating in the unit of time, or whatever be the total general
166
ventilating pressure; provided only that the air-ways and regulators of the
splits remain unaltered, and that there exists no sources of local
disturbance, owing to differences of temperature or density, in the
different splits, where the air has to ascend or descend either vertically
or at an inclination to the horizon:—
1st.—The quantity of air circulating in the unit of time is directly
proportional to the square root of the pressure causing it to circulate,
when the state of the air-ways, and all other things, remain constant. In
other words, the resistance encountered, and, therefore, the pressure
required to overcome it, is directly proportional to the square of the
quantity of air circulating in the unit of time, through the same unaltered
route or series of connected routes, so long as the state of the airways and
regulators remain unaltered; always supposing that no sources of natural
ventilation arise, from differences of density in the air, at different
parts of ascending or descending portions of the routes followed by it.
2nd.—When two or more distinct routes are offered to a current of air, at
any point, reuniting again at another point, the air will so divide itself
over the routes offered to it, as that the actual resistance met with in
each route, from the point where the separation takes place till it reaches
the point of reunion, shall be the same; or, in other words, the air will
follow the route offering the least resistance to it, in all cases; and will
not, in any case, pass in a larger proportion than is required to give rise
to the same resistance that is encountered in each of the other routes,
always reckoning from the point of splitting to the point of reuniting of
the different currents ; and, presuming that no local pressures arise, in
any of the routes, either in favor of, or against the ventilating pressure,
from changes of density in the air, in ascending or descending parts of the
different routes followed by it.
The following cases are cited as affording practical or experimental
evidence of the prevalence of the first of the laws mentioned, viz., that
the quantity of air circulating in any mine is directly proportional to the
square root of the ventilating pressure, or that the square of the quantity
of air is directly proportional to the pressure; the pressure and the
resistance are, of course, in all cases equal to each other ; if the
pressure were at any moment greater than the resistance due to the quantity
of air passing, that quantity would become augmented, until the resistance
became equal to the pressure, and no further increase of quantity would then
take place.
167
In Professor Phillips's Beport, on the Ventilation of Mines and Collieries,
presented to both houses of Parliament, in 1850, at page 25, we have the
following statements of the ventilation of collieries:—
Names of Collieries. Means employed to produce Ventilation.
^ting7 er minute?"
Cubic Feet. Moorsley.......... Furnace alone ....................
25,000
Jets alone........................ 22,000
Furnace and Jets.................. 31,000
Belmont.......... Furnace alone ............... ....
44,007
Jets alone........................ 59,956
Furnace and Jets.................. 71,895
Engine alone .................... 47,757
Furnace and Engine .............. 62,652
Castle Eden ...... Furnace and Jets..................
46,706
Furnace alone .................... 42,670
Jets and Shaft Heat* .............. 35,622
Shaft Heat alone.................. 30,307
* See Transactions, Vol. I.
Now, if the first law be correct, and really prevails, it follows, that if m
represent the height of motive column, or pressure per unit of surface,
required to overcome the resistance of the unit of air passing through the
mine, in the unit of time, we should have
l2 : m :: QJ : P2..........................[1]
where Qx is a new quantity of air passing through the same unaltered mine in
the unit of time, and Px is the motive column or pressure per unit of
surface required to create the ventilation QL; and, in like manner, any
other quantity Q2, and corresponding pressure P2, would enter into a similar
proportion j or
r : m :: qj : P2..........................[2]
from whence we have the ventilating pressures Px = m Q*; Pa = m Qf, and so
on, as due to the different quantities of air circulating in the unit
168
of time; m being; a constant quantity for the same unaltered mine, whatever
be the quantity of air circulating in the unit of time; and, therefore, if
Px and P2, acting- as motive columns, separately produce ventilations
represented by Qx and Q2 respectively, then," taking; Q3 to represent a new
quantity as due to the united or combined operation of such two forces, we
should, by a similar process, have the three following; expressions for
their separate and joint operation; or the three forces P1; P2, and (Px +
P2) :—
— =Q!..............................[3]
m
L J
!=«..............................m
?4r1=QS..............................w
and, by adding- [3J to [4], we obtain
Zl±23 = qi + Ql = Q!.........................[5]
m
L
The form of the last expression, Q? + Q2 = Q|, indicates that if we make the
quantities Qx and Q8, due to the separate action of the two ventilating-
pressures, Px and P2, respectively proportional to the base and
perpendicular of any right-angled triangle, then will the quantity Q3, due
to the united action of the same forces, be proportional to the hypotenuse
of the same right-angled triangle; and in the same unaltered mine we should
have
Qi = VW^QI............................[6]
Q8 = VQi - Q5.............................[7]
Q3= vqTT"q!.............................[8J
The three equations [6], [71, and [8], it has been shown, arise as a direct
consequence of the law of the quantities being proportional to the square
roots of the pressures due to them, in the same unaltered mine; and we will
now proceed to ascertain how far such law actually prevails, by applying
them to the cases given in Professor Phillips's Report, as before alluded
to.
170
The annexed diagrams exhibit these cases graphically.
The slight discrepancies between the quantities observed, and those
calculated on the law of the squares of the quantities being proportional to
the pressures or resistances, are no more than might have been anticipated,
and are, probably, due in part to errors of observation, and in part to no
allowances having been made in the calculations for any extra resistance,
due to the more expanded volume of a given weight of air in the upcast
shaft, when the two ventilating powers act jointly, as compared with its
volume when either of them act separately.
Again, in the case of Brunton's ventilating fan, as applied at Gelly Gare
colliery, it was stated in evidence before a parliamentary committee, in
1849, that the quantity of air discharged was directly proportional to the
number of revolutions made by the fan; and, hence, if the pressure or
water-gauge were proportional to the square of the quantity of air
circulating in the unit of time, it follows that the revolutions in the unit
of time should be proportional to the square root of the water-gauge
indicating the resistance or ventilating pressure.
The following observations were given in evidence in the case alluded to,—
OBSERVATIONS.
No. --------—----—-----------.---------
-ixr„i»_ r>„„„„ Revolutions Water Gauge. per Minute_
Inches.
1 0-55 48
2 2-10 93
3 2-50 100
Taking No. 2 observation as a datum, and calculating, on the principle
named, to find the revolutions due to the observed water-gauge, in each of
the other oases, we obtain the proportions,
In. In. Revol's. Revel's.
As V^IO : VO-55 :: 93 : 47-5% in No. 1 case, where 48 revolutions per minute
were observed; which is not one per cent, different from the calculated
quantity; and, in No, 3 case,
In. In. Revol's. Revol's.
As s/lfld : s/2-50 :: 93 : 101*47, a number greater than the observed number
of revolutions by only 1| per cent.; errors so small as to be readily
accounted for, by the difficulties of taking accurate observations.
171
The experiments of Girard, Peclet, Daubuisson, and others, on the flow of
air through pipes, flues, and chimneys, all agree in leading- to the same
general conclusion, that the resistance met with by air, and, consequently,
also the pressure per unit of surface required to overcome it, is, ccetems
paribus, sensibly proportional to the square of the quantity of air passing-
in the unit of time, through the same unaltered channel; and hence this law,
it is submitted, may be held to be established, both for uniform pipes and
also for the air-ways of mines, notwithstanding the great irregularities in
their sections, and, in many cases, the existence of regulators or
artificial contractions in them. The small discrepancies in the cases of
mines, there is little doubt, may be referred to the causes already
assig-ned.
But for the slight discrepancies—arising from the increased resistances
encountered by a given weight of air passing through a mine when an
energetic ventilation is in existence, compared with that encountered when
only a feeble ventilation is in operation, owing to the more expanded state
of the air in the former than in the latter case—the law of the squares of
the quantities of air circulated in the unit of time, being proportional to
the pressure putting them into circulation in the same mine, coupled with
the fact that the powers creating- ventilation are proportional to the
product of the quantities of air circulated in the same mine in the unit of
time, multiplied by the ventilating pressures required to put them into
circulation, would lead to the following conclusions and formulae, which, in
practice, will be found to be very near the truth, except under
extraordinary circumstances.
If the areas of two squares, A and B, Fig 4, be made respectively#
proportional to two ventilating pressures, px and p3, employed at differentO
times at the same mine, then will the area of a third square, C, having the
length of its side proportional to the hypothenuse of a right-angled
triangle, the base of which is formed by the side of the square A, and the
perpendicular by the side of the square B, be similarly proportional to the
sum of such two pressures, or to px + p2; and if qy represent the quantity
of air put into circulation in the unit of time by px; and q2 the quantity
circulated by the pressure p2; and if Q represent the quantity of air
circulated in the unit of time by a pressure equal to the sum Pi + P2 of
these two pressures, in the same mine, then will these quantities, q1} q2,
and Q, be respectively proportional to lengths of the base, perpendicular,
and hypothenuse of the same right-angled triangle.
And the contents of the cubes A, B, and C, having the areas of their
172
respective sides proportional to the pressures pl7 p2, and px + p2; and the
lengths of their respective edges, proportional to the quantities qt, q2,
and Q, (the latter quantities being respectively proportional to the base,
perpendicular, and hypothenuse of the right-angled triangle,) will be
proportional to the powers h1} h2, and IT, required to circulate the
quantities qx, q2, and Q, in the unit of time, under the pressures
proportional to pj, p2, and px + p2 respectively, in the same mine.
Now, letting B = the base, P = the perpendicular, and H = the hypothenuse of
such right-angled triangle, the laws just recited lead to the proportions.
As B : qx:: P : q,:: H : Q = vq? + <&
„ B* : Pl :: P2 : p2 :: W : Pl + p,
„ B3 : hx :: P3 : h2 :: H3 : H= (h2/3 + h3/3)3/2
From which are deduced the following equations* :—
p.=(i)*p1=(^)p1=(^)V(i)8(p1+pO=(t)*(p1+p.)=(^r(p.+p.)
p. + p*=U)p' = (^)p' = (x) P' = (-f)p»=(^;p-(i;) ft
*- (i)*»- - *c*>- K*r- &)¦*--(t/=<^f
* The equations which contain only q,, q2, p,, p2, h, and h2, or their
functions, are also applicable to any two amounts of ventilation, and their
corresponding pressures and powers, in the same mine.
173
The truth of all or any of which equations may be tested by selecting the
values of the literal symbols contained in them, from the following table,
which is constructed on the principles that have been explained as the basis
of the formulae presented.
Quantities of Air circulated in Pressures required to circulate
Pressures required to circulate
the unit of time or numbers the quantities, or numbers the
quantities of air, or numbers
proportional to them. proportional to such pressures,
proportional to such powers.
jj q, = B = 3 B2 = 9
q, X B2 = 27
Q q2 = P = 4 P2 = 16
q2 X P2 = 64
A Q = H = 5 (9 + 16)= Ii2 = 25 Q X
H2 = 125
The general principles just alluded to are, as has been stated, not rigidly
true, under all conditions, although, in most cases, in practice they will
hold nearly true.
The more energetic the ventilation of a mine, if ventilated by exhaustion,
whether produced by furnace action or by ventilating machines, the more
expanded becomes the volume of a given quantity of air, and hence arises an
increased resistance directly proportional to the degree of expansion; and
the power required is further enhanced by the increased velocity due to this
increased expansion; and these circumstances, so far as their effects
extend, render the pressures and powers required for increased quantities,
somewhat greater than are indicated by the principles stated. If local
pressures arise in the different splits of a mine, either acting in aid of,
or against the general ventilating pressure, their effects bear a decreasing
proportion to the ventilating pressure employed, as it becomes increased in
amount; and produce, therefore, proportionately diminished effects; so that
the prevalence of such pressures in a mine is another circumstance
preventing the laws stated from holding- accurately true, and the
discrepancies will, of course, be more or less considerable as these
disturbing causes happen to be greater or less in amount in any mine.
The second principle or general law of ventilation which has been advanced
as (in conjunction with that already discussed) leading to the conclusion
that air will split or divide itself in the same proportions, whatever be
the amount of ventilating pressure and the gross quantity of air circulating
in the unit of time, in the same unaltered air-ways, (provided the workings
are either situated in the same horizontal plane, or that no differences of
density exist in the air in ascending or descend-
174
ihg parts of the air-ways, owing1 to the admixture of gases or to variations
in the temperature of the air in different parts of the air-ways,) is of so
simple a character as to he almost, if not quite, self-evident. If, for
instance, at any point in a main air-way several splits are formed, it is
evident that the air, on entering each of these splits, has one and the same
pressure and density; and whatever be the lengths, sections, ascents, or
descents, and whatever be the nature or dimensions of any contractions or
regulators in all or any of the routes pursued by the splits, still, if they
all reunite in one common return, they must, at the point of reunion, each
have, in like manner, one common pressure, seeing that their union forms but
one single aeriform medium after they are again united; and, therefore, each
must, on the whole, have encountered precisely the same amount of
resistance, while in the form of separate splits, reckoning* such
resistances as measured by the expenditure of motive column or pressure on
the unit of surface ; and in order that this equality may prevail amongst
such resistances, encountered by the different splits, the air must, of
necessity, divide itself over them in the particular proportions required to
lead to this result, because all matter moves under the application of force
or pressure, when not resisted by an equal opposing- force; and where
opposing forces operate on the same matter, then the greater the excess of
the moving, over any opposing, force, in any particular direction, the
quicker the matter moves in that particular direction; and as, in the case
in hand, the moving force is the same in every direction, or over each
split, the air must naturally so distribute itself in the various splits,
that the resistance or opposing force encountered in each split will also be
of equal amount.
On the principles stated, it is evident, that if, by using a water-gauge or
other suitable means, we ascertain the motive column or pressure per unit of
surface, expended on the resistances encountered in any of such splits or
divided air-ways, by an ascertained quantity of air passing-through them in
the unit of time, we can then, by the 1st law, (the squares of the
quantities being proportional to the resistances) determine the pressure per
unit of surface, or the height of motive column necessary to overcome the
resistances of the same passages or air-ways, due to any other quantity of
air in the unit of time.
For instance, if, when Q represents the actual quantity of air circulating
in any air-way in the unit of time, we observe, by the water-gauge or other
suitable means, that P is the resistance or motive column, we find that if
only the unit of quantity passed in the unit of time
0s : P' :: l2 • m..........................[9_:
175
where m is the motive column or pressure per unit of surface required to
overcome the resistance. And this unit of quantity may evidently be of any
magnitude whatever, as a cubic foot, a cubic yard, 100 cubic feet, or 1,000
cubic feet, provided only that Q itself be of the same denomination ; as in
cubic feet, cubic yards, hundreds of cubic feet, or thousands of cubic feet,
or whatever is assumed as the unit of quantity. From [9] we also obtain
m= |..............................[10j
• Q= -...............................[HJ
N m L J
P = Q2m...........................[12]
From [10] we can determine the pressure per unit of surface, or, in other
words, the motive column necessary to overcome the resistances of any such
air-way, or any part of such air-way, when only the unit of quantity (in
which Q is reckoned) is passing through it in the unit of time; provided we
have first observed, by the water-gauge or other proper means, the pressure,
P, required to overcome the resistance of the quantity, Q, passing- through
it in the unit of time.
By [11] we can determine the quantity of air, Q, which would circulate in
the unit of time under any assumed pressure, P; provided we have, by the
means already mentioned, first found the specific resistance, m, of the
air-way; or, in other words, the motive column or pressure per unit of
surface, due to the passage of the unit of quantity (in which Q itself is
reckoned) in the unit of time.
And by [12] we can ascertain the height of the motive column or pressure per
unit of surface, P, required to force any assumed quantity, Q, through any
such air-way, in the unit of time; provided we have first found the specific
resistance, m, of the air-way.
And here it may be observed that the specific resistance, m, may refer
either to any one of a series of splits, or it may refer to the united
action of the entire series or any number of them, provided only that the
quantity of air, Q, be taken as being- equal to that circulating- through
such single air-way, or such series or part of a series of splits in the
unit of time, by means of the pressure, P, observed to prevail at the time
of ascertaining the quantity of air, Q j in the case of Q representing- the
entire^quantity of air distributed over a series of connected splits or
routes, m, of course, does not represent the specific resistance of any one
of such
176
splits or routes, but that of an air-way which would transmit, under the
general pressure, P, exactly the same quantity of air that is transmitted by
the united operation of the entire series of splits; and all the formulae
given would hold equally true, whether applied to any single split of the
series, or to all, or any number of them, considered as acting jointly in
aid of each other.
The mode of finding the specific resistance of any series of connected
routes or splits, considered as acting in aid of each other, or forming a
general passage for air, when we know the specific resistance of each route,
and their relative positions, is given at page 120, &c, vol. III., of "
Transactions," as founded on the two general laws adopted in this paper,
and, therefore, need not be repeated here.
We may now proceed to show that if the resistance or ventilating pressure
due to air circulating through any channel, or any series of channels,
considered as acting in aid of each other, is proportional to the square of
the quantity circulating in a given time; and if when a series of channels
offer themselves to air under pressure, it will so distribute itself amongst
them that each split will encounter the same amount of actual resistance as
the others, reckoning such resistances, in each case, from the point of
separation or splitting, to the point of the reunion of the same splits j
then, as a matter of course, air will divide itself over any series of
splits or channels in exactly the same proportions, whatever may be the
general ventilating pressure employed, and whatever maybe the gross quantity
of air circulating in the unit of time; always presuming that only the same
general ventilating pressure is applied to the whole of the splits, and that
no peculiar forces or resistances exist or arise in the different splits,
from changes of density in the air in ascending and descending parts of such
splits, and that the state of the air-ways, and all contractions or
regulators placed in them, remain in the same unaltered state, after any
alteration is made in the gross quantity of air circulating in the unit of
time; whether such alteration in the gross quantity of air circulating in
the unit of time be affected by reducing the general ventilating pressure;
as, by putting a furnace out; or by introducing contractions or regulators
into the shafts, or any general air-ways, where the whole of the air happens
to be confined to one channel, before reaching, or after passing the part
where the splits prevail. This conclusion is established by the following
reasoning.
On the principles stated, if Q be the gross quantity of air circulating
through a mine, in which the air is divided into any number of splits
177
whatever, when the g-eneral ventilating pressure per unit of surface,
expended on the resistances, in that part of the general air-ways of the
mine over which the splits prevail, is P, as observed by a water-gauge, or
corrected barometrical observations; and, if M be the specific resistance of
the splits, considered as acting jointly, or in aid of each other, that is
to say, the actual resistance or pressure per unit of surface, due to the
passage of the unit of quantity through the mine, in the unit of time, and,
therefore, distributed over the whole of the splits; we have the equation,
P = Q2M........................[13]
and reckoning all or any splits from their point of separation, to the point
where they again unite, on the same principles we have
P = Q2 M = q2 m1 = qf, m2 = qf m3 = qf m4 — &c. ... -......[14]
where q\, q2, q8, q4, &c, represent the quantities of air in the different
splits, referred to by the numbers, and m1? m2, m3, m4, &c, the specific
resistances due to the splits, as also referred to by the corresponding
numbers; and since m1} m3, ms, m4, &c, are simply the pressures per unit of
surface, or the motive columns required to circulate the unit of quantity in
the unit of time, through the respective splits referred to by the numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, &c, attached to the literal symbols, they are all constant
quantities, so long as the air-ways or splits to which they refer, remain
unaltered, and hence it follows, from the nature of the equations,
P = M Q2 = mx q2 = m2 ql = m3 qg = m4 q2 = &o.; -----[15]
that Q2, q2, q2, q2, q4, &c, always assume values directly proportional to
the value assumed by P; otherwise, since by extracting the square root of
[14] we obtain
VP = \/M Q = a/hIj qx ss v/iBs In = Vmj q3 = <s/m4 q4 .. [16] where
v/m, /v/m1; \/m3, */ms, \/m4, &c, are all constant quantities, it
necessarily follows that Q, qt, q3, q3, q4, &c, must all vary in the same
proportion that s/¥ varies, and, therefore, will always bear the same
proportions to each other, whatever may be the value assumed by \/JF; in
other words, since not only the gross quantity Q, circulating through all
the splits, considered jointly, but also the separate quantities in each of
the splits, vary in the same proportion that the square root of the motive
column, or pressure per unit of surface (v/P) varies, whatever value may be
assumed by the square root of the motive column, or pres-Vol. VI.—June,
1858. AA
178
sure per unit of surface >/P, it follows that the quantities of air in each
of the splits q1? q2, q3, q4, &c, will vary in the same ratio or proportion
that the whole quantity Q varies, and also in the same proportion as each
other; always presuming- the air-ways in the various splits to he situated
in the same horizontal plane, or that changes of density in the air in the
ascending- and descending- parts of the various splits do not give rise to
disturbing pressures, either aiding- or abstracting- from the g-eneral
ventilating- pressure P, due to the resistances in the parts of the mine
where the splits prevail,—this being- the conclusion which it was, in the
outset, proposed to establish;—and if we admit the two laws to prevail,
which were adopted as premises in an earlier part of this paper, it seems to
be utterly impossible to deny the above conclusion, seeing that it has been
drawn solely from them, as a basis.
Let us next see the result of applying* the formula, deduced from the two
laws of ventilation, on which the subject of this communication depends, to
the case of a supposed mine, when different amounts of ventilating* pressure
are employed to create ventilation ; and afterwards suppose the same mine,
but having* the mode of splitting* the air altered, to have the same series
of ventilating* pressure applied to it; and, if the result in both cases,
confirms the g*eneral conclusion, to the effect that, (with the exceptions
so often alluded to) air will divide itself always in the same proportions,
in the same unaltered mine, whatever may be the g*ross quantity of air
circulating* in it, or whatever the amount of the ventilating* pressure
employed, and into whatever number or leng-ths of splits it may be divided;
we may safely conclude, that such would be the result in practice; or, on
the other hand, that the two g-eneral laws, on which we have based our
conclusion, do not really hold g-ood in practice.
Suppose a mine having* two splits of air only, one offering* five times the
amount of resistance offered by the other, to the passage of equal
quantities of air through them in a given time; that is to say, one split or
route having five times the specific resistance of the other; and suppose
that, with the air-ways so divided, the ventilating pressure required to
circulate one hundred thousands of cubic feet of air per minute (adopting
1,000 cubic feet as unit of quantity of air) was 144 feet of air column, and
that the specific resistance of' the shafts and undivided airways near them
was '0012 / that is, the air column required to circulate the unit of
quantity (1,000 cubic feet) per minute, through such shafts and undivided
air-ways near them.
179
Then by [10] the total specific resistance of the shafts and mine as
144 divided is .\na nnn = *0144, and deducting the specific resistances of
the 1002-000 °
undivided air-ways and shafts from this, gives *0144 — "0012 = *0132 as the
specific resistance due to the two splits acting in aid of each other. Now,
since the total specific resistance of that part of the mine over which the
splits prevail, when they are considered as a general passage, or each
acting in aid of the other in transmitting air, is *0132, and since only two
routes or splits are here supposed to exist, they must, of course, separate
and reiinibe at the same points, and, therefore, the actual resistances must
be of equal amount in each of the two splits; so that if qx represent the
quantity of air in the longest split, and q3 that in the shortest, when the
total quantity or sum of the two is represented by Q, and the specific
resistances of the separate splits by ma and m2, we have the equations
q! mx = q°2 m2........................[17]
mx = 5 m2...........................[18]
qx+q2 = Q.........................[19]
Substituting the value of im. in [18], in equation [17] we have 5 m2 q2 = m2
q| .*. 5 q? = qf and q2 = ^5 q1 and by substituting this value of q2 in [19J
we obtain (1 + jT) qi = Q
Q 100-000 qn Qno ¦ . .
or q, =--------=== = t, r.n^n^K = o0*902 the quantity of air m the
H 1 + s/b 3-236068 * J
split of which the specific resistance is mx.
And since Q = 100*000, by [19] we have q2 = 100-000 — 30-902 = 69-098 the
quantity of air due to the split of which m3 is the specific resistance.
But since the assumed specific resistance of the splits, acting in aid of
each other, is '0132, and the gross quantity of air per minute 100-000, the
actual resistance in the divided part of the mine is Q2 "0132, or 1002 x
'0132, and is the same in each of the two splits, seeing that they of
necessity separate and reunite at the same points, so that
Q3 M = qf mi = q2 m2................, .. [20]
where M = '0132 the specific resistance of the splits acting jointly, and
hence
m1==(|-)3M.........................[21]
180 ma=(fVM.........................[22]
Now by (21) mi = Q^^f-om = -138,235
and by (22) m2 = (™°^)'.<)182 = '°27^?
The expenditure of ventilating pressure, per unit of surface, or of motive
column, being- equal to the square of the quantity of air circulating- in
the unit of time, multiplied by the specific resistance of the passage
through which it circulates, we have, in this instance,
1003-000 x '0012 = 12 feet of air column due to the actual resistances of
the shafts and air-ways near to them, where the air is not split. Also,
3O9022 x -138235 = 132 feet of air or motive column, and 69-0982 x -027647
= 132 do.,
so that 132 feet of air column is expended on the resistances of the airways
over which the splits prevail.
If in the same mine, with the air divided in the same manner, we presume
that instead of 144 feet of air column, only 36 feet of air column is
employed, then by a precisely similar mode of calculation we shall obtain
the following results:—
Total quantity of air circulating, 50 thousands of cubic feet per minute.
Expenditure of pressure in head of air column, on the shafts, 3 feet, and on
the splits 33 feet.
Air circulating, in the long split 15-451, and in the short one 34-549
thousands of cubic feet per minute. The specific resistances in all cases,
will, of course, remain unaltered.
Then, if we once more presume the ventilating pressure employed to be
reduced to only 9 feet of air column, while the mode of splitting the air,
and the state of the air-ways, and any regulators in them, remain the same,
a similar mode of calculating leads to the following results.
The total quantity of air circulating per minute, is 25*000 thousands of
cubic feet per minute.
The expenditure of pressure per unit of surface on the shaft resistances, is
0-75 foot of air column; and on the divided part of the air-ways, it is 8"25
feet of air column.
The air circulating, in the longest split, is 7-7255; and, that in the short
one, 17-2745 thousands of cubic feet per minute. The specific resistances,
of course, remain the same as before.
181
If we next conceive the same mine, instead of being divided into only two
splits, to become by a " change of air" divided into three splits, having
their specific resistances in the ratio of 3, 2, and 1, respectively; and,
if we presume such splits to separate and reunite at the same points, and
then if we proceed by a mode of calculation, exactly analogous to that
already adopted, we find the results which are embodied in the following
table:—the ventilating pressures being taken at the same amounts in the
three cases given under the new arrangement of splitting the air that they
were taken under the first supposition as to the mode of splitting the air.
, Expenditure
of
6 Specific Resistances
Pressure or Motive Quantities of Air put into
Circulation.
Quantity of Air cil lated per Minute.
Air Column.
s and Undivided ways near to them. No. 1 Split, No. 2 Split.
No. 3 Split. he Splits acting jointly. il of Shafts and Workings.
the Shafts and ivided Airways. he Splits acting jointly. il Air
Column. No. 1 Split. No. 2 Split. No. 3 Split. Total.
¦g s"9 ¦g
Tot •11 % £ °£ a o (H
When the air is divided into two splits, having their specific resistances
-138235 and -027647 in the ratio of 5 to I.
5 1
1
100-000 •0012 •138235 •027647 .. •0132 •0144 12 132 144
30-902 69-098 •• 100-000 i
50-000 •0012 •138235 •027647 .. •0132 •0144 3 33 36
15-451 34-549 •• 50-000
25000 •0012 •138235 •027647 .. •0132 •0144 0-75 8-25 9
7-7255 17-2745 • • 25-000 >
When the divisible airways are in two > splits, the specific resistances
being as 5 tol.
When the air is divided into three splits, having their specific resistances
-082941, -055294, and -027647 in the ratios of 3, 2, and 1 respectively.
When the divisible airways are in three splits, the specific resistances
being in the ratios of 3, 2, and 1 respectively.
3 2 1
"¦
148-869 ¦0012 •082941 •055294 •027647 •0052978 •0064978
26-59 117-41 144 37-623 46-079 65-167 148-869 L
74-434 •0012 •082941 •055294 •027647 •0052978 •0064978 6-65
29-35 36 18-8115 23-0395 32-5830 74-434
37-217 •0012 •082941 •055294 •027647 •0052978 ¦0064978 1-66
7-34 9 9-4057 11-5197 16-2916 37-217 „
183
An examination of the results of these calculations, as tabulated, shews
that under each of the two modes of splitting the air, each of the splits
becomes reduced, successively, to one-half and to one-quarter of their
original amounts, as the gross quantity of air put into circulation in the
unit of time is reduced, in the same proportions; confirming the correctness
of the conclusions arrived at, and leaving nothing in a doubtful or
disputable state but the premises themselves; that is to say, the laws
stated in the outset, as the basis for the reasoning which has conducted to
the conclusion. It is, therefore, submitted, that unless the laws in
question can be proved to be at variance with practical results, the
conclusion is incontrovertible.
It was intended to have appended the results of a few experiments on the
point here under discussion, but for want of time and favorable
opportunities for making them, only the following two are at present
submitted. These were made by Mr. Berkley, in consequence of the difference
of opinion that gave rise to this communication, and have been kindly handed
over by that gentleman, for insertion.
The experiments were made at Crook Bank Colliery, where the rise is only
about 1 in 144, westward; so that any difference of temperature as giving
rise to differences of density between the intakes and returns, may be
neglected without sensible error. The intake temperature was observed at
51^°, and that of the return at 55°.
The annexed sketch will convey a general idea of the position of the pits
and workings.
.................. ~ I
A vprA!?P Total
Qaantity of
Ai-pa Distance in Time in Air per Minute o ,„ !?„„*
Feet. Seconds. observed.
Sup-leet Cubic Feet.
Main Air-way at B on Plan.... 27 60
15 6,480
In No. 1 Split at C on Plan ... 30-8 60
66 1,680
In No. 2 „ D „ ... 28-7 48
39 2,119
In No. 3 „ E „ ... 33-8 60
'68 1,789
Loss by leakage................. .. ..
892
6,480 For the purpose of altering the gross quantity of air circulating in
184
the unit of time, the furnace doors at A on the plan were partially opened,
and the following observations were then taken :—
Area. Distance. Time. Quantities.
Main Air-way at B on Plan.... 27 60
28 3,471
In No. 1 Split at C on Plan ... 30-8 60
123 901
In No. 2 „ D „ ... 28-7 48
77 1,074
In No. 3 „ E „ ... 33-8 60
121 1,006
Loss by leakage................. .. ..
490
3,471
But had the quantities in the latter case been exactly proportional to the
quantities in the same splits, when the greater gross quantity of air per
minute was in circulation, they would have been—
In No. 1 Split as 6,480 : 3,471 :: 1,680 : 900
„ No. 2 „ :: 2,119 : 1,135
„ No. 3 „ :: 1,789 : 958
By leakage :: 892 : 478
3,471 After the foregoing set of experiments were made, some of the
regulators in the splits were altered, and an increased quantity of air
circulated, and the following observations taken:—
Average Total
Area Distance, Time, quantity of air
q„« u>„'~i Feet. Seconds. per minute,
Sup-*eet- Cubic Feet.
Main Air-way at B on Plan .. 27 60
7 13,886
No. 1 Split at C „ .. 30-8 60
25J 4,348
No. 2 „ D „ 28-7 48
19 4,350
No. 3 „ E „ 33-8 60
30| 3,957
Loss by leakage ............... .... ....
1,231
13,886
185
The furnace doors at A on plan, were partially opened, and the following
observations made:—
Area. Distance. Time. Quantities.
Main Air-way at B on Plan .. 27 60
10 9,720
l^o. 1 Split at C „ .. 30-8 60
35| 3,102
No. 2 „ D „ 287 48
27| 3,024
No. 3 „ E „ .. 33 8 60
44f 2,719
Loss by Leakage................ .... ....
875
9,720
If, however, the air had divided itself in the same proportions in the
latter case as in the former, the quantities would have been— In No. 1 Split
as 13,886 : 9,720 :: 4,348 : 3,043 „ No. 2 „
:: 4,350 : 3,045
„ No. 3 „ :: 3,957 : 2,770
By leakage :: 1,231 : 862
------9,720 Total.
The results of observations in the foregoing experiments are compared, in
the following table, with the quantities which, on the principle advocated
in this communication, ought to have prevailed :—
In the first set of Total length Observed Quantities
Errors. Errors.
Experiments. of Splits. Quantities, calculated.
Cubic Feet. Per Cent.
Chains,
In No. 1 Split........ 72 901 900
-1 — £
„ No. 2 „ ........ 134 1074 1135
+61 +5-6
„ No. 3 „ ........ 129 1006 958
-48 - 4f
By Leakage.............. 490 478 —12
— 2\
Totals.............. 3471 3471 *
*
In the second set of Experiments.
In No. 1 Split........ 72 3102 3043
-59 —2
„ No. 2 „ ........ 134 3024 3045
+21 +0-7
„ No. 3 „ ........ 129 2719 2770
+51 +1-8
875 862 -13 - 1|
.... 9720 9720 * *
Vol. VI.—June, 1858.
bb
186
In the first experiment, the difference between observation and calculation
amounts to $ per cent, in one case, and reaches to between 5 and 6 per cent,
in another case; but in the second experiment the least error is less than f
per cent., and the greatest is less than 2 per cent.; and on comparing the
two cases it may be seen that in one split the error is converted from a
plus to a minus one; and the split, where the least difference arises in the
first experiment, is that where the greatest arises in the second, which
indicates, clearly enough, that the slight discrepancies between the
observed quantities, and those calculated on the principles advocated in
this communication, may, and probably do, really arise from mere errors of
observation, for the most part.
In concluding, it may be remarked, that it is highly desirable that as many
of the members as may have time and opportunity to institute experiments, on
the particular point in ventilation, which has here been investigated,
should do so; and produce the result of their experiments at the meeting of
the Institute, to be held in August.
No one can reasonably say, that either this, or any other principle in
ventilation, is unimportant; inasmuch, as the results of a more correct
knowledge of any of the laws of ventilation, than that which we at present
possess, cannot be foreseen; and the mere chance of a better acquaintance
with the laws, leading to an improvement in the general practice of
ventilation, ought to be sufficient, when it is remembered how much depends
upon it, to stimulate all parties interested in the matter, to endeavour to
throw new light upon it.
In making any such experiments, the temperatures and inclinations existing
in different parts of the air-ways ought to be observed j the former at the
times of trying the experiments, so that their effects may be allowed for in
the conclusions.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, JULY 1, 1858, IN THE ROOMS OP THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
Nicholas Wood, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
The President, on taking the chair, said that the meeting had been specially
summoned to discuss the papers of Mr. Marley and Mr. Bewick on the Ironstone
of Cleveland. The Council had taken into consideration the arrears of
discussion of the papers read at the Institute meetings, in consequence of
the regular meeting being only once in two months, and in consequence of the
regular meetings having, from unavoidable occurrences, been postponed. The
Council had arranged, likewise, that a paper should be read at the August
meeting by Mr. Wales, on the Ventilation of Coal Mines, and that the
discussion on the Lundhill Accident should also be resumed. Under these
circumstances, they thought it advisable that an extra meeting should be
held for the discussion of the papers on the Cleveland Ironstone.
The President then said, he thought the discussion would be best commenced
by asking Messrs. Marley and Bewick if they had any additional information
to give, or observations to make, explanatory of their respective papers.
Mr. Marley replied, that he had not much to add, as at the last October
meeting he made such remarks as he thought were proper to give by way of
explanation. One thing, however, he would advert to, and that was respecting
the commercial discovery of the ironstone in the north part of Cleveland. A
person of the name of James Burlinson had been going round the district with
printed circulars, declaring that he was Vol. VI.—July, 1858.
cc
188
the first person who discovered the existence of the ironstone, and
endeavouring1 to raise subscriptions in consequence of such discovery. Now
he (Mr. Marley) had, in his paper, alluded to Mr. Burlinson, and gave him
credit for everything- which, in his opinion, he merited; but he denied that
he discovered the ironstone in question. If he (Mr. Marley) were to express
any further opinion on the point, he would say that the commercial credit of
the discovery, and subsequent application thereof, was due to Mr. Vaughan.
Another thing- he would also beg- to allude to, by way of explanation, was a
section g-iven at pag-e 201, Vol. V., of the Ing-leby Manor mines at Burton
Head, in which are to be seen the main geological features of Cleveland, in
connection with this ironstone j namely, three main freestone beds, a coal
seam above the so-called top seam of Cleveland, and the main alum shale;
but, inasmuch as there is another thin coal seam often met with in that
district in the oolite formation, it would be as well to indicate its
position more plainly, and the matter stands thus :—
Ft. In. Soil, &c.
Shale.................... 5 0
Black shaley coal ......... 1 6 Ingleby top or third seam.
Freestone...............,. 5 0 flaggy freestone.
Shale ................... 5 0 plate or shale with coal pipes.
16 J ft.
But the plate or shale with coal pipes he would now give in further detail.
This third seam of Ing-leby is not yet wroug-ht at any other place; but a
seam very similar to it has been discovered at Hawnby, about six miles north
of Helmsley, with the following- section, viz.:—
Path. Ft. In.
Soil and gravel.................................... 110
Freestone........................................ 0 2 0
Sandy shale....................................• • 1 1 0
Freestone .................................«...... 0 3 0
Sandy blue shale.................................. 1 0 0
Clay band ironstone..............................». 0 0 1
Blue shale........................................ 1 0 0
Ironstone bed, 2ft. 6in. to 2ft. 9in., average............ 0 2 7\
Soft blue shale, with occasional ironstone nodules...... 0 0 7
Of about 2 to 4 inches thick, but say average only.....• 0 0 0£
(Proved into) coarse shale .......................... 0 3 0
Mr. Marley next adverted to Mr. Bewick's paper, and to his remarks as to the
so-called top seam of ironstone, which in that gentleman's
189
paper was called the " top seam of the lias formation." Now, inasmuch as
they both agreed as to the identity of this seam, and that he was right
mechanically, while Mr. Bewick was right geologically, the point was, which
mode was the best of naming this seam ? In his opinion both might,
perhaps, be wrong; as, if a still higher seam were found, then his
designation was at fault. Mr. Bewick's mode involved the naming of the
formations, and thus became too long; therefore, in future, the nomenclature
of the seams would be better done by adopting some characteristic of each
seam, as in the case of the main seam of the south part of Cleveland, where
it is divided, and called the "Pectin" and "Avicula" seams. The next and
more important point in which Mr. Bewick and himself were at issue (and on
which a variety of opinions were held amongst the members), was as to
whether the Eosedale Abbey Magnetic Ironstone was a vein or a bed, and, if
the latter, whether it were the sc-called top seam or not. Now, inasmuch
as he had not had an opportunity of revisiting that place since his first
visit in April, 1857, he would leave the discussion thereon to Mr. Bewick
and the President, both of whom, he understood, had made recent visits to
it; and also as to the fact of the top seam having since his visit been
proved to be lying regular on each side of the magnetic quarry, it seemed
questionable whether he might be right in calling- it a disjointed patch of
the top seam or not. Again, from the result of further drifting and
boring, there was nothing as yet to prove it to be a regular stratified led;
but, on the contrary, in some instances corroborative of its being a vein,
and having overspread itself to some extent, as in the case of the ufiats'''
in lead veins. The President now admits that, if a bed, it is
geologically situated below the top bed. He (Mr. Marley) now understood
that Mr. Wood admitted that the drift two miles off (viz., Sheriff's drift)
was not magnetic, as stated in the October discussion. The three
bore-holes now in course of being made would go far to put this question at
rest.
Mr. Marley, in answer to some remarks of the President as to the possible
extension of the Durham coal-field into Cleveland, did not wish to hold out,
by any means, the probability of such extension, but would still stand on
his concluding remarks in last October minutes, wherein he denied that
anything between Castle Eden and the Tees had yet been proved, which makes
it geologically impossible for such to be continued. Mr. Bewick then made
the following statement and remarks on Mr. Marley's paper:—In the year
1840,1, along with my late father, made
190
a survey of the lias ironstone from Whitby to Skinningrove. Leaving' it
there, we next traced it from Slapewath, near Guisbro', along the side of
the hills where it is now so extensively worked. My father was then, and
had been for some time previous, working- the same stone in the royalties of
the Marquis of Normanby, at Kettleness and Staithes, for Messrs. Thompson,
Brothers, of Wylam Ironworks. As I stated in my paper there are only two
workable deposits of ironstone in the lias formation, and for that reason I
named the higher one the top led. The ironstone found above them belongs
to another class of rocks in the oolitic series. The bed in question is
known by that name, and will continue to be known by it; and, I think, to
avoid confusion, it would be better to designate those above it the oolitic
beds, especially as there are other ironstone beds above the one alluded to
by Mr. Marley as the third bed,, but which he does not yet appear to have
met with. It is, however, of course a matter of indifference by what
name they are designated, so long only as they are clearly distinguishable
by such name. I beg to remind Mr. Marley that, by what he has now
expressed with regard to the Rosedale ironstone, he has materially qualified
what he stated in his paper. He says nothing in his paper about the top
seam being altered in its condition by volcanic action or otherwise, but
simply mentions his belief to be " that the magnetic ore is a disjointed
patch of the top bed." I presume Mr. Marley, in what he has said with
reference to Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, confines himself to the Eston
district. Mr. Bewick then made the following observations on his paper
on the Rose-dale Ironstone:—I have paid two visits to Rosedale since I last
had the honour of appearing before you, and as I saw nothing on either of
those occasions to induce me to alter my opinion as to the nature and extent
of this deposit, but much to strengthen it; and as extensive trials have
been, and are still being, made there, perhaps it would enable you all the
better to understand the subject about to be discussed, if I were to draw a
rough sketch of the strata in which the ore is found, and in which the
trials are in course of being made. Mr. Bewick then drew a sketch of the
strata similar to that in his paper, Vol. V., and proceeded:— You will
observe from this that the whole of the strata on the west side of Rosedale
forms a crown, from which you will perceive there are, of course, two dips
in opposite directions—one to the south and the other to the north, the
direction of the valley being nearly north and south also. The top bed is
rising and dipping in the same manner. On the north side of the crown,
and a considerable distance up the valley, a
191
drift has been driven into the side of the hill to some extent, in the top
bed, called " Sheriff's Drift." On the south side of the crown, and no
great distance from it, is the quarry of magnetic ore, 70 feet thick, and
not yet bottomed, and from 20 to 30 yards wide; and beyond this again, to
the south, another drift has been commenced, also in the top bed. The main
drift, however—a rough sketch of which you will find annexed to my paper—is
commenced between the quarry and the latter drift, and, after being worked
to the extent of about 90 yards, intersects the magnetic ore, and afterwards
is driven, I believe, in a direction nearly parallel to, and in the heart of
it j and on reaching the distance of about 200 yards, another cross drift is
driven at right angles from it, in a south direction, thus cutting the dyke
transversely. This drift, on reaching the distance of about 16 yards,
cuts the shale where the ore is found resting against it, much in the same
way as is represented in the section accompanying my paper; and I have no
doubt whatever if another drift had been driven from the north side of the
main one, that it would also have cut the shale in that direction, and the
breadth of this deposit would at once have been ascertained. Two borings
have been made, each of which have gone through the ore, but, as I believe,
they have both been made on the same side of the centre of the dyke, this is
only what might be expected. The thickness of the ore in one bore-hole is
30 feet, and in the other between 30 and 40 feet, but as those experiments
have been under the supervision of the President of this Society, and
Professor Phillips, perhaps the President will be good enough to furnish us
with some account of them, as well as his opinion generally as to the nature
and extent of this extraordinary deposit: after which, I shall have an
opportunity of replying to his remarks, and I beg to assure the meeting*, if
he convinces me of my error, I shall be the first to acknowledge it.
The President stated, that at present he had not much further information to
give on the subject of the Rosedale deposit, than he had done in October
last. Operations in drifting and boring were going on under the direction of
Professor Phillips and himself- but, as these were not yet completed, it
would be premature to offer any decision as to the precise nature of this
important deposit.
It had transpired from Mr. Marley's account of the Cleveland ironstone, and
from other sources, that there were two extensive beds of ironstone—locally
termed the top bed, and the main bed; and, it ap-
192
peared that, besides there being" in other parts of the district detached or
occasional other beds or nodular strata of ironstone, there existed in
Rosedale a deposit of a different description from those great and other
detached beds of ironstone. That, whereas, the produce of the main beds
yielded from 28 to 35 per cent, of iron, the Eosedale deposit yielded 40 to
50 per cent., or sometimes more. That the Rosedale deposit is of the nature
of a solid dark oolitic ironstone, merging* into a compact iron ore—that it
is magnetic with polarity, and is likewise peculiar from the entire absence
of shells, the presence of which is the general characteristic of the other
ironstones.
This deposit as previously explained, was at first discovered at a quarry,,
about a mile from Rosedale Abbey, on the brow of the hill forming- the west
side of the valley, where it has been worked to a depth of about 60 feet. It
there assumes an ellipsoidal or large nodular structure, though apparently
stratified. The stratification is, however, almost entirely obscured by the
nodular structure of the ironstone. And there has been a great difference of
opinion, as will have appeared from a previous discussion on this deposit,
whether it was of the nature of a bed, or was a dyke, as explained by Mr.
Bewick. A drift has been set into the hill, in a direction nearly west, or
at right angles to the valley, in order to ascertain the extent and peculiar
features of this deposit, and if it was a bed, or only a mass of magnetic
stone in the fissures of a dyke, or only a casual deposit emanating
therefrom.
This drift, a sketch of which, is shewn in Mr. Bewick's paper, has now been
driven 265 yards; at the extremity of the drift, the ironstone had been
found to be 32 feet in thickness, of good quality, and magnetic. A specimen
from the drift-face 100 yards within the solid rock gave 45'5 per cent, of
iron. The ellipsoidal, or nodular structure of the ironstone, at the face of
the drift, has, however, almost entirely disappeared, and it has become
distinctly stratified, and divided into several distinct partings, the
stratification dipping slightly north-west. At the face of the drift,
likewise, which is 6 feet 3 inches in height, there is 11. • feet 9 inches
of ironstone above the top of the drift, and 14 feet below, making a bed of
32 feet in thickness altogether, resting on grey shale; the bed above the
ironstone being a thin bed of dark shale, above which, is sandstone. That
the ironstone at this place occurs in the shape of a bed there can be no
question. Near the face of the drift, a cross gallery is driven about 20
yards and at right angles to the line of
193
the drift. Where this gallery branches out from the main drift, there is 14
feet of ironstone below, but the inclination of the beds being considerable,
the ironstone bed forms the bottom of the cross drift in about 16 yards, the
shale rising up from underneath the ironstone.
Another conclusive proof of this ironstone existing as a bed is likewise
proved from a boring made 413 yards in advance of the drift which has passed
through the top bed of ironstone at a depth of about 40 fathoms from the
surface, 16 feet 3 inches in thickness, and at the depth of about 50
fathoms, it also passes through the Rosedale bed 32 feet thick; and it is
necessary to remark, that the position and depth from the surface of the
Rosedale bed in the bore-hole corresponds precisely with the inclination of
the beds at the face of the level.
The following is a section of the strata in the bore-hole :— SECTION OF THE
BOREHOLE MADE BY THE ROSEDALE IRON CO., 1858.
Path. Ft. In.
Ironstone ramble.................................. o 3 0
Shale—,*........................................ 0 4 0
Brown sandstone.................................. 5 2 0
Grey sandstone..................................... 1 3 0
Brown sandstone.................................. 5 2 0
Metal (shale)...................................... 0 5 0
Coal.............................................. 0 0 4
Metal (shale)...................................... 0 2 6
White sandstone.................................... 0 3 0
Metal (shale)-,..................................... 2 16
Grey and brown sandstone.......................... 2 3 0
Metal (shale)....................................... 3 2 0
Brown sandstone..........................,....... 2 3 6
Metal (shale)...................................... 3 5 0
White post (sandstone)............................... 0 4 0
Metal (shale)...................................... 0 5 5
White post (sandstone)............................... 0 1 3
Metal (shale)...................................... 1 3 6
White sandstone................................... 0 3 3
Shale, with ironstone nodules........................ 2 5 0
Magnetic ironstone................................. 2 1 3
White sandstone, hard.............................. I 2 0
Shale, with ironstone nodules.....................«.. 1 1 6
Black shale, with ironstone nodules................... 0 4 0
Magnetic ironstone................................ 5 2 0
Grey shale......................................... 110
Total Fathoms................................ 51 4 0
194
These exploring^ show therefore, that the Rosedale band of ironstone exists
as a bed, at the distance of 265 yards from the quarry, and again as a bed
at the further distance of 403 yards, making- altogether a bed of 668 yards
of such stone, upwards of 32 feet in thickness. Two bore-holes have recently
been set out, each 200 yards to the right and left of the bore-hole, 403
yards in advance of the drift, to ascertain the extent or breadth of the
ironstone bed, but as it will be some time before these borings can reach
the depth where the beds are supposed to exist, the result cannot be
communicated to the Institute until they are completed.
Enough has been explored to prove, in my opinion, the existence of a
distinct bed of ironstone of at least 30 feet in thickness, of an entirely
different character from either the top bed or the main band of the
Cleveland ironstone, its position being about 60 feet below the top bed. The
main band occurs in the lower part of the valley of Rose-dale, to the south,
but its thickness is not correctly ascertained, neither is the depth at
which it lies below the top bed determined. The quality here is not supposed
to be good. But it may here be remarked, as illustrative of the general
character of the ironstone beds of Cleveland, that both the bands seldom
occur in perfection in the same locality.
In the discussion at the meeting" in October, 1857, it was stated that the
Rosedale band was supposed to have been discovered at a place about two
miles up the valley, and that a drift had been set into the hill to prove if
such was the fact, which was named " Sheriff's Drift." The section at this
place is as follows, from the surface:—
Ft. In. Thick beds of gritstone shale, immediate cover of an upper
bed of ironstone or iron ore, ellipsoidal structures, much
browned, and scrappy ............................ 8 0
Shale .............................................. 4 0
Lower bed of ironstone, stratified in four beds, marked by
ellipsoidal structures round pale blue cores............ 6 8
Soft ironstone in beds, more argillaceous, and containing- shells 4 0
Soft ferruginous laminated bed.......................... 4 0
Shale .............................................. 0 0
A specimen from the drift face, 70 yards within the solid rock, gave 36*4
per cent, of iron. The exploring- at this place was not carried further than
70 yards into the solid ground, when it was abandoned, in order to prosecute
the more important experiments in the vicinity of the quarry. A drift has
been set into the hill, about half-a-mile west of the
195
quarry, at a lower level than the present drift, in order to drain the
entire depth of the ironstone deposit, and thus to explore further the
nature of the deposit.
The President then explained, by diagrams, the particulars as regarded the
drifts, borings, (fee, and proceeded: As stated on a former occasion, a slip
dyke was discovered by the drift near the quarry, running- in a direction
N.N.W. and S.S.E., the downthrow being towards the W.S.W.; and it has been
very generally supposed that the peculiar character of this deposit, and,
indeed, its formation, were due to the effect of this dyke, and that, in
fact, the deposit did not extend beyond the immediate vicinity of the
fissures of such dyke. It was well known that ironstone was found in the
fissures of dykes where little, if any, existed in the strata throug-h which
they passed, or in the beds in the immediate vicinity of such dykes; and the
hematite iron ore formation in Cumberland was an instance of vast masses of
ironstone assuming-the character of beds, in strata not peculiarly or
generally favorable to the production of ironstone. In the case of the
Rosedale deposit, he did not suppose that the dyke had no effect on this
peculiar mass of ironstone, on the contrary, in his opinion, the existence
of this dyke had, in all probability, occasioned, or imparted, the polarity
to the mag-netic nature of the ironstone. There could be no doubt of the
existence of the deposit as a bed, at least to the extent to which it was
proved; how far the deposit existed as a bed on each side of the dyke he was
not prepared to say, the borings which were in course of being- made would
prove this, to a certain extent, and, therefore, they must wait until those
were completed for the proof of the further development of this
extraordinary deposit. He had been informed that magnetic ironstone of a
similar character existed in other parts of the district; and no doubt the
attention which had been devoted to this, and the commercial value of such a
deposit, would lead to further investigation and enquiry, and therefore,
they mig-ht hereafter hope to obtain further information on this important
subject. They must bear in mind, however, in the consideration of this
subject, that the facts already ascertained prove that the bed or mass of
ironstone, as well as the beds above and below, are equally displaced and
depressed by the dyke, showing-, therefore, that it is an operation
subsequent to the deposit of the beds.
A long- and desultory conversation and discussion then took place, after
which the following- observations were made by Mr. Bewick, who said, after
hearing the President's explanation of his Vol. VI.—July, 1858.
196
theory with regard to the nature and extent of this deposit, he was bound to
say that his opinion remained the same. From the bore-hole put down from the
surface, (No. 1 bore-hole) it was proved the ore was running1 in a direction
nearly west. From the cross drift to the south, it was proved also, that its
breadth in that direction to where it cuts the shale, was only from 16 to 20
yards, and from the difference of its thickness in the two bore-holes; he
thought it was clearly manifested, that it was spreading out much the same
as represented in the section accompanying his paper, and which was further
confirmed by the position of the ore at the face of the south drift, where
it was found resting against the shale at a considerable angle with the
surface.
He had only to state, with reference to the dislocation of the strata
mentioned by the President, that he had traced the top-bed from 12 to 15
feet in thickness, from the crown before-mentioned along the side of the
valley, till it met the dyke at the quarry; passing which, it continued its
course southwards, without any visible disturbance, but what may have been
occasioned by the dyke. He was at Rosedale on Monday last, (28th June) where
he discovered that the only ore which was really magnetic, was confined
almost entirely to the space laid open by the quarry, and that the stone
north and south of it, though discoloured, was noj; affected by the magnet.
He was, therefore, more convinced than ever, that the magnetic portion of
the deposit was very limited indeed in its breadth.
In answer to some queries put by Mr. Barkus, relating to the thickness of
the deposit of the quarry,
Mr. Bewick stated, the thickness of the ore at the face of the quarry was 70
feet, without going through it. How far it might go down, and what direction
it might take, he said it was impossible to say. He believed, the strata
overlaying it was a subsequent formation, it was therefore not likely to be
found on the high moorland ground. He had heard that the magnetic ore had
been discovered in Farndale, a valley about three or four miles to the west
of Rosedale, but he had not seen it.
The meeting then adjourned.
NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE.
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING, THURSDAY, AUGUST 5, 1858, IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE,
WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
Nicholas Wood, Esq., President of the Institute, in the Chair.
The President—I am sorry to say that our- Secretary is not present to-day,
and that his absence is occasioned by illness. But I am very happy to inform
you that he is recovering, and I hope we shall soon have his services again.
In his absence, I will read over the proceedings of the Council.
The minutes of Council Meeting of July 17th, was then read.
The President then continued,—Mr. Wales has promised a paper on the Lundhill
Colliery accident, and on the system of Ventilation of Coal Mines generally,
illustrated by drawings and diagrams. I am glad to say that his diagrams are
here, and that his paper will be read after the routine business is disposed
of.
The President then said,—At the Council meeting held on July 24th, he
submitted to the Council if it was not desirable that the same rule which
applied to the Council with regard to some of them retiring every year,
should not be also applied to the President and Vice-Presidents ; and,
stated his willingness not to present himself for re-election, if the
adoption of such a rule was the wish of the members of the Institute. He
proposed, at such meeting, that a circular should be sent to each member,
which they, no doubt, had all received, stating his intention to propose the
following resolution, at the annual meeting, namely, " That the Resolution
of the annual meeting of 1858, with regard to the Election of the Council,
be made applicable to the superior officers of the Vol. VI.—August, 1858.
198
Institute; and; that according^, the President, two Vice-Presidents, and
three members of the Council be ineligible for re-election in each
succeeding- year." And he stated his intention, that if this resolution were
passed, he should not present himself for re-election.
That the next meeting- of the Council was held on the 31st, at which, he was
not present. A resolution was passed at that meeting, to the following
effect:—" Resolved, that a letter be written to the President expressing
deep regret, that he should have decided not to present himself, and, hoping
that he will re-consider the matter, and allow himself again to be put in
nomination for re-election. The zeal and energy with which he has forwarded
the objects of the Institute since its commencement, has induced the Council
to come to this decision."
President then proceeded,—The next point was that of obtaining tenders for
the printing and engraving of the Society's publications for the ensuing
year. At the commencement of the Institute, tenders were received from
different parties for the printing and publication of the Transactions of
the Institute, Mr. Reid was the successful candidate on that occasion, and
it has been continued with him ever since. The Council now wished that
tenders should be again taken, and he, therefore, put a resolution to that
effect to the meeting; the resolution thus put was carried unanimously.
The President then observed,—Before reading the minutes of the Council of
to-day, he would beg their attention for a few minutes to an explanation
upon the foregoing proceedings, especially with reference to the circular it
was thought desirable should be sent to the members generally. He had only
one declaration to make with reference to the office of President, and that
was, that anything he could do for the benefit of the Institute, he need
hardly say, he would continue to do to the latest period he was able to do
it. He trusted the attention he had already paid to the progress of the
Institute was sufficient to justify him in making such an observation, and
that in issuing that circular he did it solely with a view of promoting the
permanent interests of the Institute. He would beg to refer them to what
took place in 1856 on that subject, which he would read over to them, and
which occurred at the Annual Meeting in August of that year:—viz., " The
President next called attention to the election of officers for the ensuing
year, and noticed a sug'gestion in the minutes of the Council as to the
desirability of some of the Council retiring every year, such course being
adopted by similar institutions, that the Council declare three out of the
Council, and one of the four
199
Vice-Presidents, should retire and be ineligible, and this change was deemed
advisable with the view of infusing fresh blood into the Council. The result
of the proceedings at that meeting was, that with respect to the President
and Vice-Presidents, it was deemed that the change would be premature that
year, that the Council should make the matter more fully known, and that the
retiring of the three members of Council was to depend on the number of
times they attended the meetings." A great many gentlemen who are present
to-day, were present on that occasion. It was fully discussed whether it was
desirable that the President and Vice-Presidents should undergo the same
ordeal as the Council. At that meeting it was considered not desirable that
such should be the case, and, ultimately, the following resolution was
passed, "That no change in the election of Vice-Presidents is desirable ;
that three of the Council should retire annually, and that the three whose
attendance at the meetings of the Council have been fewest, be ineligible
for the following year." On that occasion it was applied exclusively to
the Council.
The President then stated, he thought it only right that in public
institutions, such as that under consideration, it was very desirable that
every person should be satisfied with the officers of the Institute, and
that every one should have an opportunity of aspiring to all the higher
situations of trust; and that every member should be eligible for election
for the office of President or Vice-President at every Annual Meeting. No
doubt the rules make every person eligible, but there seemed to be a sort of
feeling that the President and Vice-Presidents, as a matter of courtesy,
should not be subject to this rule. lie thought it was desirable that this
question should come before the meeting in a more tangible shape than
hitherto, and, therefore, he thought it was advisable to propose the
resolution, previously alluded to, with a view of bringing it to a practical
test, whether it was the wish of the meeting- that such a proceeding should
be adopted or not. Since that circular was sent to the members, he had been
communicated with by several members of the Institute, who had expressed a
wish that he should allow himself to be proposed as President for another
year. He begged to say, that his only object in issuing that circular was to
do what he considered was best for the interests of the Institute; and that,
after considering the matter carefully over, he left the matter entirely in
their hands. If they thought it was desirable he should not present himself
for President at this meeting he would do so; on the contrary, if they were
of opinion he should, he would
200
equally abide the result. At their meeting to-day the Council passed the
following- resolution,—" That the Council recommend that this subject be
taken into consideration at the next Annual Meeting-." Of course this
prevented him from proposing the resolution which he stated his intention of
doing, and left it optional for them to deal with the office of President
and Vice-President as they thought proper. With these observations he,
therefore, left the matter entirely in their hands. He had, as he had
previously stated, only one object in view, and that was, to benefit the
Institute; and whether it was as President, or in any other capacity, they
might rest assured that no effort on his part would ever be wanting to
promote the interests of the Institution.
The Report of the Council was then read by Mr. Taylor.
Mr. Wm. Barkus, sen., in the absence of Mr. Boyd, read the Financial
Statement.
Mr. Reid remarked that nothing had been expended in the purchase of books
during the past year.
The President—The next business, is the members to be proposed; and I shall
be glad if any gentleman has any to propose. I beg to propose Mr. Edmund
James Smith, of London, Agent of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, who, they
knew, held a very large extent of coal property, in the County of Durham.
Mr. Thos. Bailes, jun., of Thistleflat Colliery, was also proposed.
The President then said — There is nothing more of a routine character,
except the question of a Mining College or School, for the education of
mining students. I am afraid that during the past year much progress had not
been made in this very desirable object. Owing to my illness in the
beginning of the year I could not meet the Warden of the University of
Durham; and, since that time, gentlemen have been very much occupied in
Parliamentary business and elsewhere, so that the committee has not had an
opportunity of meeting the gentlemen of the University. The subject,
however, has not been lost sight of, and I will read two or three letters I
have received from the Warden of the University, and from Professor
Chevallier, on the subject; letters which express their willingness to
consider any proposition we have to make. You are aware that we set off at
first with the intention of establishing an independent college in
Newcastle, and the Duke of Northumberland came forward in the most princely
manner, by offering a large sum of money, as an endowment; on one condition
only, which has proved fatal to the scheme, namely, that we should provide
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a certain other amount for the purpose of building and establishing the
college. I regret that the coal trade did not follow up that proposition of
his Grace in the manner which, in my opinion, they ought to have done, if
they had considered their true interest; as, there can be no doubt, it is
for the interest of the trade that such an institution should be formed.
Whether it was that the trade not being in a good state was the cause or
not, we did not, however, get the money, nor even the promise of it, and,
therefore, we could not fulfil the conditions proposed by his Grace. Feeling
we could not accomplish the erection of an independent college, we turned
our attention, as you are aware, to associate ourselves with the University
of Durham, and Mr. T. J. Taylor and I have been in correspondence with the
Warden and Mr. Chevallier, as before stated, and the following are some
letters received by me on the subject:—
College, Durham, Dec. 15, 1857. Dear Sir,—The Warden and Senate desire me to
inform you that the University of of Durham is ready to give its best
attention and exertions, as far as its means extend, for furthering- the
objects proposed by the Committee for Mining- Education.
It appears to the Warden and Senate, that the regulations of the University
now in force for Students in Mining and Civil Engineering, may, without
inconvenience, be so modified, as to be adapted to the contemplated scheme.
A Committee, of which the Warden and I are members, has been appointed to
confer with your Committee, whenever it be convenient to you. I remain,
Dear Sir,
Yours, most faithfully,
TEMPLE CHEVALLIER, Registrar. To Nicholas Wood, Esq.
Durham, Feb. 10, 1858.
Mr Dear Sir,—I am glad to learn from the Warden, that your health is so far
re-established as to induce you to hope to be present at the meeting soon to
take place at Newcastle, with the view, among other matters, of forming a
connection between those interested in the Education of the Mining and
Engineering Classes, and the University of Durham.
The University is quite ready cordially to co-operate in such a work, by any
means not inconsistent with its own primary institutions. And I think, there
would be no difficulty in making an arrangement, by which a College, subject
to its own independent government, should give to the University and receive
from it, advantageous support.
There would probably be in such a College, a number of students who would
not require the kind of instruction which a University could more properly
supply; and those
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students might be entirely under the care and instruction of the officers of
the College. Others, would be sufficiently advanced, to avail themselves of
the lectures and general studies of the University ; and those students
might be matriculated as members of the University, and pursue the studies
to such an extent as appeared desirable and practicable.
If it were a part of the scheme to erect a College, and the University
possesses property available for that purpose, there would be every
disposition to facilitate the arrangements necessary for such a scheme.
If you would wish for any more definite information respecting the
University, which I might be able to supply, I shall be happy to answer any
enquiries; or, if you deemed it more satisfactory, I would call upon you any
day that you would appoint, if you will tell me the most convenient train by
which I may reach you.
Believe me,
My dear Sir,
Yours, very truly,
TEMPLE CHEVALLIER. To Nicholas Wood, Esq.
These letters prove that there is every disposition on the part of the
University of Durham to associate with us in promoting" our object. I trust
you are still of opinion that such an association with the University would
he desirable, and, if so, it would he advisable to instruct the Committee to
proceed forthwith to communicate with the University on this subject.
Mr. Taylor—There is a Committee for the purpose appointed.
President—It may be desirable, notwithstanding, perhaps, to pass a
resolution to instruct this Committee to proceed forthwith to communicate
with the University. I shall be glad if any gentleman has any remark to
make.
Mr. Potter—Before you communicate finally with the Durham University, it may
be desirable that the Committee should communicate with the coal trade as a
body, and see if they are disposed to aid in the project in a pecuniary
point of view.
President—I think that is very desirable; because, I am afraid, as far as
pecuniary aid goes, the University will not be able to do much for us. Last
year Mr. Robert Stephenson, Mr. Locke, and myself, with Mr. Ingham, had an
interview with Lord Granville and Sir George Grey on the subject, and I am
not without hopes that the Government will ultimately aid us in the project.
When we met those gentlemen, Mr. Stephenson, Mr. Locke, and myself pointed
out to them the great importance of the establishment of a Mining School,
and stated that we thought the appointment of Inspectors was beginning at
the wrong end;
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that it would be much better to instruct the underground managers in the
practical knowledge of mining, rather than keep them ignorant, and to
appoint Inspectors over them; and that it would more effectually ensure the
safety of the lives of workmen, if the youths who were intended as the
future managers of the mines had a little more instruction in ventilation,
and also in the practical management of mines. We pointed out that a
payment of £2,000 or £3,000 a-year towards the support of a Mining College,
would be a small sum compared with £14,000 a-year paid to the Inspectors of
Coal Mines. We considered, if government thought it desirable that such a
large sum as £14,000 a-year should be spent in inspection, it was surely
desirable that the smaller sum of £2,000 a-year should be spent in
education. Sir George Grey was so much impressed with the importance of
the subject that he sent for Lord Granville, then President of the Council,
under whose department the appropriation of money for educational
purposes is placed, and he expressed himself strongly as to the
desirability of Government aiding in the support of such an institution, if
it were practicahle to do so, and he pointed out to Lord Granville some mode
by which he thought it could be done. The result of the conference
appeared to be, that if we could show in what manner the scheme could be
made practically useful, the Government would aid us. We explained,
likewise, that we were in communication with the University of Durham, and
that it was proposed to make it a branch of that institution, but with a
separate management. Both Lord Granville and Sir George Grey expressed
their opinion that if we could preserve that independence which such an
institution required, connecting' it with the University of Durham would be
a great advantage; and stated if we could present to Government a tangible
plan, they thought Government would assist us.
The following resolutions were then respectively put to the meeting and
carried unanimously:— Resolved,— "That the meeting receive and adopt the
Report and recommendation of the Council, and that the same be promulgated."
"That Tenders be received for printing the papers of the Institute." " That
a Catalogue of all Books, Plans, Sections, and Specimens, belonging to the
Institute, be made out by the Council, and printed with the next year's
Proceedings."
" That the Committee for the Mining College be requested to confer with the
authorities of the Durham University, and also to communicate with the
Government, and Vol. VI.—August, 1858.
eb
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to ascertain the feeling of the Coalowners on the subject, and the extent to
which they are respectively disposed to encourage a project so well
calculated, in every respect, to secure the mining interests of the
kingdom."
The President—We have present with us to-day Dr. Ruhlmann of Hanover,
Professor in the Polytechnic Institute there, who has come to this district
to obtain information on coal mining-. I beg- to introduce him to the
meeting*.
Mr. Wales then presented his paper, and several diagrams to illustrate his
views of the subject of the Ventilation in Coal Mines, the President
remarking- that perhaps the best course to pursue would be that Mr. Wales
should read his paper through without interruption first, and then that the
meeting- should discuss seriatim the various sections illustrative of the
subject.
ON THE LUNDHILL ACCIDENT
AND ON THE
VENTILATION OF COAL MINES GENEEALLY.
By Mr. JOHN WALES.
In accordance with previous intimation, one object of our assembling here
to-day, is to take into consideration the ventilation of coal mines
generally, referring more particularly to the mode of ventilation in use at
Lundhill prior to the explosion.
I feel that I should only be taking up your time by remarking at length on
the vital importance of a subject like this, not only to members of the
mining profession but also to the community at large. Without considering
the additional security of mining enterprise, you will agree with me, that
the number of lives sacrificed by explosion, from time to time, renders it
imperative that we should all bring our united efforts to bear on a matter
of such importance as the present. When I look around me on the present
occasion, and see so many very able men, some of whom have devoted their
time and talents for nearly half a century to the subject before us, I may
be allowed to express a hope, that
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before we separate to-day, a mass of valuable information will be brought to
bear on the subject of ventilation, and that many important and practical
suggestions may be offered in the course of our enquiry.
I apprehend, however, it will be unnecessary on my part to detain you with
any lengthened introductory remarks, and, I shall, therefore, proceed at
once to request your attention to the diagrams, which I have prepared on a
large scale, for the better illustration of the different modes of
ventilation.
Let us take first of all diagram No. I.
This represents a system of working coal similar to that frequently
practised in the Yorkshire district. The Barnsley bed of coal is here
supposed to lie near the surface, and, consequently, little or no gas is
given off in the working face.
In this case naked lights may be used with impunity, and a great amount of
care and attention is not required in regard to the ventilation of the mine,
for the air may with propriety be conducted from board-gate to benk, and
from benk to board-gate, as shown on the diagram, without incurring the risk
of an explosion. When the bed of coal, however, reaches a greater depth, the
gas cannot make its escape to the surface as in the former case. The
ventilation of the mine, consequently, assumes a very different aspect, as
will be explained on reference to diagram No. II j and I would here make the
remark, that very great care should be exercised in approaching the line of
demarcation which may be supposed to separate these two systems, in the one
of which naked lights may be used, and, in the other, where to use naked
lights would be dangerous and highly improper.
Let us now proceed to notice diagram No. II.
This represents the system of working and ventilation in use at Lund-hill
Colliery at the time when the melancholy accident occurred, by which so many
lives were sacrificed. It will be seen that there are two distinct shafts
here represented—the one for the downcast, and the other for the upcast;
and, that, as soon as the air arrives at the bottom of the downcast, it is
divided into two equal portions—one going in the north direction, and the
other in the south. Let us follow that portion which goes to the north. It
will be seen that this is conducted to the northernmost part by means of
various doors placed in the separate board-gates. The air is then
subsequently conducted around the mine by means of doors placed in the
various openings, technically called slits. [These doors are for the purpose
of allowing the coals to be brought
206
from the face benks, and from the following-up benks.] The air then proceeds
up and down the edge of the goaf, and around the various workings, as
delineated by the arrows, until it reaches the top of the furnace-board,
when it unites with that portion of the air which has ventilated the
southern district, in a similar manner to that we have just described. These
united currents of air now proceed direct to the furnace, or " dumb drift,"
as the case may be.
I shall now offer a few brief observations on the defects of this particular
system. And, first, it will be generally admitted, that where, as in this
system, so many doors are required for carrying the air around the various
benks and board-2"ates, the chances of derangement and ac-cident are
proportionately increased. It is, therefore, a safe general rule, (if we
wish permanently to secure the ventilation of our mines) " that the number
of doors should be diminished to as great an extent as possible."
Having referred to the excessive number of doors required, I shall next
direct your attention to the danger which may be apprehended under this
system, from the use of the naked lights. These, it appears, were used at
the working face of the benks and board-gates.
Now, if any of the numberless doors I have referred to, were accidently left
open or deranged, the air would naturally be diverted from its proper
course. The consequence would be an insufficient dilution of the gas given
off by the goaf or benk; and when this gas comes in contact with the naked
lights, which are shown to have been generally used, we may well imagine a
result to follow, which, it is fearful to contemplate.
Again, there is an additional insecurity, on which, I would remark, in
connection with working the coal at the face of the " benk." And, here it
may be asked, tl what is a benk ?" A " benk " is a place where the coal is
in process of excavation j and, at Lundhill, the benks were worked to a
width of forty yards, and to a length, varying from two to three hundred
yards. But, to proceed with our remarks :—The strata above the cavity or
goaf,—which is thus made,—of necessity, breaks down and falls to a
considerable height. For the better illustration of this part of the subject
to those who are not conversant with mining" operations, I have prepared a
longitudinal section of what we might conceive this goaf to be. It will be
seen from a glance at this section, that there are great cavities left above
the fallen strata, forming, as it were, a reservoir or dome, in which, gas,
when given off in the dislocated strata, will lodge.
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twelve benks and twelve board-gates. Now, to give each benk and board-gate a
separate division of air, according to this proportion, would require a very
large aggregate indeed. If I remember correctly, the quantity of air at
Lundhill colliery, previous to the explosion, was 60,000 cubic feet per
minute. This, I should consider, more than an average for a colliery of such
extent. If the workings could have been so arranged as to have twelve
divisions of air instead of twenty-four, then each benk and board-gate might
have had a separate portion, and, in this case, I could willingly have
sanctioned such a mode of carrying on a mine, for I am of opinion that, with
8,000 cubic feet per minute, twelve divisions of air are much more likely to
be attained than twenty-four.
To have twenty-four divisions in one pit, each supplied with such a quantity
of air as this, appears to me the very height of absurdity. As an instance,
let us take the board-gates which have only two working places each. For
each of these board-gates a separate division of air is required, and this,
certainly, appears to me a very reckless expenditure of the important
element which is so essential to the safe conducting of a mine, viz.,
atmospheric air.
One word as to the mode of working. You will readily perceive, that by
having so many divisions of air, we must, of necessity, require a great
number of regulators to enable us to apportion to each district its proper
quantum of air. You will observe, that according to this diagram, regulators
require to be placed in the slits or openings which communicate with the
benks, for the purpose of bringing the coals through to the horse roads.
Consequently, by this arrangement, the coals can only be brought from one
side of the benks. This, you will agree with me, is a great obstruction to
the proper working of the coal, and, it is scarcely requisite to state, that
it is of little purpose having our ventilation well arranged, if, with such
arrangement, we cannot work the coal to advantage.
Before concluding with this diagram, it is proper to state, that under this
system the fresh air is taken into the face of each board-gate, where the
naked light may be used with perfect safety, and we may observe, generally,
that this arrangement will hold good with regard to ventilation, provided a
sufficient quantity of air can be procured to supply the various divisions
shown on this diagram.
We will now go on to diagram No. IV.
This system differs slightly from that of No. Ill, both as it respects the
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ventilation of the mine, and the manner in which the coals are brought from
the benks. In No. Ill diagram we made objections to the inconvenience of
having only one way by which the coals could be brought from the various
benks to the horse-roads. I shall now attempt to show, that by altering the
mode of ventilation, the obstacle, I mean the regulator, can be removed from
the slit next to the face of the benk, by this means enabling us to bring
the coals from both sides of the benks to the horse-roads. To accomplish
this, you will observe, that one door is required between each set of
board-gates.
At first sight this diagram might seem to exhibit a very feasible system,
but let us consider the arrangement as it regards the ventilation of the
mine. In diagram No. Ill we found it impracticable to pass the air around
the board-gates without having a regulator in the slit next to the face of
the benk, but, by the arrangement shown in this diagram, it will be seen
that we are enabled altogether to dispense with the regulators in the slits.
This change is effected by making the traverse of the air, required to
ventilate the board-gates, shorter than the current of air required to
ventilate the benk. By making this alteration we can now bring the coals
from each side of the benk, which is, no doubt, a great advantage over the
arrangement for working the coal as shown in diagram No. III.
Let us look once more at the system of ventilation represented in diagram
No. IV.
Apparently, to the eye, the arrangements appear perfect in every respect.
But, if the door (a) between the board-gates be supposed to be open, what
effect will then be produced on the ventilation of the mine 1
This is a question of some importance; I shall leave this, however, as well
as the explanation, &c, to be considered in the course of our subsequent
discussion of diagram V.
By way of concluding my remarks on the Lundhill mode of working*, I would
observe, that after giving my careful attention to the plans already brought
before your notice, I think it is evident, that even after all our care and
trouble is expended on the application of regulators, with a view of
enabling us to dispense with doors, so soon as the various board-gates and
benks approach the barrier indicated by the dotted line, and the
intermediate blocks of coal are removed, our regulators, for every practical
purpose, are rendered entirely useless.
For the ventilation of our workings, we are, in such a case, compelled
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to have recourse to the old system of trap-doors, and this being- so, we may
safely conclude, that, under this Lundhill system of ventilation, the
divisions of air can only be pix>perly continued in use so long- as the
blocks of coal between the board-gates remain entire.
Having- disposed of the Lundhill system, I shall now submit to your notice
three different systems of working- and ventilating- coal mines, and it will
be for you to consider whether or not any of them are to be preferred to the
Lundhill plan, to which your attention has already been directed.
Allow me to refer you to diagram A. No. 1 on this diagram represents a
portion of the workings of a pit of shallow depth, and, in such a case, as
was observed before, naked lights may be entirely used. The ventilation
under these circumstances is very simple, only requiring that every
consideration should be used with a view of dispensing- with trapdoors as
much as possible. By referring* to the No. 1 district of workings, it will
be seen that two doors are placed in the rolley-way, to keep the air to the
right and to the left. The distances, &c, being- equal, it will be
reasonable to suppose that the air will divide into equal quantities. The
air is then conducted up each side of the working-s and meets and unites
ag-ain at the top of the middle rolley-way, down which it is conducted, and
afterwards passes off into the return.
No. 2, on the diagram A, shows a different system ag-ain, and represents a
district of working-s where the coal lies at a much greater depth than in
No. 1. We will assume, in this case, that inflammable gas exudes from the
coal to such an extent that it is desirable that the safety-lamp should be
exclusively used in the benks, while, by an arrangement for ventilating- the
board-gates with such currents of air as has been already described, the
naked lig-ht may be used in them with the most perfect safety. Those who are
experienced in the working- of coal mines will be aware that to obtain the
coal in the board-gates frequently necessitates the use of g-unpowder, and,
consequently, that the naked light here is in constant requisition, also, in
the event of faults being- met with by which the bed of coal may be "
thrown" up or down, under such circumstances the use of gunpowder is also a
great acquisition in making the horse-roads. Hence the advantages of our
being able to introduce the candles here with impunity.
The air is carried up on either side of these workings in a manner similar
to that in No. 1, but with this exception, that there are no doors required
to bear the air to the right and left portions of the district, for it will
be
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seen that the air is divided into two equal portions, and is then carried up
to the face of each board-gate, after which it returns to ventilate the
benk, the two currents uniting again about midway across the benk, and
passing thence to the return. The distance between the face of the
board-gates, where naked lights are used, and the benks, where the
safety-lamps are in use, will entirely depend on the discretion of the
manager.
I might remark, before going further, that, in the ventilation of districts,
we should adhere as much as possible to the rule " never to go beyond
certain doors with the naked lights where there is the remotest possibility
of the air from the goaf approaching the candle by the doors being neglected
or left open,"—a contingency which you will at once perceive cannot arise
according to the arrangements in No. 2.
If we suppose the doors were neglected at E, this would only take the air
from the board-gates for the time being, and assuming gas to be given off in
ordinary quantities the result would not be serious.
It might ignite at the miner's candle, but the explosion would be very
limited indeed in extent.
I believe I have clearly explained, that when both doors in any case
happened to be left open, the air would rush into the benk and not press
from the goaf.
It will be observed, that there is a similarity between this plan of working
and that at Lundhill, with this exception, that the barriers in the former
system remain intact so long as the naked lights are used in the board-gate,
so that the probability is, if an explosion unfortunately should occur, it
will be principally confined to the district in which it originated.
No. 3 plan, on the diagram, is a system of working coal similar to that at
Lundhill, with this sole difference, that the benks are much wider, —the
divisions of air are fewer,—and the system approaches, therefore, much
nearer to that of the " long-wall" The ventilation in this plan is so
arranged, that the air is taken up in the middle of the workings and is
divided at the top, one portion going to the right and the other portion to
the left, being subsequently taken down by the edge of the goaf.
I freely confess that I have great doubts in my mind as to the
practicability of upholding air-ways by the sides of goaves, but, so far as
my information extends, it appears that this system is practised, and my
desire that you should have an opportunity of expressing your opinion on
this particular plan, induced me to bring it before your notice.
Before concluding altogether with diagram A, I would wish to point Vol.
VI.—August, 1858.
fs
212
out to you the manner in which a colliery may be worked under any one of the
different systems here represented, keeping in view, at all times, the
necessity of arranging the ventilation in such a manner that by splitting
the air, trap-doors may be as much as possible dispensed with.
To take one of the above plans, say No. 3, instead of communicating the
benks and board-gates with each other, work your intermediate district
according to this plan, and afterwards proceed with the exploring drifts, or
main levels, and leave coal (as per diagrams V. and VI.), of the same width
as is required for No. 2; then form another district, and so on alternately,
(see explanation of diagram No. VI.) By this arrangement of workings the
ventilation may be regulated with the greatest precision. After the first
alternate districts have been worked off, the coal which has been left for
other districts can be commenced with, by going up between the goaves that
have already been made. If it were asked how we can obtain command over the
air when we communicate with the old works ?—my reply would be, that if
packing can be so put in as to carry the air up and down in these goaves,
then this packing would undoubtedly hold good for the arrangement of the
ventilation for the districts which have been left.
So much for the various systems of ventilation shown on the diagram.
Diagram No. VI. The system of working, here shown, is that of leaving every
alternate district of coal to be worked off, after the district on either
side (AA) has reached the barrier or boundary.
By this arrangement, the board-gates and horse-roads which were used for the
original districts, can be applied, with equal advantage, for the getting of
the coal from either side of the benks.
It will be seen, as indicated by the dotted lines, that places will have to
be driven for the purposes of ventilation, which is easily arranged, as the
currents of air from either side can be conducted by a door placed at o in
the board-gate along the slit, where they will unite at (P), and go up to
the face of the benk, after which they return and pass through their
respective regulators.
If it ever occurred, however, under this system of ventilation, that the air
in passing down the goaf should become too much contracted, thereby
diminishing the quantity, a difficulty then arises, which may be obviated by
removing the stopping at T, and placing a regulator at X, on either side, as
the case may be. The air will then pass direct across the face of the
workings from P to Q,—down the return board at T,— and through the
regulators as before.
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Now, according- to this plan, we are enabled to work off the whola of the
pillars or blocks of coal left between the board-gates, and this can be
accomplished with the same permanent arrangements of ventilation as were
previously in operation.
It is hardly necessary that, at present, I should detain you any longer with
my remarks on this important topic.
You will see, that in my observations to-day, I have confined myself almost
entirely to the Lundhill system of ventilation. Perhaps, at some future
time, should opportunity offer, I shall, with your permission, take occasion
to treat, in a similar manner, of the north-country system of ventilation,
comparing it more especially with the plans at present in use in the midland
districts.
There is one remark I should wish to make before concluding, and it is this,
that while I have mentioned, in my observations above, the conditions under
which candles alone may be used for the purpose of lighting, as also, the
conditions under which it is desirable that candles and lamps should be
combined for this purpose, at the same time I am fully aware, that there are
mines which are liable to sudden outbursts of gas, and, under such
circumstances, it would be unsafe to introduce the naked light. This is a
matter, however, which must be left solely to the discretion of the manager.
Mr. Wales, after the reading of the paper, proceeded to explain diagram No.
I, illustrative of the ventilation of a coal mine on the Yorkshire system of
working where no inflammable gas existed. He stated that the arrows would
show the direction of the air; the double cross lines at D representing
doors; S, scales of air in the stoppings and doors; the single cross lines
representing stoppings j A, the downcast pit j and U, the upcast pit.
The air, they would perceive, after passing down the downcast pit A,
traversed the two water-level boards to the north and south, then around the
face of the benks east and west to the furnace board F, down which it passed
to the upcast pit 17, and Mr. Wales pointed out that the sole dependence of
the circulation of the air was on the doors D being kept constantly shut.
The President—How are the following-up benks ventilated ?
Mr. Wales—The bearing-up doors, it will be perceived, have scales of air in
them which air will pass up the following-up benks, provided
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that no air escape across the goaf, or along the headway at the bottom of
the benk. These scales of air at the doors it will be seen are common to all
the following-up benks.
The President—The only air passing to the benks is from the scale at the
doors ?
Mr. Wales—Yes, going from benk to board-gate, and from board-gate to benk.
Mr. Potter—But the split of air of those side benks may get across the goaf?
Mr. Wales—No; the air has a free course up the side and across the face of
the benks, and the double yellow lines alongside the following-up benks show
the packing, which is supposed to be tight, so that the air, having a free
course up the side benks and around the face, goes that way in preference to
pressing through the goaf.
Mr, Potter—When you split the air, one portion going to the face of the
benks and the other to the following-up benks, what prevents it crossing the
goaf?
Mr. Wales—Nothing, except the packing, if we can make it sufficiently tight.
In the Lundhill case it was supposed to be tight.
The President to Mr. Potter—What you want to know is, why the air does not
cross the goaf?
Mr. Wales—Suppose a portion did, the greatest portion would go by the face
of the following-up benks, and these two currents would meet at the slit
nearest the face, and so pass through it to the next board-gate and benk.
The President—No doubt a portion of the air does press through the goaf.
Gentlemen will recollect this was one of the reasons alleged for the cause
of the explosion at Lundhill, viz.:—by a portion of air passing from one
side of the benk to the other, and carrying with it the gas which it is
supposed was lodged in the goaf. In one of the following-up benks there was
a fall of stone, which prevented the free passage of the air up that side of
the benk; two men were working on the opposite side of the benk with lamps
with the gauze removed, or with naked lights; and it was supposed that a
fall of stone had forced the air across the goaf, carrying with it some
inflammable gas, and that the gas had been ignited at the lamps of these
workmen, as they were found much burnt, and lying near the opposite slit.
Mr. Elliot—If we consider the white portion of the diagram the goaf of the
benk, a pillar of coal, it looks very like the old-fashioned
215
system of coursing the air up and down every place. It appears, also, a very
expensive system of taking the air up the benks by those packings,
represented by the double yellow lines. It must be very expensive,
especially where there is no gas. Why adopt a system so expensive ?
The President—The packing is for the purpose of securing a road alongside
the goaf to bring- the coals out, as well as for air-way, and it is well
known that there are several collieries working seams of coal, especially
those containing a band of stone, by wide boards or benks, and building a
pillar on each side of the board or benk, which serves the double purpose of
forming a road-way and air course. These packings in the diagram represent
the pillars in the cases alluded to where the air goes up one side of the
pillar, or packing, and down the other.
Mr. Elliot—The air would always go through the innermost slit. The packing
further down is discontinued as a tram-way.
Mr. Wales—It is as desirable to have a little air going round the goaf as
not, when the roads are already made. I wish Mr. Elliot to understand that
these roads were originally made to bring the coals from the benks, and the
expense which he complains of, is not incurred solely on account of
ventilating purposes, but chiefly to bring the coals along. This is the
actual system practised at Lundhill, and, I suppose, they find it as cheap
as any other, or they would not practice it to such an extent. The
President—Generally, the system of following-up benks is not practised. The
more usual course is to take away the whole width at once. They are only
adopted to obtain a larger diurnal quantity of coal in the same extent of
space. In Lundhill the following-up benks were worked on both sides of the
goaf, three on each side; and, consequently, a greater number of men were
employed in working coal than could possibly be accommodated in the face of
the benks. It is, however, the more general practice in Yorkshire to take
the whole width of the benk at once.
Mr. Wales then exhibited diagram No. II., and the description having been
read,
The President—Explain how the air is forced up the sides of the goaf?
Mr. Wales—With the packing.
The President—But, you know, the packing is not tight. This is not quite the
same as in diagram No. I., where, you said, the following-up benks were
aired by the scale of the doors. In this diagram I do
216
not observe any scale in the doors. And, I observe, the air is, first of
all, taken up the one board-gate, across the slit between them, then brought
down the other board-gate, and up the following-up benks on one side of the
goaf, across the face, and down the following-up benks on the opposite side,
and then up the next board-gate as before.
Mr. Wales—If the packing is tight, the air would so travel. It was
represented that at Lundhill the packing was tight, and, if so, it would
carry the air up to the face. Tf not tight, the air would cross the goaf to
the nearest exit.
The President—In the Lundhill plans, as given to us at the time of the
explosion, and shown in Vol. V., the darts show the air as passing down both
sides of the benks, not up one side and down the other.
Mr. Wales—Then it would cross the next board-gate ?
The President—Take one case, the air goes up the northernmost board-gate,
then across the uppermost slit; part crosses the face, and part comes down
the following-up benks on the north side of the goaf to the bottom. That
portion which crosses at the face then comes down the south side of the goaf
and joins the other portion at the bottom, and so passes up the next
board-gate as before, except, as you will see a scale S at the uppermost
door, where a portion is not forced down the south following-up benks.
Mr. Wales—What forces the air around the face of the benks, which is the
longer distance ?
The President—I suppose the passage across the bottom of the benk is not
sufficiently large to admit all the current, and that, therefore, a portion
is forced round the face and down the south side of the benk.
Mr. Elliot—I believe a portion of the air came down on each side of the goaf
to the bottom.
Mr. Wales—When the air is taken up and down, as shown in the diagram No.
II., it would look as if the place was ventilated. But, if only taken down
one side of the goaf, then there may be a magazine of gas in the goaf, in
which case the candles must be removed from the part which cannot be
ventilated.
The President—-If the air is taken up one side of the goaf and down the
other, there will be pressure of air across the goaf, more than if the whole
of the air is taken up to the top at once, and one portion of it brought
down on one side of the goaf, and the other portion on the other, suppose
one-half on each side. The former mode would be more liable
217
to bring the gas out of the goaf unless the goaf can be completely ven*
tilated, which is, I believe, in general, impracticable to do, and,
certainly, not to be depended upon to such an extent as that candles can be
used with safety in its vicinity.
Mr. Wales—The air would, if coursed up and down on each side of the goaf,
take the nearest course, which would be across the goaf.
Mr. Taylor—Is there a great deal of air-way at the bottom of the benk, along
the headway ? What height is kept where the goaf joins the headway ?
Mr. Wales—There is not, in my diagram No. II., presumed to he any air-way at
all. There is packing which operates as a barrier.
Mr. Taylor—What quantity of air was supposed to be in circulation at
Lundhill at the time of the accident 1
The President—We understood 60,000 cubic feet per minute, or 30,000 cubic
feet in each of the north and south divisions.
Mr. Wales then explained the diagram No. II., and that portion of his paper
relating to the falling of the strata in the goaf, and the consequences
likely to arise from the use of candles in the following-up benks.
The President—I would beg to remark as to the open space at the top of the
goaf—that immediately above the coal at Lundhill Colliery there is a
considerable thickness of shale, which falls when the coal is removed.
Above the shale is a thick bed of hard sandstone, which is, of course,
difficult to break down. In the operation of working the benks, the shale
would, in the first instance, fall down, the sandstone would then form the
roof, and there would be more or less space between the top of the fallen
shale, and the sandstone, which would be filled with gas, and which would
form a magazine. Eventually, when a greater space was excavated, we may
suppose the sandstone to break down, in the operation of which the gas would
be suddenly forced out, and, if candles were exposed on both sides of the
goaf, when such falls took place, we may easily imagine the result. The
wonder is, not that explosions in such cases take place, but that they do
not take place more frequently, no doubt, owing to the compact sandstone not
being broken through at the time candles are exposed, or when the
inflammable air is forced out.
Looking at the Lundhill plan, Vol. V., you will see that the last two slits
next the face are open, and that notwithstanding the air is professed to be
taken down both sides of the goaf, or following-up benks, to the bottom—we
certainly travelled across the bottom of some of the benks,
218
which showed there was a passage along- the head-way—the air could not,
therefore, be forced up and down as shown in Mr. Wales' diagram.
Mr. Wales then drew the attention of the meeting to the number of doors
implicated in the mode by which the Lundhill colliery was worked and
ventilated, and the impropriety of using naked lights where gas existed so
near the goafs.
Mr. Elliot to Mr. Wales—I think you said in your paper, at least so I
understood it, that some portion of the workings might be worked with naked
lights, in advanced places, provided they were a sufficient distance in
advance of the goaf. Having regard to the fact that there are seven or eight
goaves all to be ventilated, or, at any rate, worked, I would like to ask,
how far these places ought to be in advance of the goaves, to enable the
joint system of working with naked lights and lamps to be carried on with
safety 1
Mr. Wales—In ordinary cases, three pillars, each 60 yards long = ]80 yards.
You will see it in the next diagram. We will now pass on to diagram No.
III., in which not a single door is used.
The President—In the former diagrams the whole air of the pit was divided
into two splits, of 30,000 cubic feet each, supposing the whole to be 60,000
cubic feet. In this case it is divided into as many splits as there are
benks and board-gates, for, I see, you air one benk and one board-gate by
each split of air.
Mr. Wales—This diagram represents about half the extent of the pit's
workings—each of the southernmost board-gates—a split is then taken to the
left hand benk which airs the benk, and then meets a split from the next
board-gate, and so passes to the upcast. The remainder of the air from the
first split passes round the face of the board-gate, and meeting the split
which airs the right hand benk, passes through the regulators to the upcast.
It will, therefore, be seen that each main split of air ventilates one set
of board-gates and one benk, and passes through the regulators A B O D E F
along the main return underneath the crossings x to the upcast shaft.
The President—Let us first of all go into the question of the extent to
which the air can be split. I suppose you would not require the same
quantity of air for the board-gates as1 for the benks, and by the regulators
you can give to each whatever quantity you please 1 Suppose there are eight
benks, and eight pairs of board-gates, = 16, could you ventilate these with
70,000 cubic feet of air per minute, or even less? I think in the Durham
district there are a great many divisions of the pits venti-
219
lated with less than 4,500 cubic feet of air. I wish to elicit information,
as I believe there are few Yorkshire collieries with more than 70,000 cubic
feet of air per minute. Suppose you had eight board-gates and eight benks,
would 70,000 cubic feet of air be sufficient in a colliery yielding as much
gas as Lundhill ?
Mr. Wales—Scarcely, as it would require eight of each to produce 500 tons of
coals in 12 hours. At Lundhill, at the time of the explosion, they were
working night and day, and, therefore, they produced, with the same amount
of workings, a larger quantity of coals in the 24 hours. I think 8,000 cubic
feet of air for each benk, and 5,000 cubic feet for each board-gate per
minute would be quite sufficient; and if there were eight of each, it would
require 104,000 cubic feet per minute, which would be ample.
I shall now go into the mode of dividing the air, and will take as a
•standard the above quantities, commencing with Nos. 1 and 2 board-gates,
diagram No. III., and suppose it is required that 8,000 cubic feet should go
into each benk, and 5,000 cubic feet into each board-gate. I begin by
allowing 13,000 cubic feet to pass through each of the regulators R A and R
B, and, consequently, 13,000 cubic feet to pass up the main road of each
board-gate. If there were no obstacles in crossing each of the benks a and
b, the whole of the 13,000 cubic feet would cross these benks, and pass
through the regulators R A and R B, the dotted board-gate No. 2 not being
supposed to be driven.
Suppose then the dotted board-gate to be driven, without any stoppings in
the slits, at x y z, no air would pass around the face of this board-gate.
But suppose stoppings put into those slits, then what would be the result 1
The pressure or density on each side of x would be equal, and, consequently,
no air would pass round the face of the board-gate. But suppose I put a
regulator at R f, and allow only 8,000 to pass across the benk a, then the
regulator R A having a capacity for 13,000 cubic feet, 5,000 cubic feet will
pass around the face of the board-gate No. 2, and, meeting 8,000 crossing
the benk, will unite at o, and so the 13,000 will pass through the regulator
R A, and so on with the other benks and board-gates. 13,000 cubic feet, for
instance, passing up the main board-gate No. 2 is divided at T, 5,000 cubic
feet passing around the board-gate, and 8,000 cubic feet passing across the
benk b, through the regulator R g, and meeting 5,000 cubic feet at P passing
round the board-gate No. 3, and so uniting and forming the 13,000 cubic feet
allowed to pass through the regulator R B, and so on with all the other
benks and board-gates.
Vox. VI.—August, 1858.
220
But it must be observed that the regulators R A, R B, R C, are not
sufficient of themselves to distribute the air properly and regularly
through the board-gates and benks, or to give to each their definite
quantities. When the stoppings x y z are put into the board-gates, the
distance which the air would then have to travel around the board-gate No. 2
would be greater than the distance which the current passing across the benk
a has to travel, consequently, the latter current would fill the regulator E
A to the detriment of the air passing around the benk No, 2. Consequently,
it is necessary that there should be a regulator at R/to prevent more than
8,000 feet passing across the benk a, leaving room in regulator R A for the
5,000 feet to make up the 13,000 feet allotted to pass through the regulator
R A.
These are given to show, that it is only practicable, where the distances or
resistance of two currents is precisely equal, to pass equal quantities of
air, of two currents, through one regulator, as proposed by some of the
schemes before the public; and, that in the various irregularities of
distances necessarily occurring in the working of our extensive coal mines;
we can only depend upon securing to each district the requisite quantity of
air by a separate regulator to each split or current of air; and,
consequently, in addition to the regulators A B C D E F, it is requisite
that regulators should also be put in the slits at fg h i h I, as shown on
the diagram.
A long and desultory discussion then took place as to the question of,
whether, supposing the separate currents of No. 1 passing across the face of
the benk a, and No. 3 passing across the face of the benk b, to be of equal
density, any air would pass around the face of the board-gate No. 2 j and,
also, as to the effect of the regulators A B C D, &c, and the regulators fg
hi hi, which, though very interesting, as illustrative of the practical
distribution of air, cannot, without the diagrams be intelligibly
communicated in the report of the meeting. The conclusion being, that in a
case of working, similar to that shown in diagram No. III., it was necessary
that the additional regulators fg hihl, should be adopted, to ensure the
requisite current of air to the board-gates and benks respectively.
President—There is, then, no practical difficulty in doing away with all the
doors, and working, as shown in diagram No. III., by regulators ?
Mr. Wales—None, except that the coals cannot be brought along the slits in
which the regulators fg hihl are placed. If the regulators are placed in the
doors, when the doors are opened the equilibrium of the ventilation would be
destroyed.
221
President—Consequently, the coals of the benks must, therefore, in such
cases, be brought out on one side only of the benks.
Mr. Wales to Mr. Elliot—You were speaking of the distance which the
board-gates would be required to be in advance of the goaves or benks to
enable candles to be used in the board-gates, though lamps are required to
be used in the benks. I should say, with a current of 8,000 cubic feet per
minute, and in a colliery not yielding more gas than Lundhill, candles might
be used in the board-gates, though it was necessary to use lamps in the
benks. Diagrams IV. and V. will explain this more fully.
Diagrams IV. and V. were then exhibited, and the observations on
them read.
The President to Mr. Wales—Will you now explain how you can. with safety,
use candles in the board-gates, it being admicted there is gas in the benks
?
Mr. Wales—I would first explain, as regards diagram No. IV. It will be
observed that the regulators are taken away from the slits and placed in the
back board-gate, where there is no passage required for coal work. This is
done effectually by making the length of air-course, from the board-gates to
the upcast shorter, and the resistance less than from the benks,
consequently, the preponderating pressure of the air is towards and around
the board-gates. I, therefore, put a regulator in the backboard, which gives
the requisite quantity of air only, to the board-gate, and doors being put
in the slits of the board-gates allow the coals to be brought out on both
sides of the benks. It will be observed, likewise, as regards the use of
candles in the board-gates, that the first of the air passes around the
board-gates, then through the regulator. This prevents any portion of the
air from the benks reaching the candles of the board-gates.
Diagram No. V. is a still safer mode, being the same as is shown in No. 3,
diagram A. In this mode the whole of the first of the air passes up the
middle board-gate to the face; it is then split right and left, and passes
into the benks, and so to the return drift. Double doors are put into the
road-ways leading to the benks on each side, so that when one is open the
other is shut. These doors are different from doors directing the main
currents of a pit, if they are left open they only take the air off the
leading board-gates, the current through the benks is not at all diminished,
neither does it affect the general quantity of air in the pit> or in each
split.
222
As regards the use of candles, the air from the board-gates pass to the*
becks, and there is no possibility of the air passing- in the contrary
direction from the benks towards the candles.
Mr. Elliot—That is, you ventilate the whole, and then bring- it out to the
broken or benks.—That is what you call perfect safety ?
Mr. Wales—It cannot, perhaps, be considered perfect safety, but it is as
perfect as I think possible. In the Lundhill ventilation, the air from the
benks passed into the board-gates, hence the danger of having candles in the
board-gates. In this case the air passes from the board-gates into the
benks, and there is no possibility of the air "backing out" of the benks
upon the candles in the face of the board-gates. If the doors are neglected
the same result presents itself, and so long as candles can with safety be
used in the board-g-ates, supposing no benks in existence, they can in this
case be used with equal safety if there are benks ; as, on looking at
diagram V. it will be seen that the pressure of the air in any case must be
towards the benks, and not from the benks to the board-gates.
Mr. Dunn—It is quite clear if the doors were left open, the air would pass
into the goaf at all times, and not from the goaves into the board-gates.
Mr. Elliot—Are we dealing with a fiery mine ? That implies danger.. This is
a case where gas is made in the mine.
Mr. Wales—The paper explains that this is a case where " gas exudes from the
coal to such an extent that it is advisable the safety-lamp should be
exclusively used in the benks, while, by an arrangement for ventilating the
board-gates with such currents of air as has already been described,, the
naked lights may be used in them with the most perfect safety."
The President—I understand the case to be this—It is a case where you think
you may, if the air is properly regulated, work the board-gates by candles,
while safety-lamps are required in the benks; but, then, to do that with
safety, you must have the air so arranged that in no case, by the neglect of
doors or otherwise, is it possible that the air from the benks should reach
the candles, but that the pressure of the air should be always from the
board-gates to the benks. If you reverse it, and make it the tendency of the
air to pass from the benks towards the board-gates, then it would be
dangerous. The system you propose is to keep the board-gates sufficiently in
advance of the benks, that, if the doors are neglected, the air passes into
and joins the return air from the benks.,, both currents of air passing
towards the upcast as usual.
223
Mr. Wales—Apparently the system shown in diagram No. IV. is complete, but if
we open the door a, the effect will be that a portion of the air from the
benk No. IV. would go into the board-gate No. V. Thus when the door a is
opened, the shortest route for the air passing up the main road of
board-gate No. IV. will be through the regulator No. 1, consequently, this
regulator will be fully supplied with air. The other portion of the air
crossing the face of the benk No. 4 will pass from a to c, and so proceed up
the board-gate No. 5 to where we suppose candles used. This air will so
pass, inasmuch as, though the route by the face of the board-gate is not
shorter than the regular route by B C when the door is shut, it meets with
less resistance by that route when the door is opened, for the quantity of
air then passing from A to B is much greater than the quantity from a to c,
and it, consequently, meets with more resistance, from its velocity and
bulk, than the smaller quantity and less velocity of the air passing from a
to c.
Considerable discussion then took place, between Mr. Dunn, Mr. Greenwell,
and Mr. Wales, on the effect of having a door in the situation of a, and the
danger which would accrue if candles were used in the board-gate under such
circumstances; it appearing, that in such a mode of distribution of the air,
though apparently, at first sight, a safe mode, it would not be safe to use
candles in the board-gates in such cases, if inflammab le air prevailed to
any extent in the benks and goaves.
The President—The mode of distributing the air is not safe, as, though,
while everything is right, the air does not pass from the benks to the
board-gates, and so candles could be used with safety. But, should the door
a, for instance, be left open, accidently or negligently, then the tendency
of the air would be to pass from the benks to the board-gates, a different
state of circumstances coming into operation, viz., the velocity of the
current in the main air-courses, and the pressure of the air, through the
regulators not previously in operation, tending to divert the current in a
different direction when the door is open than when shut. To Mr. Wales—Can
you show us a mode of distribution of the air which is equally safe whether
the doors are shut or open; for, as doors are liable to be left open at
times, it is quite clear it would not be desirable that the safety of the
mine should depend upon the contingency of any of the doors in the pit being
neglected.
Mr. Wales—The mode shown in Nos. 2 and 3, diagram No. V., accomplishes the
object, as, whether the doors are shuc or open, the tendency is always for
the air to pass from the benks to the return air-drifts, and not towards the
board-gates.
224
The President—That is a system which you deem as perfect as yow can suggest
?
Mr. Wales—The application of the air is good, but the distance which the
naked light ought to be from the benk must be decided upon by the viewer, as
he must be guided according to the circumstances of the mine. There is
another circumstance connected with this mode of working which I would wish
to point out. It is all right so long a3 there is a barrier or rib of coal
between one goaf and another; but if the mode of working implies that at
some time or other the different goaves are permitted to have free
communication with each other, as in the case of working away the pillars of
coal forming the support to the board-gates, or the barriers between the
goaves, then a different state of things exist, and it would be
impracticable so to distribute the air, that candles could be used with
safety where inflammable air exists in the goaves.
The President—When, for instance, the three goaves shewn in diagram No. V.
are thrown into one, the effect of the regulator appertaining to each benk
or goaf is destroyed, you cannot, therefore, pursue the system unless there
is a solid wall between each benk ? In both these benks, Nos. 1 and 2,
diagram No. V., the air passes up the middle board-gate, which could not be
the case if the walls or pillars on each side of the board-gates were taken
away.
Mr. Wales—Just so.
Mr. Boyd—That is the proposition I made on a former occasion.
Mr. Wales, reverting again to the propriety of working the board-gates with
candles, and the benks with lamps. If the doors at a are neglected, in
diagram No. V., the gas in the goaf cannot get back to the candle. The air
may become stagnant in the board-g-ate for a certain time, until the
ventilation is restored, but it cannot " back" from the benk to the candle.
Mr. Elliot—This is a mixed system of candles and lamps, and you call it
perfect safety ?
Mr. Wales—Yes. I consider it a very good arrangement indeed, with respect to
the ventilation, but, as I have already stated the distance that must
separate the naked light and the safety lamp, must greatly depend upon
circumstances.
The President—It is supposed to be a system of working where the coal
requires blasting, and where candles are required to be used in the
board-gates. But, suppose a fall in the goaf, would not that force out the
inflammable air, and if so, what would be the effect ?
225
Mr. Wales—The air would escape into the return air-course, and Would not
pass into the board-gates; and, by keeping the board-gates in advance of the
benks, to such a distance as I have already described (180 yards), I do not
think that there would be the slightest possibility of the gas in the goaf
(with such a current of air as before-mentioned) ever reaching the naked
light in the board-gates. I may say that it is always contrary to my
practice and directions to the officials acting under me, ever to allow the
edges of a goaf to be so charged with gas, that in the event of a fall of
stone, the inflammable air might be forced on the candle. If a goaf were in
such a state that this direction could not be carried out, I should then
preclude the possibility of any accident occuring by altogether dispensing
with candies in the district. We generally find that the greatest danger to
be apprehended from gas coming out of the goaves is not from falls of stone,
but from a diminution of the pressure of the atmosphere; yet, even in this
case, with a good current of air, and with such a distance from the lamp to
the candle as I have named, there is not much fear of accident. Falls in
goaves do not generally force the air out to any great extent. It is
necessary to observe, that when the roof is composed of very strong
material, and it remains unfallen for a large area in extent, under such
circumstances the naked light must be kept at a greater distance from the
benk than in the former case, where the roof is composed of softer material.
Mr. Elliot—You have two systems. You have men working with candles in the
whole, two or three pillars before the goaves, which contain gas, and in the
working of the benks lamps are used. I do not subscribe to this being a
perfectly safe plan. Assume, as we do, the goaves to contain gas—you assume
by the neglect of a door, the air in the board-gate may become stagnant, and
the face rendered foul. I do not think that this is anything like perfect
safety, or either good working, when you admit the workings near the goaf
may be filled with gas.
Mr. Wales—Assuming that gas may be lodged in some part of the goaf, not at
the edge, for this would be improper, as previously explained, and
dangerous. But assume that both doors are left open, which is scarcely
likely to happen, and that the air is taken off the board-gate, and the
naked light being within three feet of the face, the gas ignites at the
same. Then I would say that the expansion of gas would have to be very
extraordinary indeed to reach the goaf at a distance of three
226
pillars, or 180 yards. By this arrangement of doors it is obvious, also,
that the inflammable air cannot be reversed in the direction of the candles,
and if the doors were opened, the air would pass across the face of the benk
to the return. The danger, incurred generally by the application of doors,
is by such doors being neglected or left open, and that the air may be
reversed in the direction of the candles. The doors in this case, which Mr.
Elliot wishes to lay such stress upon, are, like all other doors, necessary
for the ventilation of the mine, and, like all similar doors, when
neglected, the current of air will be diverted from its proper course, and
the ventilation suspended for the time being; but this will apply in all
cases where doors are used.
Mr. Elliot—You assume, that the doors being left open, the result is that
the ventilation is suspended.
Mr. Wales—As I stated before, when doors are neglected, the ventilation, as
a natural consequence, must be suspended more or less under all
circumstances. Let us suppose, that by the neglect of such doors, the gas
accumulated to such an extent in the board-gate that, when ignited, the
flame would extend 180 yards to the benk ; in such a case it must be obvious
to any one that it would be immaterial whether gas existed in the benk or
not, as the consequences of so large a quantity of gas exploding would be
fearful to contemplate.
Mr. Dunn—It is assumed the goaves are worked with lamps.
Mr. Elliot—But assuming the ease put, that the doors are left open. Is it
safe and right to have candles near where places are going that are full of
gas ?
Mr. Wales—I do not say near : I say at a distance of about three pillars,
which is about 180 yards. I believe you spoke of a combined system of
working candles and lamps, at the Lundhill inquest. I may observe that, in a
pit like that of Lundhill, with such currents of air as before stated, viz.,
8,000 cubic feet per minute passing round the board-gates and thence to the
benks, I am of opinion that, under ordinary circumstances, gas would not be
found at the edge of the benk; but, under extraordinary circumstances, it
would be prudent to increase the distance from the face of the board-gate to
the benk, or remove the naked lights altogether from the board-gates. It
will be evident, if we can safely use the candles in the board-gates, that
the expense of making horse-roads, &c., would be much less, as the use of
gunpowder in making such roads is a great facility.
Mr. Elliot—I suppose at that inquest the general impression given
227
by the evidence was a tendency to condemn absolutely the use of naked lights
under any circumstances. I said I did not go so far as that; neither do I go
so far in this case. I say there are many cases in which a joint system
might be used, but I think in the case Mr. Wales states it is pregnant with
danger. I think great mischief is likely to result from working with candles
very near the goaf.
Mr. Wales—Yes, too near; but, I stated that the board-gates were 180 yards
in advance of the benks, and there would be, also, from twenty to thirty
yards more from the benk, through the slit, to the board-gate, which makes
the entire distance from the lamps to the candles about 200 yards. The
President—This is an important question, as there are several collieries
which cannot, almost, be worked to profit unless candles are used. And it
really appears the difference of opinion between Mr. Elliot and Mr. Wales is
one of degree, depending in a great measure upon the quantity of gas
evolved, as even, according to Mr. Elliot, there are cases where a joint
system might be used with safety; and I do not think Mr. Wales wishes the
system to be adopted except in such cases. We know there are a great many
cases in the trade where, for years, a mixed system has been pursued with
safety, and where candles are used in the whole, and lamps in working the
pillars or in the benks The question before us is not, whether in all
cases it is perfectly safe to work with candles in the whole mine, in the
vicinity of goaves containing gas. But, supposing the quantity of gas
evolved in working the whole mine to be such that it can, in the ordinary
sense of the term, be worked with perfect safety by candles, then would the
proximity of a goaf containing gas render it unsafe to do so. We know
that in working the whole mine we are liable to meet with sudden discharges
of gas, notwithstanding which candles are used. Can, therefore, candles be
so used within a certain distance of a goaf containing gas in an inflammable
state ? The distance therefrom is, no doubt, an element in the case; but
we must assume that distance to be a safe one. Then the fundamental
security assumed by Mr. Wales is, that the air should be so distributed
through the mine, that in all eases, whether the doors are opened or shut,
the tendency of the current of the air should at all times be from the whole
mine towards the goaf, and not in the contrary direction j and this
tendency, it is clear, must be such that, under no circumstance, should it
be possible for the air, in consequence of falls in the goaf or of other
causes, to back from the goaf to the board-gates or candles. If we admit
that a sudden fall in the goaf might, by possibility, force the inflammable
air out of the goaf upon the candles, then the system would not be safe; or,
if we admit that the dis-Vol. VI.—August, 1858.
228
charge of gas in the whole mine may be such as that the workings may become
foul, or be rendered inflammable, and that, if set on fire, such explosion
might, by possibility, reach the inflammable air in the goaf, then in such a
case the system would, unquestionably, not be safe. Is, therefore, the
system of working, and of the distribution of air proposed in diagram No. V,
such as would render it prudent to adopt a mixed mode of using lights, or,
is the insulation of the two operations of working so complete, as that
candles may with safety be used in working the whole mine, gas being
admitted to exist in the goaves ?
Mr. Wales—It is very important, not only in such a system of working as
proposed in diagram No. V, but also in. the ordinary mode of working
pillars. And I would here observe, that too much care cannot be exercised in
drawing a proper and safe line between "safety'' and " danger;" and the
manager ought at all times, of course, to exercise especial care to have the
naked lights at such a distance from the goaves that even by a fall, neglect
of doors, or any other contingency, there should not be the slightest chance
of the air coming from the goaf to the candles. But as it is my intention to
give illustrations of the various modes of working and ventilating coal
mines, in connection with this question, practised in the counties of
Northumberland and Durham, perhaps the further discussion of the subject
might be postponed until these are before the Institute. I might be
permitted to observe, that my bringing those diagrams before your notice
to-day, is entirely with a view of suggesting some better and safer mode of
ventilation than that practised in Yorkshire prior to the explosion at
Lundhill colliery, in the Barnsley district.
The President—As we have a good deal of other business before us, probably
the best arrangement would be to postpone any further discussion on this
important subject until the next meeting, when we shall have the system as
applicable to both modes of working coal mines before us.
The President then stated, that Mr. Atkinson had just placed in his hands
two papers, containing experiments in illustration of his former paper on
the splitting of air in coal mines, and as they contained a good many
figures and detailed experiments, he presumed it would not be necessary to
read them to the meeting, but to have them printed with the proceedings.
Mr. Atkinson—There is one set of experiments made at the Grange colliery.
The result is, that in the splitting of air the relative quantities in each
split remains nearly the same; when the aggregate quantity of air is
diminished, the variation, which was not more than 2J per cent., he
attributed to the difficulty of measuring the precise quantities of air in
each split, and not to any error in the theory.
The following- is the account which Mr. Atkinson submitted to the meeting-,
of Experiments on the proportions in which different gross quantities of
air, circulating- in a mine, in the unit of time, divide themselves over
splits of various lengths, and offering- different amounts of resistances,
to the passage of a given quantity of air, in a given time.
The experiments were made by Mr. Cooper, on the 16th July, 1858, at the
Grang-e Colliery, near Durham.
At this colliery there are two distinct pits, each 10| feet in diameter, and
262 feet in depth, to the Hutton coal seam.
In No. I. experiment the air-ways were all in their usual state, except that
there was a reg-ulator, or contractor, in the main intake air-way, at a
distance of about 10 yards from the downcast shaft, through which the whole
of the air passing into the north, the east, and the south ways, forming the
splits to be experimented upon, had to pass, before being split or divided.
The three splits just mentioned, form the whole of the air of the Hutton
seam of the colliery, excepting, only, that which goes to the underground
engine, and that which goes to the stables.
There is, however, a further quantity of air passing in the shafts, which is
employed to ventilate the workings in the Low Main coal seam.
The accompanying plan shows the relative positions of the air-ways in the
Hutton seam workings, composing the different splits that were experimented
upon. The furnace was driven, as nearly as practicable, at a uniform rate,
for a few hours before, and also during the time that the experiments were
being made.
During the period occupied in making the experiments, the following
observations were taken :—
m
Watfb
¦g g Keghjlatob. Bakometee.
Thebmometeb. p '
I
H---------------------------;-----------------------------------------------
--;---
•C A ^
- «m , c p
%» ¦§•£ Dimensions S aS e£ 8
co.tj £s fj ^ Sg »S
o> Z% the Opening . g -g g £ § g
.g | ° f ^ ^3 fU •» g
5 "S p, in the Area" * M £
KE.aSQuXS^egog0
«„ § Regulatorat £ oo £p £
«? £? Co S5 «S »?
° .§ It on Plan. Z £a ~ « t
SlI o o g |s £g £o
fc
¦^¦S ¦< ™ w
<J <J~
Hours, Ft. Ft. Sp. Ft. In. In. In. *>
° « ° «
1 11p.m. 10 X 7 70 29-80 30-12 30-2 63* 63 62| 132
63*0-3
2 12p.m. 6-66x7 4662..........62 132 63*0-3+
3 .. 3-33x7 23-3129-80 30 1130-00..........055
4 .. 3-33X35 1166................ 0-55
5 .. Closed. 0-00................0-80,0-70
___________________I________________________' I 1
'
230
The first series of temperatures were observed at 11 o'clock, p.m.,
immediately after measuring- the air for No. I. experiment, and while the
regulator, at R on the plan, had an opening* of 70 feet area.
The second series of temperatures were observed at 12 o'clock, p.m., between
the times when No. I. and No. II. experiments were made, while the opening*
in the regulator, at R on the plan, was 6'66 feet x 7 feet, offering* an
area of 46*63 superficial feet for the air to pass throug*h.
The opening* in the regulator, placed in the main intake, was altered in
area (while the furnace was uniformly fired), in order to alter the gross
quantity of air circulating* in the unit of time. The following* are the
particulars of the measurements of the air; the - velocities were all found
by timing powder smoke, over a known distance, several times in each case,
and adopting the average as the real times, as exhibited below:—
I Longest
or East- North"wav Shortest or
.9 way
Split. gpiit South-way Split.
g.
-------------------------------------------------------
^ Mean
Length Mean Length Mean Length
© of
Split, of Split, of Split,
o" 3,260
Yards. 2.142 Yards. 1,490 Yards.
Length of channel, in feet...... 120 12Q>
120
Area of section (mean) sup. feet.. 29*75 38*50
33*25
Seconds. Seconds. Seconds.
1 Mean time of air passing' ..... 14-00
34*90 36*17
2 Ditto ...... 16*16
37*65 40*40
3 Ditto ...... 18-00
36 86 42-90
4 Ditto ...... 21*10
48-80 63*62
Feet. Feet. Feet.
1 Velocity of air, per minute...... 514*3
206*3 199-6
2 Ditto ...... 445-5
191-2 178-2
3 Ditto ...... 400-0
195-3 167-8
4 Ditto ...... 341-2
147*5 1131
In order to prevent irregularities in timing the powder smoke, the powder
was exploded a few yards to the windward of the commencement of the 120 feet
distance, over which it was timed • and a signal was
231
given to the person counting the time, first, when the smoke reached the
commencement of the 120 feet, and another when it reached its termination.
The following are the quantities of air observed to be circulating, per
minute, in each of the splits, during each experiment:—
j§ S Longest or East Medium or Shortest or n„oon„„KK
Percentage
t @ Way, 3,260 NorthWay.2,142 Ponth Way, u™ss yuanut}
of gross
° '£ Yards long on Yards long on 1,490 Yards long tVT L„t* '
Quantity
o g. the Average. the Average, on the Average lne " plub-
before Con-"•3 pq
traction.
Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet.
1 7,943 15,300 6,619 29,862
100
2 7,363 13,255 5,926 26,544
89 42
3 7,520 11,900 5,580 25,000
84*23
4 5,680 10,151 3,763 19,594
62-64
The following table shows the proportion or per centage of the gross
quantities of air circulating per minute, that passed through the routes of
each of the splits :—
© "a Longest or Medium or Shortest or '
a1Irrl f
¦5 § East Way, North Way, South Way, Sum of East Sum of East
N^™ °IYl(,
"S-g 3,260 Yards 2,142 Yards 1,490 Yards Totals, and North and South
gouth
o g, long on the long on the long on the Ways.
Ways. U'avs
;z; m Average. Average. Average.
'"
1 2660 51-24 22-16 100 77-84
48-76 73-40 J
2 27 74 49-94 22-32 100 77*68
50-06 72-26
3 3008 47*60 22-32 100 77-68
52-40 69*92
4 28-99 51-81 19-20 100 8080
48-19 71-01
Average .. 2835 50-15 21-50 100 78-50
4985 71-65
__________________________________________________
If all the observations had been accurately made, and if no disturbing
causes had existed, then, in order to prove that air splits or divides
itself over any number of different splits, of different lengths, and
offering different amounts of resistances to it, in the same mine, the whole
of the per centages contained in each separate column of the preceding
table, ought to have been equal to each other.
Prom the table, it will be seen, that the longest or east-way split, had, on
the average of all the four experiments, 28*35 per cent, of the gross
232
quantity of air circulating through it; and, that the greatest departure
from this, was when the greatest quantity of air was circulating, in No. I.
experiment; when this, the longest split obtained If percent, of the gross
quantity of air, less than it obtained on the average of all the four
experiments; this being directly contrary to the prevalent opinion, that the
longest split gets the least share of the whole air, when it is sn. allest
in amount; and, in like manner, this, the longest split, obtained nearly §
per cent, more of the gross quantity of air, in the fourth experiment (when
the gross quantity of air circulating was smallest in amount) than it
obtained in the average of all the experiments, contrary to the prevalent
opinion, to the effect, that the longest split obtains a reduced share or
proportion of the entire pit's air, as such entire pit's air becomes less
and less in amount. Similar remarks apply to this split, in reference to the
second and third experiments.
The greatest departure from the average proportion of the gross quantity in
this split, however, as has been stated, occurs in No. I. experiment; and,
being only to the extent of If per cent, of the gross amount of air in the
three splits, it probably arises from irregularities in the air circulating,
during the time of taking the measurements, in part; and in part to errors
of observation.
The south -way, or shortest route, in the first three experiments, obtains
one and the same proportion, within £ per cent., of the gross quantity of
air circulating in all the three splits, and does not, as popular opinion
would indicate, obtain a sensibly increasing proportion of the gross
quantity of air circulating in the mine, as such gross quantity becomes
reduced in amount; on the contrary, indeed, the greatest departure from the
average proportion, obtained by this, the shortest split, is in the fourth
experiment, when the gross quantity of air circulating is least in amount;
and then, instead of obtaining an increased, it actually appears to obtain a
decreased proportion of the gross quantity circulating, to the extent of %ro
Per cen*- °ftne average proportion of the gross quantity which it obtains in
all the four experiments; and, this is the only instance, where, in this
split, there is any material departure from a fixed proportion of the gross
quantity; and it may, probably, arise only from irregularities in the
quantity of air circulating, and errors of observation.
In the north way, offering the medium length of route or split, the per
centages of the gross quantity of air circulating, when such gross quantity
of air is greatest and least in amount, only differ from each other to the
extent of little more than | per cent, of the gross quantities; and, taking
all the four experiments, that which has the greatest excess
233
above the average only differs from it to the extent of 1| per cent, of the
gross quantities; while that which falls furthest below it, only does so the
extent of about 2 J per cent, of the gross quantities; and the latter
discrepancy occurs when neither the greatest nor the least gross quantities
are circulating.
Now, although the Grange Colliery, where these experiments were made, is one
where the strata and air-ways are remarkably level, and the temperatures of
the intakes and of the returns were, at the time of the experiments, almost
identical, rendering it improbable that any serious interference could arise
from changes in the density of the circulating air, in ascending and
descending parts of the air-ways; and although the furnace was driven, as
nearly as practicable, at a uniform rate, from a few hours before the
commencement of the experiments, till after they were completed, yet the
observations appear to indicate the discrepancies which have been alluded
to.
After all, however, to those who are much accustomed to measure air in
mines, the departures from a constant per centage (say the average per
centage given in the last table), exhibited by the different splits, are no
more than will appear likely to have arisen from changes in the gross
quantities of air circulating, which have taken place between the times of
making the measurements in the different splits, arising from firing the
furnace, running cages in the shaft, opening and closing doors, &c. j
indeed, the irreg*ular manner in which the departures from the average per
centage, in nearly all the splits, arise, sometimes increasing and again
growing less j and at other times decreasing, and again growing larger, as
the gross quantity of air circulating is successively reduced in amount over
the four experiments, indicate, strongly, that these apparent discrepancies
do really arise from the causes last named, together with the errors of
observation necessarily attaching to so difficult an operation as that of
measuring the quantities of air in the air-ways of a mine; and if this be
admitted, we may, I think, fairly conclude that these experiments establish,
so far as they go, the opinion that the air in mines does divide itself over
any number of splits, in the same proportions, whatever may be the gross
quantity of air circulating in the mine, except in so far as they are
destroyed by changes of density in the air, in ascending and descending
parts of the air-ways of the different splits.
Looking at the results of these experiments, in order to see how they bear
upon the prevalent opinion, that where there are several splits in a mine,
of different lengths, and offering different resistances to air, the
shortest split will get a continually increasing, and the longest split a
234
continually decreasing-, proportion of the gross quantity of air
circulating' through the whole of the splits, as such gross quantity becomes
less and less in amount, while the state of all the air-ways remains
unaltered; we obf arve that the very opposite of this, appears, from the
table, to have been the case in these experiments, and that, although the
departures from a fixed proportion are small in amount, and probably arise
from the causes assigned, they really appear, on the face of them, rather to
indicate that the short split obtained a reduced, and the longest one an
increased, proportion of the gross quantity of air, as such gross quantity
became less in amount, rather than the contrary ; and, therefore, so far as
they are reliable, these experiments appear to explode the popular opinion
to the contrary.
Mr. Atkinson also submitted the following- paper as an additional evidence
of the square of the quantity of air being proportional to the resistance
encountered by it.
In the Appendix to the paper, read by Mons. Laurent, to a meeting-of the
members of this Institute, on the 13th day of May, in the present year, " On
the Lemielle System of Ventilating- Mines," we have a further evidence of
the prevalence of the law, of the square roots of the ventilating pressures
being proportional to the quantities of air put into circulation in the unit
of time, in the same mine, in the results of the experiments by Mons.
Dormoy, French Government Mining Engineer, on the quantities of air
circulated in the unit of time, by one of Mons. Lemielle's ventilating
machines, at the St. Mary's Mine, concession of Azincourt, near Aniche,
Department of Nord, on the 28th January, 1856.
The quantity of air was measured by one of Mons. Coombe's anemometers.
The ventilating machine at first revolved at the rate of 21 revolutions per
minute; after that, the velocity was increased to 37 revolutions.
Eight successive experiments were made, of which the results were the
following:—
o t * Revolutions per (Observed Ventilating
Quantity of Air
¦p. r! f Minute made by the | Pressure in Height
circulated
^xpenmenis. Ventilating Machine. Of Column of Water. per
Minute.
No. No. Inches.
Cubic Feet.
1 21 0-8
J 6,848
2 37 2-0
25,920
235
On the presumption, that the squares of the quantities of air circulated per
minute are proportional to the pressures by which they are put into
circulation, and, consequently, to the resistances encountered by them, in
the same mine, we should have the proportion,
In. In. Cub. Ft. Cub. Ft.
As J(F6 : J&O :: 16,848 : 26,639 the observed quantity being 25,920 cubic
feet, or, only 719 cubic feet per minute, (which is equal to about 2f per
cent.) less than the calculated quantity; and this discrepancy is partly
accounted for by the greater resistance due to the more expanded condition
of the air, when the greater ventilating pressure is in operation, compared
with its state of expansion, under the smaller ventilating pressure.
Mr. Knowles, of Temple Lodge, Pendlebury, near Manchester, then presented
the model of a safety-cage apparatus, which he explained to the Institute,
observing- that there were twelve of them at work near Manchester. The cage,
apparatus, and coals, weighed five tons twelve cwts -, the cage and
apparatus, two tons two cwts.
On the motion of the President, thanks were given to Mr. Knowles for the
present of his model, and, on the motion of Mr. Dunn, thanks were given to
Mr. Wales for his paper.